Marcelo Luis Ebrard Casaubón (; born 10 October 1959) is a Mexican politician who served as Secretary of Foreign Affairs until 2023. Affiliated with the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA) since 2018, he was appointed to lead the foreign ministry by President Andrés Manuel López Obrador on 1 December 2018. In June 2023, he resigned from his post to compete for his party's presidential candidacy for the 2024 election.

He has previously served as president of the United Nations Global Network on Safer Cities. He was the successful candidate of the Democratic Revolution Party-led electoral alliance to serve as Head of Government of the Federal District in the 2006 Federal District election, a position he held until 2012. He also served as secretary-general of the former Federal District Department, minister of public security, and minister of social development of the Mexican capital. In 2010, Ebrard was nominated as the "world's best mayor" by the Project World Mayor. From 2009 to 2012, he was the chair of the World Mayors Council on Climate Change.

Personal life and education
A descendant of the French emigrant wave from Barcelonette in 1915, Ebrard is the son of architect Marcelo Ebrard Maure and Marcela Casaubón. He received a bachelor's degree in international relations from El Colegio de México. He specialized in public administration and planning at France's École nationale d'administration. He was married to Francesca Ramos Morgan and had two daughters and one son: Francesca, Anne Dominique, and Marcelo Ebrard Ramos. He later divorced and married Mexican soap-opera actress Mariagna Pratts. In April 2011, Marcelo Ebrard announced his divorce from Pratts through an official press release. On 7 October 2011, Ebrard married for the third time to Rosalinda Bueso, the former Honduran ambassador to Mexico.

Political career

Early years
Ebrard became a member of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1978. After volunteering in the presidential campaigns of 1976 and 1982, serving as an advisor to the general secretary in 1988, and being elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he left the PRI with Manuel Camacho Solís in 1995 to found the now-defunct Party of the Democratic Center (PCD). In 2000 he briefly campaigned for the 2000 Head of Government election for the PCD before stepping down in March 2000 and throwing his support behind Andrés Manuel López Obrador as the candidate of the multi-party Alliance for Mexico City. Following the election, he joined López Obrador's cabinet as secretary of public security in 2000. He became a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution on 12 September 2004.

Ebrard, the city's chief of police, and Federal Secretary of Public Safety, Ramón Huerta, were accused of not organizing a timely rescue effort when three undercover federal police officers were lynched by a mob in one of the capital's most impoverished suburbs in Tláhuac on 23 November 2004. After a thorough investigation, López Obrador gave Ebrard a vote of confidence, despite a request from President Fox that López Obrador relieve him of his duties. Later, using his constitutional powers, Fox fired Ebrard. Critics viewed the firing as a politically motivated move to derail Ebrard's political future. Huerta was also implicated in the incident, yet Fox gave Huerta his full support, and did not remove him from office. For this incident, Ebrard was put under investigation, as were the federal authorities who also failed to act. He was later reinstated as Secretary of Social Development by López Obrador.

On 8 July 2006, the French newspaper Le Monde ran an article indicating that Ebrard was an emerging leader of the Mexican Left. Manuel Camacho Solís, of whom Ebrard was a political protégé, has a reputation for running articles in foreign newspapers to indicate his political intentions. Many saw this as an attempt to dismiss López Obrador and now rely on Ebrard to win the presidency in the 2012 presidential elections. On 7 December 2010, he was awarded the World Mayor prize in recognition of his environmental and civil-rights initiatives within the Federal District.

Head of Government of the Federal District (2006–2012)

Ebrard ran as the PRD's candidate for Head of Government in the Federal District election held on 2 July 2006, winning 47% of the votes.

He continued and expanded programs that López Obrador had initiated. A new initiative was the Prepa Sí program, granting low-income students scholarships. This reduced the school-dropout rate in the city to 6% and raised the grade point average from 7.2 to 8.2.

He expanded pensions for the elderly so that it was a right of every inhabitant of Mexico City who had reached 68 years of age, sending an initiative to the Legislative Assembly of the Federal District to elevate it to the status of law.

Among his actions having the greatest impact according to public opinion was the expropriation of properties and buildings that functioned as operational centers of crime. This included a property in the Tepito neighborhood, supposedly a drug-trafficking center; a large area of the Iztapalapa delegation, involved in the sale of stolen car parts, and two more drug sales properties in Santa María la Ribera. Although some in the business sector criticized these actions as an attack on private property — actions that received the support of the federal government — the initiative to seize ownership of these properties, as well as the introduction of video surveillance cameras, together with social development, helped reduce the crime index by 11% in Mexico City compared to 2006. He also created a special intelligence unit to fight against money laundering.

Ebrard made significant changes to the Historic Center, returning it to the citizens of Mexico City and its visitors by relocating the street vendors beginning in  mid-2007. The press classified his action as one of his government's successes since informal traders had significantly increased their numbers in recent years. Some people criticized the decision of one of its dependencies to demolish historic buildings in the city center to enable the relocation of street vendors. However, it was supported by the National Institute of Anthropology and History. He also rehabilitated the Monument to the Revolution and the Alameda.

In the area of health, he built hospitals in Tláhuac, Iztapalapa, and Tlalpan and promoted the development of medical specialties that did not exist in Mexico City's public health system.

During his mandate, he was recognized for his actions in the fight against climate change, the construction of mobility infrastructure, the transformation of public transport with the EcoBici (bike sharing) system; the expansion by 350% of the Metrobús system and the construction of Metro Line 12.

In 2009 he was named president of the World Mayors Council on Climate Change, and in 2010 he received the World Mayor award from the City Mayors Foundation.

Ebrard has stated that one of his goals is reviving the Nahuatl language. His plan calls for city workers to learn the language as an initial effort at reviving the language.

Marcelo Ebrard was the first head of government of the Federal District to complete his six-year term, which began on 5 December 2006 and ended on 5 December 2012.

2012 presidential election

On 30 March 2010, Ebrard publicly announced his intention to contest his party's candidacy for the presidency in 2012. As a pre-campaign platform, he founded his Progressive Vanguard movement. On 11 June 2011,  Jesús Ortega's Nueva Izquierda faction within the PRD named him the party's presidential candidate. In contrast, the National Democratic Left faction, led by Dolores Padierna Luna, ruled in favor of Andrés Manuel López Obrador. On 15 November 2011, it was announced that the method to select a candidate for the presidency in 2012 would be a series of polls, which made López Obrador the winner. Ebrard refused to compete for the candidacy in 2012. As a formal presidential candidate, López Obrador proposed that Ebrard would be made Secretary of the Interior if he won the presidential elections but he lost.

President of Global Network of Safer Cities
In September 2012, Ebrard was elected to serve as president of the United Nations Global Network on Safer Cities which is part of the Urban Initiatives through the United Nations. He resigned his position on 3 February 2014, in order to contend for the Presidency of the PRD.

Secretary of Foreign Affairs

Ebrard was part of López Obrador's 2018 campaign team, responsible for interaction in Mexico's northwestern states. After López Obrador won the election on 1 July 2018, he was announced as the Secretary of Foreign Affairs a couple of days later, replacing Héctor Vasconcelos, who instead became a Senator. During the resignation of former-Bolivian President Evo Morales and his government in November 2019, Ebrard viewed the situation as a coup and offered political asylum to Morales.

2024 presidential election
In June 2023, Ebrard resigned as foreign secretary to seek the presidential nomination of the MORENA party for the 2024 general election. However, Erbard lost the party's nomination to Claudia Sheinbaum in September 2023.

References

Further reading
 Diccionario biográfico del gobierno mexicano (1992), Ed. Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico

External links
 Marcelo Ebrard's Official Website
CityMayors profile
 Marcelo Ebrard at esmas.com
 Le Monde Article on Le Monde proclaiming Ebrard as the new leader of the Mexican Left
Wedding and Divorce Article on El Universal on how Manuel Camacho will dismiss López Obrador in favor of Marcelo Ebrard.
Article on El Universal on Ebrard's wedding registry
 Recibe el PRD capitalino pruebas de la afiliación de Marcelo Ebrard ("The Federal District PRD chapter received Marcelo Ebrard's proof of membership"), article on La Jornada
Marcelo Ebrard

1959 births
Living people
Mexican people of French descent
Politicians from Mexico City
École nationale d'administration alumni
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
Party of the Democratic Revolution politicians
Heads of Government of Mexico City
Institutional Revolutionary Party politicians
Grand Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau
Mexican social democrats
Mexican Secretaries of Foreign Affairs
Morena (political party) politicians
Cabinet of Andrés Manuel López Obrador
20th-century Mexican politicians
21st-century Mexican politicians

Marcelo Ebrard


Matthew Tyler Musto (born November 27, 1990), professionally known as Blackbear (stylized as blackbear), is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer. He has released six studio albums, six EPs, one mixtape and two collaborative albums. Musto is also a member of the alternative hip hop duo Mansionz with singer-songwriter Mike Posner.

Early life
Musto was born on November 27, 1990, in Daytona Beach, Florida, and moved to Palm Coast as a child. His father is of Italian descent. He has stated that many of his family members are from Pittston, Pennsylvania. In fourth grade, he became interested in music through Rancid, Blink-182, and bands his babysitter introduced him to, such as New Found Glory and Alkaline Trio.

Career

2006–2014: Early career
In high school, Musto was the singer of Florida-based rock band Polaroid. They released one album, Paint The Town; one EP, Inside And Out; and one demo, The Cure Demo and have been variously described as being a pop punk, punk rock, and garage band. During Musto's freshman year of high school, the band signed to Leakmob Records. Musto dropped out of school in the 10th grade to focus on music. As Polaroid progressed, their music became increasingly influenced by emo. By 2008, Musto had also begun to write his own solo music.

