The Vought F7U Cutlass is a United States Navy carrier-based jet fighter and fighter-bomber designed and produced by the aircraft manufacturer Chance Vought. It was the first tailless production fighter in the United States as well as United States Navy's first jet equipped with swept wings and the first to be designed with afterburners.

The Cutlass was developed during the late 1940s and early 1950s as Vought's entry in a United States Navy competition. Their design team, which was influenced by design information obtained from Nazi Germany, opted for a tailless configuration paired with low aspect ratio swept wings, which was regarded as a radical departure from traditional aircraft design for the era. Vought's submission was favoured by Navy officials and was declared the winner in 1946. On 29 September 1948, the prototype performed its maiden flight; all three prototypes would be lost during the flight test programme. It was initially powered by a pair of Westinghouse J34 turbojet engines which were relatively underpowered, contributing to its accident-prone nature; its unreliable hydraulic flight control system was also a source of difficulties.

The first production model of the Cutlass, F7U-1, entered service during July 1951. It was promptly followed by F7U-2 and F7U-3, improved models that were equipped with more powerful engines amongst other refinements. However, the Cutlass continued to frequently suffer from both technical and handling problems throughout the aircraft's short service career. Accidents involving the type were responsible for the deaths of four test pilots and 21 other U.S. Navy pilots. Over one quarter of all Cutlasses built were destroyed in accidents; this high rate of accidents led to the type being withdrawn during the late 1950s despite having been in service for less than ten years.

Development

Background
The Cutlass was developed in response to a competition organised by the United States Navy for a new carrier-capable day fighter that was launched on 1 June 1945. Specific requirements of the competition included that ability to fly at speeds of up  and altitudes of up to . Vought decided to respond with a relatively radical design for the era.

Vought's design team opted for an unconventional tailless configuration; this decision was heavily influenced by aerodynamic data obtained for various wartime projects undertaken by the German Arado and Messerschmitt companies that had been obtained at the close of World War II through German scientists who worked on the projects, contributed, though Vought designers denied any link to the German research at the time. Specifically, former Messerschmitt AG senior designer Woldemar Voigt, who supervised the development of numerous experimental jet fighters in Nazi Germany, contributed to its design with his experience in the development of the Messerschmitt P.1110 and P.1112 projects. The F7U was the last aircraft designed by Rex Beisel, who was responsible for the first fighter ever designed specifically for the U.S. Navy, the Curtiss TS-1 of 1922.

Vought's design was given the company type number V-346 and later received the official designation of F7U when the aircraft was announced to be the winner of the competition. Reviewing official found the design, despite its unconventional nature, to pose an acceptable level of risk, less so than some of the competing submissions. During June 1946, an initial order for three XF7U-1 prototypes, each powered by a pair of Westinghouse J34 turbojet engines, was issued to the company. Construction took place at Vought's plant in Stratford, Connecticut.

Flight Testing
On 29 September 1948, the first prototype performed its maiden flight from Naval Air Station Patuxent River in Maryland, piloted by Vought's chief test pilot, J. Robert Baker. Several issues were encountered during this initial flight. Shortly thereafter, the Navy announced that that aircraft's would be named Cutlass. During subsequent flight testing, one of the prototypes attained a maximum speed of 625 mph (1,058 km/h).

During September 1949, Vought received a contract to modify the design and to produce 88 F7U-2 Cutlasses for the Navy. In May 1950, The Navy opted to halt F7U-1 production at 14 aircraft in favor of the updated model. None of the 14 F7U-1s built between 1950 and 1952 were approved for use in squadron service. On 7 July 1950, Vought test pilot Paul Thayer ejected from his burning prototype in front of an airshow crowd. Around this time, Vought repeatedly noted its dissatisfaction with the Westinghouse J34 engine to the Navy, alleging that the powerplant was responsible for delivery delays and an inability to perform certain flight tests.

Funding for the Cutlass was briefly cut before being reinstated during 1950. The extent of the aircraft's development difficulties were such that, according to aviation author Tommy Thomason, there were serious considerations towards cancelling the Cutlass entirely during the latter half of 1951, however, severe difficulties with the Westinghouse J40 that powered many of its potential competing aircraft and thus the Navy had no solid alternative to readily take its place. The introduction of more powerful steam catapults during 1952 also aided the programme considerably.

On 20 December 1951, the improved F7U-3 took off for its maiden flight; this model was a reconfiguration of the aircraft towards a more general purpose fighter configuration. Specific changes included the use of more powerful Westinghouse J46 engines, a stronger airframe that was enlarged by one-third, as well as better maintenance access via additional panels. Test pilot (and later, astronaut) Wally Schirra wrote in his autobiography that he considered the F7U-3 to be accident prone and a "widow maker". Several positive observations were also recorded by test pilots, such as it being a stable weapons platform, relatively maneuverable, fun to fly, and fairly sturdy with the strengthened airframe. Furthermore, test pilots gave particular praise for its high roll rate of 570 degrees/s, which was three times faster than most production jets at the time. Some pilots have suggested that inexperience with swept wing aircraft, as well as other innovative features of the aircraft, likely contributed to the poor accident record.

Early on, it was discovered that the Cutlass would gyrate after experiencing a stall. During one test flight, Lt. Morrey Loso's Cutlass exhibited such behavior, tumbling towards the ground following a stall, upon letting go of the control stick to reach with both hands for the ejection handle, Loso's Cutlass promptly self-corrected. It was determined that normal recovery procedures did not apply to the Cutlass, a conclusion that was later confirmed via wind tunnel testing.

Design

The Vought F7U Cutlass was a carrier-based jet fighter and fighter-bomber. It featured broad chord, low aspect ratio swept wings, with twin wing-mounted tail fins either side of a short fuselage. As there was no horizontal tail surfaces, there were no flaps. The cockpit, which was pressurized, was situated well forward to provide good visibility for the pilot during aircraft carrier approaches. The pilot was provisioned with an ejector seat. Common nicknames for the F7U amongst naval aviators included the "Gutless Cutlass", the "Ensign Eliminator" and, in kinder moments, the "Praying Mantis".

Both pitch and roll control was provided by elevons, though Vought referred to these surfaces as "ailevators" at the time. Slats were fitted to the entire span of the leading edge. The aircraft was provisioned with all-hydraulic flight controls; these provided artificial feedback so the pilot could feel aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft. The hydraulic system operated at 3000 psi, twice that of other Navy aircraft; however, the system proved to be not ready for front-line service and experienced a high level of unreliability. Allegedly, this was at least partially due to many components having been intended for lower pressure hydraulic systems, resulting in a high rate of failure and thus exacerbating overall unreliability.

During flight testing, aviator John Glenn and various test pilots found the muzzle blast from the 20mm cannons caused the engines to flame out, however this was solved when the US Navy approached weapons expert George M. Chinn who designed a flame-out eliminator, a similar device to the Cutts compensator used on the Thompson submachine gun to divert the muzzle blast that solved the problem.

The very long nose landing gear strut required for high angle of attack takeoffs lifted the pilot 14 feet into the air and was fully steerable. The high position of the nose relative to the flight deck posed visibility difficulties for the pilot. Furthermore, the high stresses of barrier engagements, and side-loads imposed during early deployment carrier landings caused failure of the retract cylinder's internal down-locks, causing nose gear failure and resultant spinal injuries to the pilot. To help mitigate the loading forces exerted upon the nose landing gear actuator and mounting structure, Vought's design engineers added small turbines, powered by bleed air from the engines, to pre-spin on the nosegear tires to 90 mph prior to landing. Furthermore, an automatic fuel transfer system maintained the aircraft's center of gravity.

The initial models of the Cutlass were powered by a pair of Westinghouse J34 turbojet engines; these were widely considered to be underpowered and several pilots disparagingly claimed that they "put out less heat than Westinghouse's toasters." The J34 produced considerably less power than had been originally projected by Westinghouse, yet it was the only engine that could fit the airframe of the Cutlass without extensive reworking. Later production aircraft were provisioned with the more powerful Westinghouse J46 engine. The F7U-3M model was the first aircraft in US Navy service to be capable of firing the AAM-N-2 Sparrow I air-to-air missile.  While it had been intended to equip the Cutlass with radar, such apparatus would be excluded due to weight constraints.

Operational history

Production orders were placed for the F7U-1 under a specification that remained relatively close to that of the prototypes, and further developed F7U-2 and F7U-3 versions with more powerful engines. Because of development problems with the powerplant, however, the F7U-2 would never be built, while the F7U-3 would incorporate many refinements that came out of flight tests of the -1. The first 16 F7U-3s were powered by non-afterburning Allison J35-A-29 engines. The -3, with its Westinghouse J46-WE-8B turbojets, would eventually become the definitive production version, a total of 288 aircraft equipping 13 U.S. Navy squadrons. Further development of the type came to an end shortly after flight testing of the more capable Vought F8U Crusader commenced.

The F7U's performance suffered due to a lack of sufficient engine thrust; consequently, its carrier landing and take-off performance was notoriously poor. The J35 was known to flame out in rain, a very serious fault. The first fleet squadron to receive F7Us was Fighter Squadron 81 (VF-81) in April 1954. Few squadrons made deployments with the type, and most "beached" them ashore during part of the cruise owing to operating difficulties. Those units known to have taken the type to sea were:
 VF-124, , August 1955 – March 1956. After pilot George Millard was killed in a Cutlass landing accident, the captain ordered every Cutlass off the ship and the squadron spent its Pacific cruise at the Atsugi naval air station in Japan.
 VA-66, , November 1955 – August 1956; after a pilot was injured after a nose gear collapse, the captain summoned the squadron leader, confined both he and all his pilots to quarters, and ordered the squadron ashore at Naval Air Station Port Lyautey.
 VA-86, , January – March 1956 shakedown cruise;
 VA-83, , March – September 1956;
 VA-116, USS Hancock, April - September 1957;
 VA-151, , May - December 1956;
 VA-212, , August 1956 – February 1957.
 Air Test and Evaluation Squadron 4 (VX-4),  and USS Lexington

During 1957, Chance Vought analysed the accident record and found that, with 78 accidents and a quarter of the airframes lost while accumulating 55,000 flight hours, the Cutlass had the highest accident rate of all Navy swept-wing fighters. Furthermore, according to Thomason, accidents involving the Cutlass were typically more severe than with other aircraft. The aircraft's poor safety record caused Vice Admiral Harold M. "Beauty" Martin, air commander of the United States Pacific Fleet, to replace the Cutlass with the Grumman F9F-8 Cougars; the decision was somewhat abrupt, with new aircraft continuing to be delivered for a time after this. Nevertheless, the outstanding order for 250 Cutlass A2U-1, a ground-attack variant, was soon cancelled. During the late 1950s, the Navy donated many of the now-surplus aircraft to various municipalities and schools to promote aviation.

