In a legal dispute, one party has the burden of proof to show that they are correct, while the other party has no such burden and is presumed to be correct. The burden of proof requires a party to produce evidence to establish the truth of facts needed to satisfy all the required legal elements of the dispute.

The burden of proof is usually on the person who brings a claim in a dispute. It is often associated with the Latin maxim semper necessitas probandi incumbit ei qui agit, a translation of which is: "the necessity of proof always lies with the person who lays charges."  In civil suits, for example, the plaintiff bears the burden of proof that the defendant's action or inaction caused injury to the plaintiff, and the defendant bears the burden of proving an affirmative defense. The burden of proof is on the prosecutor for criminal cases, and the defendant is presumed innocent. If the claimant fails to discharge the burden of proof to prove their case, the claim will be dismissed.

Definition
A "burden of proof" is a party's duty to prove a disputed assertion or charge, and includes the burden of production (providing enough evidence on an issue so that the trier-of-fact decides it rather than in a peremptory ruling like a directed verdict) and the burden of persuasion (standard of proof such as preponderance of the evidence).

A "burden of persuasion" or "risk of non-persuasion" is an obligation that remains on a single party for the duration of the court proceeding. Once the burden has been entirely discharged to the satisfaction of the trier of fact, the party carrying the burden will succeed in its claim. For example, the presumption of innocence in a criminal case places a legal burden upon the prosecution to prove all elements of the offense (generally beyond a reasonable doubt), and to disprove all the defenses except for affirmative defenses in which the proof of non-existence of all affirmative defense(s) is not constitutionally required of the prosecution.

The burden of persuasion should not be confused with the evidential burden, or burden of production, or duty of producing (or going forward with evidence) which is an obligation that may shift between parties over the course of the hearing or trial. The evidential burden is the burden to adduce sufficient evidence to properly raise an issue at court.

There is no burden of proof with regard to motive or animus in criminal cases in the United States. The intent surrounding an offense is nevertheless crucial to the elements of the offense in a first-degree-murder conviction. This brings up the ethical dilemma of whether or not a death sentence should be imposed when the defendant's motives or intentions are the contingent factors in sentencing.  However, in some cases such as defamation suits with a public figure as the defamed party, the public figure must prove actual malice.

Standard of proof in the United States
Burden of proof refers most generally to the obligation of a party to prove its allegations at trial. In a civil case, the plaintiff sets forth its allegations in a complaint, petition or other pleading. The defendant is then required to file a responsive pleading denying some or all of the allegations and setting forth any affirmative facts in defense. Each party has the burden of proof of its allegations.

Legal standards for burden of proof

Some evidence
Per  (1985), in order to take away a prisoner's  for a disciplinary violation, prison officials need only have "some evidence", i.e., "a modicum of evidence"; however, the sentencing judge is under no obligation to adhere to good/work time constraints, nor are they required to credit time served.

Reasonable indications
"Reasonable indication (also known as reasonable suspicion) is substantially lower than probable cause; factors to consider are those facts and circumstances a prudent investigator would consider, but must include facts or circumstances indicating a past, current, or impending violation; an objective factual basis must be present, a mere 'hunch' is insufficient."

The reasonable indication standard is used in interpreting trade law in determining if the United States has been materially injured.

Reasonable suspicion

Reasonable suspicion is a low standard of proof to determine whether a brief investigative stop or search by a police officer or any government agent is warranted. It is important to note that this stop or search must be brief; its thoroughness is proportional to, and limited by, the low standard of evidence. A more definite standard of proof (often probable cause) would be required to justify a more thorough stop/search. In Terry v. Ohio, , the Supreme Court ruled that reasonable suspicion requires specific, articulable, and individualized suspicion that crime is afoot. A mere guess or "hunch" is not enough to constitute reasonable suspicion.

An investigatory stop is a seizure under the Fourth Amendment. The state must justify the seizure by showing that the officer conducting the stop had a reasonable articulable suspicion that criminal activity was afoot. The important point is that officers cannot deprive a citizen of liberty unless the officer can point to specific facts and circumstances and inferences therefrom that would amount to a reasonable suspicion. The officer must be prepared to establish that criminal activity was a logical explanation for what he perceived. The requirement serves to prevent officers from stopping individuals based merely on hunches or unfounded suspicions. The purpose of the stop and detention is to investigate to the extent necessary to confirm or dispel the original suspicion. If the initial confrontation with the person stopped dispels suspicion of criminal activity the officer must end the detention and allow the person to go about his or her business. If the investigation confirms the officer's initial suspicion or reveals evidence that would justify continued detention the officer may require the person detained to remain at the scene until further investigation is complete, and may give rise to the level of probable cause.

Reasonable to believe
In Arizona v. Gant (2009), the United States Supreme Court defined a new standard, that of "reasonable to believe". This standard applies only to vehicle searches after the suspect has been placed under arrest. The Court overruled New York v. Belton (1981) and concluded that police officers are allowed to go back and search a vehicle incident to a suspect's arrest only where it is "reasonable to believe" that there is more evidence in the vehicle of the crime for which the suspect was arrested.

There is still an ongoing debate as to the exact meaning of this phrase. Some courts have said it should be a new standard while others have equated it with the "reasonable suspicion" of the Terry stop. Most courts have agreed it is somewhere less than probable cause.

Probable cause

Probable cause is a higher standard of proof than reasonable suspicion, which is used in the United States to determine whether a search, or an arrest, is unreasonable. It is also used by grand juries to determine whether to issue an indictment. In the civil context, this standard is often used where plaintiffs are seeking a prejudgement remedy.

In the criminal context, the U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Sokolow, , determined that probable cause requires "a fair probability that contraband or evidence of a crime will be found". The primary issue was whether Drug Enforcement Administration agents had a reason to execute a search. Courts have traditionally interpreted the idea of "a fair probability" as meaning whether a fair-minded evaluator would have reason to find it more likely than not that a fact (or ultimate fact) is true, which is quantified as a 51% certainty standard (using whole numbers as the increment of measurement). Some courts and scholars have suggested probable cause could, in some circumstances, allow for a fact to be established as true to a standard of less than 51%, but as of August 2019, the United States Supreme Court has never ruled that the quantification of probable cause is anything less than 51%. Probable cause can be contrasted with "reasonable articulable suspicion" which requires a police officer to have an unquantified amount of certainty the courts say is well below 51% before briefly detaining a suspect (without consent) to pat him down and attempt to question him. The "beyond reasonable doubt" standard, used by criminal juries in the United States to determine guilt for a crime, also contrasts with probable cause which courts hold requires an unquantified level of proof well above that of probable cause's 51%. Though it is beyond the scope of this topic, when courts review whether 51% probable cause certainty was a reasonable judgment, the legal inquiry is different for police officers in the field than it would be for grand jurors. In Franks v. Delaware, the U.S. Supreme Court held that probable cause requires that there not be "reckless disregard for the truth" of the facts asserted.

Examples of a police officer's truth-certainty standards in the field and their practical consequences are offered below:
 no level of evidence required: a knowing and voluntary consent-based encounter between police officer and another person
 reasonable articulable suspicion of criminal activity required: an involuntary stop initiated by the officer to briefly detain, attempt to question, and pat down outer clothing of a person of interest to police.
 probable cause of 51% truth or higher required that a crime was committed by a specific person: arrest and/or grand jury indictment of that person.

Some credible evidence
Some credible evidence is one of the least demanding standards of proof.  This proof standard is often used in administrative law settings and in some states to initiate Child Protective Services (CPS) proceedings.  This proof standard is used where short-term intervention is needed urgently, such as when a child is arguably in immediate danger from a parent or guardian.  The "some credible evidence" standard is used as a legal placeholder to bring some controversy before a trier of fact, and into a legal process. It is on the order of the factual standard of proof needed to achieve a finding of "probable cause" used in ex parte threshold determinations needed before a court will issue a search warrant. It is a lower standard of proof than the "preponderance of the evidence" standard. The standard does not require the fact-finder to weigh conflicting evidence, and merely requires the investigator or prosecutor to present the bare minimum of material credible evidence to support the allegations against the subject, or in support of the allegation; see Valmonte v. Bane, 18 F.3d 992 (2nd Cir. 1994). In some Federal Appellate Circuit Courts, such as the Second Circuit, the "some credible evidence" standard has been found constitutionally insufficient to protect liberty interests of the parties in controversy at CPS hearings.

Preponderance of the evidence
Preponderance of the evidence (American English), also known as balance of probabilities (British English), is the standard required in civil cases, including family court determinations solely involving money, such as child support under the Child Support Standards Act, and in child custody determinations between parties having equal legal rights respecting a child (typically the parents of a child who are divorced, separated, or otherwise living apart, assuming that neither has been found unfit). It is also the standard of proof by which the defendant must prove affirmative defenses or mitigating circumstances in civil or criminal court (USA). In civil court (USA), aggravating circumstances also only have to be proven by a preponderance of the evidence, as opposed to beyond reasonable doubt (as in criminal court).

The standard is met if the proposition is more likely to be true than not true. Lord Denning, in Miller v. Minister of Pensions, described it simply as "more probable than not". Another high-level way of interpreting that is that the plaintiff's case (evidence) be 51% likely. A more precise statement is that "the weight [of the evidence, including in calculating such a percentage] is determined not by the amount of evidence, but by its quality." The author goes on to affirm that preponderance is "merely enough to tip the scales" towards one party; however, that tilt need only be so slight as the weight of a "feather." Until 1970, it was also the standard used in juvenile court in the United States. Compared to the criminal standard of "proof beyond a reasonable doubt," the preponderance of the evidence standard is "a somewhat easier standard to meet."

Preponderance of the evidence is also the standard of proof used in United States administrative law. In at least one case, there is a statutory definition of the standard.

While there is no federal definition, such as by definition of the courts or by statute applicable to all cases, The Merit Systems Protection Board's has codified their definition at 5 CFR 1201.56(c)(2). MSPB defines the standard as "The degree of relevant evidence that a reasonable person, considering the record as a whole, would accept as sufficient to find that a contested fact is more likely to be true than untrue." One author highlights the phrase "more likely to be true than untrue" as the critical component of the definition.