After leaving Polaroid, Musto began a solo career when he moved to Atlanta to work with Ne-Yo. He put out his first EP entitled Brightness in 2008, followed by Contrast in 2009, and Exposure in 2010. He put out the Christmas song "I Hate the Holidays" with Tyler Carter, then-member of the band Woe, Is Me in late-2010, shortly followed by a new single, "Douche Bag" in early-January 2011. In mid-2011, Musto released both the Gone for Good EP and the Year of the Blackbear EP. In fall 2011, Musto decided to use his nickname Blackbear as his pseudonym when making music. The first song to be released with the Blackbear moniker is Mike Posner's "Marauder Music" in November 2011.

Musto co-wrote Justin Bieber's "Boyfriend", a number 2 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in early 2012. Intent on pursuing a career as an R&B singer, Musto released his debut EP Foreplay on April 20, 2012, and his debut mixtape Sex on October 31, 2012. Both releases were under the name Blackbear, and Sex featured collaborations from fellow "Boyfriend" co-writer Mike Posner, along with producers, singers, and songwriters James Blake and Maejor Ali. He also appeared on Machine Gun Kelly's "End of the Road" from the Lace Up album, released October 9, 2012. On April 20, 2014, Blackbear released The Afterglow EP, which landed him number four on Billboard's Uncharted listing of releases from upcoming artists.

In 2014, Blackbear became one of the first independent artists to monetize streaming on SoundCloud.

2015: Deadroses and Help
Blackbear released his first full-length album, Deadroses, a self-released set of 10 tracks, on February 14, 2015. The album received favorable reviews, one of which stating that the album had "pleasantly mixed together a plethora of genres, sounds, and emotions to create a completely cohesive and unique project." The lead single, "idfc", charted on Billboards R&B Hot 100 and held a spot on the Billboard R&B charts for over a year. The track has earned millions of streams on both SoundCloud and Spotify. It has been streamed over 550 million times on SoundCloud and Idfc (Tarro Remix) has over 255 million views as of January 2022. "idfc" shot Blackbear to the top 20 of the Billboard charts. The second single, "90210", features G-Eazy and gained over 55 million streams on Spotify.

In May 2015, his track "NYLA" was featured in the documentary Hot Girls Wanted on Netflix.

Deadroses was followed by the EP Dead, which featured acoustic versions of four Deadroses tracks, as well as one new track, "Weak When Ur Around".

He released his second full-length album, Help, on November 27, 2015.

 2016: Drink Bleach, Cashmere Noose, and Mansionz
On April 20, 2016, Blackbear released his fourth EP, Drink Bleach, which featured appearances from "Boyfriend" collaborator Mike Posner as well as American hip-hop recording artist and The HBK Gang co-founder P-Lo.

Throughout the year, Blackbear collaborated with other artists such as American rock band Linkin Park as well as Jacob Sartorius and Phoebe Ryan. He also toured with Hoodie Allen, whose 2016 track and Happy Camper promotional single "Champagne and Pools" also featured Blackbear. Mid-year, he joined Super Duper Kyle and Tinashe on their tours.

On August 2, 2016, Blackbear released his fifth EP, titled Cashmere Noose, through SoundCloud. He handled the EP's production entirely on his own through his production collective Bear Trap Records. The EP originally included a feature from American rapper Mod Sun on the track "Spent All My Money On Rick Owens Cargo Pants"; however, this track was removed from the EP's final cut and replaced with "Wanderlust" and "Flirt Right Back". The original version of Cashmere Noose, however, can still be found on Blackbear's SoundCloud page. The final version of Cashmere Noose peaked at number one on the iTunes R&B charts and number six overall on iTunes, just behind Beyonce's Lemonade and Drake's Views.

Blackbear was also featured in Olivia O'Brien's single "Root Beer Float", released September 15, 2016. He also released the track "If I Could I Would Feel Nothing", a freestyle originally posted on his Twitter that eventually became a promotional single for his upcoming third studio album.

In late 2016, Blackbear formed the alternative hip hop duo Mansionz with frequent collaborator and singer-songwriter Mike Posner. Mansionz has been active since 2016 and is based out of Los Angeles, California. The duo released their debut single, "STFU", on December 9, 2016. The song features rapper Spark Master Tape. Mansionz released two more singles in early 2017, "Rich White Girls" and "Dennis Rodman", the latter of which features the basketball player Dennis Rodman. Both of these singles, along with "STFU", were featured on Mansionz' self-titled debut album which was released on March 24, 2017, and features guest appearances from G-Eazy, Soren Bryce, CyHi the Prynce, and Snoozegod.

2017–2018: Digital Druglord and Cybersex
On January 29, 2017, he posted the track "Make Daddy Proud", which was a remix of Jeremy Zucker's "Heavy", on his SoundCloud page. The track was later confirmed to be the next promotional single for his third studio album Digital Druglord. On March 17, 2017, Blackbear released the lead single for the album, titled "Do Re Mi".

On April 2, 2017, shortly before the release of Digital Druglord, Blackbear released a short acoustic EP titled Salt on his SoundCloud. Digital Druglord was released on April 20, 2017, featuring the single "Do Re Mi" along with promotional singles "If I Could I Would Feel Nothing" and "Make Daddy Proud". In an interview with Vice's music channel Noisey, he revealed that he wrote Digital Druglord while in the hospital based on his experiences with alcohol and drugs. He states that the cover art for the album, a woman with pill bottles attached to her chest, is not to glorify the use of pharmaceuticals, but because he now has to take prescription drugs to stay alive due to his illness.

On June 22, 2017, he signed a 10 million dollar distribution deal with Interscope that gave the label the rights to Digital Druglord and the following studio album and their respective singles.

On August 18, 2017, Blackbear announced his next project, a mixtape named Cybersex. The name Cybersex comes from Blackbear's infatuation with the internet. In an interview with Pigeons & Planes, he talks about how the internet is why he is here and how cybersex was the first form of sexting. He states how he finds the internet interesting and how you can now fall asleep with your loved one in another country, due to technology. He released a song on SoundCloud in September 2017 titled "froze over". The track was written and produced by Good Intent and Blackbear and it would later appear in Cybersex as a two part interlude titled "thursday/froze over". On October 6, 2017, a song titled "Playboy Shit", which features rapper Lil Aaron, was released on Blackbear's PornHub account and confirmed to be a part of the project. On October 20, 2017, Blackbear released the single "Bright Pink Tims" featuring Cam'ron. This day also marked the first day of his tour in support of Fall Out Boy's Mania Tour, running until November 18. On November 27, 2017, Musto's 27th birthday, Cybersex was released.

On April 26, 2018, "About You", a song written by Linkin Park's Mike Shinoda regarding the death of his bandmate Chester Bennington, was released featuring Blackbear.

On August 23, 2018, Blackbear released his single titled "the 1", produced by FRND.

2019–2020: Anonymous and Everything Means Nothing

In February 2019, Blackbear said he would be releasing a single per week until April 26, which is when his fourth studio album would be released. On Valentine's Day 2019, he released his single "1 SIDED LOVE". On February 20, he released his single "HIGH1X". On March 13, he released his single "SWEAR TO GOD" during Zane Lowe's transmission on Beats 1.

April 26, 2019, he released the full album, Anonymous. This album is his longest album yet, containing 18 tracks lasting a total of 51 minutes. Along with the release of this album, he posted a photo on Instagram with a caption discussing his gratefulness of a second chance after his health complications at age 27, and he discusses how meaningful this album is to him.

On August 23, 2019, he released the lead single "Hot Girl Bummer" from his upcoming fifth studio album Everything Means Nothing.
On November 13, 2019, Blackbear released the one-off single "Tongue Tied", with American producer Marshmello and English singer Yungblud. On January 16, 2020, he released the album's third single "Me & Ur Ghost".

On March 13, 2020, Ellie Goulding's single "Worry About Me" was released featuring Blackbear.

On April 3, 2020, he was featured on the All Time Low song "Monsters" from their album Wake Up, Sunshine.

On July 5, 2020, Blackbear tweeted the release date of the coming album, stating it would be a "2 part LP", with the first part releasing July 17, 2020, and the second part releasing August 21, 2020.

On July 9, 2020, he released the album's first promotional single, "Queen of Broken Hearts".

On July 17, 2020, he released the first part of the album consisting of three new singles and the three already released, with new songs "I Feel Bad", "I Feel 2 Much", and "I Felt That". The tracklist for part two of Everything Means Nothing was also released, with songs "Sobbing In Cabo", "Clown" with Trevor Daniel, "Half Alive", "If I Were U" with Lauv, "Why Are Girls", and "Smile Again".

On August 7, 2020, Machine Gun Kelly's single "My Ex's Best Friend" was released featuring Blackbear. On October 16, 2020, G-Eazy's single "Hate the Way" was released featuring Blackbear.

On December 25, 2020, Blackbear released the song cheers, with American rapper Wiz Khalifa.

On August 23, 2019, Blackbear put out "Hot Girl Bummer". This song was actually inspired by his diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis. The mention to drug and alcohol abuse over a short period of time allude to his addiction during his diagnosis.

2021: Misery Lake
On March 12, 2021, Blackbear was featured on Mod Sun's single, "Heavy".

On May 21, 2021, Blackbear released the single "Jealousy" Alongside Mansionz partner Mike Posner, the first track in 4 years following the duo's self-titled debut album.

On June 4, 2021, Blackbear released the EPs promotional song "U Love U" with Canadian singer-songwriter Tate McRae, as the lead single from his upcoming extended play, Misery Lake. On July 14, 2021, Blackbear announced the tracklist to his EP Misery Lake, alongside a tweet that the EP would be delayed to August 13, 2021, as a result of Sony Music Entertainment acquiring Alamo Records. Under Sony, he was assigned to its flagship label Columbia Records. Sony Music also distributes his previous releases for Alamo, from the period when it was distributed by Interscope.