Blue Angels
The Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron, the Blue Angels, flew two F7U-1 Cutlasses (BuNos 124426 & 124427) as a side demonstration during their 1953 show season in an effort to promote the new aircraft, but did not use them as part of their regular formation demonstration. Both the pilots and ground crews found the aircraft generally unsatisfactory, and it was apparent that the type was still experiencing multiple teething troubles. However, there was political pressures to adopt the Cutlass, both from several senior officers and from senators. Among the failures were landing gear failures, hydraulic failures, engine fires while in the air and, on one occasion, a landing gear door fell on a spectator grandstand but, through sheer luck, did not injure anyone.

During the Blue Angels' first airshow appearance in 1953, pilot Lt Edward "Whitey" Feightner, the former program manager for the F7U, experienced a total loss of hydraulics on a full afterburner takeoff and steep climb. While trying to gain enough altitude for ejection he was able to stay with the aircraft until the backup system came on. He clipped trees on the end of the runway, causing the left engine to flame out. With hydraulic fluid streaming back in a bright flame, he made a hard turn and got the plane back on the runway, much to the excitement of the crowd. Later, while traveling to an airshow at Naval Air Station Glenview in Chicago, Illinois, another Blue Angel pilot, Lt Harding MacKnight, experienced an engine flameout in his Cutlass, forcing him to make an emergency landing at NAS Glenview. Traveling with him, Feightner was redirected to make his landing at Chicago's former Orchard Airpark, which had been expanded and renamed O'Hare Airport. The runway had just been completed and was covered with peach baskets to prevent aircraft from landing until it was opened. Feightner was told to ignore the baskets and land on the new runway. As a result, Feightner's F7U became the first aircraft to land on the new runway for Chicago's O'Hare International Airport.

Following these incidents, the two Cutlasses were deemed unsuitable for demonstration flying and were flown to Naval Air Station Memphis, Tennessee, where they were abandoned to become aircraft maintenance instructional airframes for the Naval Technical Training Center. The Blue Angels would opt to use the Grumman F9F Panther in place of the Cutlass.

Variants
XF7U-1
Three prototypes ordered on 25 June 1946 (BuNos 122472, 122473 & 122474). First flight, 29 September 1948; all three aircraft were destroyed in crashes.
F7U-1
The initial production version, 14 built. Powered by two J34-WE-32 engines.
F7U-2
Proposed version, planned to be powered by two Westinghouse J34-WE-42 engines with afterburner, but the order for 88 aircraft was cancelled.
XF7U-3
Designation given to one aircraft built as the prototype for the F7U-3, BuNo 128451. First flight: 20 December 1951.
F7U-3
The definitive production version, 180 built. Powered by two Westinghouse J46-WE-8B turbojets.  The first sixteen aircraft, including the prototype, were powered by interim J35-A-29 non-afterburning engines.

F7U-3P
Photo-reconnaissance version, 12 built. With a  longer nose and equipped with photo flash cartridges, none of these aircraft saw operational service, being used only for research and evaluation purposes.
F7U-3M
This missile capable version was armed with four AAM-N-2 Sparrow I air-to-air beam-riding missiles.  98 built of which 48 F7U-3 airframes under construction were upgraded to F7U-3M standard. An order for 202 additional aircraft was cancelled.
A2U-1
Designation given to a cancelled order of 250 aircraft to be used in the ground attack role.
V-389
Proposal for an improved performance attack aircraft based upon the A2U-1 Cutlass. The proposal featured a single Pratt and Whitney J57-P-4.

Operators

 United States Navy
 VC-3
 VX-3
 VX-4
 VX-5
 VA-12
 VA-34
 VF-81/VA-66
 VF-83/VA-83
 VA-86
 VA-116
 VF-122
 VF-124
 VA-126
 VF-151/VA-151
 VF-212/VA-212

Accidents and incidents

 26 July 1954 pilot Lt Floyd Nugent ejected from a Cutlass armed with 2.75 inch rockets. The Cutlass continued to fly on and proceeded to circle the North Island of San Diego with its Hotel Del Coronado for 30 minutes, before it finally crashed close to shore.
 11 December 1954 during an air demonstration at the christening of aircraft carrier , pilot Lt J.W. Hood was killed when his F7U-3 had a malfunction with the wing locking mechanism and the aircraft crashed into the sea.
 30 May 1955 pilot Lt Cmdr Payton O. Harwell's Cutlass suffered an engine fire upon takeoff on his first flight in the aircraft. Harwell ejected and was rescued by a helicopter 15 minutes later.
 Pilot Tom Quillin's Cutlass took off as part of a flight of four Cutlasses. Quillin's aircraft had an electrical failure which forced him to abort his training mission and return to base.
 14 July 1955 pilot LCDR Jay T. Alkire was killed in a ramp strike on USS Hancock.
 4 November 1955, pilot Lt George Millard was killed when his Cutlass went into the cable barrier at the end of the flight deck landing area of . The nosegear malfunctioned and drove a strut into the cockpit which triggered the ejection seat and dislodged the canopy. Millard was launched  forward and hit the tail of a parked A-1 Skyraider and later died of his injuries.

Aircraft on display

Seven F7U-3 Cutlass aircraft are known to have survived:
 128451 – Phoenix, Arizona. Prototype F7U-3, fuselage only.  Originally slated as a parts source for 129565, it has been transferred to Al Casby as a possible parts source for his Cutlass 129622.  Prior to its storage at NAS North Island - San Diego, California it was formerly located at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in Socorro, New Mexico.
 129554 – Falcon Field (Arizona).  Ex VA-212. Purchased by Len Berryman from Geiger Field, Spokane, Washington in May 1958 and displayed outside the Berryman War Memorial Park in Bridgeport, Washington from 1958 until 1992. In June 1992 it was sold to Tom Cathcart of Ephrata, Washington. Sold in September 2014, and currently at Falcon Field, Arizona, for further restoration to airworthy condition by F7U historian Al Casby.
 129565 – NAS North Island - San Diego, California. Ex VA-212.  Under final restoration by the USS Midway Museum in San Diego, California, it is now on display.
 129622 – Phoenix, Arizona. Ex VA-34 / VA-12 aircraft that was flown to Naval Air Reserve Training Unit (NARTU) Glenview, NAS Glenview, Illinois, where it was sporadically flown by Naval Air Reserve pilots and used for instruction of enlisted Naval Reserve aircraft maintenance personnel; ownership was then transferred to the Northbrook East Civic Association and the aircraft was moved to the Oaklane Elementary School for playground use in late November 1958. It was subsequently removed and dissected to be sold for its engines. Forward fuselage was part of Earl Reinert's collection in Mundelein, Illinois, while the rest of the aircraft went to J-46 dragster builder Fred Sibley in Elkhart, Indiana. Its components are currently reunited in the collection of F7U historian Al Casby.
 129642 – Wings of Freedom Aviation Museum in Horsham, Pennsylvania.  Ex VA-12 aircraft flown to NAS Willow Grove in May 1957 to take part in an air show. Upon arrival the aircraft was stricken from active duty. It was transferred to the Naval Reserve for use as a ground training aircraft, and eventually placed as a gate guard in front of the base on US Route 611. The airframe has only 326.3 hours total flight time.  Currently undergoing cosmetic refurbishment for a return to display status.
 129655 – National Naval Aviation Museum at NAS Pensacola, Florida.  Ex VA-212.  Cosmetically restored but incorrectly marked as an F7U-3M, this aircraft is a F7U-3.  Formerly displayed at Griffith Park, California.
 129685 – The aircraft was in the collection of the late Walter Soplata in Newbury, Ohio.  and has been moved to the MAPS Air Museum for restoration and display.

Specifications (F7U-3M)

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 Vought Aircraft Industries, F-7U Photo Gallery

F7U
Vought F7U Cutlass
Twinjets
Tailless aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1948

Vought F7U Cutlass


CFWP-FM (Hawk Radio) was a First Nations community radio station broadcasting at 98.3 FM, in the Wahta Mohawk Territory, Ontario, Canada. The station began broadcasting in 2004 and was owned by the Wahta Mohawk First Nation through the Wahta Communications Society, under the licensee of Matthew Commandant, "on behalf of a non-profit organization to be incorporated".

The station had a signal covering much of the Wahta Reserve, but was somewhat weak in nearby Bala. Westwards towards Georgian Bay, it could be heard as far as Midland.

The station was on air from around November 17, 2002 until August 15, 2008. It has since been shut down by the current band council for political reasons. It is uncertain if the station will return to the air, as no renewal application had been filed with the CRTC, and the owner has not filed an application for a new license.

References

External links
 Hawk Radio 98.3 FM

Fwp
Fwp
Fwp
Radio stations established in 2002
Radio stations disestablished in 2008
2002 establishments in Ontario
2008 disestablishments in Ontario
FWP-FM

CFWP-FM


Trailer may refer to:

Transportation
 Trailer (vehicle), an unpowered vehicle pulled by a powered vehicle
 Baggage trailer, a large flatbed baggage trolley
 Bicycle trailer, a wheeled frame for hitching to a bicycle to tow cargo or passengers
 Boat trailer to carry small boats
 Horse trailer and other trailers designed to haul livestock
 Semi-trailer, a trailer without a front axle
 Travel trailer, or caravan, a type of recreational trailer designed to provide sleeping space
 Semi-trailer truck, the combination of a tractor unit and one or more semi-trailers

Shelter
 Mobile home, a relocatable housing unit with wheels and a hitch.
 Portable classroom, a temporary classroom for schools with insufficient building capacity - not technically a trailer due to lack of wheels or hitch. This temporary shelter can be relocated with a trailer, but by definition, the structure itself is not a trailer.
 Construction trailer, relocatable temporary accommodation with wheels and hitch used for offices and building materials storage on construction sites.

Computing
 Trailer (computing), data appended to a main block of data to facilitate its processing

Multimedia
 Trailer (promotion), an advertisement, usually in the form of a brief excerpt or string of excerpts, for media work
 Teaser trailer, a truncated version of a trailer meant to "tease" an upcoming work

Music
 Trailer (album), a 1994 album from the Northern Irish musical group Ash
Tráiler, 2018 extended play by Spanish singer Aitana

Trailer


The  Young Lords, also known as the Young Lords Organization (YLO) or Young Lords Party (YLP), was a Chicago-based street gang that became a civil and human rights organization. The group aims to fight for neighborhood empowerment and self-determination for Puerto Rico, Latinos, and colonized ("Third World") people. Tactics used by the Young Lords include mass education, canvassing, community programs, occupations, and direct confrontation. The Young Lords became targets of the United States FBI's COINTELPRO program.