From 2013 to 2020, the Department of Education required schools to use a preponderance of evidence standard in evaluating sexual assault claims (USA).

Clear and convincing evidence
Clear and convincing evidence is a higher level of burden of persuasion than "preponderance of the evidence", but less than "beyond reasonable doubt". It is employed intra-adjudicatively in administrative court determinations, as well as in civil and certain criminal procedure in the United States. For example, a prisoner seeking habeas corpus relief from capital punishment must prove his factual innocence by clear and convincing evidence. New York State uses this standard when a court must determine whether to involuntarily hospitalize a mentally ill patient or to issue an Assisted Outpatient Treatment Order. This standard was also codified by the United States Supreme Court in all mental health civil commitment cases.

This standard is used in many types of equity cases, including paternity, persons in need of supervision, child custody, the probate of both wills and living wills, petitions to remove a person from life support ("right to die" cases), mental hygiene and involuntary hospitalizations, and many similar cases.

Clear and convincing evidence is the standard of proof used for immunity from prosecution under Florida's controversial stand-your-ground law. Once raised by the defense, the state must present its evidence in a pre-trial hearing, showing that the statutory prerequisites have not been met, and then request that the court deny a motion for declaration of immunity. The judge must then decide from clear and convincing evidence whether to grant immunity. This is a lower burden than "beyond a reasonable doubt", the threshold a prosecutor must meet at any proceeding criminal trial, but higher than the "probable cause" threshold generally required for indictment.

Clear and convincing proof means that the evidence presented by a party during the trial must be highly and substantially more probable to be true than not and the trier of fact must have a firm belief or conviction in its factuality. In this standard, a greater degree of believability must be met than the common standard of proof in civil actions (i.e. preponderance of the evidence), which only requires that the facts as a threshold be more likely than not to prove the issue for which they are asserted.

This standard is also known as "clear, convincing, and satisfactory evidence"; "clear, cognizant, and convincing evidence", and is applied in cases or situations involving an equitable remedy or where a presumptive civil liberty interest exists. For example, this is the standard or quantum of evidence use to probate a last will and testament.

Beyond reasonable doubt

This is the highest standard used as the burden of proof in Anglo-American jurisprudence and typically only applies in juvenile delinquency proceedings, criminal proceedings, and when considering aggravating circumstances in criminal proceedings. It has been described, in negative terms, as a proof having been met if there is no plausible reason to believe otherwise. If there is a real doubt, based upon reason and common sense after careful and impartial consideration of all the evidence, or lack of evidence, in a case, then the level of proof has not been met.

Proof beyond a reasonable doubt, therefore, is proof of such a convincing character that one would be willing to rely and act upon it without hesitation in the most important of one's own affairs. However, it does not mean an absolute certainty. The standard that must be met by the prosecution's evidence in a criminal prosecution is that no other logical explanation can be derived from the facts except that the defendant committed the crime, thereby overcoming the presumption that a person is innocent unless and until proven guilty.

If the trier of fact has no doubt as to the defendant's guilt, or if their only doubts are unreasonable doubts, then the prosecutor has proved the defendant's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt and the defendant should be pronounced guilty.

The term connotes that evidence establishes a particular point to a moral certainty which precludes the existence of any reasonable alternatives. It does not mean that no doubt exists as to the accused's guilt, but only that no reasonable doubt is possible from the evidence presented. Further to this notion of moral certainty, where the trier of fact relies on proof that is solely circumstantial, i.e., when conviction is based entirely on circumstantial evidence, certain jurisdictions specifically require the prosecution's burden of proof to be such that the facts proved must exclude to a moral certainty every reasonable hypothesis or inference other than guilt.

The main reason that this high level of proof is demanded in criminal trials is that such proceedings can result in the deprivation of a defendant's liberty or even in their death. These outcomes are far more severe than in civil trials, in which monetary damages are the common remedy.

Another noncriminal instance in which proof beyond a reasonable doubt is applied is LPS conservatorship.

Standard of proof in the United Kingdom
In the three jurisdictions of the UK (Northern Ireland; England & Wales; and Scotland) there are only two standards of proof in trials. (There are others which are defined in statutes, such as those relating to police powers.)

The criminal standard was formerly described as "beyond reasonable doubt". That standard remains, and the words commonly used, though the Judicial Studies Board guidance is that juries might be assisted by being told that to convict they must be persuaded "so that you are sure".

The civil standard is 'the balance of probabilities', often referred to in judgments as "more likely than not".

The civil standard is also used in criminal trials in relation to those defenses which must be proven by the defendant (for example, the statutory defense to drunk in charge that there was no likelihood of the accused driving while still over the alcohol limit). However, where the law does not stipulate a reverse burden of proof, the defendant need only raise the issue and it is then for the prosecution to negate the defence to the criminal standard in the usual way (for example, that of self-defence).

Prior to the decision of the House of Lords in Re B (A Child) [2008] UKHL 35 there had been some confusion – even at the Court of Appeal – as to whether there was some intermediate standard, described as the 'heightened standard'. The House of Lords found that there was not. As the above description of the American system shows, anxiety by judges about making decisions on very serious matters on the basis of the balance of probabilities had led to a departure from the common law principles of just two standards. Baroness Hale said:

The task for the tribunal then when faced with serious allegations is to recognize that their seriousness generally means they are inherently unlikely, such that to be satisfied that a fact is more likely than not the evidence must be of a good quality. But the standard of proof remains 'the balance of probabilities'.

Standard of proof in Australia
In Australia two standards of proof are applied at common law: the criminal standard and the civil standard. It is possible for other standards of proof to be applied where required by law.

Criminal standard
The criminal standard in Australia is beyond reasonable doubt. All indictable Commonwealth offences, defined as offences carrying a term of imprisonment in excess of 12 months; are constitutionally required to be trials by jury. Juries are required to make findings of guilt at the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard for criminal matters.

The Australian constitution does not expressly provide that criminal trials must be 'fair', nor does it set out the elements of a fair trial, but it may by implication protect other attributes. The High Court has moved toward, but not yet, entrenched procedural fairness as a constitutional right. If it did so, this would have the potential to constitutionalise the 'beyond reasonable doubt' standard in criminal proceedings.

State offences are not subject to the constitution's section 80 requirement for a jury. However, the case of Kirk constrains the way that State courts may operate during criminal trials per the Kable Doctrine.

Civil standard
In Australia, the civil standard is termed the 'balance of probabilities'. In Australia, the 'balance of probabilities' involves considerations that the evidence required to establish a fact at the civil standard will vary with the seriousness of what is being alleged. Although it has been noted a similar approach is taken in Canada. In the United Kingdom the evidential requirements of the civil standard of proof don't vary with the seriousness of an allegation.

The case law that establishes this is Briginshaw v Briginshaw, which is the fifth most cited decision of Australia's High Court. The case has since been incorporated into the uniform evidence law. The Briginshaw principle was articulated by Dixon in that case in these terms:
...it is enough that the affirmative of an allegation is made out to the reasonable satisfaction of the tribunal. But reasonable satisfaction is not a state of mind that is attained or established independently of the nature and consequence of the fact or facts to be proved. The seriousness of an allegation made, the inherent unlikelihood of an occurrence of a given description, or the gravity of the consequences flowing from a particular finding are considerations which must affect the answer to the question whether the issue has been proved to the reasonable satisfaction of the tribunal. In such matters "reasonable satisfaction" should not be produced by inexact proofs, indefinite testimony, or indirect inferences. Everyone must feel that, when, for instance, the issue is on which of two dates an admitted occurrence took place, a satisfactory conclusion may be reached on materials of a kind that would not satisfy any sound and prudent judgment if the question was whether some act had been done involving grave moral delinquency

The Briginshaw principle is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the Briginshaw standard of proof, in Qantas Airways Limited v. Gama Justices French and Jacobson stated the "Briginshaw test does not create any third standard of proof between the civil and the criminal."

In the High Court case of G v. H Justices Deane, Dawson and Gaudron stated "Not every case involves issues of importance and gravity in the Briginshaw v. Briginshaw sense. The need to proceed with caution is clear if, for example, there is an allegation of fraud or an allegation of criminal or moral wrongdoing..".

An example of the Briginshaw principle applied in practice is the case of Ben Roberts-Smith where, due to the gravity of the allegations, Fairfax Media was required to rely on stronger proof than in the context of a normal allegation to win their case. In the end, despite the high burden of proof required, Fairfax won the trial, with Besanko ruling that it was proven he "broke the moral and legal rules of military engagement and is therefore a criminal".

Melbourne Law School professor Jeremy Gans, has noted that for particularly serious allegations, such as sexual assault, "It's hard to see how the Briginshaw principle is much different to beyond reasonable doubt". The decision has also been noted for affecting the ability of litigants to seek redress in anti-discrimination lawsuits, due to the seriousness of such allegations.

Other standards for presenting cases or defenses

Air of reality

The "air of reality" is a standard of proof used in Canada to determine whether a criminal defense may be used. The test asks whether a defense can be successful if it is assumed that all the claimed facts are to be true. In most cases, the burden of proof rests solely on the prosecution, negating the need for a defense of this kind. However, when exceptions arise and the burden of proof has been shifted to the defendant, they are required to establish a defense that bears an "air of reality". Two instances in which such a case might arise are, first, when a prima facie case has been made against the defendant or, second, when the defense mounts an affirmative defense, such as the insanity defense. This is similar to the concept of Summary judgment in the United States, though not identical.

Evidentiary standards of proof
Depending on the legal venue or intra-case hearing, varying levels of reliability of proof are considered dispositive of the inquiry being entertained. If the subject threshold level of reliability has been met by the presentation of the evidence, then the thing is considered legally proved for that trial, hearing or inquest.  For example, in California, several evidentiary presumptions are codified, including a presumption that the owner of legal title is the beneficial owner (rebuttable only by clear and convincing evidence).