On August 13, 2021, Blackbear released the EP Misery Lake.

On November 4, 2021, ASCAP announced Blackbear's signing to a song administration deal. He was previously affiliated with Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI), which still controls his shareholdings to previous works.

2022: In Loving Memory
On May 27, 2022, Blackbear released the lead single off the album titled "Gfy" featuring Machine Gun Kelly. He stated this album was dedicated to his late father. And the song "hazel inside" was dedicated to his Eldest son Midnight.

On July 8, 2022, Blackbear released the second single from the album titled "The Idea".

On July 16, 2022, Blackbear announced the released the tracklist and official release date for the album along with the pre-order.

On August 5, 2022, Blackbear released the third single from the album titled "Toxic Energy", featuring The Used.

On August 26, 2022, Blackbear's sixth studio album, entitled In Loving Memory, was released.

 Producing and songwriting
In addition to his own music, Musto has produced and written for many popular artists. He has collaborated with numerous musical artists such as Justin Bieber, G-Eazy, Mike Posner, All Time Low, Nick Jonas, Machine Gun Kelly, Ellie Goulding, Cam'ron, Gucci Mane, 2 Chainz, Mod Sun, Rivers Cuomo, Linkin Park, Billie Eilish, Pharrell Williams, Miley Cyrus, Mike Shinoda, Charlie Puth, Tiny Meat Gang, and Maroon 5.
He co-wrote "Boyfriend" by Justin Bieber, alongside Mike Posner, which debuted at number two on the Billboard Hot 100. He also produced the title track from G-Eazy's album These Things Happen, as well as featuring on the album.

 Personal life
In April 2016, he was hospitalized and diagnosed with chronic pancreatitis due to excessive alcohol use. During his time in the hospital, he wrote his album Digital Druglord and took this time to become sober. In August 2018, Musto joined forces with Mission: Cure, a non-profit dedicated to finding a cure for chronic pancreatitis. He was a recipient of the "Courage Award" for his inspiration to others living with pancreatitis and gave a speech at their gala event. In November 2018, Musto collaborated with the brand PopSockets and donated 50% of the proceeds of his branded products to Mission: Cure.

In 2017, Musto was in a relationship with actress Bella Thorne. On September 25, 2019, Musto announced that he and his girlfriend Michele Maturo were expecting their first child in January 2020. On January 29, 2020, the couple announced the birth of their son born on January 26, 2020. On April 11, 2021, the couple announced their engagement via Maturo's Instagram page. On February 22, 2022, they married and on March 12, 2022, the couple had their second son.

DiscographyStudio albums'''
 Deadroses (2015)
 Help (2015)
 Digital Druglord (2017)
 Anonymous (2019)
 Everything Means Nothing (2020)
 In Loving Memory'' (2022)

Awards and nominations

Filmography

References

External links

1990 births
Living people
Columbia Records artists
Interscope Records artists
American contemporary R&B singers
American hip hop singers
American dance musicians
American people of Italian descent
American male pop singers
Record producers from Pennsylvania
Record producers from Florida
Singers from Florida
MTV Video Music Award winners
Singers from Pennsylvania
Alternative hip hop musicians
American male songwriters
Pop rappers
Alternative rock singers
American alternative rock musicians
Pop punk singers
Emo rap musicians
People from Daytona Beach, Florida
People from Palm Coast, Florida

Blackbear (musician)


Environmental testing is the measurement of the performance of equipment under specified environmental conditions, such as:

 extremely high and low temperatures
 large, swift variations in temperature
 blown and settling sand and dust
 salt spray and salt fog
 very high or low humidity
 wet environments, waterproofness, icing
 presence of corrosive material
 fungus, fluids susceptibility
 vibrations (airborne and structural), gun fire
 accelerations
 solar radiation
 high and low pressures (especially for aeronautical and space equipment)
 operating at angles (especially for marine, aeronautical and space equipment)
 electromagnetic interference (EMI), ESD, Lightning
 acoustic measurements
 power input variations

Such tests are most commonly performed on equipment used in military, maritime, aeronautical and space applications. See Environmental test chambers for more information about environmental testing equipment.

Environmental test standards include
 MIL-STD-810, "Test Method Standard for Environmental Engineering Considerations and Laboratory Tests", presently (2010) version G, issued in 2009
 MIL-HDBK-2036, "Preparation of Electronic Equipment Specifications", issued 1999
 IEC 60068, "Environmental Testing", with many parts.
 IEC 60945, "Maritime navigation and radiocommunication equipment and systems – General requirements – Methods of testing and required test results", issued 2002 and due for review in 2007
 RTCA DO-160, "Environmental Conditions and Test Procedures for Airborne Equipment", first published in 1975
 MIL-STD-461, "Department of Defense Interface Standard: Requirements for the Control of Electromagnetic Interference Characteristics of Subsystems and Equipment (11 DEC 2015)", presently version G.

See also
Environmental stress screening
Environmental test chambers
Direct Field Acoustic Testing
Technischer Überwachungsverein

External links

Testing
Reliability engineering

Environmental testing


Terence Zuber is an American military historian specializing in the First World War. He received his doctorate from the University of Würzburg in 2001 after serving for twenty years as an infantry officer in the United States Army. He has advanced the controversial thesis that the Schlieffen Plan as generally understood was a post-World War I fabrication.

He first described his views about the Schlieffen Plan in a 1999 article in War in History, and further developed them in his 2002 book Inventing the Schlieffen Plan. Some scholars, such as Hew Strachan, have largely accepted his ideas, while others including Terence M. Holmes and Holger Herwig have dismissed them.

In a review of Zuber's 2002 book for H-Net, Kelly McFall wrote: "Zuber's argument persuasively demolishes the commonly accepted version of the Schlieffen Plan.  But his claim that the Schlieffen Plan itself never existed is more speculative and rests on a reading of evidence that is plausible but not conclusive.  Military historians interested in the outbreak of the First World War will need to read this book and decide for themselves.  Others will want to follow the debate closely, but may prefer to wait for a consensus to emerge."

Rebuttals to his ideas include:
 Annika Mombauer, "Of War Plans and War Guilt: The Debate Surrounding the Schlieffen Plan," Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 28, No. 5 (October 2005), 857-885
 Terence M. Holmes, "The Reluctant March on Paris: A Reply to Terence Zuber's 'The Schlieffen Plan Reconsidered,'" War in History, 8 (2001), 208–232
 Terence M. Holmes, "The Real Thing: A Reply to Terence Zuber's 'Terence Holmes Reinvents the Schlieffen Plan,'" War in History 9/1 (2002), 111–20
 Robert T. Foley, "The Origins of the Schlieffen Plan," War in History 12/3 (2003): 222–32
 Robert T. Foley, "The Real Schlieffen Plan," War in History 13/1 (2006), 366–90
 chapters by Gerhard Gross, Robert Foley, and Annika Mombauer in Hans Ehlert, Michael Epkenhans and Gerhard Gross (eds), Der Schlieffenplan. Analyse und Dokumente (Schoningh: Paderborn, 2006)
 Holger Herwig, "Germany and the Short War Illusion: Toward a New Interpretation?" Journal of Military History, 66 (July 2002), 683.

Perhaps most importantly, in 2006, Germany's Military History Research Office (MGFA) published Der Schlieffenplan: Analysen und Dokumente, edited by Michael Epkenhans, Hans Ehlert and Gerhard P. Groß (The Schlieffen Plan: Analyzes and documents. Age of World Wars, Volume II ). This volume contains a copy of Schlieffen's 1905 Memorandum misfiled in the German Military Archives at Freiburg and German deployment plans from the year 1893/94 to 1914/15, most of which had been lost otherwise. These documents, not yet available in English translation, are said to strongly support the traditional ideas of a "Schlieffen Plan" that Zuber disputed.

Works
 "The Schlieffen Plan Reconsidered," War in History, 6 (1999), pp. 262–305
 Inventing the Schlieffen Plan: German War Planning, 1871–1914. Oxford University Press, 2002.
 "The Schlieffen Plan - Fantasy or Catastrophe?", History Today (2002).
 German War Planning, 1891-1914: Sources and Interpretations. Boydell Press, 2004.
 The Battle of the Frontiers. Ardennes 1914. Tempus, 2007.
 The Moltke Myth. Prussian War Planning 1857–1871 UPA, 2008.
 The Mons Myth. A Reevaluation of the Battle. 2010.
 The Real German War Plan 1904–1914 The History Press Ltd 2011.
 Ten Days in August, The Siege of Liege 1914 The History Press Ltd 2014.

References

External links
 Personal website

1948 births
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Living people
Historians of World War I
American male non-fiction writers

Terence Zuber


Anas Sarwar (born 14 March 1983) is a Scottish politician who has served as Leader of the Scottish Labour Party since 2021. He has been a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the Glasgow region since 2016, having been Member of Parliament (MP) for Glasgow Central from 2010 to 2015.

Born in Glasgow to Pakistani Muslim parents, Sarwar was privately educated at the independent Hutchesons' Grammar School and studied general dentistry at the University of Glasgow. He worked in Paisley as a dentist until being elected as Member of Parliament for Glasgow Central at the 2010 general election when he succeeded his retiring father, Mohammad Sarwar. During his time in the House of Commons, he served as Deputy Leader of the Scottish Labour Party from 2011 to 2014.

Sarwar lost his seat to the Scottish National Party (SNP) at the 2015 general election. After leaving Westminster, he was elected at the 2016 Scottish Parliament election on the Glasgow regional list. Having been defeated in the 2017 Scottish Labour leadership election by Richard Leonard, he was elected as Leader of the Scottish Labour Party in the 2021 leadership election. Sarwar led Scottish Labour into the 2021 Scottish Parliament election, which saw Scottish Labour remain in opposition with two fewer Labour MSPs than at the previous election. He was defeated by incumbent First Minister Nicola Sturgeon in Glasgow Southside but was returned on the Glasgow regional list.