In party platform points, the Young Lords may spell "American" as "amerikkkan" or "Amerikkkan"—expressing, among other things, opposition to U.S. military presence in Puerto Rico and suggesting that America's success is rooted in white supremacy. The platform follows the mission clearly, stating: "We demand immediate withdrawal of U.S. military forces and bases from Puerto Rico, Vietnam, and all oppressed communities inside and outside the U.S. No Puerto Rican should serve in the U.S. Army against his brothers and sisters, for the only true army of oppressed people is the people's army to fight all rulers."

History

Origins
The Young Lords started in 1960 in Chicago's Lincoln Park neighborhood as a Puerto Rican turf gang. On Grito de Lares, September 23, 1968, Jose Cha Cha Jimenez reorganized them and formed the Young Lords as a national political and civil rights movement. The new community-wide movement then spread to nearly 30 cities, including three branches in New York, which at the time served as the entry point for 90% of Puerto Ricans. In addition, the Young Lords began operating free programs for the community. In addition to their support for Puerto Ricos' independence, all Latino nations, and oppressed nations of the world, the Young Lords also supported neighborhood empowerment. The radical movement of the Young Lords modeled themselves after the Black Panther Party, calling for a vanguard of revolutionary minority parties coming together that felt oppressed by a system that wasn't designed to be of assistance to minorities.

The Young Lords' focus remains self-determination for Puerto Rico, other Latino and Third World countries, and for neighborhood-controlled development. The movement expanded from Chicago to include a broader audience and chapters in 30 cities, including three branches in New York City, the port of entry for the majority of Puerto Rican migrants.

During Mayor Daley's tenure in Chicago, a program of urban renewal resulted in Puerto Ricans in Lincoln Park and several Mexican communities being evicted from what became prime real estate areas near the Loop, Lakefront, Old Town, and Lakeview neighborhoods. The rationale was to increase property tax revenues by luring White, middle-class suburbanites and creating a suburb within the city. Some Young Lords were involved in the Puerto Rican June 1966 Division Street Riots in Wicker Park and Humboldt Park.

The 1968 Democratic Convention protests in Grant Park and the adjacent Lincoln Park Neighborhood, resulted in the Young Lords, under the leadership of founder José Cha Cha Jiménez, to join with others to form a broader civil and human rights movement.  Puerto Rican self-determination and the displacement of Puerto Ricans and poor residents became the primary issues of organizing. The Young Lords organization also began to train students and youth to take on the leadership to organize the Latino community on a national level.

Multiple chapters formed nationwide based on the original Chicago chapter, including several branches in New York City and along the East Coast. The National Headquarters in Chicago asked the loose coalition of chapters in New York to unite as a single regional branch. All chapters considered neighborhood empowerment and Puerto Rican self-determination as unifying missions.

The Great Migrations of the late 1940s resulted in many Puerto Ricans coming to the mainland for opportunity and settling in the Midwest, Florida, and on the East Coast of the United States. Chicago, one of he most populated center of the Puerto Rican diaspora, took on a significant role as a regional headquarters of the movement.

The office in Chicago attempted to construct a nationwide grassroots movement within the U.S. barrios to unite Puerto Ricans, other Latinos, and carry out its mission for Puerto Rican independence. The New York City regional chapter formed July 26, 1969, ten months after the Young Lords Movement began in Chicago. The National Headquarters in Chicago had gained national prominence by leading protests against conditions faced by Puerto Ricans in the U.S. Because most members in New York were students with a middle-class income, who were media-savvy, the New York chapter flourished. It provided needed support for the National Headquarters then under surveillance by the F.B.I. and the Chicago city government.

The National Headquarters' first action was to ransack and close the Department of Urban Renewal office in Chicago. The Young Lords attended an Urban Renewal meeting and told the panel of the local neighborhood association that no more meetings would be permitted in Lincoln Park until people of color were included on the Urban Renewal Board.

On July 27, 1969, the chapter office in New York City mounted a "Garbage Offensive" to commemorate the 1968 Sanitation Strike and to protest the substandard garbage collection service in East Harlem. The event also promoted the opening of the Young Lords' New York City office. The offensives targeted local city services and were aligned with the National Headquarters mission to develop  neighborhood empowerment. In Chicago, the Young Lords occupied local institutions in the Lincoln Park neighborhood to support low-income housing for working families.

The New York members had first read about the Chicago Young Lords in an issue of the Black Panther newspaper. It reported actions for Puerto Rican and Latino self-determination and publicized the increasing repression of Jose "Cha Cha" Jimenez and the Chicago National Headquarters. The New York office followed the actions of the People's Church in Chicago and took over the First Spanish United Methodist Church in East Harlem. Over 100 members were arrested in the two-week takeover. National Headquarters members encouraged the New York members not to resist arrests, in order to avoid bloodshed.

The New York occupation of First Spanish United Methodist Church in East Harlem took place on December 28, 1969, after several similar actions in Chicago: the sit-in at Grant Hospital, the take-over of People's Park, the occupation of McCormick Seminary, and the occupation of Chicago's People's Church (Armitage Avenue United Methodist Church). In several cities, the Young Lords set up free community programs, such as breakfast and classes. United Methodist Pastor Rev. Bruce Johnson, of the North Side Cooperative Ministry, worked to obtain funds to support the Young Lords programs. Rev. Sergio Herrera, a Cuban assistant pastor of the Young Lords People's Church in Chicago, did not initially agree with their occupation of the church, nor of their murals of Che Guevara and Pedro Albizu Campos. Later he participated in all the neighborhood events.

Occupying the Armitage Avenue United Methodist Church in May 1969, the Young Lords set up programs inside what they called the People's Church. The building remained a church but also served as the Young Lords National Headquarters for nearly two years. UMC Bishop Pryor was pressured to oust the two UMC ministers and the Young Lords from the People's Church by Alderman George Barr McCutcheon and members of the Lincoln Park Conservation Association. The Court fined the People's Church $200 each day the free daycare center remained open.

On September 29, 1969, the church's pastor and his wife, Reverend Bruce and Eugenia Ransier Johnson, were stabbed to death, killed in their home. The case remains open and has yet to be solved. The assistant Pastor, Rev. Sergio Herrera, was transferred soon afterward to Los Angeles, where he was also murdered. The murders occurred while the two ministers were working with the Young Lords in those cities. That is also a cold case.

Hampton had created an alliance with the Young Lords via the Rainbow Coalition. Two months later, Chicago police killed Black Panthers Fred Hampton and Mark Clark in a raid on Hampton's apartment, on December 4, 1969.

Expansion
The Puerto Rican nation's diaspora has been divided and has created multiple neighborhoods or barrios in Florida, along the East Coast of the United States, New York City and Chicago. These Puerto Rican mainland communities developed across the U.S. during Operation Bootstrap which gave way to the Great Puerto Rican Migration of the late 1940s and early 1950s. In 1968, branches of the Young Lords sprouted up in Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, Connecticut, New Jersey, Boston, Milwaukee, Hayward (California), San Diego, Los Angeles, and Puerto Rico.

The organizations' newspapers, The Young Lord, Pitirre, and Pa'lante, reported the increasingly militant activities of the Young Lords. Over 120 publicly accessible oral histories, "Young Lords in Lincoln Park" are curated at Grand Valley State University in Michigan.

Besides the coalition with the National Black Panther Party Office in Oakland and the Black Panthers in Chicago, integrated into by the Rainbow Coalition of Fred Hampton, the Young Lords also participated in coalitions with groups of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement, Northside Cooperative Ministry and the Lincoln Park Poor People's Coalition.

The Young Lords grew into a national movement under the leadership of Jose Cha Cha Jimenez which also included Angela Lind Adorno, Alberto Chavarria, Marta Chavarria, Andres Nunez, Edwin Diaz, Jose (Cosmoe) Torres, Eddie Ramirez, Raul Lugo, Juan Gonzalez, Felipe Luciano, Iris Morales, Judy Cordero, Denise Oliver, Pablo Yoruba Guzman, Hilda Ignatin, Maria Romero, Omar Lopez, David Rivera, Tony Baez, Richie Perez, and Juan Fi Ortiz.

By May 1970 due to infiltration by the local Red Squad, the Gang Intelligence Unit, Chicago Patronage Machine and COINTELPRO, the New York regional office broke away from the Young Lords National Headquarters and formed the short lived Young Lords Party. The separation also resulted from rapid development, growing pains, and a friendly competition between U.S. cities. The infiltration and divisions created conflict between the chapters and division of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement. Branches on the east coast were forced to remain affiliated with the New York regional office. Most other chapters remained loyal to the Chicago National Headquarters. The separation was a major blow to the liberation movement in the U.S. The separation occurred in other movements such as the Black Panthers, Students for a Democratic Society, The Young Patriots and the American Indian Movement, as revealed in COINTELPRO documents.

Women in the Young Lords participated in community organizing and wrote newspaper articles against sexism and patriarchy including the "Young Lords Party Position Paper on Women", published in 1970, and included in The Young Lords: A Reader (2010), edited by Darrel Enck-Wanzer.

The Young Lords in New York and Chicago continued to grow in numbers and influence from 1968 to 1983. Jose Cha Cha Jimenez introduced the newly elected African American mayor of Chicago, Harold Washington, to a June crowd of 100,000 Puerto Ricans that the Young Lords helped organize in Humboldt Park, Chicago.

Repression
The Young Lords were a target of the FBI's COINTELPRO program that targeted Puerto Rican independence groups. The New York-Chicago schism mirrored the divisions within other New Left groups including the Black Panther Party, Students for a Democratic Society and Brown Berets, often as a result of COINTELPRO activities of police infiltration by informants and provocateurs. The Young Lords leaders were framed and discredited by both Mayor Richard J. Daley forces and the FBI. The entire Chicago leadership of the Young Lords was forced underground to reorganize and avoid complete destruction. COINTELPRO tactics used against the movements such as the Young Lords included rumor campaigns and pitting groups against each other to create factionalism, distrust, and personality conflicts. In Chicago, COINTELPRO created an anti-Rainbow Coalition component. The Red Squad also monitored the Young Lords National Headquarters 24 hours a day. Jose Cha Cha Jimenez became a main police target and was indicted 18 times in a six-week period on felony charges including assault and battery on police and creating a mob action. The intent of the police action was to cripple the organization. While the Young Lords advocated armed strategies similar to those advocated by the Black Panthers, the basis was as a right to self-defense. Such self defense was advocated after the shooting of Manuel Ramos, the suspected police involvement in the death of José (Pancho) Lind, the alleged suicide of Julio Roldan while in the custody of the New York Police Department, the fatal stabbings in Chicago of the United Methodist Church Rev. Bruce Johnson and his wife Eugenia, and the murder of Assistant Pastor Sergio Herrera shortly after his transfer to Los Angeles. The Young Lords accused the FBI CointelPro of a conspiracy to murder Young Lords and Black Panthers.