Examples

Criminal law
Criminal cases usually place the burden of proof on the prosecutor (expressed in the Latin brocard ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat, "the burden of proof rests on who asserts, not on who denies"). This principle is known as the presumption of innocence, and is summed up with "innocent until proven guilty", but is not upheld in all legal systems or jurisdictions. Where it is upheld, the accused will be found not guilty if this burden of proof is not sufficiently shown by the prosecution.
The presumption of innocence means three things:
 With respect to the critical facts of a case the defendant has no burden of proof whatsoever.
 The state must prove the critical facts of the case to the appropriate level of certainty.
 The jury is not to draw any inferences adverse to the defendant from the fact that he has been charged with a crime and is present in court facing the charges against him.

For example, if the defendant (D) is charged with murder, the prosecutor (P) bears the burden of proof to show the jury that D did indeed murder someone.
 Burden of proof: P
 Burden of production: P has to show some evidence that D had committed murder. The United States Supreme Court has ruled that the Constitution requires enough evidence to justify a rational trier of fact to find guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. If the judge rules that such burden has been met, then it is up to the jury itself to decide if they are, in fact, convinced of guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. If the judge finds there is not enough evidence under the standard, the case must be dismissed (or a subsequent guilty verdict must be vacated and the charges dismissed).
 e.g. witness, forensic evidence, autopsy report
 Failure to meet the burden: the issue will be decided as a matter of law. In this case, D is presumed innocent
 Burden of persuasion: if at the close of evidence, the jury cannot decide if P has established with relevant level of certainty that D had committed murder, the jury must find D not guilty of the crime of murder
 Measure of proof: P has to prove every element of the offense beyond a reasonable doubt, but not necessarily prove every single fact beyond a reasonable doubt.

However, in England and Wales, the Magistrates' Courts Act 1980, s.101 stipulates that where a defendant relies on some "exception, exemption, proviso, excuse or qualification" in his defence in a summary trial, the legal burden of proof as to that exception falls on the defendant, though only on the balance of probabilities. For example, a person charged with being drunk in charge of a motor vehicle can raise the defense that there was no likelihood of his driving while drunk. The prosecution has the legal burden of proof beyond reasonable doubt that the defendant exceeded the legal limit of alcohol and was in control of a motor vehicle. Possession of the keys is usually sufficient to prove control, even if the defendant is not in the vehicle and is perhaps in a nearby bar. That being proved, the defendant has the legal burden of proof on the balance of probabilities that he was not likely to drive.

In 2002, such practice in England and Wales was challenged as contrary to the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), art.6(2) guaranteeing right to a fair trial. The House of Lords held that:
 A mere evidential burden did not contravene art. 6(2);
 A legal / persuasive burden did not necessarily contravene art. 6(2) so long as confined within reasonable limits, considering the questions:
 What must the prosecution prove to transfer burden to the defendant?
 Is the defendant required to prove something difficult or easily within his access?
 What threat to society is the provision designed to combat?

In some cases, there is a reverse onus on the accused. A typical example is that of a hit-and-run charge prosecuted under the Canadian Criminal Code. The defendant is presumed to have fled the scene of a crash, to avoid civil or criminal liability, if the prosecution can prove the remaining essential elements of the offense.

Civil law
In civil law cases, such as a dispute over a contract or a claim about an accidental injury, the burden of proof usually requires the plaintiff to convince the trier of fact (whether judge or jury) of the plaintiff's entitlement to the relief sought. This means that the plaintiff must prove each element of the claim, or cause of action, in order to recover.

This rule is not absolute in civil lawsuits; unlike with criminal offenses, laws may establish a different burden of proof, or the burden in an individual case may be reversed as a matter of fairness.  For example, if a bank or government agency has a legal duty to keep certain records, and a lawsuit alleges that the proper records were not kept, then the plaintiff may not be required to prove a negative; instead, the respondent could be required to prove to the court that the records were kept.

Civil cases of the U.S. Supreme Court
In Keyes v. Sch. Dist. No. 1, the United States Supreme Court stated: "There are no hard-and-fast standards governing the allocation of the burden of proof in every situation. The issue, rather, 'is merely a question of policy and fairness based on experience in the different situations'." For support, the Court cited 9 John H. Wigmore, Evidence § 2486, at 275 (3d ed. 1940). In Keyes, the Supreme Court held that if "school authorities have been found to have practiced purposeful segregation in part of a school system", the burden of persuasion shifts to the school to prove that it did not engage in such discrimination in other segregated schools in the same system.

In Director, Office of Workers' Compensation Programs v. Greenwich Collieries, the Supreme Court explained that "burden of proof" is ambiguous because it has historically referred to two distinct burdens:  the burden of persuasion, and the burden of production.

The Supreme Court discussed how courts should allocate the burden of proof (i.e., the burden of persuasion) in Schaffer ex rel. Schaffer v. Weast. The Supreme Court explained that if a statute is silent about the burden of persuasion, the court will "begin with the ordinary default rule that plaintiffs bear the risk of failing to prove their claims". In support of this proposition, the Court cited 2 J. Strong, McCormick on Evidence § 337, 412 (5th ed. 1999), which states:

At the same time, the Supreme Court also recognized "The ordinary default rule, of course, admits of exceptions. ... For example, the burden of persuasion as to certain elements of a plaintiff's claim may be shifted to defendants, when such elements can fairly be characterized as affirmative defenses or exemptions. ... Under some circumstances this Court has even placed the burden of persuasion over an entire claim on the defendant. ... [Nonetheless,] [a]bsent some reason to believe that Congress intended otherwise, therefore, [the Supreme Court] will conclude that the burden of persuasion lies where it usually falls, upon the party seeking relief."

See also
 Philosophic burden of proof
 Probative
 Rebuttable presumption
 Shifting burden of persuasion

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links
 Complete text of Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (Cornell Univ.)

American legal terminology
Evidence law
Probabilistic arguments
Legal reasoning
Legal doctrines and principles
Doubt

Burden of proof (law)


Nathan Alexander Pearson (born August 20, 1996) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball (MLB). He made his MLB debut in 2020.

High school and college
Pearson attended Bishop McLaughlin Catholic High School in Spring Hill, Florida. As a senior he went 9–1 with a 1.75 earned run average (ERA) and 117 strikeouts and hit .318 with nine home runs and 30 runs batted in (RBI). After graduating, Pearson attended Florida International University (FIU) where he played college baseball for the FIU Panthers. He made 19 appearances with one start, going 1–1 with a 2.70 ERA and 33 strikeouts. After one year at FIU, he transferred to the College of Central Florida. In his first year at Central Florida, he had a 1.56 ERA and 118 strikeouts and was named the JUCO Pitcher of the Year by Perfect Game.

Professional career

Minor leagues
Pearson was considered one of the top prospects for the 2017 Major League Baseball draft. He was selected 28th overall by the Toronto Blue Jays, and signed on June 28 for a $2.45 million bonus. Pearson was assigned to the Rookie-level Gulf Coast League Blue Jays, and promoted to the Short Season-A Vancouver Canadians after making one start. Through his first six starts, Pearson did not allow a run, and yielded only four hits and one walk while striking out 16 in 13 total innings. He finished the 2017 regular season with a 0.90 ERA, 26 strikeouts, and a 0.60 WHIP in 20 innings pitched. In early September, Pearson was selected by Vancouver as the starter for the first game of their best-of-three Northwest League playoff series against the Spokane Indians. He went four innings against Spokane and struck out 10 batters in a 2–1 win.

Pearson was assigned to the Advanced-A Dunedin Blue Jays to begin the 2018 season, but opened the year on the disabled list with an oblique injury. He made his Florida State League debut on May 7, but left the game after being struck by a line drive in the second inning. The following day, the team announced Pearson had suffered a broken ulna in his right arm. He remained on the disabled list for the rest of the 2018 season, and played for the Surprise Saguaros of the Arizona Fall League during the offseason. Pearson began 2019 with Dunedin, where he posted a 3–0 record, 0.86 ERA, and 35 strikeouts in 21 innings pitched before being promoted to the Double-A New Hampshire Fisher Cats in early May. He made his Double-A debut on May 7, striking out eight over five scoreless innings. Pearson was named to the 2019 All-Star Futures Game. Pearson was assigned to Triple-A Buffalo on May 3, 2021.

Major leagues
On July 29, 2020, Pearson made his MLB debut against Max Scherzer and the Washington Nationals. The game was played in Washington despite being a home game for the Blue Jays, as the COVID-19 pandemic had forced the Blue Jays into Sahlen Field in Buffalo, which was not ready for use. He went five innings, giving up two hits and two walks with five strikeouts, and surrendered no runs in his debut, though the Nationals won 4–0. With the 2020 Toronto Blue Jays, Pearson appeared in 5 games, compiling a 1–0 record with 6.00 ERA and 16 strikeouts in 18 innings pitched.

Pearson made 12 appearances for Toronto in 2021, posting a 1–1 record and 4.20 ERA with 20 strikeouts in 15.0 innings pitched. On June 6, 2022, Pearson was placed on the 60-day injured list. On June 24, Pearson was diagnosed with a lat strain. He did not appear in the major leagues for Toronto in 2022.

Pearson was optioned to the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons to begin the 2023 season, and pitched out of the bullpen. In 8 innings, Pearson recorded a 2.16 ERA and 16 strikeouts. On April 24, he was recalled to the major leagues.

References

External links

Central Florida Patriots bio
FIU Panthers bio

1996 births
Living people
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
College of Central Florida Patriots baseball players
Dunedin Blue Jays players
FIU Panthers baseball players
Gulf Coast Blue Jays players
Major League Baseball pitchers
New Hampshire Fisher Cats players
People from Oldsmar, Florida
Baseball players from Pinellas County, Florida
Surprise Saguaros players
Toronto Blue Jays players
Vancouver Canadians players
American expatriate baseball players in the Dominican Republic
Tigres del Licey players

Nate Pearson


Niall Henderson (born 7 February 1988) is a Northern Irish footballer who plays for NIFL Championship side Annagh United.