Early life and career
Anas Sarwar was born on 14 March 1983 in Glasgow, the youngest of four children. His parents were Perveen Sarwar and Mohammad Sarwar, both Pakistani Muslims. He attended Hutchesons' Grammar School, a private school in Glasgow, before completing a degree in general dentistry at the University of Glasgow from 2000 to 2005. While a student, he joined marches against the Iraq War. He worked as an NHS dentist in Paisley from 2005 until 2009.

Early political career
Sarwar began campaigning for the Labour Party as a child of "nine or ten" and joined the party at the age of fifteen or sixteen. His father was elected as the Labour MP for Glasgow Govan in 1997, becoming the UK's first Muslim MP. In that year, Sarwar received an envelope containing a threat against his mother. Sarwar served as an executive member of Scottish Young Labour and later joined the Co-operative Party, a party which stands candidates jointly with the Labour Party, as well as the Fabian Society, the trades unions Unite and Community, and the pressure group Progress. He served as vice-chair of Progress in 2011.

Sarwar was selected as the lead regional list candidate for the Glasgow Scottish Parliament electoral region for the 2007 election. He was a member of Labour's Scottish Policy Forum which was responsible for drawing-up the Scottish Labour Party manifesto for that election. He was not elected, later saying that standing as a list candidate had been a chance "to prove himself", and that he had had "no chance" of success given his party's success in winning constituency seats under the additional member system.

Member of Parliament
 Sarwar's father announced his retirement as the MP for Glasgow Central in February 2007. Later that year, Sarwar was selected as the Labour candidate for the seat at the 2010 United Kingdom general election. Despite Labour's loss of power at that general election, Anas Sarwar emphasised his independence and differentiated himself from his father's politics. The Guardian described him as positioning himself on the "moderate left" of the Labour Party, supporting electoral reform for the House of Commons, reforming the House of Lords to have a majority of elected seats but with some seats remaining appointed, and reducing the scale of the UK's nuclear deterrant. He opposed privatisation of the NHS but supported the use of private finance initiative schemes to build schools. He won the election with 52.0% of the vote, an increase on the previous vote share and majority.

He was elected by colleagues to serve on the International Development Select Committee. He said that his parliamentary interests included foreign policy and international development, and that he wanted to "use his parliamentary platform to make a difference on" conflicts in Palestine and Kashmir. In December 2011, Sarwar was elected as Deputy Leader of the Scottish Labour Party receiving 51.1% of the vote. In January 2013, he was awarded the Politician of The Year Award at the British Muslim Awards. In 2013, Sarwar took a strong line in attacking both the "bedroom tax" and accused the Scottish Government of failure to mitigate its worst effects. During a vote on its repeal, Sarwar was overseas in Pakistan, giving a speech to students at Hajvery University, and so was paired with a Conservative MP, cancelling out the two votes. He was criticised for his absence by the Scottish National Party. In 2014, Sarwar was criticised by SNP politicians for sending his son to Hutchesons' Grammar School, a private school and the same school that he himself attended, instead of a state school.

From November 2014 until May 2015, Sarwar served as Shadow Minister for International Development. In January 2015, he was awarded the Spirit of Britain Award at that year's British Muslim Awards.

In 2012, he was appointed to co-ordinate Scottish Labour's 2014 Scottish independence referendum campaign. The campaign, alongside Better Together, was ultimately successful, with 55% of the electorate of Scotland voting to stay in the United Kingdom. The Leader of the Scottish Labour Party, Johann Lamont, resigned from the position on 25 October 2014, criticising the attitude of the Labour Party as a whole to the Scottish Labour Party and saying that Scottish Labour needed to be more autonomous. The Guardian reported that she felt like she needed to resign after the general secretary of Scottish Labour, Ian Price, was "removed from office without her being consulted". Several Scottish Labour figures echoed her frustrations. Sarwar defended the UK-wide Labour Party, and said that Price "resigned from his position as general secretary and I think we should respect his position". Following the resignation of Johann Lamont on 25 October 2014, Sarwar became acting leader until the new leader, Jim Murphy, was elected. On 30 October, he announced his resignation as deputy leader. At the 2015 general election, Sarwar lost his seat to Alison Thewliss of the SNP. Following that election, in what was a historic defeat for Scottish Labour, Labour were left with a sole seat (Edinburgh South) after half a century of political domination of Scottish seats at Westminster.

Member of the Scottish Parliament
Sarwar was elected as an additional member in the 2016 Scottish Parliament election for the Glasgow region. In 2016, he was appointed as Scottish Labour's spokesperson for health and sport. Sarwar was opposed to leaving the European Union and said that the UK needed to stay in the single market in order to counter the Conservatives' austerity policies. However, on BBC Radio 4 in April 2023 Sarwar, while expressing hope that Labour would do well in 2024 in the wake of the SNP's troubles, ruled out any plan to rejoin the EU, or to join its single market, or to join its customs union.  He sought advice from the police after creating a working group on Islamophobia.

In September 2017, he announced he would run for the Scottish Labour leadership following the resignation of Kezia Dugdale. He was characterised by opponents as being on the right of the Labour Party and a Blairite, which he repudiated, describing himself as a Brownite. He called the Iraq War "the worst foreign policy decision in my lifetime". He expressed support for UK-wide Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn's policies of "a £10 national living wage, public ownership of the railways, higher taxation for the rich and tougher laws on basic wages and employment rights". He proposed a tax rate of 50p for earnings over £100,000 and cuts to income tax for earnings under £28,000, including a new 15p tax rate for lower earners. His campaign emphasised equality over discussions of independence. He defended sending his children to a private school, saying he and his wife had done what they "thought was best for [their] children". Sarwar was criticised by opponents during after it emerged that his family firm was advertising job vacancies with pay below the recommended living wage. His opponent in the election, Richard Leonard, was on the left wing of the Labour Party. Leonard won the election with 56.7% of the vote. During the 2017 leadership election, Rutherglen councillor Davie McLachlan allegedly said "Scotland wouldn't vote for a brown Muslim Paki". In April 2019, Sarwar's case against McLachlan was due to be heard by the National Constitutional Committee but was dropped on a technicality, as Sarwar had not given his case within the required timescale. Leonard acknowledged the process was flawed and the committee would need to be reformed to avoid similar incidents.

Sarwar was replaced as health and sport spokesperson by Monica Lennon in October 2018. He said he had only learnt of the sacking on the social media platform Twitter. In November 2019, Sarwar was given access to a leaked report from 2015 which had considered infection controls at Queen Elizabeth University Hospital to be at "high risk". 10-year-old patient Milly Main died in the hospital in 2017 from a water infection, while she was there to recover from leukaemia. Sarwar raised the leaked report's findings in a Scottish Parliament debate in which he criticised NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde for not closing certain hospital wards despite the report's findings. He requested on behalf on Main's mother, a constituent of his, a response from the first minister Nicola Sturgeon. In November 2020, Sarwar was appointed as Scottish Labour's spokesperson for the constitution.

Leader of the Scottish Labour Party
Following the resignation of Richard Leonard in 2021, Sarwar was elected as leader of the Scottish Labour Party, winning 57.6% of the vote to Monica Lennon's 42.4%. The Guardian described him as a centrist. Despite having criticised Corbyn in the past, Sarwar insisted that his economic plans would be "even more progressive and radical" than those of Corbyn and the former shadow chancellor John McDonnell. Sarwar and some reporters said this made him the first ethnic minority person to lead a major UK political party, although The Spectator pointed to political leaders of Jewish descent such as Benjamin Disraeli, Michael Howard and Ed Miliband while acknowledging he was the first Muslim and person of Asian descent. The leader of the Scottish Conservatives, Douglas Ross, proposed a coalition of parties supporting Scotland remaining in the United Kingdom, which Sarwar rejected. Sarwar called the United Kingdom "fundamentally broken", and said that there should be more devolution of power from Westminster to Holyrood, and from Holyrood to communities. He also confirmed Scottish Labour's opposition to renewing the Trident nuclear programme.

As the leader of Scottish Labour in the run-up to the 2021 Scottish Parliament election, Sarwar pledged to reduce poverty and inequality in Scotland as part of his policy solutions to the aftermath of COVID-19 crisis. In the run-up to the election, the Labour Party removed Hollie Cameron, a Labour candidate who said in an interview that Labour would support a second referendum on Scottish independence depending on timing, contrary to the party's policy. Sarwar was criticised for the decision by figures on the left of the Labour Party.

Sarwar himself ran as a both a list candidate and as constituency candidate for Glasgow Southside, which the first minister Nicola Sturgeon represented. The election saw the worst result for Scottish Labour since devolution, with two fewer Labour MSPs returned than at the previous election. Although he was defeated by the incumbent first minister Nicola Sturgeon in Glasgow Southside, he was re-elected as a list MSP.

In January 2022, it was reported that the UK-wide Labour leader Keir Starmer was interested in allowing more supporters of independence to stand as Labour candidates. Sarwar said that candidates would need to stand on a platform of Scotland remaining in the UK, and that "when it comes to Scottish Labour, I'm in charge". In March 2022, Sarwar announced a policy of providing free residential care and free home care, alongside increasing care workers' wages to a minimum of £15 an hour. Sarwar supports replacing the House of Lords with an elected senate that would represent nations and regions. In November 2022, Declassified UK revealed that Sarwar was a member of the lobbying group British-American Project. In the same month, in an interview with The Times, he talked about the need for growth in order to deliver policies that improve equality and reduce poverty.