The Young Lords worked in their communities to provide resources, similar to actions of the Brown Berets and the Black Panther Party. A goal was to raise awareness of the oppression and educate on the history and struggle of the Puerto Ricans. The Young Lords: A Reader (2010), edited by Darrel Enck-Wanzer details the purpose, goals, and tactics of the Young Lords New York chapter.  He wrote, "Puerto Ricans have suffered as a group, racially and culturally, not as individuals. Therefore the fight for self determination must be a group struggle." Enck-Wanzer's book details that every Puerto Rican has suffered and felt the pain of their fellow Puerto Rican brothers, sisters, friends, and relatives. His book argues that Puerto Ricans must fight for their nation against American colonialism by organizing and educating in the barrios and raise awareness of the repression since the creation of the Young Lords as a movement in the Lincoln Park neighborhood.

Decline
By 1973, the Young Lords and its leadership were in disarray. Jose Cha Cha Jimenez along with many central committee members set up an underground training school at a farm near Tomah, Wisconsin. Some members continued independent efforts around self-determination for Puerto Rico and neighborhood empowerment. In Chicago, the Young Lords resurfaced after two and a half years.  The New York Young Lords and other chapters also continued to function.

After Jimenez served a year in prison, in 1975 he ran for alderman of the 46th Ward against Mayor Daley's machine candidate. He garnered 39% of the vote against the Democratic candidate, Chris Cohen. The election re-energized the symbolic Rainbow Coalition formed by Black Panthers, Young Patriots, Young Lords and other groups and communities.

In 1983, the Young Lords organized the first major Latino event for the successful campaign of Chicago's first African-American mayor, Harold Washington. After Washington's victory, Jiménez introduced the mayor to a crowd of 100,000 Puerto Ricans in Humboldt Park in June 1983 where the Young Lords distributed 30,000 buttons inscribed with "Tengo Puerto Rico En Mi Corazon." In the fall of 1995, Jose Cha Cha Jimenez brought together Chicago Young Lords' Tony Baez, Carlos Flores, Angel Del Rivero, Omar López and Angie Lind Adorno to form the Lincoln Park Project to collect the history of the Young Lords movement. They curated the history and documented the displaced Latinos of the Lincoln Park Neighborhood. In support of the Puerto Rican Vieques campers, the struggle for Puerto Rican independence, and against the displacement of Puerto Ricans in the Diaspora, the Young Lords organized the Lincoln Park Camp near Grand Rapids, Michigan, on September 23, 2002.

The Young Lords supported freed Puerto Rican nationalist leaders and urban guerrilla groups such as the Macheteros. Other Young Lords members joined Maoist formations such as the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Workers Party or provided the leadership of the National Congress for Puerto Rican Rights (NCPRR). Some Young Lords worked in the media, such as Juan González of the New York Daily News and Democracy Now!, Pablo "Yoruba" Guzmán at WCBS-TV New York, Felipe Luciano and Miguel "Mickey" Meléndez of WBAI-FM New York.

Organization

13 Point Program of the Young Lords
The National Headquarters Young Lords' mission called for self determination for Puerto Rico, all Latino nations, all oppressed nations of the world, and for barrio empowerment. The Young Lords also created a 10-point program modeled after the Black Panthers 10 point program. The New York office created a 13-point program after they split from Chicago National Headquarters as follows:

 We want self-determination for Puerto Ricans—Liberation on the island and inside the United States.
 We want self-determination for all Latinos.
 We want liberation for all third world people.
 We are revolutionary nationalists and oppose racism.
 We want community control of our institutions and land.
 We want true education of our creole culture.
 We oppose capitalists and alliances with traitors.
 We oppose the amerikkkan military.
 We want freedom for all political prisoners.
 We want equality for women. Machismo must be revolutionary ... not oppressive.
 We fight anti-Communism with international unity.
 We believe armed self-defense and armed struggle are the only means to liberation.
 We want a socialist society.

In November 1970, that platform was revised. The revised 5th point called for women's equality and opposed male chauvinism. The revised 6th point focused on community control of institutions and land. The revised 7th point demanded education of the Afro-Indio culture and the Spanish language. The revised 10th point called for freedom for political prisoners.  The revised 11th point focused on the group's internationalist perspective.

Social action
The Young Lords' mission supported self determination for Puerto Rico, Latino nations, all oppressed nations, and also supported neighborhood empowerment. The mission is reflected in the Young Lords logo of a map of Puerto Rico, a brown fist holding a rifle, and the words "Tengo Puerto Rico en mi Corazon" ("I have Puerto Rico in my heart"). The Young Lords envisioned themselves as the vanguard of a people's struggle as they initially fought against the displacement of Puerto Ricans from Lincoln Park.

In New York, the Young Lords followed the lead of Chicago related to city services with the "Garbage Offensive" as a preliminary action. Organizers spent weeks cleaning up garbage in Puerto Rican communities. In need of additional cleaning supplies, they asked the New York City Department of Sanitation for assistance and were refused. Disgruntled, the Young Lords blocked 3rd Avenue traffic at 110th, 111th, and 112th Street.

The original urban renewal campaign was framed by the Chicago office as the modern day land question inspired by Emiliano Zapata who said, "all revolutions are based on land."

The Young Lords created community projects similar to those of the Black Panthers, yet centralized around Latinos.  The programs included free breakfast for children, the Emeterio Betances free health clinic, community testing for tuberculosis and lead-poisoning, free clothing drives, cultural events, and Puerto Rican history classes. In Chicago, the Young Lords set up a free dental clinic and community day care center and worked on solidarity for incarcerated Puerto Ricans and the rights of Vietnam War veterans. The New York female leadership advocated for women's rights. In Chicago, women advocacy was led by Hilda Ignatin, Judy Cordero and Angela Adorno, in a subgroup known as Mothers And Others, that also helped to educate the male members and the community at large.

The Young Lords carried out many direct-action occupations of vacant land, hospitals, churches and other institutions to demand programs for the poor. The direct actions included a campaign to force New York City to increase garbage pick-up in Spanish Harlem, and in Chicago the seven-day McCormick Theological Seminary take-over that won Lincoln Park residents $650,000 for low-income housing, and the four-month People's Park camp-out/take-over at Halsted and Armitage Avenue by 350 community residents that prevented the construction of a for-profit tennis court on land used for low incoming housing. In New York, the local health-care activism was carried out with the Health Revolutionary Unity Movement. In Chicago, the Young Lords' health program was coordinated by Jack Johns, Quentin Young, Ana Lucas, and Alberto and Marta Chavarria who also worked with a Black Panther-led coalition to recruit medical-student organizations like the Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR) to advocate for health care for the poor.

Women

In their position paper, the Young Lords asserted that colonized women (Puerto Ricans, blacks, "Third World") were oppressed within society and their homes due to their sex, race/ethnicity, nationality and class. Thus, activism among these women was understood as "the revolution within the revolution." The Young Lords recognized that "Third World women have an integral role to play in the liberation of all oppressed people."

Legacy

Cultural influence

The Young Lords inspired young community leaders, professionals, and artists, forming part of a Puerto Rican cultural renaissance in the 1970s. In New York City, the renaissance was called the Nuyorican Movement and became a nationwide development including poetry and music. Felipe Luciano, a poet in Harlem's black nationalist circles, became the Deputy Chairman of the New York regional chapter. He was expelled for male chauvinism and opportunism by the Young Lords Party, though the Young Lords National Headquarters never recognized the expulsion. His poems written while a member of The Last Poets, including Jíbaro, Un Rifle Oración and Hey Now. The poet Pedro Pietri wrote and recited his poems "Puerto Rican Obituary" and "Suicide Note of a Cockroach in a Low Income Project" at New York Young Lord events. Alfredo Matias wrote poems about Afro-Boricua pride and David Hernández recited La Armitage about the Chicago street that became the downtown for Puerto Ricans and the Young Lords. The song "Qué Bonita Bandera" ("What a Beautiful Flag") was written by Pepe y Flora in Puerto Rico and adopted by the Young Lords as their anthem.

Remembrance
The documentary Palante, Siempre Palante! The Young Lords, produced by Iris Morales, aired on PBS in 1996.  In 2015, a retrospective "¡Presente! The Young Lords in New York," was held in New York City.

In 2001, Omar López, Minister of Information of the Young Lords was asked to donate by the Lincoln Park Project archival material that had been used in the Young Lords newspapers. The materials are now curated in DePaul University's Special Collections and Archives Department and a portion digitized as part of DePaul's Digital Collection. In 2012, 120 oral, audio, and visual histories were collected by Jimenez. They are currently online and are housed at Seidman College of Grand Valley State University.

Many books have been published by the Young Lords including in 2010  New York University Press The Young Lords: A Reader, edited by Darrel Enck-Wanzer with a foreword by former Young Lords Iris Morales and Denise Oliver-Vélez. The book primarily covers the Young Lords New York chapter through documents such as speeches and articles from Pa'lante, the Young Lords Newspaper, interviews, posters, and photographs.

Artist Sophia Dawson created "Women of the Young Lords", included in the 2015 Bronx Museum exhibition, ¡Presente! The Young Lords in New York.

Darrel Wanzer-Serrano's account of The New York Young Lords and the Struggle for Liberation authored in 2015 characterizes the roots of the local chapter.

The Puerto Rican activist group El Grito de Sunset Park, co-founded by Dennis Flores, had ties to and was influenced by the Young Lords.

See also
 1970 Lincoln Hospital takeover
 Jose Cha Cha Jimenez
 Puerto Rican Independence Party
 Women of the Young Lords
 The Young Lords: A Reader

Footnotes

Further reading
 Abramson, Michael et al. Palante: Young Lords Party. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971.

 González, Juan. Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America. New York: Penguin, 2001.

 Melendez, Miguel "Mickey," We Took the Streets: Fighting for Latino Rights with the Young Lords. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003.
 Wanzer-Serrano, Darrel. The New York Young Lords and the Struggle for Liberation. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2015.
 Wanzer, Darrel Enck-. The Young Lords: A Reader. Foreword by Iris Morales and Denise Oliver-Velez. New York University Press, 2010.