Career
Henderson is from Craigavon, County Armagh. He grew up in Lurgan and played snooker as a child, going on to represent Northern Ireland as a junior international in 2003. He was on the books at Portadown as a youth player, before moving to Scotland with Gretna at the age of 16. He first featured on the bench for Gretna in their 2–1 defeat to Stirling Albion on 29 April 2006 in the Scottish Football League Second Division, and was subsequently on the bench for the 2006 Scottish Cup Final against Heart of Midlothian, which was lost 4–2 on penalties after a 1–1 draw after extra time on 13 May 2006. He was loaned out to Dumbarton in the Scottish Third Division in August 2007 until January 2008, during which he made 16 appearances and scored one goal. He was released by Gretna in January and signed for Raith Rovers later that month on a short-term deal to the end of the 2007–08 season, making his debut in the 1–0 victory at Queens Park on 19 January 2008 at Hampden Park. Henderson featured for the side in both legs of their play-off semi-final defeat to Airdrie United and finished the season with 16 Raith appearances.

He was released by Raith after the end of the season, after which he joined York City in the Conference Premier on 18 June 2008. He made his debut in a 1–0 victory against Wrexham on 14 August 2008 after coming on as a 62nd-minute substitute. He was named in the Northern Ireland under-21 team in September for their 2009 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship qualifying game against Germany. Henderson was on the bench as Northern Ireland were beaten 3–0, meaning they were unable to quality for the tournament. He made his return for York in a 4–2 defeat to Kettering Town, which was the team's first loss of the season. He suffered from two viruses within the space of four weeks, and returned to light training in October. He continued to play for the reserve team and scored in a 4–4 draw against Barnsley reserves. Henderson had fallen out favour under manager Colin Walker and struggled to feature in the team. He picked up a hamstring injury during a training session in December. He was released by the club on 20 January and returned to Ireland to sign for either Finn Harps or Newry City, eventually signing for Newry.

On 6 July 2010, Henderson joined Dungannon Swifts on a one-year deal along with Johnny Topley after his contract with his previous employers, Newry City, expired. In June 2011 he joined Glenavon.

Career statistics
As of 13 September 2008.

Footnotes

A.  The "Other" column constitutes appearances and goals (including those as a substitute) in the play-offs.

References

External links

1988 births
Living people
People from Craigavon, County Armagh
Association footballers from County Armagh
Men's association football midfielders
Portadown F.C. players
Gretna F.C. players
Dumbarton F.C. players
Raith Rovers F.C. players
York City F.C. players
Newry City F.C. players
Scottish Football League players
National League (English football) players
Glenavon F.C. players
Annagh United F.C. players
Dungannon Swifts F.C. players
Glentoran F.C. players

Niall Henderson


Plan-It-X Records (PIX) was an independent record label. Originally based in Georgetown, Indiana, PIX was based in Bloomington, Indiana following brief stints in Olympia, Washington, Gainesville, Florida, and Cairo, Illinois. The label released folk punk and pop punk music, including Against Me!'s Crime As Forgiven By, other releases include albums by This Bike Is a Pipe Bomb, Defiance, Ohio, Ghost Mice, Japanther, The Bananas, Operation: Cliff Clavin, and Antsy Pants and Fifteen.

History
Founded in 1994 by Samantha Jane Dorsett and Chris Clavin, Plan-It-X held a DIY punk ethic. The label sold all CDs for five dollars or less. PIX's slogan reads: "If it ain't cheap, it ain't punk". PIX attempted to demonstrate that the practices of major record labels do not need to be duplicated by independent record labels in order to be successful. They supported other small labels and encourage others to do so as well (and even go as far as to suggest starting your own label).

Clavin formerly played in the iconic folk punk band Ghost Mice and currently records albums and performs under the name Captain Chaos. Clavin was one of the founders of folk punk music and is a former band member of Operation: Cliff Clavin, The Devil Is Electric, The Ted Dancin' Machine, Peanucle, The Sissies, Tooth Soup and The Jammy Dodgers.

Beyond the release of musical albums, Plan-It-X has released a book by author Greg Wells (Complete Control: An Anthology 1997-2005), the zine My Friend Bubby, as well as a DVD featuring live performances of bands filmed during Plan-It-X Fest 2004 (see below). A documentary was released in 2010, put together from footage shot across the week of the 2006 Plan-It-X Fest.

Clavin announced in 2016 that Plan-It-X would cease operations due to a variety of reasons, including the financial strain, and closed for good in 2018.

Plan-It-X Fest

In 2004 Plan-It-X Records celebrated its 10-year anniversary with a three-day festival in Bloomington, Indiana. A large portion of the bands involved with the label performed throughout the three-day event.

With the success of the 2004 fest, Plan-It-X decided to take the festival on the road the following year in 2005 with a number of their bands in a school bus. The school bus toured throughout the Eastern and Midwestern United States.

2006 saw the third Plan-It-X fest return to Bloomington as a six-day "Punk Rock Summer Camp," with bands playing every night and workshops and other activities throughout the afternoon. Like the two previous fests, 2006's fest raised money for charity. This year a total of $8,200 was split amongst three different charities.

2011 saw the fourth Plan-It-X Fest.  It took place on June 24, 25, and 26 in Bloomington, Indiana.  Like previous fests, this one was a benefit for several grassroots organizations.  It also marked the release of PIX99, a book based on founder Samantha Dorsett's life.

The 5th Plan-It-X Fest happened in 2012.

The 6th Plan-It-X Fest took place in 2014 in Spencer, IN.

The 7th and final Plan-It-X Fest took place in Spencer, IN from July 22 to the 24th, 2016. This festival was filmed for a short YouTube documentary by Punk With A Camera entitled "And One For Good Luck - The Last Plan-It-X Fest". Artists performing included Ramshackle Glory, Ghost Mice, Terror Pigeon, The Wild, Pioneers Press author Adam Gnade, Super Famicon, Erin Tobey, Your Heart Breaks and many more.

Bands and artists

The following is an alphabetized list of artists that have worked with Plan-It-X to release projects on the label. Some of these bands overlap with Plan-It-X South bands (see below regarding PIX South).

 Abe Froman
 Against Me!
 AJJ
 Andrew Lips
 Antsy Pants
 The Bananas
 The Blank Fight
 Best Friends Forever
 Beyond Things
 Brook Pridemore
 Captain Chaos
 Carrie Nations
 The Connie Dungs
 The Dauntless Elite
 Dave Dean's Musical Forklift
 Dead Bird
 Defiance, Ohio
 Delay
The Devil Is Electric
 Disarm
 Dogbreth
 The Door-Keys
 Emperor X
 Eric Ayotte
 Erin Tobey
 Fifteen
 The Four Eyes
 The Future Virgins
 Ghost Mice
 Greg Wells
 Halo Fauna
 Heathers
 Henry Rollins and the Sweater Band
 I Like Japanese Hardcore
 Imperial Can
 Instinct
 James Black
 Japanther
 Kyle Hall
 Latchkey Kids
 Lava Lava
 Left Out
 Los Gatos Negros
 Lycka Till
 Madeline Adams
 Madeline Ava
 Matty Pop Chart
 The Max Levine Ensemble
 Michael Jumpshot Touchdown Pass
 Mitch the Champ
 One Reason
 ONSIND
 Operation: Cliff Clavin
 Pat the bunny
 Paul Baribeau
 Peanucle
 Punkin Pie
 Ramshackle Glory
 Rosa
 Russ Substance
 Sara Cilantro
 Saw Wheel
 Sexy
 Shotwell
 The Sissies
 Soophie Nun Squad
 Spoonboy
 Stressface
 Street Eaters
 Super Bobby
 The Taxpayers
 The Ted Dancin' Machine
 The Tiger
 This Bike Is a Pipe Bomb
 Watercolor Paintings
 Waxahatchee
 Whiskey Smile!
 Will Power
 Your Heart Breaks

Plan-It-X South

Overview
Plan-It-X South is a part of the main Plan-It-X label, but is run by Teddy Helmick of This Bike Is a Pipe Bomb. Plan-It-X carries all of the Plan-It-X South releases in their catalog.

PIX South shares the same DIY punk ethic of its mother label.

PIX South Bands
 ADD/C
 Friday Knight
 The Future Virgins
 The Hidden Spots
 Landlord
 PantyShanty
 Rymodee
 Sexy
 Stressface
 This Bike Is a Pipe Bomb

See also
 List of record labels

Notes

External links

American independent record labels
Record labels established in 1994
Punk record labels

Plan-It-X Records


Drosera regia, also known as the King sundew, is a carnivorous plant of the sundew family. In the wild, it only grows in two places in a single valley in South Africa. Its leaves can grow to a size of 70 cm in length. It also has features which are not found in many other sundews, such as wooded rhizomes and special covered pollen. These features have been combined with a genetic analysis, and it was found that D. regia is among the older species of sundew. The Venus Flytrap, another carnivorous plant, shares some of the features, which suggests a close relationship between the two.

The leaves of the plant are covered with tentacles. They are able to capture large prey, such as beetles, moths and butterflies. The tentacles of all Drosera species are specialized glands, capable of producing sticky mucus. The leaves are active flypaper traps: they capture prey by surrounding it. In its native habitat, the plants compete for space with native marsh grasses and low evergreen shrubs. There are two known populations of the plant in the wild. The higher-altitude site is overgrown, and D. regia no longer grows there. On the lower-altitude site, there are about 50 mature plants. For this reason, D. regia is the most endangered Drosera species, since it is threatened with extinction in the wild. It is often grown by people who like carnivorous plants and a single cultivar, "Big Easy", has been registered.

References

Other websites

Caryophyllales

Drosera regia


The Countryside Code is a set of guidelines designed for use by both the public and land managers across England and Wales. It is titled as a guide for enjoying parks and waterways, coast and countryside. It was established in 2004 as a relaunch of the The Country Code, which existed since the 1930s.

The Countryside Code is managed by Natural England in England and Natural Resources Wales in Wales. Whilst both organisations oversee the Countryside Code, they are each individually responsible for promoting it in their respective country.