Personal life
Sarwar is married to Furheen Sarwar, who works as an NHS dentist. The couple has three young children. He is a Muslim Punjabi Arain. He owns a quarter share of his family's cash-and-carry wholesale business; his share was valued in 2016 as worth between £2.7 million and £4.8 million. In September 2017, Sarwar transferred his shareholding to a discretionary trust for the benefit of his three children, so that he could not personally access the assets or dividends.

He is the president of the Sarwar Foundation, and is teetotal.

See also
 List of British Pakistanis

References

External links

 Video interview after winning his seat in 2010  at Catch21
Son could replace retiring MP Sarwar, The Herald, 23 June 2007
 Election shows politics runs in the family, The Herald, 1 May 2007

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1983 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Labour MSPs
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Glasgow constituencies
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2016–2021
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2021–2026
People educated at Hutchesons' Grammar School
Scottish Labour MPs
Scottish Muslims
Scottish people of Pakistani descent
Scottish people of Punjabi descent
UK MPs 2010–2015

Anas Sarwar


The Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) is the only species of North American marsupial. It is sometimes called a possum, but that refers more correctly to a group of Australian marsupials.

Description
An opossum is about the size of a house cat. It has grizzled white and gray fur. Adult opossums weigh about 2-6 kg (4-14 lbs). They live alone, are active at night, and they are good climbers.

Habitat
People can find this opossum in the eastern United States, and along the west coast from British Columbia and to Baja California.  They like to live in forests, brushy areas, and farmland.

References

Marsupials
Mammals of North America

Virginia opossum


The House by the Side of the Road is a historic house at 61 School Street in Tilton, New Hampshire.  The house, built c. 1783, is a modest -story Cape style house that is five bays wide, with a center entry and a central chimney.  The house is locally notable as the home of poet Sam Walter Foss in 1877–78, when he was attending Tilton Seminary, and has been known as the "House by the Side of Road" after Foss's poem of the same name, since the 1890s.  The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

Description and history
The House by the Side of the Road is located a short way north of the Tilton School, on the east side of School Street opposite some of the school's athletic fields.  It is set on a small wooded parcel.  It is a -story wood-frame structure, with a side-gable roof, off-center brick chimney, and clapboarded exterior.  The chimney is one of two the house once had, and is covered by a corbelled cap.  The street-facing front facade is five bays wide, with the main entrance at the center, flanked by sidelight windows.  The other windows are rectangular six-over-six sash, framed by simple corner boards.  The house is not architecturally distinguished, and is typical of late 18th-century residential construction in rural New Hampshire.

The house was built about 1783, and is a well-preserved example of period vernacular architecture.  It is most noted for its literary association with the poet Sam Walter Foss, who lived here in 1877–78, while attending the Tilton School (then known as Tilton Seminary).

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Belknap County, New Hampshire

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in New Hampshire
Houses completed in 1783
Houses in Belknap County, New Hampshire
National Register of Historic Places in Belknap County, New Hampshire
Tilton, New Hampshire

House by the Side of the Road


The 101st Airborne Division is an infantry division in the United States Army. It was called an "airborne" division because, as a paratrooper unit, it used airplanes to go into battle. It is most famous its defense of Bastogne at the Battle of the Bulge. The division later fought in the Vietnam War, including the Battle of Hamburger Hill. It also fought in the Gulf War, War in Afghanistan, and War in Iraq.

History

The 101st Division was organized 2 November 1918 at Camp Shelby, Mississippi. World War I ended 9 days later. The unit was disbanded on 11 December 1918.

The unit was made active again on 10 September 1921, at Milwaukee, Wisconsin. They were assigned to the United States Army Reserve. At this time the "Screaming Eagle" nickname became associated with the division. They assumed several traditions as a successor to the volunteer regiments of the American Civil War. In order to reorganize the 101st as an airborne division in the (regular) U.S. Army, the reserve division was disbanded on 15 August 1942.

World War II

The 101st Airborne Division was activated in the U.S. Army on 16 August 1942. This was at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana. On 19 August 1942, its first commander, Major General William C. Lee, promised his new recruits that the 101st had "no history but had a rendezvous with destiny." On D-Day (6 June 1944) the 101st Airborne Division parachuted behind the enemy lines in back of Utah Beach. They cleared a path for the beach landings and captured several key objectives. The division took part in Operation Market Garden (17–25 September 1944). This was the largest airborne operation of all time.

References

United States Army
1942 establishments in the United States

101st Airborne Division


Lord of the manor is a title that, in Anglo-Saxon England and Norman England, referred to the landholder of a rural estate. The titles date to the English feudal (specifically Baronial) system. The lord enjoyed manorial rights (the rights to establish and occupy a residence, known as the manor house and demesne) as well as seignory, the right to grant or draw benefit from the estate (for example, as a landlord). The title continues in modern England and Wales as a legally recognised form of property that can be held independently of its historical rights. It may belong entirely to one person or be a moiety shared with other people.

In England, lord of the manor was not a noble title, although a lord of the manor might often be a Peer of the realm, or more often landed gentry, or regularly, a religious order. A title similar to such a lordship is known in French as Sieur or ,  in German,  (Kaleagasi) in Turkish,  in Norwegian and Swedish,  in Welsh,  in Dutch, and  or  in Italian.

Background

The manor formed the basic unit of land ownership within the baronial system. Initially in England the feudal 'Baronial' system considered all those who held land directly from the king by knight-service, from earls downwards, 'Barons'. Others forms of land tenure under the feudal system included serjeanty (a form of tenure in return for a specified duty other than standard knight-service) and Socage (payment of a fee). Under King Henry II, the Dialogus de Scaccario already distinguished between greater barons (who held their Baronies per baroniam by knights service), and lesser barons (who owned the manor without knight-service). As they held their title due to ownership of manors, and not per baroniam knights service, Lords of the Manor were in the group of lesser barons. The entitlement or "title" to attend the Kings Council in parliament began to be granted exclusively by decree in the form of a Writ of Summons from 1265 entrenching the status of the Greater Barons and effectively founding the House of Lords. Magna Carta (which had been first issued in 1215) had declared that "No free man shall be seized, imprisoned, dispossessed, outlawed, exiled or ruined in any way, nor in any way proceeded against, except by the lawful judgement of his peers", and thus this body of greater Barons with a right to attend parliament were deemed to be 'peers' of one another, and it became the norm to refer to these magnates as a 'peerage' during the reign of Edward II. Meanwhile the holders of smaller fiefdoms per baroniam ceased to be summoned to parliament, and instead lesser barons of each county would receive a single summons as a group through the sheriff, and representatives from their number would be elected to attend on behalf of the group (this would later evolve into the House of Commons). This meant the official political importance of ownership of manors declined, eventually resulting in baronial status becoming a 'personal' title rather than one linked to ownership of territory. The lesser Baronial titles, including Lordships of the Manor, therefore were not incorporated into the peerage. In 1600s it is understood that all English Feudal Baronies that weren't Lordships of the Manor and hadn't been upgraded into a Peerage, were abolished by the Tenures Abolition Act 1660 passed under the Restoration which took away Knights service and other legal rights. This left Lordships of the Manor as the sole vestige of the English feudal system. Like their English counterparts, by 1600 manorial titles in the formerly Norman territories in France and Italy did not ennoble their holders in the same way as, for example, did a barony in these territories.

Lordships of the Manor often have certain feudal era rights associated with them. The exact rights that each manor holds will be different – the right to hold a market, a right over certain waterways or mineral deposits are all within scope.

Types

Historically a lord of the manor could either be a tenant-in-chief if he held a capital manor directly from the Crown, or a mesne lord if he was the vassal of another lord. The origins of the lordship of manors arose in the Anglo-Saxon system of manorialism. Following the Norman conquest, land at the manorial level was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 (the Normans' registry in Sicily was called, in Latin, the Catalogus Baronum, compiled a few years later). The title cannot nowadays be subdivided. This has been prohibited since 1290 by the statute of Quia Emptores that prevents tenants from alienating their lands to others by subinfeudation, instead requiring all tenants wishing to alienate their land to do so by substitution.

Lord Denning, in Corpus Christi College Oxford v Gloucestershire County Council [1983] QB 360, described the manor thus:

Tenancy
In England in the Middle Ages, land was held on behalf of the English monarch or ruler by a powerful local supporter, who gave protection in return. The people who had sworn homage to the lord were known as vassals. Vassals were nobles who served loyalty for the king, in return for being given the use of land. After the Norman conquest of England, however, all land in England was owned by the monarch who then granted the use of it by means of a transaction known as enfeoffment, to earls, barons, and others, in return for military service. The person who held feudal land directly from the king was known as a tenant-in-chief (see also Land tenure).

Sub-tenancy
Military service was based upon units of ten knights (see knight-service). An important tenant-in-chief might be expected to provide all ten knights, and lesser tenants-in-chief, half of one. Some tenants-in-chief 'sub-infeuded', that is, granted, some land to a sub-tenant. Further sub-infeudation could occur down to the level of a lord of a single manor, which in itself might represent only a fraction of a knight's fee. A mesne lord was the level of lord in the middle holding several manors, between the lords of a manor and the superior lord. The sub-tenant might have to provide knight-service, or finance just a portion of it, or pay something purely nominal. Any further sub-infeudation was prohibited by the Statute of  in 1290. Knight-service was abolished by the Tenures Abolition Act 1660.

Manorial courts

Manors were defined as an area of land and became closely associated to the advowson of the church; often by default the advowson was appended to the rights of the Manor, sometimes separated into moieties. Many lords of the manor were known as squires, at a time when land ownership was the basis of power. While some inhabitants were serfs who were bound to the land, others were freeholders, often known as franklins, who were free from customary services. Periodically all the tenants met at a 'manorial court', with the lord of the manor (or squire), or a steward, as chairman. These courts, known as courts baron, dealt with the tenants' rights and duties, changes of occupancy, and disputes between tenants. Some manorial courts also had the status of a court leet, and so they elected constables and other officials and were effectively magistrates' courts for minor offences.