External links

 Young Lords Newspaper Collection at DePaul University Library - Digital Collections
 nationalyounglords.com - Archived website
 Young Lords in Lincoln Park - Grand Valley State University Special Collections & University Archives
 Rainbow Coalition - Grand Valley State University Digital Collection

Organizations established in 1968
1968 establishments in Illinois
COINTELPRO targets
Anti-fascist organizations in the United States
Anti-racism in the United States
Far-left politics in the United States
Former gangs in Chicago
Hispanic-American gangs
Puerto Rican culture in Chicago
Puerto Rican nationalism
Socialism in the United States
Latino street gangs
Youth activists
DePaul University Special Collections and Archives holdings

Young Lords


Yury Vasilevich Yaremenko (Юрий Васильевич Ярёменко) (1935 August 8 -1996 September 18) was an outstanding Soviet and Russian economist, member of the Academy of Sciences (from 1994) and Director of the Institute of Economic Forecasting of the Academy. He was especially noted for his work in multisectoral (input-output) economics and for his concept of the multi-level economy, a description of how the planned economy of the Soviet Union actually worked.

Youth and Education

He was born in Chita in eastern Siberia, 300 miles east of Lake Baikal and 100 miles north of China. His father worked in a repair shop for railroad cars. This work would have exempted him from military service in World War II, but he chose to enlist and served in a tank crew. After the war, he was stationed in Germany for two years, where he was joined by his wife, ten-year-old Yuri, and a younger sister. After two years, they returned to the Ukraine. From there Yuri was able to enter Moscow State University in 1953. From his first year, he began to study Chinese and the economy of China. After graduation, he was sent in November 1957 to study economics at the People's University in Beijing. He graduated there in 1960 and returned to Moscow at just the moment when relations between China and the Soviet Union dramatically worsened. Despite his exceptional knowledge of Chinese institutions and language, he could find no appropriate work that used them. Nevertheless, during the rest of his life, he followed events in China closely, wrote about them, and taught courses on the economy of China at Moscow State University.

Professional Career

After six months as a translator for Intourist, he accepted a job in the newly organized Economic Research Institute (НИЭИ) in Gosplan. the State Planning Commission. There he came to recognize the importance of forecasting and envisioning of the future. In 1973, he and several other members of this Institute moved to the Central Economic-Mathematical Institute (ЦЭМИ) of the Academy of Sciences, where he was a deputy director and head of a laboratory. In 1985, he became a Deputy Director of the newly organized Institute of Economic Forecasting in the Academy of Sciences. Following the death in 1987 of the founding director of this Institute, A. I. Anchishkin, Yaremenko became its director and served in this capacity until his sudden death of a heart attack that began in his office.

In 1987 he was made a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1994, a full member. In 1990 -1991, he served on the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.  In the 1980s, the Five Year Plans were set in 20-year outlooks on economic, scientific and technical development which were primarily the work of Yaremenko.

His most fundamental contribution to economics was the working out of the theory of the multilevel economy. In this theory, different levels of the economy have access to resources of different quality. There had been various economic theories of socialism. Yaremenko's work, however, was unique in  describing theoretically and analytically how it actually worked in the Soviet Union.

Yaremenko was one of the principal economic advisers to Mikhail Gorbachev, last president of the USSR. Yaremenko warned that simply discontinuing central planning and opening the country to foreign trade would lead to collapse of consumer goods sectors which could not compete with imports.  Rather, the system of priorities should first be used to transform the economy's structure to something approximating that of market economy. This advice was not heeded, and the consequences were much as he had anticipated. In the 1990s, he was sharply critical of the policies adopted by the Russian government. He was not at all opposed to an orderly transition to a market economy but felt that the "shock therapy" approach was needlessly costly.

Throughout his professional career, he was much concerned with sources of information on the economy. On weekends, he often went to the Lenin library to see what the technical journals had to offer about the economic situation in various industries. In the 1990s, he engaged a sociologist, S. A. Belonovskiï, to interview plant managers around the country. In 1993 and again in 1995, Belonovskiï interviewed Yaremenko. After his death, these interviews were edited by Belonovskiï and G. A. Yaremenko into a book, Economic Conversations, which appeared in 1998. They afford a unique and altogether remarkable commentary on the dramatic events in the Russian economy during the first half of the 1990s.

 In October 2015, the year of the 80th anniversary of Yaremenko's birth, the Economic Forecasting Institute of the Academy of Sciences held a three-day conference to honor his memory. The first day was devoted to analysis of the current economic situation; the second, to economic modeling; and the third, to studies on the economy of China. For this occasion, the Institute issued a one-volume collection of Yaremenko's most important works.

References

Yaremenko, Yuru
Yaremenko, Yuru
Yaremenko, Yuru
1935 births

Yury Yaremenko


Nguyen Manh Tuong (; born June 15, 1960) is a Vietnamese sport shooter. He won a bronze medal for the men's 25 m centre-fire pistol (CFP) at the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, South Korea, with a score of 586 points.

At age forty-four, Nguyen made his official debut for the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, where he finished forty-first in the men's 10 m air pistol by one point behind Chinese Taipei's Chang Yi Ning, with a score of 568 points.

At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Nguyen competed for the second time in two pistol shooting events. He scored a total of 572 targets in the preliminary rounds of the men's 10 m air pistol, by three points ahead of Ukraine's Ivan Rybovalov from the final attempt, finishing only in thirty-fourth place. Three days later, Nguyen placed thirty-eighth in his second event, 50 m pistol, by two points ahead of Poland's Wojciech Knapik from the final attempt, with a total score of 543 targets.

References

External links

NBC 2008 Olympics profile

Vietnamese male sport shooters
Living people
People from Ninh Bình province
Olympic shooters for Vietnam
Shooters at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Shooters at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Asian Games medalists in shooting
1960 births
Shooters at the 1994 Asian Games
Shooters at the 1998 Asian Games
Shooters at the 2002 Asian Games
Shooters at the 2006 Asian Games
Shooters at the 2010 Asian Games
Asian Games bronze medalists for Vietnam
Medalists at the 2002 Asian Games
SEA Games gold medalists for Vietnam
SEA Games silver medalists for Vietnam
SEA Games bronze medalists for Vietnam
SEA Games medalists in shooting
Medalists at the 2006 Asian Games
Competitors at the 2005 SEA Games
20th-century Vietnamese people
21st-century Vietnamese people

Nguyễn Mạnh Tường (sport shooter)


Patrick Yvonne Hugo Dewael, (; born 13 October 1955) is a liberal Belgian politician. A member of the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten, VLD), he served as Minister-President of Flanders from 1999 to 2003.

He is the nephew of the late Herman Vanderpoorten and the cousin of Marleen Vanderpoorten, who served as Minister of Education in the Flemish Government led by Dewael. He obtained a degree in law and notariat from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel in Brussels. Dewael served as the President of the Chamber of Representatives from 2019 to 2020 and previously from 2008 to 2010.

Political career
He was first elected to the Belgian Parliament in 1985. From 1985 to 1992 Dewael served for the PVV as Flemish minister of Culture in the governments led by Gaston Geens (II, III and IV). After the defeat of the liberals at the 1992 elections, Dewael served as an opposition MP until the liberals regained power in 1999.

He was Minister-President of the regional government of Flanders from 1999 to 2003. After the Federal elections of 2003, Dewael resigned as minister-president in order to serve as deputy prime minister and minister of the interior in the Belgian Federal government led by Guy Verhofstadt.

When Kurdish militant Fehriye Erdal was sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment by a Bruges court on 28 February 2006, it turned out that she had shaken off the Belgian secret service, which had had the responsibility of following her since 23 February 2006 (Erdal had been under house arrest since 2000). Both the Minister of Justice, Laurette Onkelinx, and the Minister of the Interior, Patrick Dewael came under fire for this incident.

He was deputy prime minister and minister for interior in the Leterme I Government, which took office on 20 March 2008. On 31 December 2008, he became president of the Chamber of Representatives. He was replaced as interior minister by Guido De Padt.

Private life
Patrick Dewael lives in Tongeren, a town of which he is also the mayor.

Patrick Dewael was married to Marleen Van Doren, with whom he has three children. On 24 August 2005 Dewael released a press communiqué in which he announced that he was leaving his wife for VRT journalist . On 19 July 2019 he married Op de Beeck.

Honours

 2014 : Knight Grand Cross in the Order of Leopold II.
 2002 : Knight Grand Cross Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, decree of 14/10/2002

References

External links
Patrick Dewael (Official website)

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1955 births
Belgian Ministers of State
Vrije Universiteit Brussel alumni
Living people
Presidents of the Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)
Members of the Belgian Federal Parliament
Ministers-President of Flanders
Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats politicians
People from Lier, Belgium
Recipients of the Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II
21st-century Belgian politicians

Patrick Dewael


Denmark has been producing films since 1897 and since the 1980s has maintained a steady stream of product due largely to funding by the state-supported Danish Film Institute.  Historically, Danish films have been noted for their realism, religious and moral themes, sexual frankness and technical innovation.

The Danish filmmaker Carl Theodor Dreyer (1889–1968) is considered one of the greatest directors in the history of cinema. Other Danish filmmakers of note include Benjamin Christensen, who outside his native country directed several horror classics including Häxan (1922) and Seven Footprints to Satan (1929); Erik Balling, the creator of the popular Olsen-banden films; Gabriel Axel, an Oscar-winner for Babette's Feast in 1987; and Bille August, the Oscar-, Palme d'Or- and Golden Globe-winner for Pelle the Conqueror in 1988. In the modern era, notable filmmakers in Denmark include Lars von Trier, who co-created the Dogme 95 film movement, followed by Thomas Vinterberg winner of the 2021 Academy Award for Best International Feature Film who is also Denmark's two time Cannes Film Festival contender and selectee with his internationally acclaimed films The Hunt (Jagten) and Another Round (Druk). Other notable filmmakers include multiple award-winners Susanne Bier and Nicolas Winding Refn.

History

Beginnings

Danish cinema pioneer Peter Elfelt, a photographer, was the first Dane to make a film. Between the years of 1896 and 1912, he produced around 200 documentary films on life in Denmark. His first film was Kørsel med Grønlandske Hunde (Traveling with Greenlandic Dogs). Furthermore, he produced the first Danish feature film: Henrettelsen (Capital Execution, 1903). The first film show in Denmark took place in the Panorama cinema on the Town Hall square in Copenhagen, in June 1896. However, the selection of films had been made and produced abroad.