The original rules

The Country Code evolved from the work of various organisations and had several different versions from the 1930s. The most widely accepted version of The Country Code was published in 1981 by the Countryside Commission:

Enjoy the countryside and respect its life and work
Guard against all risk of fire
Fasten all gates
Keep your dogs under close control
Keep to public paths across farmland
Use gates and stiles to cross fences, hedges and walls
Leave livestock, crops and machinery alone
Take your litter home
Help to keep all water clean
Protect wildlife, plants and trees
Take special care on country roads
Make no unnecessary noise

In the 1960s and 70s the Country Code was publicised by several public information films shown in cinemas and on television.

At some point after 1981, the instruction to fasten all gates was replaced with one to instead leave gates as found.

The Countryside Code

In 2004 The Country Code was revised and relaunched as The Countryside Code (Côd Cefn Gwlad in Welsh) to reflect the introduction of new open access rights and changes in society over the preceding years.  The revised Code was produced through a partnership between the Countryside Agency and the Countryside Council for Wales
Be safe - plan ahead and follow any signs
Leave gates and property as you find them
Protect plants and animals, and take your litter home
Keep dogs under close control
Consider other people

The Countryside Code Refresh
A new, refreshed Countryside Code was launched by Natural England and Natural Resources Wales, coinciding with the 70th anniversary of the creation of the founding booklet. Key changes to the Countryside Code included:

 New advice for people to 'be nice, say hello, share the space' as well as 'enjoy your visit, have fun, make a memory'.
 A reminder not to feed livestock, horses or wild animals.
 To stay on marked footpaths, even if they are muddy, to protect crops and wildlife.
 Information on permissions to do certain outdoor activities, such as wild swimming.
 Clearer rules for dog walkers to take home dog poo and use their own bin if a there are no public waste bins.
 A refreshed tone of voice, creating a guide for the public rather than a list of rules – recognising the significant health and wellbeing benefits of spending time in nature.
 New wording to make clear that the code applies to all our natural places, including parks and waterways, coast and countryside.

Shaun the Sheep and the Countryside Code
In May 2023, Natural England and Aardman Animations launched a new campaign for the Countryside Code, alongside Shaun the Sheep. The aim of the campaign was to engage young people and children with the messages of the Countryside Code.

The Scottish Outdoor Access Code

In Scotland, where there is a more general right of access, Scottish Natural Heritage developed The Scottish Outdoor Access Code, which was approved in draft form by the Scottish Parliament in July 2003 following the passing of the Land Reform (Scotland) Act of the same year, and was accepted in February 2005. The Scottish Outdoor Access Code differs significantly from The Country Code in that it promotes access rights that include crossing over land and non-motorised recreational activities like walking, cycling, angling and horse riding, and will normally apply in all rural settings. The basis of access rights over land (in Scotland) is of shared responsibilities, in that those exercising such rights have to act responsibly, following the Scottish Outdoor Access Code, while land owners/managers have a reciprocal responsibility in respecting the interests of those who exercise their rights.

The Scottish code "is based on three key principles [which] apply equally to the public and to land managers":
 Take personal responsibility for your own actions.
 Respect people's privacy and peace of mind.
 Help land managers and others to work safely and effectively.
Three additional principles apply to visitors:
 Care for your environment.
 Keep your dog under proper control.
 Take extra care if you are organising an event or running a business.

Both the Countryside Code and the Scottish code provide guidance for land managers as well as visitors.

See also

 Leave No Trace
 Tread Lightly!
 Trail ethics

References

External links
 English Countryside Code Retrieved 13 January 2017
 Scottish Outdoor Access Code Retrieved 13 January 2017
 Welsh Countryside Code Retrieved 13 January 2017

Agriculture in the United Kingdom
Rural society in the United Kingdom

The Countryside Code


Rigmor Elisabeth Gustafsson (born 12 April 1966) is a Swedish jazz singer.

Gustafsson comes from a musical family. Her sister Christina is also a singer in the field of jazz. At the age of eight she learned how to play the guitar at the public school in Grums, Sweden. She studied at Sundstagymnasiet in Karlstad where she studied classical guitar but moved to singing. She began to study at the New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music in New York City and at Mannes College of Music. While living in New York she met other musicians and started the Rigmor Gustafsson Quintet. She graduated in 1995, and the quintet went on tour in Sweden, Germany, and Switzerland between 1996 and 1997.

In 1996, Rigmor Gustafsson's debut album In the Light of Day was released but in 1994 one could listen to Gustafssons children's record Sånger från TV-serien Planeten Pi where she sings with Anders Lundin and Lars In de Betou.

In 2003, she signed with the German record label ACT, which released I Will Wait for You, recorded with the trombonist Nils Landgren. During the same year Gustafsson performed at the Nobel Banquet. In 2004, the album  Close to You was released in which she recorded a version of Dionne Warwick's songs written by Burt Bacharach. The album achieved gold status. On the  album On My Way to You, from 2006, she sings songs by French composer Michel Legrand.

On 19 June 2007, Gustafsson participated in the radio show Sommar, which was broadcast on Sveriges Radio P3. The same year the music album Alone with You was released.

Discography
 Sanger Fran TV-programmen Var Och Varannans Varld Och Planeten Pi (Philips, 1994)
 Live (Prophone, 2000)
 I Will Wait for You with Nils Landgren (ACT, 2003)
 Close to You with Jacky Terrasson (ACT, 2004)
 On My Way to You (ACT, 2006)
 Alone with You (ACT, 2007)
 Jazz Divas of Scandinavia with DR Big Band (Red Dot, 2009)
 Calling You (ACT, 2010)
 When You Make Me Smile (ACT, 2014)
 Come Home (ACT, 2019)

References

External links

1966 births
Living people
Swedish jazz singers
20th-century Swedish women singers
21st-century Swedish women singers
ACT Music artists

Rigmor Gustafsson


Farther Common is a geographical region of East Hampshire in the Parish of Liss, Hampshire, England. It is characterised by greensand topography, woodland and heath, which was a common on the Money-Coutts estate centred at Stodham House, Liss. The name of this common land is in fact "Farther Commons" which can be verified by reference to the ordnance survey map of the area.

The Money-Coutts family were part of the famous banking family, owners of Coutts & Co, London.

Stodham House was used as a Special Training School (STS 3) of the Special Operations Executive (SOE) during World War II, particularly for the training of Norwegian saboteurs.

The plots of development land were sold off in parcels in the early part of the last century, served by two lanes which remain in use. Some of the plots are on steep parts of the greensand ridge. The original houses on both the north and south lanes of the Common were cedar houses, often now much altered.  Other plots were sold off in parcels of an acre of more from the earlier plots and houses have been built in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.

Farther Common is bounded to the East by Bones Bottom, to the West by Gravel Pit Bottom to the North by Stodham Lane and to the South by the North track.  The former Woodley House, (the gardeners cottage of Grey Walls House) and West Gables, the former servants quarters of the same property are not properly part of the Common,  although now separated from their master house.

The Far House on the South Lane is a modernist, 1960s wooden house built by writer and former intelligence officer Selwyn Jepson while Ponticum on the North Lane is a remarkable 1960s modernist house looking out over the Chalk Hangars.

Some of the other houses built at a later time are built on smaller plots derived from the earlier larger ones. For instance, Fernhill from the 1970s. The site has previously been used for caravan accommodation for the staff of Hill Brow Nursing Home, now itself gone.

There is a Bronze Age ring barrow at Saxonwood House and Peacewood.

Some of those that came to build and live on the common have been notable.

Monica Storrs, "God's Galloping Girl" of Peace Wood.
Henryk Zygalski. One of three Polish mathematicians/cryptologists credited with breaking the Enigma code in the 1930s. Operated for the Allies from a clandestine radio station in Vichy France and Algeria  1940-1942 during World War II. Lived with his partner, Mrs. B. Blofield in Greenwood (now known as Saxonwood House), Farther Common.
Selwyn Jepson  of the Far House, well-known author and intelligence officer (recruiting officer for F Section SOE) in World War II.

References

Geography of Hampshire

Farther Common


Yarbay is the Turkish military rank of lieutenant colonel.

In normal circumstance they serve 3 years (shorter than others) because of preparation rank. In the Turkish Army (Kara Kuvvetleri) and Turkish Gendarmerie (Jandarma) they serve as battalion commanding officer, in Turkish Navy battleship executive officer and in Turkish Air Force serve as squadron commander. In the normal circumstances, they have to wait a short period of time to be colonel.

Military ranks of Turkey
Turkish words and phrases

Lieutenant colonel (Turkey)


Grindelia fraxinipratensis, common name Ash Meadows gumweed, is a North American species of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. It is native to the southwestern United States, in Mojave Desert regions in Nye County in Nevada and Inyo County in California. Some of the Nevada populations (including the type locality) lie inside the Nevada Test Site of the United States Atomic Energy Commission

Some sources spell the name as G. fraxino-pratensis. Grindelia fraxinipratensis is the accepted spelling according to the International Code of Nomenclature.

Grindelia fraxinipratensis grows in meadows and on the borders of woodlands. It is a biennial or perennial herb growing  tall, erect in form, brown or reddish, and hairless and oily. It grows from a thick underground caudex atop a woody taproot. The dark green leaves are up to  long, widely lance-shaped or oblong, sometimes toothed near the tips, and studded with visible resin glands. The inflorescence bears one to four flower heads lined with thick phyllaries. The head contains about 15 yellow disc florets surrounded by about 13 yellow ray florets each about  long. The fruit is an achene with a pappus made up of two awns.

Grindelia fraxinipratensis is native to the Amargosa Valley along the southern part of the border between California and Nevada, where it is known from only 14 to 16 locations. Many are found within the Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge in the Amargosa Desert area.

The plant grows in the clay, saline and alkaline soils of the land surrounding desert warm springs in the valley. Its main habitat type is the saltgrass meadow (Distichlis spicata). It is relatively abundant in the moist areas of its habitat, and rare in the drier areas.