Later history
The tenure of the freeholders was protected by the royal courts. After the Black Death, labour was in demand and so it became difficult for the lords of manors to impose duties on serfs. However their customary tenure continued and in the 16th century the royal courts also began to protect these customary tenants, who became known as copyholders. The name arises because the tenant was given a copy of the court's record of the fact as a title deed.

During the 19th century, traditional manor courts were phased out. This was largely because by the mid 17th century, large English cities had leading residents such as John Harrison (died 1656) of Leeds, who saw the possession of the manor by only one resident as "giving him too great a superiority over his fellow townsmen, and exposing him to considerable odium". Thus, the Manor of Leeds was divided between several people (shares). This situation could create legal problems. In January 1872, as a group, the "lords of the manor of Leeds" applied to the Law Courts to ascertain if they could "exercise acts of ownership" over land at a time when manorial  rights were being sold to larger city corporations. In 1854, the lords of the manor of Leeds had "sold" these acts of ownership to the "corporation of Leeds" which would become the City of Leeds.

By  1925, copyhold tenure had formally ended with the enactment of Law of Property Acts, Law of Property Act 1922 and Law of Property (Amendment) Act 1924, converting copyhold to fee simple. Although copyhold was abolished, the title of Lord of the Manor remains, and certain rights attached to it will also remain if they are registered under the Land Registration Act 2002. This Act ended manorial incidents unprotected by registration at the Land Registry after October 2013. The Land Registration Act 2002 does not affect the existence of unregistered lordships after October 2013, only the rights that would have previously been attached to the same.

During the latter part of the 20th century, many of these titles were sold to wealthy individuals seeking a distinction. However, certain purchasers, such as Mark Roberts, controversially exploited the right to claim unregistered land. A manorial title (i.e. Lord of the Manor) is not a title of nobility, as in a peerage title.

Use of style
The holder of a lordship of the manor can be referred to as Lord or Lady of the manor of [Placename], sometimes shortened to Lord or Lady of [Placename], for example Lord or Lady of Little Bromwich, this style can be shared by spouses.

It is debated whether manorial lordships can be classed as a noble title, historically holders of manorial titles were seen as people of rank. They are a semi-extinct form of hereditary landed title that grants the holder the rank of Esquire by prescription and are considered high gentry or lower, non-peerage nobility by contemporary heralds and students of nobiliary. Lordship in this sense is a synonym for ownership, although this ownership involved a historic legal jurisdiction in the form of the court baron. The journal Justice of the Peace & Local Government Law advises that the position is unclear as to whether a lordship of a manor is a title of honour or a dignity, as this is yet to be tested by the courts. Technically, lords of manors are barons, or freemen; however, they do not use the term as a title. Unlike titled barons, they did not have a right to sit in the House of Lords, which was the case for all noble peers until the House of Lords Act 1999. John Selden in his esteemed work Titles of Honour (1672) writes, "The word Baro (Latin for Baron) hath been also so much communicated, that not only all Lords of Manors have been from ancient time, and are at this day called sometimes Barons (as in the stile of their Court Barons, which is Curia Baronis, &c. And I have read hors de son Barony in a barr to an Avowry for hors de son fee) But also the Judges of the Exchequer have it from antient time fixed on them."

The style 'Lord of the Manor of X' or 'Lord of X' is, in a sense, more of a description than a title, somewhat similar to the term Laird in Scotland. King's College, Cambridge has given the view that the term 'indicated wealth and privilege, and it carried rights and responsibilities'.

Manorial rights or incidents
Since 1965 lords of the manor have been entitled to compensation in the event of compulsory purchase. Before the Land Registration Act 2002 it was possible for manors to be registered with HM Land Registry. No manorial rights could be created after 1925, following entry into force of the Law of Property Act 1922. Manorial incidents, which are the rights that a lord of the manor may exercise over other people's land, lapsed on 12 October 2013 if not registered by then with the Land Registry. This is a separate issue to the registration of lordships of manors, since both registered and unregistered lordships will continue to exist after that date. It is only their practical rights that lost what is called 'overriding interest', or in other words the ability to affect land even if the interests or rights are not registered against that land, as of 12 October 2013. Manorial incidents can still be recorded for either registered or unregistered manors; however, proof of existence of the rights may need to be submitted to the Land Registry before they will be noted and they may not be registered at all after affected land is sold after 12 October 2013. This issue does not affect the existence of the title of lord of the manor. There have been cases where manors have been sold and the seller has unknowingly parted with rights to unregistered land in England and Wales.

Present Day

A manorial lordship or ladyship is not connected to the English or British Peerage system, but rather is a remnant of the feudal or Baronial system that pre-dates it. The title does not therefore alone strictly form part of the British nobility (which is predominantly linked to titles of peerage) but has historically been associated with the English landed gentry and squirearchy within the context of the class structure of the United Kingdom. The status of lord of the manor is today often associated with the rank of esquire by prescription. Many Lordships of the Manor are 'held' via Grand Serjeanty - a duty to carry out certain functions when required - which places them in close proximity to the monarch, often during the Coronation. An example would be the Manor of Scrivelsby, where the owner of the Manor is required to serve as King's Champion. Additionally, many peers also hold Lordships of the manor, and the sovereign via the Duchy of Lancaster is one of the largest holders of manorial titles in the UK. The Dukes of Westminster owe their fortune to the marriage of heiress Mary Davies, Lady of the Manor of Ebury, to Sir Thomas Grosvenor, 3rd Baronet, with the Manor of Ebury today forming the Grosvenor Estate. As a feudal title 'Lord of the Manor', unlike titles of peerage, can be inherited by whomever the title holder chooses (including females), and it is the only English title that can be purchased, as Lordships of the manor are considered non-physical property in England and are fully enforceable in the English court system.

Feudal lordships of the manor therefore still exist today (2023) in English property law, being legal titles historically dating back to the Norman invasion of England in 1066. Being incorporated into property law (whether physical or non-physical) they can be bought and sold, as historic artifacts. The title itself as stated below can be separated from the physical property just as any other right can. Rights like the lordship, mineral and sporting can all be separate from the physical property. The title since 1290 cannot be sub-divided (Subinfeudation). Land, sporting rights, and mineral rights can be separated. Property lawyers usually handle such transactions.

There are three elements to a manor (collectively called an honour):
 the lordship or dignity – the title granted by the manor,
 the manorial – the manor and its land,
 the seignory – the rights granted to the holder of the manor.

These three elements may exist separately or be combined, the first element being the title may be held in moieties and may not be subdivided, this is prohibited by the statute of  preventing subinfeudation whereas the second and third elements can be subdivided. Although manorial lordship titles today no longer have rights attached to them, historically the lordship title itself had the power to collect fealty (i.e. services) and taxes.

The Historical Manuscripts Commission maintains two Manorial Document Registers that cover southern England. One register is arranged under parishes, the other is arranged under manors and shows the last-known whereabouts of the manorial records, the records are often very limited. The National Archives at Kew, London, and county record offices maintain many documents that mention manors or manorial rights, in some cases manorial court rolls have survived, such documents are now protected by law.

Ownership of a manorial lordship can be noted on request in British passports through an official observation worded, 'The Holder is the Lord of the Manor of ................'.

Land Claims

The issues of land claims were raised in the UK Parliament in 2004 and were debated with a reply on the subject from the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs acknowledging 'need for reform of the remnants of feudal and manorial law' as a case was highlighted in Peterstone Wentloog, Wales, where villagers were being charged excessive fees to cross manorial land to access their homes.

In 2007, a caution against first registration caused houses to stop selling in Alstonefield after Mark Roberts, a businessman from Wales also previously involved in the Peterstone Wentloog case, registered a caution against first registration for  after purchasing the lordship of the manor of Alstonefield for £10,000 in 1999. Judith Bray, land law expert from Buckingham University, speaking to BBC about the case, said that "the legal situation is very confusing because a piece of legislation in the 1920s separated manorial rights from the ownership of land."

In reports about the Alstonefield case, the BBC stated, "Scores of titles are bought and sold every year, some like the one Chris Eubank bought for fun, others seen as a business opportunity. It is entirely lawful, and there is no doubt the titles can be valuable. As well as rights to land like wastes and commons, they can also give the holder rights over land." The report goes on to say that the Law Commission in England and Wales were considering a project to abolish feudal land law but would not review manorial rights.

In many cases, a title of lord of the manor may not have any land or rights, and in such cases the title is known as an 'incorporeal hereditament'. Before the Land Registration Act 2002 it was possible to volunteer to register lordship titles with the Land Registry; most did not seek to register. Dealings in previously registered Manors are subject to compulsory registration; however, lords of manors may opt to de-register their titles and they will continue to exist unregistered. Manorial rights such as mineral rights ceased to be registerable after midnight on 12 October 2013.

Mineral ownership
There were fears in 2014 and earlier, that holders of the manorial rights would allow fracking under the homes and near local communities of people living within the manorial estate after a disclosure that 73,000 applications to assert manorial mineral rights had been received by the Land Registry. Many of the applications received were from the Duchy of Lancaster and the Duchy of Cornwall asserting their historic "manorial mineral ownership".

See also

 Peerages in the United Kingdom
 English feudal barony
 Feudalism
 Subinfeudation
 Mesne lord
 Fief
 Gentry
 Manor house
 Laird
 Esquire
 Squire
 English land law

Notes and references

Notes

References

Further reading
Molyneux-Child, J. W. (1987) The evolution of the English manorial system. Lewes: The Book Guild.

External links
 Noble, princely, royal, and imperial titles
 British titles of nobility

1066 establishments in England
Feudalism in the British Isles
Titles in the United Kingdom
Positions of authority

Lord of the manor


Viscount , was the 9th and final daimyō of Iwasaki Domain (also known as Nitta Domain) in Dewa Province (present day Yuzawa, Akita).