The Golden Age

In 1906, cinema owner Ole Olsen founded the first Danish film-making company, Nordisk Films Kompagni. It gained most of its income from the export market of short films. Not until 1909 were other film-producing companies established. In 1910 the number had reached ten. This period is now known as the Golden Age of Danish Cinema. In the spring of 1910, Nordisk Films Kompagni changed its policy of producing only short films and began making feature films. This was largely inspired by the Århus Fotorama company's Den hvide Slavehandel (The White Slave Trade, 1910), which was the first multi-reel Danish film lasting more than 30 minutes.

With the increasing length of films, there was a growing artistic awareness, which is evident in Afgrunden (The Abyss, 1910). This film launched the career of Asta Nielsen, who soon became Europe's first great female film star. The film was an erotic melodrama, which soon became the preferred genre in early Danish cinema. In 1911, with director August Blom as the new head of production, Nordisk Film was the first of the major European companies to devote itself entirely to full-length feature films. These films were sold abroad profitably because the technical and photographic quality impressed audiences. Yet, when exporting the films, the erotic elements needed to be toned down in order not to offend the working class audiences. In 1913, Nordisk released the first full-length feature movie, Atlantis directed by Blom.

After 1913, Danish cinema began to lose its leading foothold in the film industry, with foreign companies having intensified competition in the production of feature-length films. Danish cinema had also begun to suffer from a lack of imagination and a willingness to take creative risks on the part of Danish producers. Independent producer Benjamin Christensen had great success with the spy film Det hemmelighedsfulde X (The Mysterious X or Sealed Orders, 1914) and the crime drama Hævnens Nat (Blind Justice or The Night of Revenge, 1916), both of which are major works in the history of the Danish cinema; he would later direct several films in Sweden and Hollywood.

1920s through 1940s

During World War I, the USA became the leading nation in film production and Danish exports decreased. In the years following the war, Dreyer made an appearance as director at Nordisk Film with the drama Præsidenten (The President, 1919), followed by the ambitious Blade af Satans Bog (Leaves from Satan's Book, 1921), inspired by the American director D. W. Griffith's Intolerance (1916) in both technique and theme. However, Dreyer, as well as Benjamin Christensen, were not permanently connected to the influential Danish film industries and remained loners. As a whole, Danish film in the 1920s was on the decline in spite of the filmmakers' better technical skills. Of most interest at this time were perhaps the so-called Dickens movies directed by the very able A. W. Sandberg. At one point Denmark again enjoyed some international reputation, by the many farces of the vagabond duo Fyrtaarnet og Bivognen (often known by their French names Doublepatte and Patachon), who were Scandinavian predecessors of Laurel and Hardy. They were introduced by Palladium, the rival of Nordisk Film. Despite these resurgences, at the end of the decade the Danish film industry was on its heels.

In 1929, Nordisk Film Kompagni was established as a sound film company. The Pastor of Vejlby (1931) reinforced the Nordisk's dominance in the Danish market. The 1930s were dominated by many successes with light comedies. The so-called "folkekomedie" (folk comedy) genre was born, with Barken Margrethe (1934) an important early example. The Depression and the economic conditions of the film companies prevented more serious film business, and the victory of the sound movie automatically set greater limits on the international possibilities of Danish film. Many popular stars like Marguerite Viby, Ib Schønberg and Peter Malberg had breakthroughs but in spite of many economic successes no further development of the media was seen.

Between 1940 and 1945, the German occupation of Denmark during World War II pushed the film industry toward more serious subject matter. The darker tone during these years paralleled the rise of film noir in Hollywood. Bodil Ipsen made her directorial mark with 1942's Afsporet, the first Danish film noir, and continued with the psychological thriller Melody of Murder (1944).  The standard of the comedy was also lifted, especially by the witty, elegant movies of Johan Jacobsen, a Danish pupil of Ernst Lubitsch. After the war ended, there was a movement toward realism and social criticism, particularly noted in films directed by Ole Palsbo. Soon, however, Denmark's film industry returned to making the light sentimental comedies and uncomplicated regionalist movies that were popular with Danish filmgoers.

1950s to 1970s

A large stream of family comedies ("Lystspil") and class-conscious folk comedies ("folkekomedier") were produced from the 1950s to late 1970s/early 1980s. Here a lot of Danish stars were born, such as Dirch Passer, Ove Sprogøe and director Erik Balling. Important films of this period include De røde heste (1950), Far til fire (1953), Kispus (1956, first Danish film in colour), Støv på hjernen (1961), Sommer i Tyrol (1964), Passer passer piger (1965), the Olsen-banden-series (1968-1981) and Erik Balling's classic TV-sitcom Huset på Christianshavn (1970-1977).

In the sixties, Danish cinema became gradually more erotic, with films such as  (Erik Balling, 1965), Sytten (Annelise Meinecke, 1965), Jeg - en kvinde (Mac Ahlberg, 1965) and Uden en trævl (Annelise Meinecke, 1968), several of which made a huge international impression. As a natural progression, in 1969 Denmark became the first country to completely legalize pornography. In the 1970s, a large percentage of all Danish films were sexually oriented, and many mainstream-features with mainstream-actors included sequences with either softcore- or hardcore-pornography, most notably Mazurka på sengekanten (John Hilbard, 1970) and I Jomfruens tegn (Finn Karlsson, 1973) along with their many respective sequels, forming the eight Bedside-films and six Zodiac-films.

In 1972, the Danish Film Institute (DFI) was founded to provide state subsidies for hand-picked films. It allocated public funding for feature films based on their artistic merit rather than commercial appeal—with an emphasis on those films which expressed Danish culture and identity. The DFI reinvigorated the financial viability of the sagging Danish film industry, but later was criticized for becoming too conservative and nationalistic in defining which films represented Danish identity. In one example, Lars von Trier's 1984 debut feature The Element of Crime struggled to receive funds because it was radically different from the typical Danish film—and, yet, received international acclaim upon release. In response, the Ministry of Culture in 1989 vastly broadened the DFI's definition of "Danish film" to include any work which contributed to Danish film culture. This allowed state funding of films with greater global appeal and helped foster the international success of a new wave of Danish filmmakers.

With La' os være ("Let us be") (Ernst Johansen & Lasse Nielsen, 1975), independent producer Steen Herdel launched a wave of successful teenage-dramas, including Måske ku' vi ("Maybe we could") (Morten Arnfred, 1976), Du er ikke alene ("You Are Not Alone") (Ernst Johansen & Lasse Nielsen, 1978), Mig og Charly ("Me and Charly") (Morten Arnfred & Henning Kristiansen, 1978) and Vil du se min smukke navle? ("Do you want to see my beautiful bellybutton?") (Søren Kragh-Jacobsen, 1978), all produced by Steen Herdel.

A notable TV-series, Matador, ran from 1978 to 1982, and has remained a national favourite. It was directed by Erik Balling.

The 1980s

Since the start of the 1980s, the Danish film industry has been completely dependent on state funding through Det Danske Filminstitut. A project usually does not get made unless the script, director and cast etc. has been approved by the appointed representatives of the Danish Film Institute. This means that Danish filmmaking is essentially controlled by the state.

In 1983, Lars von Trier graduated from Den Danske Filmskole (National Film School of Denmark) and received international attention with films such as Forbrydelsens element (1984) and Epidemic (1987). His strange, innovative ideas were fiercely resisted by Det Danske Filminstitut and drew very small local audiences, but were embraced by the Cannes Film Festival, where his films were included in the official selections and took home awards.

Released in 1987 was the gay teenage drama Venner for altid ("Friends Forever"), directed by Stefan Henszelman (1960-1991). It won the 1988 Audience Award as Best Feature at the San Francisco International Lesbian & Gay Film Festival.

The Danish film industry got a major boost in the late 1980s when the movie Babettes Gæstebud (Babette's Feast), directed by Gabriel Axel, won an Academy Award for Best Foreign Film in 1987, and next year the Best Foreign Film award went to Pelle Erobreren (Pelle the Conqueror), directed by Bille August.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, more talented directors started graduating from the National Film School of Denmark, such as Thomas Vinterberg, Per Fly and Ole Christian Madsen.

Also in the late 1980s, Danish cinematographer Mikael Salomon ended a long career in Danish cinema to become one of Hollywood's most celebrated DPs, later establishing himself as a successful, Emmy Award-winning television director.

The 1990s

Danish film in the 1990s was dominated by Lars von Trier. His films Europa, Breaking the Waves, The Idiots, and Dancer in the Dark received great international attention and were nominated for numerous awards.

The Dogme 95 Collective caught the attention of the international film world with its strict "vows of chastity" or rules for filmmakers that force filmmakers to concentrate on purity of story and the actors' performances rather than special effects and other cinematic devices.

The first Dogme 95 film, The Celebration (Festen), directed by Thomas Vinterberg, received many awards on the international film festival circuit and was named by both the Los Angeles Film Critics Association and the New York Film Critics Circle as the best foreign-language film of the year.

The members of the Dogme 95 Collective were von Trier, Vinterberg, Kristian Levring, and Søren Kragh-Jacobsen. Although the Dogme 95 movement originated in Denmark, filmmakers around the world soon experimented with the rigid guidelines and sought certification for their films as Dogme. Furthermore, Lars von Trier's own Dogme-film Idioterne (1998) started a separate wave of arthouse mainstream films with unsimulated sex.

Lars von Trier also made history by having his company Zentropa be the world's first mainstream film company to produce hardcore pornographic films. Three of these films, Constance (1998), Pink Prison (1999) and the adult/mainstream crossover-feature All About Anna (2005), were made primarily for a female audience, and were extremely successful in Europe, with the two first being directly responsible for the March 2006 legalizing of pornography in Norway.

The 21st century

A trilogy directed by Per Fly, The Bench (Bænken) (2000), Inheritance (Arven) (2003), and Manslaughter (Drabet) (2005) portrayed Denmark's three distinct social classes and received international acclaim.

The work of Susanne Bier, particularly Brothers (2004) and After the Wedding (2006), introduced the world to Danish actors such as Mads Mikkelsen, Ulrich Thomsen, and Nikolaj Lie Kaas. After the Wedding was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Bier's In a Better World (, meaning "The Revenge") is a 2010 drama starring Mikael Persbrandt, Trine Dyrholm and Ulrich Thomsen in a story which takes place in small-town Denmark and a refugee camp in Sudan. The film won the 2011 Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and the Best Foreign Language Film at the 83rd Academy Awards.