Grindelia fraxinipratensisis a federally listed threatened species. Habitat in the area was first altered when peat mining was started and Carson Slough, a large local wetland, was drained. The area was then farmed. Large scale farming by corporate agriculture altered much of the Ash Meadows habitat. Today a main threat to the species is the lowering of the water table, which may move water supplies too deep into the soil for the plant to reach with its roots. Other threats include trampling by feral horses and cattle, off-road vehicle use, and non-native plant species.

References

fraxinipratensis
Flora of California
Flora of Nevada
Endemic flora of the United States
Natural history of the Mojave Desert
Natural history of Inyo County, California
Plants described in 1972

Grindelia fraxinipratensis


The Nommo or Nummo are primordial ancestral spirits in Dogon religion and cosmogony (sometimes referred to as demi deities) venerated by the Dogon people of Mali. The word Nommos is derived from a Dogon word meaning "to make one drink." Nommos are usually described as amphibious, hermaphroditic, fish-like creatures. Folk art depictions of Nommos show creatures with humanoid upper torsos, legs/feet, and a fish-like lower torso and tail. Nommos are also referred to as "Masters of the Water", "the Monitors", and "the Teachers". Nommo can be a proper name of an individual or can refer to the group of spirits as a whole. For purposes of this article, "Nommo" refers to a specific individual and "Nommos" is used to reference the group of beings.

Nommo mythology
Dogon religion and  says that Nommo was the first living creature created by the sky god Amma. Shortly after his creation, Nommo underwent a transformation and multiplied into four pairs of twins. One of the twins rebelled against the universal order created by Amma. To restore order to his creation, Amma sacrificed another of the Nommo progeny, whose body was dismembered and scattered throughout the universe. This dispersal of body parts is seen by the Dogon as the source for the proliferation of Binu shrines throughout the Dogons' traditional territory; wherever a body part fell, a shrine was erected.

In the latter part of the 1940s, French anthropologists Marcel Griaule and Germaine Dieterlen (who had been working with the Dogon since 1931) wrote that they were the recipients of additional, secret mythologies, concerning the Nommo. The Dogon reportedly related to Griaule and Dieterlen a belief that the Nommos were inhabitants of a world circling the star Sirius (see the main article on the Dogon for a discussion of their astronomical knowledge). The Nommos descended from the sky in a vessel accompanied by fire and thunder. After arriving, the Nommos created a reservoir of water and subsequently dived into the water. The Dogon legends state that the Nommos required a watery environment in which to live. According to the myth related to Griaule and Dieterlen: "The Nommo divided his body among men to feed them; that is why it is also said that as the universe "had drunk of his body," the Nommo also made men drink. He gave all his life principles to human beings."
The Nommo are also thought to be the origin of the first Hogon.

Controversy
Walter van Beek, an anthropologist studying the Dogon, found no evidence that they had any historical advanced knowledge of Sirius. Van Beek postulated that Griaule engaged in such leading and forceful questioning of his Dogon sources that new myths were created in the process by confabulation, writing that:

Carl Sagan has noted that the first reported association of the Dogon with the knowledge of Sirius as a binary star was in the 1940s, giving the Dogon ample opportunity to gain cosmological knowledge about Sirius and the Solar System from more scientifically advanced, terrestrial societies whom they had come in contact with. It has also been pointed out that binary star systems like Sirius are theorized to have a very narrow or non-existent Habitable zone, and thus a high improbability of containing a planet capable of sustaining life (particularly life as dependent on water as the Nommos were reported to be).

Daughter and colleague of Marcel Griaule, Geneviève Calame-Griaule, defended the project, dismissing Van Beek's criticism as misguided speculation rooted in an apparent ignorance of esoteric tradition. Van Beek continues to maintain that Griaule was wrong and cites other anthropologists who also reject his work.

The assertion that the Dogon knew of another star in the Sirius system, Emme Ya, or "larger than Sirius B but lighter and dim in magnitude" continues to be discussed. In 1995, gravitational studies indicated the possible existence of a red dwarf star circling around Sirius but further observations have failed to confirm this. Space journalist and sceptic James Oberg collected claims that have appeared concerning Dogon mythology in his 1982 book and concedes that such assumptions of recent acquisition are "entirely circumstantial" and have no foundation in documented evidence and concludes that it seems likely that the Sirius mystery will remain exactly what its title implies: a mystery. Earlier, other critics such as the astronomer Peter Pesch and his collaborator Roland Pesch and Ian Ridpath had attributed the supposed "advanced" astronomical knowledge of the Dogon to a mixture of over-interpretation by commentators and cultural contamination.

References in fiction
The belief structure surrounding Nommo, as well as  Robert Temple's conclusion from his pseudoarchaeology book The Sirius Mystery, were used by Larry Niven and Steven Barnes as the background for the role-playing game in The California Voodoo Game, the third volume in their Dream Park series.  Novelist Tom Robbins discusses Nommo and the Sirius mysteries in his novel Half Asleep in Frog Pajamas. Nommo and the Dogon are also widely mentioned in Philip K. Dick's novel V.A.L.I.S.. The Nommo are also mentioned in the second book of Ian Douglas's Legacy Trilogy (Battlespace) where the marines encounter the Nommo in the Sirius star system.  There are also references to the Nommo in Grant Morrison's comic book series, The Invisibles. A major character in the webcomic series Forming by Jesse Moynihan is inspired by (and named) Nommo.

Since 2017, the African Speculative Fiction Society has given out a prize called the Nommo Award to science fiction and fantasy writing from the African continent or by writers from the African diaspora.

References

External links
 General information on the Dogon and the Nommo

Dogon religion
West African legendary creatures
Ancient astronaut speculation
Alleged UFO-related entities
Ancient astronomy
Piscine and amphibian humanoids

Nommo


Goodeidae is  a family  of teleost fish endemic to Mexico and some areas of the United States. Many species are known as splitfins. This family contains about 50 species within 18 genera. The family is named after ichthyologist George Brown Goode (1851-1896).

Distribution

The family is divided into two subfamilies, the Goodeinae and the Empetrichthyinae. The Goodeinae are endemic to shallow freshwater habitats in Mexico, particularly along the Mesa Central area (especially the Lerma River basin, smaller rivers directly south of it and inland to around the Valley of Mexico region), with some species found in brackish fringes at the Pacific coast, and north to central Durango, central Sinaloa and north San Luis Potosí. There are about 45 species of Goodeinae in 16 genera (some list 2 additional genera). The Empetrichthyinae are found in the southwestern Great Basin in Nevada, the United States, and contains 4 species in 2 genera.

Physical information

The name "splitfin" comes from the fact that, in the male fish, the anterior rays of the anal fin are partly separated from rest of the fin.  Splitfins can be up to  in length, though most species are much smaller, around . Goodeid fish have internal fertilisation, with males positioning themselves with a flexible part of the front anal fin, separated by a notch, which makes up the andropodium. Embryos hatch out of the egg within the ovarian follicle, and possess trophotaeniae, ribbon-like structures that emerge from the cloaca in front of the anal fin, on the ventral surface of the juvenile. These allow the absorption of nutrients within the ovary (matrotrophy), and are shed by juveniles shortly after birth. Female goodeids do not store sperm, and so a copulation event must precede each pregnancy.

Conservation status

In recent years there has been a significant reduction in the range and size of Goodeid populations in this region, mainly due to anthropogenic disturbances, such as pollution, eutrophication, habitat modification and desiccation; recent estimates put habitat loss at 80% compared to historic ranges. The low economic importance of Goodeid fish to Mexican fisheries and industry has led to this family being largely ignored by conservation efforts, but their small size and the dedication of a small number of aquaria hobbyists has led to a recent increase in the amount of research dedicated to the family. These investigations have highlighted the implications for conservation efforts concerning other global freshwater ichthyofauna.

Several species are threatened or extinct according to the IUCN and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
 Vulnerable – bold characodon, darkedged splitfin, Goodea gracilis, Allotoca dugesii
 Endangered – bluetail splitfin, rainbow characodon, relict splitfin, Allotoca diazi, Manse Spring killifish
 Critically endangered – blackspot allotoca, Chapultepec splitfin, highland splitfin, Balsas splitfin, Tequila splitfin
 Extinct in the wild – butterfly splitfin, golden skiffia
 Extinct – Ash Meadows killifish, Parras characodon, Raycraft poolfish, Pahrump Ranch poolfish

Life cycle and evolution
The majority of Goodeid fish are viviparous, typically giving birth to live young. The family includes a number of popular aquarium fish, for example the redtail splitfin Xenotoca eiseni. Recent phylogenetic studies have put the age of this family at approximately 16.5 million years, with the majority of divergence occurring in the Miocene period. The speciosity of this family can be attributed to historical volcanic and geological disturbance in this region, which created suitable conditions for allopatric speciation of the fish.

Genera
The following genera are included in Goodeidae:

Subfamily Empetrichthyinae – springfishes and poolfishes
 Crenichthys – springfishes
 Empetrichthys – poolfishes

Subfamily Goodeinae – typical goodeids and splitfins
 Allodontichthys
 Alloophorus – Bulldog goodeid
 Allotoca – typical allotocas
 Ameca – Butterfly splitfin, butterfly goodeid
 Ataeniobius – Striped goodeid, bluetail goodea
 Chapalichthys
 Characodon – characodons
 Girardinichthys
 Goodea
 Hubbsina
 Ilyodon
 Skiffia – skiffias
 Xenoophorus – Relict splitfin
 Xenotaenia – Leopard splitfin
 Xenotoca
 Zoogoneticus

References

Viviparous fish
Freshwater fish of Mexico
Freshwater fish of the United States
Ray-finned fish families
Taxa named by David Starr Jordan
Taxa named by Charles Henry Gilbert

Goodeidae


The Allgäu Alps () are a mountain range in the Northern Limestone Alps, located in Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg in Germany and Tyrol and Vorarlberg in Austria. The range lies directly east of Lake Constance.

Character

The mountain range is characterised by an unusual variety of rock formations and consequently a rich tapestry of landscapes, in particular, the steep "grass mountains" (Grasberge) of the Allgäu Alps with gradients of up to 70°. Its flora is amongst the most varied in the whole Alpine region and its accessibility by lifts and paths is outstanding. The mountain paths (Höhenwege) running from hut to hut are well known and hikers can spend seven to ten days walking in the mountains without descending to inhabited valleys. Thanks to its location on the northern edge of the Alps, the region has relatively high precipitation and is the rainiest in Germany. In winter the Allgäu Alps – at least in the higher regions – are comparatively snowy. Even a small glacier and several permanent snowfields survive.