Biography
Satake Yoshisato's father, Satake Yoshitsuma, was the third son of Soma Michitane, the 9th daimyō of Kubota domain. When he married the daughter of Satake Yoshitaka, the 7th daimyo of Iwasaki Domain, he was adopted into the Satake clan and changed his name. He refused to participate in either the Tokugawa armies or in the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei in the Boshin War during the Meiji restoration, and was rewarded by the new Meiji government for his neutrality with 2000 gold ryo . He retired in 1869.

Yoshisato became daimyō in May 1869, but the title of daimyō was abolished by the Meiji government the following month, and he became appointive governor of Iwasaki Domain. In 1871, with the abolition of the han system and the merger of the former Iwasaki Domain into the new Akita prefecture, he was left without a position. In 1876, he studied law at the forerunner of the Japanese Ministry of Justice, but quit school due to illness the following year. With the establishment of the kazoku peerage system in 1884, he became a viscount (shishaku). He then served in the House of Peers from 1890. He died in 1914 at age 57; his grave is at the Satake clan cemetery at Itabashi, Tokyo.

1858 births
1914 deaths
Daimyo
Kazoku
Satake clan
Members of the House of Peers (Japan)
People from Akita Prefecture

Satake Yoshisato


Nicolae Lahovary (), 1887-1972, was a Romanian diplomat. He was minister plenipotentiary to Albania (1934–1936) and to Switzerland from 1940-1944 before being replaced by Vespasian Pella. In his capacity of envoy to Switzerland he was active in contacts with the representatives of the allies for ensuring an armistice. After he was recalled in 1944, he settled in Switzerland, where he was an active member of the Romanian exile.

Nicolae Lahovary also was an anthropologist. His main work "Dravidian Origins and the West" was published in Bombay posthumously in 1963.

References
George G. Potra - Reacţii necunoscute la demiterea lui Titulescu - 29 August 1936: O "mazilire perfida"

Dumitru Paraschiv - Legatia Romaniei de la Berna impotriva revizionismului ungar (III) – Tricolorul Nr. 811, Nov. 20, 2006
Constantin Moşincat – Un eveniment  - Un Ordin - Crişana August 23, 2007
Adrian Porucic – Contribuţia lui Gheorghe Ivănescu în în domeniul studiilor indo-europene
Cicerone Ioanitoiu – Sovieticii se apropie de graniţele României

Romanian diplomats
1887 births
1972 deaths

Nicolae Lahovary


A floating tone is a morpheme or element of a morpheme that contains neither consonants nor vowels, but only tone. It cannot be pronounced by itself but affects the tones of neighboring morphemes.

An example occurs in Bambara, a Mande language of Mali that has two phonemic tones, high and low. The definite article is a floating low tone, and with a noun in isolation, it is associated with the preceding vowel and turns a high tone into a falling tone: [bá] river; [bâ] the river. When it occurs between two high tones, it downsteps the following tone:

 it's not a river
 (or ) it's not the river

Also common are floating tones associated with a segmental morpheme such as an affix. For example, in Okphela, an Edoid language of Nigeria, the main negative morpheme is distinguished from the present tense morpheme by tone; the present tense morpheme (á-) carries high tone, whereas the negative past morpheme (´a-) imposes a high tone on the syllable which precedes it:

oh á-nga he is climbing
óh a-nga he didn't climb

Floating tones derive historically from morphemes which assimilate or lenite to the point that only their tone remains.

References

Tone (linguistics)

Floating tone


សរីរវីទ្យា (; ; ) ជាមុខវិជ្ជាវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តមួយសិក្សាអំពីយន្តការផ្សេងៗ និងទំនាក់ទំនងរបស់យន្តការទាំងនោះនៅក្នុងសារពាង្គកាយមានជីវិត. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology (including that of humans), plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology (microbial metabolism), bacterial physiology, and viral physiology.

ចំណុចកណ្តាលនៃការយល់ដឹងអំពីមុខងារសរីរវិទ្យាគឺជាលក្ខណៈរួមបញ្ចូលគ្នារបស់វាជាមួយនឹងមុខវិជ្ជាផ្សេងទៀតដូចជា គីមីវិទ្យា និងរូបវិទ្យា យន្តការគ្រប់គ្រងលំនៅស្ថានដែលសម្របសម្រួល និងការទំនាក់ទំនងជាបន្តបន្ទាប់រវាងកោសិកា។

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a physiologic state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically, which is centered on the abnormalities that occur in animal diseases, including humans.

ប្រវត្តិរបស់សរីរវិទ្យា
Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, but did not utilize dissection or vivisection.

The study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the "father of medicine." Hippocrates incorporated his belief system called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour: black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry. Claudius Galenus (c. ~130–200 AD), known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates idea that emotions were also tied to the humours, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology. And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine.

Jean Fernel (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology".

In the 1820s, the French physiologist Henri Milne-Edwards introduced the notion of physiological division of labor, which allowed to "compare and study living things as if they were machines created by the industry of man." Inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the "body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory ... where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual." In more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems (called by him as appareils).

In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount.

The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club. The American Physiological Society  (APS) is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, "devoted to fostering education, scientific research, and dissemination of information in the physiological sciences."

In 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on "conditional reflexes" that involved dogs' saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli.

In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as "homeostasis" by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in the body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated." In other words, the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. It should be noted that, William Beaumont was the first American to utilize the practical application of physiology.

Nineteenth century physiologists such as Michael Foster, Max Verworn, and Alfred Binet, based on Haeckel's ideas, elaborated what came to be called "general physiology", a unified science of life based on the cell actions, later renamed in the twentieth century as cell biology.

In the 20th century, biologists  became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology. Major figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.

In 1920, August Krogh won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillaries, blood flow is regulated.

In 1954, Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, alongside their research team, discovered the sliding filaments in skeletal muscle, known today as the sliding filament theory.

ស្ត្រីនៅក្នុងសរីរវិទ្យា
Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The American Physiological Society, for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks. In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected Ida Hyde as the first female member of the society. Hyde, a representative of the American Association of University Women and a global advocate for gender equality in education, attempted to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine.

Soon thereafter, in 1913, J.S. Haldane proposed that women be allowed to formally join The Physiological Society, which had been founded in 1876. On 3 July 1915, six women were officially admitted: Florence Buchanan, Winifred Cullis, Ruth C. Skelton, Sarah C. M. Sowton, Constance Leetham Terry, and  Enid M. Tribe.  The centenary of the election of women was celebrated in 2015 with the publication of a book "Women physiologists: centenary celebrations and beyond for The Physiological Society ISBN 978-0-9933410-0-7.

Prominent women physiologists include:
 Gerty Cori, along with husband Carl Cori, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 for their discovery of the phosphate-containing form of glucose known as glycogen, as well as its function within eukaryotic metabolic mechanisms for energy production. Moreover, they discovered the Cori cycle, also known as the Lactic acid cycle, which describes how muscle tissue converts glycogen into lactic acid via lactic acid fermentation.
 Barbara McClintock was rewarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of genetic transposition McClintock is the only female recipient who has won an unshared Nobel Prize.
 Gertrude Elion, along with George Hitchings and Sir James Black, received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for their development of drugs employed in the treatment of several major diseases, such as leukemia, some autoimmune disorders, gout, malaria, and viral herpes.
 Linda B. Buck, along with Richard Axel, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004 for their discovery of odorant receptors and the complex organization of the olfactory system.
 Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, along with Luc Montagnier, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work on the identification of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the cause of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
 Elizabeth Blackburn, along with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak, was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the genetic composition and function of telomeres and the enzyme called telomerase.

មុខវិជ្ជារង

There are many ways to categorize the subdiscplines of physiology:
 based on the taxa studied: human physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, microbial physiology, viral physiology
 based on the level of organization: cell physiology, molecular physiology, systems physiology, organismal physiology, ecological physiology, integrative physiology
 based on the process that causes physiological variation: developmental physiology, environmental physiology, evolutionary physiology
 based on the ultimate goals of the research: applied physiology (e.g., medical physiology), non-applied (e.g., comparative physiology)

សរីរវិទ្យាមនុស្ស

Human physiology seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body alive and functioning, through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function in animals. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.

ការផ្លាស់ប្តូរសរីរវិទ្យាអាចប៉ះពាល់ដល់មុខងារផ្លូវចិត្តរបស់មនុស្សម្នាក់ៗ។ ឧទាហរណ៍នៃការនេះនឹងជាផលប៉ះពាល់នៃថ្នាំមួយចំនួន ឬកម្រិតជាតិពុលនៃសារធាតុ។ Change in behavior as a result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals.

Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal experimentation. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.

See also

 Outline of physiology
 Applied physiology
 Cell physiology
 Cybernetics
 Cytoarchitecture
 Defense physiology
 Ecophysiology
 Exercise physiology
 Fish physiology
 Insect physiology
 Human body
 List of physiologists
 Metabolome
 Neurophysiology
 Physiome
 Plant physiology

ឯកសារយោង

តំណភ្ជាប់ខាងក្រៅ

 The Physiological Society
 physiologyINFO.org  public information site sponsored by The American Physiological Society

គន្ថនិទ្ទេស
សរីរវិទ្យារបស់មនុស្ស
 Widmaier, E.P., Raff, H., Strang, K.T. Vander's Human Physiology. 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009.
 Marieb, E.N. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 10th Edition, Benjamin Cummings, 2012.

Animal physiology
 Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A., Anderson, M. Animal Physiology, 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, 2012.
 Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal Physiology, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.
 Randall, D., Burggren, W., and French, K. Eckert Animal Physiology: Mechanism and Adaptation, 5th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, 2002.
 Schmidt-Nielsen, K. Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
 Withers, P.C. Comparative animal physiology. Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1992.