Anders Thomas Jensen first received acclaim as Oscar-winning writer-director of three short films, Ernst & lyset (1996), Wolfgang (1997) and Valgaften (1998), then as screenwriter of such feature films as Mifune's Last Song (1999), Open Hearts (2002), Wilbur Wants to Kill Himself (2002), Stealing Rembrandt (2003) and Brothers (2004); and finally as a director of dark and profound feature comedies like The Green Butchers (2003) and Adam's Apples (2005).

Other notable Danish directors of the 21st century include Nikolaj Arcel, Christoffer Boe, Lone Scherfig, Niels Arden Oplev, Nicolas Winding Refn, Ole Christian Madsen, Annette K. Olesen and Christian E. Christiansen for executive producer by Patriots Day was shot in Paris, France, only in the film.

The 21st century's first decade proved difficult for a number of Denmark's most established directors, including Lars von Trier, although things started well with his Nicole Kidman-starring Dogville (2003), a provocative stylistic experiment filmed on a black sound stage with little beyond white floor markings to indicate the sets. Its sequel Manderlay (2005), exploring the issue of slavery, continued this stylistic device but was largely ignored by audiences.

Thomas Vinterberg, who had gained worldwide recognition with The Celebration (1998), made two high budget English-language films that underperformed at the box office, It's All About Love (2003) and Dear Wendy (2005), then retraced his roots with a smaller Danish-language production, En mand kommer hjem (2007), which also underperformed, selling only 28.472 tickets.

However, Vinterberg proved his filmmaking abilities with his 2012 feature film
 The Hunt (Jagten), which was a major box office success, receiving international critical acclaim, winning the Best Actor award at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival for Mads Mikkelsen's performance as Lucas. With a budget of $3.8 million dollars, the film made over $16 million dollars. The film was also nominated for an Academy Award for  Best International Feature Film.

In 2021, his latest film Another Round (Druk) won the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film at the Oscars. The film was another global success for Thomas Vinterberg, having been nominated for 4 BAFTA awards, winning the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language as well as winning the Best Film award at BFI London Film Festival in 2020. Despite COVID restrictions by the opening weekend, the film had sold 102,366 tickets, including 13,400 tickets in previews, in Denmark, thereby achieving the biggest opening weekend for a Danish drama in seven years.

The film was also selected for the 2020 Cannes Film Festival, but due to the cancellation of the festival, it then made its premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival

Around the same time as Vinterberg's initial box office failures prior to his international hits, Bille August, Lone Scherfig, and Lars von Trier also made Danish-language films that underperformed both financially and with the critics, leading the Danish financial times Børsen to observe on September 19, 2007 that "1990'ernes filmfest er forbi" (the film party of the 1990s has ended).

A change of leadership at the Danish Film Institute in late 2007 was seen by many as an opportunity for reflection and renewal, while others pointed to the generally healthy local box office numbers and denied any crisis. Daily paper Jyllands-posten concluded the situation to be a "krise i en opgangstid" (crisis in a time of growth).

In 2008, Danish films sold over 4 million tickets at the Danish boxoffice, the biggest number since 1981, but the relief was brief, as Danish films in the first five months of 2009 turned out to have the lowest ticket-sales since 2005. Film critic Henrik Queitsch agreed that there was some reason for concern, noting in the Danish Film Institute's monthly program that "the different, the surprising, the odd and the daring" was hardly what characterised Danish films of 2008.

Danish cinema nonetheless remains highly respected internationally, and Danish films (today almost exclusively consisting of social realist dramas, comedies, family films and documentaries) receive many awards at major international film festivals.

Danish Film Institute
Danish filmmaking remains influenced by the state through the Danish Film Institute (DFI), which was founded in 1972. DFI is Denmark's national agency for film and cinema culture, operating under the Ministry of Culture. DFI supports the development, production and distribution of films and run the national archives.

Support programmes also extend to international co-productions film education and international promotion at film festivals. The DFI includes a library, a stills and posters archive and a film archive. The DFI Film House is open to the public and houses the national Cinematheque.

The DFI supports the production of 20-25 feature films and 25-30 documentary and short films every year. There are three kinds of support: the film commissioner scheme, the market scheme and the talent development scheme at New Danish Screen.

The DFI encourages international partnerships and allows for 5-9 minor co-productions in feature film and 4-6 minor co-productions in documentary film per year.

A cornerstone of Danish film policy is to fund children and youth films to which 25 percent of all subsidies are allocated.

DFI has received criticism for lack of innovation (notably, Dogme 95 happened in spite of funding from the Film Institute) and is sometimes accused of nepotism and cronyism, for example when film commissioner Mikael Olsen from 1998 to 1999 greenlighted 28 million kroner of subsidy money to his childhood-friend Peter Aalbæk Jensen, then went on to work for him in a high-ranking position.

The Danish Film Institute however has also achieved a high level of professionalism even if more or less reserved for a few selected genres and production companies (mainly Nordisk Film, Zentropa and Nimbus Film). In February 2008, Nordisk Film bought half of Zentropa, which frequently coproduces with Nimbus Film, but such tax-funded, state-sanctioned monopolies are rarely frowned upon in Denmark.

Nominations and awards

Danish directors nominated for Academy Award for Best Director

 2020 - Thomas Vinterberg, Another Round

Danish films nominated for César Award for Best Foreign Film
1997 - Breaking the Waves (Lars von Trier) (won)
1999 - The Celebration (Thomas Vinterberg)
2001 - Dancer in the Dark (Lars von Trier)

Danish films nominated for César Award for Best European Union Film
2004 - Dogville (Lars von Trier)

Danish films nominated for Academy Award for Best Foreign Language film
1956 - Qivitoq (Erik Balling)
1959 - Paw (Astrid Henning-Jensen)
1961 - Harry and the Butler (Bent Christensen)
1987 - Babette's Feast (Gabriel Axel) (won)
1988 - Pelle the Conqueror (Bille August) (won)
1989 - Waltzing Regitze (Kaspar Rostrup)
1996 - All Things Fair (Bo Widerberg) (Swedish/Danish coproduction)
2007 - After the Wedding (Susanne Bier)
2011 - In a Better World (Susanne Bier) (won)
2013 - A Royal Affair (Nikolaj Arcel)
2014 - The Hunt (Thomas Vinterberg)
2016 - A War (Tobias Lindholm)
2017 - Land of Mine (Martin Zandvliet)
2021 - Another Round (Thomas Vinterberg) (won)
2022 - Flee (Jonas Poher Rasmussen)

Danish films nominated for Best European film
1988 - Pelle the Conqueror (Bille August)
1996 - Breaking the Waves (Lars von Trier) (won)
1998 - The Celebration (Thomas Vinterberg)
1999 - Mifune's Last Song (Søren Kragh-Jacobsen)
2000 - Dancer in the Dark (Lars von Trier) (won)
2001 - Italian for Beginners (Lone Scherfig)
2002 - Lilja 4-ever (Lukas Moodysson) (Swedish/Danish/Estonian coproduction)
2003 - Dogville (Lars von Trier)
2004 - A Hole in My Heart (Lukas Moodysson) (Swedish/Danish coproduction)
2005 - Brothers (Susanne Bier)
2011 - In a Better World (Susanne Bier)
2011 - Melancholia (Lars von Trier) (won)
2012 - The Hunt (Thomas Vinterberg)
2014 - Nymphomaniac (Lars von Trier)
2014 - Force Majeure (Ruben Östlund) (Swedish/Danish/Norwegian/French coproduction)
2015 - Rams (Grímur Hákonarson) (Icelandish/Danish coproduction)
2017 - The Square (Ruben Östlund) (Swedish/French/German/Danish coproduction)
2018 - Border (Ali Abbasi) (Swedish/Danish coproduction)
2020 - Another Round (Thomas Vinterberg) (won)

Danish directors nominated for Best European Director
2003 - Lars von Trier, Dogville (won)
2005 - Susanne Bier, Brothers
2006 - Susanne Bier, After the Wedding
2009 - Lars von Trier, Antichrist
2011 - Susanne Bier, In a Better World (won)
2011 - Lars von Trier, Melancholia
2012 - Thomas Vinterberg, The Hunt
2018 - Ali Abbasi, Border
2020 - Thomas Vinterberg, Another Round (won)

Sundance Film Festival awards
On 30 January 2010 in Los Angeles, Mads Brügger's "The Red Chapel," (Danish: Det Røde Kapel) won the grand jury prize for the best world documentary at the Sundance Film Festival. Presenting a comic approach to a group's visit to North Korea, the film explores the development of an enigmatic and totalitarian country.

In 2018, "The Guilty" (Danish: Den Skyldige), a Danish production directed by Swedish debutant Gustav Möller, won the World Cinema dramatic Audience Award.

See also
 Bodil Awards
 Robert Award
 Advance Party
 Danish television drama
 Danish Culture Canon

References

Sources
 Marguerite Engberg: Dansk stumfilm. De store år, vol. 1–2. Copenh. 1977 (summary in English)
 Ebbe Villadsen: Danish Erotic Film Classics (2005)
 David Bordwell: Essay on Danish Cinema, in Film #55, Denmark 2007

External links
 Danish Film Institute
  Steele Review
  About all Danish cinemas (In Danish)
 Danish cinema
 Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Cinema of Denmark


John Thomas Tobin (May 4, 1892 – December 10, 1969) was an American right fielder in Major League Baseball. He played in the Federal League (FL) for the St. Louis Terriers (1914–1915), and for the St. Louis Browns (1916, 1918–1925), Washington Senators (1926), and Boston Red Sox (1926–1927) of the American League (AL). He led the FL in hits in 1915, and he led the AL in triples in 1921.

A native of St. Louis, Tobin batted and threw left-handed. While modern sources often use the common name Jack, he was mostly known as Johnny to his friends and in contemporary coverage.

Early life
Tobin was born in St. Louis to John Tobin, an Irish immigrant, and the former Louise Schiffner, a native of Missouri. He attended a Catholic primary school in St. Louis and played amateur baseball in the city as he got older.

Baseball career

Tobin signed with the St. Louis Terriers in 1913, a year before the FL was considered a major league. He remained with the Terriers through the 1915 season, when he led the league in hits. Tobin then spent most of his major league career with the St. Louis Browns. He had been one of eleven players the Browns purchased from the Terriers in the spring of 1916. After playing in 77 games for the Browns in 1916 and not appearing in the major leagues in 1917, Tobin was a regular starter for the Browns from 1918 to 1924.

Tobin was 5'8" tall and weighed less than 150 pounds. He had good speed and became known for his ability to bunt. "I was a .330 hitter most of my career. I'd bat .030 and bunt .300," Tobin once joked. Baseball Hall of Famer George Sisler, player-manager for the Browns in the mid-1920s, later said that Tobin was "the best drag-bunter anyone ever saw."