The Allgäu Alps and the Allgäu region are not identical. The Allgäu is a landscape that, according to present-day understanding, is (almost entirely, but see Tannheimer Tal) on German soil. By contrast, the Allgäu Alps are a mountain range of the Alps whose definition falls out of the Alpine Club classification of the Eastern Alps. Parts of the Allgäu Alps, including its highest summit, lie on Austrian soil. The Allgäu region, however, extends far beyond the Allgäu Alps to the north and northwest.

Neighbouring ranges
The Allgäu Alps border on the Bregenz Forest Mountains in the west, the Lechquellen Mountains in the southwest, the Lechtal Alps in the south and southeast and the Ammergau Alps in the east. All these ranges belong, like the Allgäu Alps themselves, to the Northern Limestone Alps. In the north the Allgäu Alps give way to the Alpine Foreland.

Boundary
The boundary of the range is only unambiguously clear in the east, southeast and south.
The river Lech forms the boundary here from where it leaves the Alps and enters the Alpine Foreland near Füssen upstream to its confluence with the Krumbach near Warth (Vorarlberg). The Krumbach forms the boundary as far as the Hochtann Mountain Pass. It then continues along the Seebach and Bregenzer Ach streams to Au-Rehmen.

The border of the Allgäu Alps in the west, where it transitions to the Bregenz Forest Mountains is not orographically distinct. The Alpine Club classification of the Eastern Alps, published in 1984, draws the boundary as follows: from Au-Rehmen along the Rehmerbach upstream to the Stogger Saddle. Then it descends, following the Osterguntenbach, the Schönenbach and the Subersach to its confluence with the Bregenzer Ach and along this river to where it joins the Weißach or event to Lake Constance.

The limit of the Allgäu Alps in the north is indistinct. One more restricted variant runs from the confluence of the Weißach and Bregenzer Ach along the Weißach to Oberstaufen. It then continues along the Konstanzer Ache and the Großer Alpsee lake to Immenstadt and onwards through the villages of Rettenberg, Wertach, Nesselwang to Pfronten-Ried. Then it continues along the Vils stream to where it discharges into the Lech near the town of Vils. However, there are more mountains north of this line which, albeit not especially high - are made of the same rock as the larger mountains of the Allgäu Alps and were uplifted by the same orogenic processes. If these ridges are counted as part of the Allgäu Alps, then the northern boundary runs from Lake Constance near Lindau to Isny and northwards around the Adelegg to Kempten. From there it goes via Nesselwang and Füssen to the Lech, the boundary running north of the Falken ridge.

The Hochtann Mountain Pass joins the Allgäu Alps to the Lechquellen. The Stogger Saddle is the link with the Bregenz Forest Mountains.

Topography
The mountain ranges of the Northern Limestone Alps can be divided into two categories in terms of their topography: mountain chains and plateaux. With the exception of the area around the limestone plateau of the Hoher Ifen, the western mountain ranges, including the Allgäu Alps, form mountain chains unlike the eastern plateau ranges, such as the Lofer Steinberg mountains.

The only mountain chain proper runs through the south-eastern and eastern part of the Allgäu Alps and forms the Austro-German border. This main chain, with a brief interruption in the area of Rauheck, is built from a very widespread rock formation, known as main dolomite. It begins at the saddle of the Schrofen Pass at the head of the Rappenalpen valley and runs largely in a straight course to the Oberjoch saddle.

A large number of side ridges branch off the main chain. Heading southwest are the: Hohe Licht and Peischel Group to the south and east, the Himmelschrofen ridge to the north, the Hornbach Range to the east, the Fürschießer to the northwest, the Kegelköpfe to the northwest, the Höfats Group to the northwest, the Kanzberg ridge to the east, the Daumen Group with its branches to the north, the east and the Rosskar Group to the east and the Leilach Group with its branches to the east and northeast.

The main chain of the Allgäu Alps is not in the middle of the mountain range, but on its southern and south-eastern perimeter. It follows that the side ridges branch off to the north and north-west are longer than those branching to the south and east. The valleys leading from the north to the main chain, are also longer than the valleys to its south. This has a significant impact on mountain tourism. For example, it is quicker to get to large parts of the main chain from the south than from the north, especially bearing in mind that several valleys south of Oberstdorf and near Hinterstein are out of bounds to private cars. It is, for example, only 3.5 km as the crow flies from the summit of the Hohes Licht to the Lech valley road to the south. To the north, however, the nearest public highway is 8.5 km away. For the Hochvogel, the corresponding distances are 3 km to the south, but 11 km to the north. In addition, the starting points for walks south of the main ridge are often situated higher than those to the north. Despite these clear factors, hikers still approach the Allgäu Alps, including their main chain, predominantly from the north, i.e. from the German side.

In the western part of the Allgäu Alps there is no continuous main ridge. From the Fellhorn to the Widderstein, there is a ridge in front of the main chain, which terminates in a semicircle at the head of the Kleines Walsertal valley. The mountain chain character of the Allgäu Alps is interrupted by the Ifen and the Gottesacker Plateau (Cretaceous rocks). Here a karst plateau has been formed - uniquely for the Allgäu Alps and beyond. Further north the Flysch Mountains again form small chains. This is followed by Nagelfluh chain which is made of molasse. This is the most attractive molasse mountain range sculpted in the entire Alps. The lower mountains further north also form small chains.

The central part of the Tannheim group is made of Wetterstein limestone, a reef limestone. This accounts for the isolated location of these mountains which are not topographically connected to the main chain of the Allgäu Alps. Within the Tannheim group there is a local main ridge between Aggenstein and Hahnenkamm. The mountains to the east and north of it are individual mountain massifs.

Subgroups

The older, out-of-print editions of the Alpine Club Guide for the Allgäu Alps divide the range into the Main Chain of the Allgäu (Allgäuer Hauptkamm) and the Side Ridges and Other Groups (Seitenkämme und übrige Gruppen).

The Main Chain of the Allgäu is divided into eight subgroups: the Rappen Alps, the Hochlicht Group, Peischel Group, Mädelegabel Group, Krottenspitze Group, Wilden Group, Hochvogel Group and Rauhhorn Ridge (Rauhhornzug).

The Side Ridges and Other Groups comprise ten subgroups: the Hornbach chain, Höfats Group, Daumen Group, Roßzahn Group, Vilsalpsee-(Leilach) Group, the mountains between Breitach and Stillach (Schafalpen and Warmatsgund), the Walsertal Mountains (Walsertaler Berge) left of the Breitach, foothills west of the Iller, foothills east of the Iller and the Tannheim Mountains (Tannheimer Berge).

The current, 16th edition, of the Alpine Club Guide for the Allgäu Alps adopts a coarser division into only twelve subgroups. A direct comparison between the subgroups of the old schema and the subdivisions of the new one is not possible, because the boundaries between the subgroups have been redrawn in places.

Allgäu Prealps west of the Iller
The southern boundary of this subrange runs from Oberstdorf via Rohrmoos to Sibratsgfäll. Its highest peak is the Hochgrat, . These mountains are a popular walking area. Its rock formation is varied. In the north it is dominated by molasse. This forms the well known Nagelfluh chain with mountains like the Hochgrat, the Rindalphorn, the Stuiben and the Steineberg. The increasingly lower mountains north of the Nagelfluh chain are also made of molasse, as is the adjoining southern chain around the Girenkopf and the Siplingerkopf.

The summits rising to the south consist of flysch. This is the more northerly of the two flysch zones in the Allgäu Alps. The mountains have a more gentle, rounded shape. As a result, they are a popular area in winter for ski and snowshoe tours. The best known mountain of this flysch zone is the Riedberger Horn, which is easy to climb from the Riedberg Pass. The so-called "horns" (Hörner) - the Ofterschwanger Horn, Sigiswanger Horn, Rangiswanger Horn and Bolsterlanger Horn - also belong to the flysch zone.

South of the Riedberg Pass the rock changes again. This is the start of the Schratten limestone of the chalk formation, the rock which forms the prominent peak of Besler. Its summit can be reached via an exposed incline or somewhat more easily using a detour from the south. The Besler, like many other mountains of this subrange, offers a good view of the main chain of the Allgäu Alps.

Northwestern Walsertal Mountains
The valley known as the Kleinwalsertal forms the southern edge of the Northwestern Walsertal Mountains (Nordwestliche Walsertaler Berge); the valley running from Oberstdorf via Rohrmoos to Sibratsgfäll is its northern demarcation. The Northwestern and Southeastern Walsertal Mountains meet at the Üntschen Pass. The highest peak is the Hohe Ifen, . This mountain, together with the neighbouring Gottesacker plateau is also the most striking feature of this subrange and is formed from rocks of the Cretaceous, unlike the remaining mountains of the subgroup which are built of flysch. This is a part of the southern flysch zone of the Allgäu Alps. The Hohe Ifen and Gottesacker plateau separate the southern from the northern flysch zones. Thus the Hohe Ifen and the Gottesacker plateau form a geological window through which the next oldest rock below the flysch layer (Flyschdecke) comes to light.

Southeastern Walsertal Mountains
The subgroup of the Southeastern Walsertal Mountains (Südöstliche Walsertaler Berge) is bounded in the north by the Kleine Walsertal valley. To the east and southeast are the valleys of the Stillach and the Rappenalpenbach. The Üntschen Pass connects the Southeastern Walsertal Mountains with the Northwestern Walsertal Mountains. The Schrofen Pass is the bridge to the central chain of the Allgäu Alps. The highest mountain in the subgroup is the Widderstein, 2,533 m. Other notable peaks include Mindelheimer Köpfl. The range is home to the well-known hiking and skiing area of the Fellhorn and Kanzelwand ski lifts and the famous Mindelheimer Klettersteig. Very popular areas, such as the Fellhorn or in the vicinity of the Mindelheimer Hut, contrast with areas of greater solitude opposite in the mountains northeast of the Fiderescharte col. The Fellhorn is located in the southern flysch zone of the Allgäu Alps. The ridgeline from the Widderstein via the Schafalpenköpfe to the Griesgundkopf consists of main dolomite. The subrange also contains lias, for example, at the Elfer.