Plant physiology
 Larcher, W. Physiological plant ecology (4th ed.). Springer, 2001.
 Salisbury, F.B, Ross, C.W. Plant physiology. Brooks/Cole Pub Co., 1992
 Taiz, L., Zieger, E. Plant Physiology (5th ed.), Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer, 2010.

Fungal physiology
 Griffin, D.H. Fungal Physiology, Second Edition. Wiley-Liss, New York, 1994.

Protistan physiology
 Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook: essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
 Levandowski, M., Hutner, S.H. (eds). Biochemistry and physiology of protozoa. Volumes 1, 2, and 3. Academic Press: New York, NY, 1979; 2nd ed.
 Laybourn-Parry J. A Functional Biology of Free-Living Protozoa. Berkeley, California: University of California Press; 1984.

Algal physiology
 Lobban, C.S., Harrison, P.J. Seaweed ecology and physiology. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
 Stewart, W. D. P. (ed.). Algal Physiology and Biochemistry. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1974.

Bacterial physiology
 El-Sharoud, W. (ed.). Bacterial Physiology: A Molecular Approach. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2008.
 Kim, B.H., Gadd, M.G. Bacterial Physiology and Metabolism. Cambridge, 2008.
 Moat, A.G., Foster, J.W., Spector, M.P. Microbial Physiology, 4th ed. Wiley-Liss, Inc. New York, NY, 2002.

សរីរវិទ្យា


Carex klamathensis is a rare species of sedge known by the common name Klamath sedge. It is known from 15 or fewer populations in southern Oregon and three populations in the Klamath Region of northern California. It was described to science only in 2007. Its habitat includes fens and other wet habitat, on serpentine soils. It was discovered independently by botanists Peter Zika and Lawrence Janeway.

Description
This sedge grows from a long rhizome bearing clumps of stems. The leaves are glaucous, 2–6 mm wide, with papillae between and sometimes over the veins. The inflorescence consists of 2-3(-5) spikelets.  The terminal spikelet is usually staminate, occasionally androgynous, gynecandrous, or pistillate.  Staminate terminal spikes are 1.3-2.7 cm long, 2–5 mm wide, with 40-190 flowers.  Lateral spikelets are pistillate, (0.6-)1.5-2.5 cm long, 4–7 mm wide, the uppermost usually 1.5–6 cm or more below the terminal spike, but sometimes attached as close as 0.3 cm below the terminal spike.  Pistillate flower bracts are reddish brown, dark brown, or rarely gold, the midrib and surrounding area green, white, or light brown, the edges sometimes pale, 1.9-2.8 mm long excluding awn.

Perigynia (utricles) are obovate to elliptic, 2.1-3.6 mm long, (0.8-)1.2-1.6(-1.8) mm wide, light green, tan, or whitish, sometimes marked with dark brown distally, papillose particularly toward the beak or rarely smooth, the base succulent when fresh and drying withered, the beak usually curved, the distance from beak tip to top of achene (0.1-)0.4-0.7(-1) mm.  Stigmas 3 (occasionally 2 on 0-5%(-15%) of perigynia that have viable achenes).  Achenes trigonous (lenticular if stigmas 2).

Inconspicuous Carex klamathensis is easily confused with Carex hassei, which typically has 2 stigmas per flower and lenticular achenes.  Unfortunately, populations of Carex hassei sympatric with Carex klamathensis in the Klamath Region often have a mix two- and three-styled flowers that produce viable lenticular and trigonous achenes, respectively.  Up to 2/3 of the flowers may produce trigonous achenes.

Conservation
Carex klamathensis is threatened by mining.  In fact, most of one population has been obliterated by mining activities.  Other threats include road building, recreational activities, and changes in drainage patterns.

References

klamathensis
Flora of California
Flora of Oregon
Plants described in 2007

Carex klamathensis


The Yagmas (), or Yaghmas, were a medieval tribe of Turkic people that came to the forefront of history after the disintegration of the Western Turkic Kaganate.  They were one component of a confederation which consisted of Yagma, the Karluks, the Chigils and other tribes which founded the Kara-Khanid Khanate. From the seventh century until the Karakhanid period, the Yagma were recorded in Arabic, Persian, and Chinese accounts as a prominent and powerful political entity in the Tarim Basin, Dzungaria, and Jeti-su.

History
The Yagmas appear to be of Toquz Oghuz origin or are closely associated with them. According to Hudud al-'alam "their king is from the family of the Toquz-Oghuz kings."

According to the Persian work Mujmal al-Tawarikh wa-'l-Qisas, the Yağma "padšâh" bore the title of Bogra Khan. The Yagma title of Bogra Khan allowed V.Bartold to suggest that Karakhanid Il-khans were from the Yagma tribe.

Mahmud al-Kashgari mentioned the Yagma and Tukhsi tribes, with a clan of Chigils, along the Ili River. In the tenth century the Yagma tribe lived in the Kashgar area and further northwest. Al Gardezi, who used sources composed in the eighth century, wrote that the Yagma united numerous tribes between the Uyghurs and Karluks in the larger part of the eastern Tian Shan, including Kashgar City and District. Gardezi called the Yagma a "rich people with large herds of horses" in a country of "one month of travel". The Yagma constantly clashed with the Karluks and the Kimaks, and were a dependent of the Western Turkic Kagans until their demise.

Etymology
According to Yury Zuev, a semantic meaning of the word yağma in the ancient Common Turkic language, is "attack, onslaught."  However, according to Peter Golden, the word may have derived from Turkic verbal root yağ- "to pour down, rain", but noting that the form with -ma is unusual.  He also noted the Persian word yaġmâ meaning "prey, plunder, booty, spoils", and that it is unclear if it has any relationship with Yağma.

Historical accounts
The following account of the country of Yaghma and its towns is given in the tenth century text Hudud al-'alam:

References

Uyghurs
Turkic peoples of Asia
Extinct Turkic peoples
Turkic peoples

Yagma


ZeroNet is a decentralized web-like network of peer-to-peer users, created by Tamas Kocsis in 2015, programming for the network was based in Budapest, Hungary; is built in Python; and is fully open source. Instead of having an IP address, sites are identified by a public key (specifically a bitcoin address). The private key allows the owner of a site to sign and publish changes, which propagate through the network. Sites can be accessed through an ordinary web browser when using the ZeroNet application, which acts as a local webhost for such pages. In addition to using bitcoin cryptography, ZeroNet uses trackers from the BitTorrent network to negotiate connections between peers. ZeroNet is not anonymous by default, but it supports routing traffic through the Tor network.

The ZeroNet website and bittorrent tracker are blocked in mainland China. Despite the censorship, however, it is still possible to access ZeroNet from behind the Great Firewall of China, even over Tor, by bootstrapping over Meek, and connecting to peers directly.

There is no way to take down a ZeroNet page which still has seeders, thus making such pages immune to third-party methods of taking them down, including DMCA takedown notices.

Hiatus and forks

Development has stopped for several months after stable release of v0.7.1 on Github. The zeronet-conservancy fork maintains existing codebase and adds features aimed at gradually migrating to a new p2p network designed from scratch

Development of the network
The feasibility of peer-to-peer online web-sites had been hypothesised for some time, with The Pirate Bay suggesting they would build a network, as well as BitTorrent Inc. which created the closed-source Project Maelstrom.

Sites on ZeroNet are known as "zites" by its users.

ZeroNet supports HTML, CSS and JavaScript.

Server-side languages like PHP are not supported, although ZeroNet creates and gives API to interact with SQLite databases, their data also distributed (as JSON files) via P2P.

By default, sites have a size limit of 10 megabytes, but users may grant a site permission to use more storage space if they wish.

With plugins and the ZeroFrame API, sites can communicate with ZeroNet calling Python by JavaScript.

See also

 Cooperative storage cloud
 Decentralized computing
 Distributed data store
 Distributed hash table
 Filecoin
 Freenet
 I2P
 Tor
 InterPlanetary File System
 Kademlia
 Namecoin
 OpenBazaar
 Peer-to-peer web hosting
 Self-certifying File System

References

External links

Decentralized cloud computing
Anonymity networks
Application layer protocols
BitTorrent
Computer-related introductions in 2015
Distributed data storage
Distributed file systems
File transfer protocols
Free network-related software
Free software programmed in Python
Internet privacy software
Internet protocols
Network protocols
Overlay networks
Peer-to-peer computing
Tor (anonymity network)
Web hosting
Anonymous file sharing networks

ZeroNet


The Leavenworth Constitution was one of four Kansas state constitutions written during the era of Bleeding Kansas.  The Leavenworth Constitution was written by a convention of Free-Staters. It was the most progressive of the four proposed constitutions. Important parts of this Constitution were a Bill of Rights that referred to "all men" (making no distinction between the rights of white men and black men), making slavery in the state illegal, and a basic framework for the rights of women.

The constitutional convention that wrote the Leavenworth Constitution was provided for by an act of the Territorial Legislature passed in February 1858, while the Lecompton Constitution was being debated in Congress. The constitution was adopted by the convention at Leavenworth April 3, 1858. It was also chosen by the people at an election on May 18, 1858.

The Leavenworth Constitution did not have a big impact on the history of Kansas since the US Senate did not approve of the laws in the document.  The other proposed state constitutions were the Topeka Constitution (1855), the Lecompton Constitution (1857) and the Wyandotte Constitution (1859).

Related pages
Topeka Constitution
Lecompton Constitution
Wyandotte Constitution
Bleeding Kansas

More reading
 Wilder, D.W., "The Annals of Kansas". 1886.
 William G. Cutler, "History of the State of Kansas" 1883

Other websites
 The Kansas Constitution
  The Leavenworth Constitution

Bleeding Kansas
1858

Leavenworth Constitution