As Tobin became a starter in right field for the Browns, he was joining one of the best outfields in baseball. Tobin, left fielder Ken Williams, and center fielder Baby Doll Jacobson all hit over .300 each year between 1919 and 1923. Tobin himself set a career best with a .352 batting average in 1921, the second of four consecutive seasons in which he collected more than 200 hits. That year he led both leagues with 671 at-bats and tied for the league lead with 18 triples. His 236 hits and 132 runs scored that year were both the second-highest totals in the major leagues as well as career highs.

The 1922 Browns led the major leagues with a .313 combined batting average while winning 93 games. That season, Tobin batted .331 and scored 122 runs with a career-high 13 home runs. The Browns lost a September pennant race to the New York Yankees by one game.

Before the 1926 season, Tobin and Bullet Joe Bush were traded from the Browns to the Washington Senators. By June of that season, the Senators released Tobin, and he was signed by the Boston Red Sox, with whom he finished his major league career in 1927. In a 13-season career, Tobin posted a .309 batting average (1906-for-6174) with 64 home runs and 585 runs batted in along with 936 runs scored, 294 doubles, 99 triples, 147 stolen bases, and 508 bases on balls in 1619 games played.

In the 2001 book The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, writer Bill James ranked Tobin as the 92nd greatest right fielder of all-time.

Personal life
Tobin married the former Loretta Sack in 1914, and they had a daughter, Dorothy, in 1916. Tobin was involved in auto sales when not on the baseball field, and in 1925 he became co-owner of the Hildebrand-Tobin Motor Company in St. Louis.

After his professional baseball career ended, Tobin had some involvement in American Legion baseball, serving as a coach and arbitration board member for the St. Louis Legion League. He died of pneumonia at St. John's Mercy Hospital in St. Louis in 1969.

See also
List of Major League Baseball annual triples leaders

References

External links

1892 births
1969 deaths
Major League Baseball right fielders
St. Louis Terriers players
St. Louis Browns players
Washington Senators (1901–1960) players
Boston Red Sox players
St. Louis Browns coaches
Minor league baseball managers
Salt Lake City Bees players
Columbus Senators players
Wichita Falls Spudders players
Bloomington Cubs players
Baseball players from St. Louis
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (St. Louis)

Jack Tobin


An industrial fire is a type of industrial disaster involving a conflagration which occurs in an industrial setting. Industrial fires often, but not always, occur together with explosions. They are most likely to occur in facilities where there is a lot of flammable material present. Such material can include petroleum, petroleum products such as petrochemicals, or natural gas. Processing flammable materials such as hydrocarbons in units at high temperature and/or high pressure makes the hazards more severe. Facilities with such combustible material include oil refineries, tank farms (oil depots), natural gas processing plants, and chemical plants, particularly petrochemical plants. Such facilities often have their own fire departments for firefighting.  Sometimes dust or powder are vulnerable to combustion and their ignition can cause dust explosions. Severe industrial fires have involved multiple injuries, loss of life, costly financial loss, and/or damage to the surrounding community or environment.

Process Hazard Analysis (PHA) is a set of organized and systematic assessments of the potential hazards for an industrial process used to analyze potential causes and consequences of fires, explosions, releases of toxic or flammable chemicals, and major spills of hazardous chemicals.

External links

Types of fire

Industrial fire


Paul Walden (; ; ; 26 July 1863 – 22 January 1957) was a Russian, Latvian and German chemist known for his work in stereochemistry and history of chemistry. In particular he invented the stereochemical reaction known as Walden inversion and synthesized the first room-temperature ionic liquid, ethylammonium nitrate.

Early life and education
Walden was born in Rozulas in present-day Stalbe parish, Pārgauja municipality, Latvia in a large Latvian peasant family. At the age of four, he lost his father and later his mother. Thanks to financial support from his two older brothers who lived in Riga (one was a merchant and another served as a lieutenant) Walden managed to complete his education – first graduated with honors from the district school in the town of Cēsis (1876), and then from the Riga Technical High School (1882).

In December 1882, he enrolled into the Riga Technical University and became seriously interested in chemistry. In 1886, he published his first scientific study on the color  evaluation of the reactions of nitric and nitrous acid with various reagents and establishing the limits of sensitivity of the color method to detection of nitric acid.

In April 1887, Walden was appointed a member of the Russian Physico-chemical Society. During this time, Walden started his collaboration with Wilhelm Ostwald (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1909) which greatly influenced his development as a scientist. Their first work together was published in 1887 and was devoted to the dependence of the electrical conductivity of aqueous solutions of salts on their molecular weight.

Work in chemistry
In 1888, Walden graduated from the university with a degree in chemical engineering and continued working at the Chemistry Department as an assistant to professor C. Bischof.

Under his guidance, Walden began compiling "Handbook of Stereochemistry" which was published in 1894. In preparation of this handbook, Walden had to perform numerous chemical syntheses and characterizations which resulted in 57 journal papers on stereochemistry alone, published between 1889 and 1900 in Russian and foreign journals 57 articles on the stereochemistry. He also continued his research in the field of physical chemistry, establishing in 1889 that the ionizing power of non-aqueous solvent is directly proportional to the dielectric constant.

During the summer vacations of 1890 and 1891, Walden was visiting Ostwald at the University of Leipzig and in September 1891 defended there a master thesis on the affinity values of certain organic acids. Ostwald suggested that he stay in Leipzig as a private lecturer, but Walden declined, hoping for a better career in Riga.

In the summer of 1892 he was appointed assistant professor of physical chemistry. A year later he defended his doctorate on osmotic phenomena in sedimentary layers and in September 1894 became professor of analytical and physical chemistry at the Riga Technical University. He worked there until 1911 and during 1902–1905 was rector of the university. In 1895, Walden made his most remarkable discovery which was later named Walden inversion, namely that various stereoisomers can be obtained from the same compound via certain exchange reactions involving hydrogen. This topic became the basis for his habilitation thesis defended in March 1899 at St. Petersburg University.

After that, Walden became interested in electrochemistry of nonaqueous solutions. In 1902, he proposed a theory of autodissociation of inorganic and organic solvents. In 1905, he found a relationship between the maximum molecular conductivity and viscosity of the medium and in 1906, coined the term "solvation". Together with his work on stereochemistry, these results brought him to prominence; in particular, he was considered a candidate for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1913 and 1914.

Walden was also credited as a talented chemistry lecturer. In his memoirs, he wrote: "My audience usually was crowded and the feedback of sympathetic listeners gave me strength ... my lectures I was giving spontaneously, to bring freshness to the subject ... I never considered teaching as a burden".

1896 brought reforms to the Riga Technical University. Whereas previously, all teaching was conducted in German and Walden was the only professor giving some courses in Russian, from then on, Russian became the official language. This change allowed receiving subsidies from the Russian government and helped the alumni in obtaining positions in Russia. These reforms resulted in another and rather unusual collaboration of Walden with Ostwald: Walden was rebuilding the Chemistry Department and Ostwald sent him the blueprints of the chemical laboratories in Leipzig as an example. In May 1910, Walden was elected a member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and in 1911 was invited to Saint Petersburg to lead the Chemical Laboratories of the academy founded in 1748, by Mikhail Lomonosov. He remained in that position till 1919. As an exception, he was allowed to stay in Riga where he had better research possibilities, but he was traveling, almost every week, by train, to St. Petersburg for the academy meetings and guidance of research. In the period 1911–1915, Walden published 14 articles in the "Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences" on electrochemistry of nonaqueous solutions. In particular, in 1914 he synthesized the first room-temperature ionic liquid, namely ethylammonium nitrate ()· with the melting point of 12 °C.

After 1915, due to the difficulties caused by the World War I, political unrest in Russia and then October Revolution, Walden had reduced his research activity and focused on teaching and administrative work, taking numerous leading positions in science. Due to the political unrest in Latvia, Walden had immigrated to Germany together. He was appointed as professor of inorganic chemistry at the University of Rostock where he worked until retirement in 1934. In 1924 he was invited back to Riga, where he gave a series of lectures. He was offered leading positions in chemistry in Riga and in St. Petersburg, but declined. Despite his emigration, Walden retained his popularity in Russia, and in 1927 he was appointed as a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Later, he also became a member of the Swedish (1928) and Finnish (1932) Academies.

Personal life
Walden's daughter, Antonina Anna Walden (1899–1983), was a music teacher who married Finnish translator and essayist Juho August Hollo. Their son was the Finnish poet and translator Anselm Hollo.

Late years
In his last years, Walden focused on history of chemistry and collected a unique library of over 10,000 volumes. The library and his house were destroyed when the British bombed Rostock in 1942. Walden moved to Berlin and then to Frankfurt am Main, where he became a visiting professor of the history of chemistry at the local university. He met the end of World War II in the French Occupation Zone, cut off from Rostock University, located in the Soviet Zone, and thus left without any source of income.

Walden survived on a modest pension arranged by German chemists, giving occasional lectures in Tübingen and writing memoirs. In 1949, he published his best-known book, History of Chemistry. He died in Gammertingen in 1957, at the age of 93. His memoirs were published only in 1974.

References

Further reading

1863 births
1957 deaths
People from Cēsis Municipality
People from Kreis Wolmar
Baltic-German people from the Russian Empire
Latvian scientists
Chemists from the Russian Empire
Latvian chemists
20th-century German chemists
Inventors from the Russian Empire
20th-century German inventors
Stereochemists
19th-century Latvian people
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Leipzig University alumni
Riga Technical University alumni
Academic staff of Riga Technical University
Academic staff of the University of Latvia
Full members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Latvian emigrants to Germany
Russian scientists

Paul Walden


Bally's Arapahoe Park is a horse-racing track in Arapahoe County, Colorado on the outskirts of Aurora, owned and operated by Bally's Corporation.  Located at 26000 East Quincy Avenue, Arapahoe Park hosts Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Paint Horse and Arabian horse racing.

The racing season generally begins in mid-May and continues through the late spring into the summer, wrapping up in mid-August.  The track is home to the Mile High Futurity and the Mile High Derby, both quarter horse stakes races with final purses of over $100,000.  For Thoroughbreds, the meet's marque race is the Gold Rush Futurity, a 2 year old stakes race going six furlongs for $100,000 in purse monies. Arapahoe Park also hosts four graded stakes races, all for Arabian horses.

References

External links

Buildings and structures in Arapahoe County, Colorado
Horse racing venues in Colorado
Buildings and structures in Aurora, Colorado
Sports in Aurora, Colorado
Tourist attractions in Arapahoe County, Colorado

Arapahoe Park