Main Chain
The sub-group of the Main Chain of the Allgäu Alps (Zentraler Hauptkamm) extends from the Schrofen Pass to the Mädelejoch saddle and forms the centre of the Allgäu Alps. The famous Heilbronn Way runs along here. Famous peaks such as the triumvirate of the Trettachspitze, Mädelegabel and Hochfrottspitze or Hohes Licht (the highest peak of the subgroup at ) are located in this sub-range. However, there are also isolated areas such as the Himmelschrofen ridge and Peischel Group which lies to the south alongside the Lech Valley. The main peaks are formed from main dolomite. This so-called Lechtal Nappe (Lechtaldecke) has been pushed onto the Allgäu Beds made of lias. There are examples of this overthrust plate in many places, for example, in the vicinity of the Kempten Hut (Trettach Gully) or the Rappensee Hut (Linkerskopf). In some cases even a double overthrust of the rocks may be observed. Thus, the northern part of Himmelschrofen ridge is made of main dolomite. The southern part consists of lias rock of the Allgäu Beds that have been pushed over the main dolomite. In turn the main dolomite has been thrust over the Allgäu Beds again.

Allgäu Prealps east of the Iller
This sub-group is located north of the Oberjoch saddle. The Iller valley forms its western boundary, the Ostrach valley delineates it to the south and the Vilstal valley to the east. The highest mountain is the Grünten, . These mountains offer a scenic backdrop for leisure activities, especially for hikers. They also have the advantage of being snow-free for longer than the adjoining subranges of the Allgäu Alps to the south. The mountains consist of four rock groups. In the northernmost ridges molasse is dominant. In places flysch is represented, as is main dolomite. And finally, there are the Schratten limestones of the Cretaceous period on the Grünten, making it a geological relative of the Hoher Ifen.

Tannheim Mountains
The subgroup of the Tannheim Mountains (Tannheimer Berge) was still counted in the first half of the last century as an independent mountain range in the Northern Limestone Alps. In places the name "Vils Alps" (Vilser Alpen) was common. Only later was it considered part of the Allgäu Alps. The highest mountain is the Köllenspitze, . The broad Tannheim valley clearly separates the Tannheim Mountains from the rest of the Allgäu Alps. There are geological differences too. Whilst large areas of the Allgäu Alps are made of brittle main dolomite or Jurassic rocks of the Allgäu Beds which must also be carefully handled, Wetterstein limestone, a reef limestone, dominates the main part of the Tannheim Mountains. This is a solid rock. As a result, the Tannheim Mountains, with their well known peaks, the Rote Flüh, Gimpel, Köllenspitze and Gehrenspitze, are a renowned climbing area. The subrange is also popular with mountain hikers. Especially in the early summer, when the main chain of the Allgäu Alps is still snow-covered, there are many paths here that are already passable.

Falkenstein ridge

The Falkenstein ridge (Kamm des Falkensteins) is a very small and not especially high subgroup on the northeast edge of the Allgäu Alps between Pfronten and Füssen. Locally it is called the Falkensteinkamm or even the Zirmgrat. The Vils river separates the subrange from the Tannheim Mountains. On the far side of the River Lech are the Ammergau Alps.

The highest peak is the Salober or Zwölferkopf (also Zirmgrat), (1,293 m). The well known and legendary lake of Alatsee is located in these mountains, the larger Weißensee lies on their northern edge. The mountain chain may be cross on footpaths. Views are somewhat restricted due to trees. As a result, on the predominant Wetterstein limestone there are, however, striking rock formations. The south side is a rugged rock face in places.

Vilsalpsee mountains
The Vilsalpsee mountains (Vilsalpseeberge) are located in the northeast of the Allgäu Alps between the Oberjoch and Notländ saddles. They are bounded by the Tannheim, Lech, Tyrolean Schwarzwasser and Ostrach valleys. The highest peak is the Leilachspitze, 2,274 m, and main dolomite is the predominant rock. The lake of Vilsalpsee, accessible from the Tannheim valley, lies in the middle of the subgroup. In the literature, this sub-range is sometimes also counted as part of the Tannheim Mountains. Mountain paths pass through the range, but many summits are hardly visited. They may be climbed by experiences mountain walkers without too much difficulty despite the lack of trails to their summits.

Daumen Group
The Daumen Group is located east of the Iller valley. The Himmeleck Saddle links them with the other sub-ranges. Apart from the Iller valley, the Ostrach, Bergündle and Oybach valleys form its boundaries. The highest summit is the Großer Daumen, . The famous Nebelhorn cable car mountain lies within this subgroup as does the Hindelanger Klettersteig. Mountain paths with panoramic views cross the southern part of the Daumen Group. Geologically they are split three ways. The crest around the Nebelhorn and the Großer Daumen consist of main dolomite. The Sonnenköpfe are formed from flysch. And lias rocks, with their steep grass-covered slopes, predominate south of the Nebelhorn. Well known peaks in this region are the Schneck, the Himmelhorn and the Laufbacher Eck.

Höfats and Rauheck Group
The Höfats and Rauheck Group cover that part of the Allgäu main chain between the Märzle and Hornbachjoch saddles. Their defining valleys are those of the Trettach, Traufbach, Oybach, Hornbach and Jochbach. The highest peak is the Rauheck, 2,384 m. The steep grass mountains of lias rock dominate here more than in any other subgroup of the Allgäu Alps. The best known mountain and the symbol of the Allgäu Alps – is the Höfats. Other grass mountains are the Rauheck and Kreuzeck on the main crest and the Kegelköpfe. Only in the northern spurs of the Höfats is main dolomite the bedrock. The mountain path between the Kemptner Hut and Prinz Luitpold Haus runs through the subgroup. Otherwise there are hardly any mountains that are accessible on trails.

Hochvogel and Rosszahn Group
This sub-range also covers part of the main chain of the Allgäu, this time between the saddles of Hornbachjoch and Notländ. The Himmeleck is the boundary with the Daumen Group. The surrounding valleys are those of the Jochbach, Hornbach, Lech, Schwarzwasser and Bärgündle. The subgroup is formed predominantly of main dolomite. Its highest peak is the Hochvogel, 2,592 m which is also considered the most attractively shaped mountain in the Allgäu Alps, especially when seen from the north. The Hochvogel, with its main base, the Prinz Luitpold Haus, is also the most climbed mountain in this sub-range by a long chalk. All other peaks in the surrounding area are considerably lower and much less popular. In hardly any other subgroup is the contrast between mass tourism and absolute tranquility so marked. Only a few kilometres from the Hochvogel are the summits of the Rosszahn Group which scarcely receive any visitors.

Rauhhorn ridge
The Rauhhorn ridge is the eastern spur of the Allgäu main chain east of Bad Hindelang. With its numerous summits the mountain ridge runs roughly from south to north. Its western slopes rise above the valley of the Ostrach. To the east runs the long valley of the Schwarzwasser from the foot of the Sattelköpfe and which empties into the Lech south of Weißenbach and should not be confused with its better known counterpart in the Kleinwalsertal. A walk on the Jubilee Trail between the Willersalpe and Prinz Luitpold Haus takes the visitor along a mountain path at considerable height along most of the chain. From the high saddle of Oberjoch the linking trail runs to the Jubilee Trail via Iseler, Bschießer and Ponten to the Willersalpe.

Hornbach chain
The Hornbach chain is the largest side ridge of the main chain of the Allgäu Alps. This subgroup branches from the main ridge at the Öfnerspitze. In the south it is bounded by the Lech valley, in the north by the eponymous en Hornbach valley. In the Hornbach chain is the highest peak of the Allgäu Alps, the Großer Krottenkopf, 2,656 m, and several other peaks that belong to the 20 highest mountains in the Allgäu Alps. Despite its importance the Hornbach chain is rather isolated. Its summits consist of main dolomite. Its peaks and high cirques alternate in exemplary fashion. Many – also very high – summits in the Hornbach chain receive only a few visits per year.

Territorial division
The Allgäu Alps as a geographical unit and mountain range of the Alps span two countries and four federal states. The Bavarian portion accounts for slightly more than half of the total area and coincides to a large extent with the catchment area of the River Iller. The Baden-Württemberg portion comprises only the extreme northwest of the Allgäu Alps, in its broader sense, by the Adelegg. The Tyrolean portion largely comprises the Lech river and its tributaries and the Vorarlberg part centres on the catchment area of Bregenzer Ach.

At one point, the three states of Bavaria, Tyrol and Vorarlberg meet. This tripoint (Dreiländerpunkt) is relatively unspectacular. It is located a few metres west of the Gehrner Berg. This rather unspectacular elevation is 1.5 km north of the Vorarlberg village of Warth and 4 km west of the Biberkopf.

The border between Bavaria and the Tyrol does not precisely follow the European watershed between the North Sea and the Black Sea. For example, the German village of Balderschwang is on the western side of the watershed. Conversely, the Kleines Walsertal belonging to Vorarlberg is on the eastern side of the watershed. The border between Bavaria and Tyrol generally follows the main chain of the Allgäu Alps, however.

The Bavarian part of the Allgäu Alps is located entirely within the province of Swabia. The county of Oberallgäu incorporates the central area around the Iller; the county of Ostallgäu contains the northeastern areas such as Tannheim group, and the county of Lindau includes the northwestern part of the Allgäu Alps in its broader sense.

The Tyrolean part of the Allgäu Alps is located entirely within Reutte and the Vorarlberg part is entirely within Bregenz.

Looking at the Allgäu Alps in a wider sense, including the Adelegg, the German federal state of Baden-Württemberg also has share. This element is located within the administrative region of Tübingen and the county of Ravensburg.

The Kleines Walsertal in Vorarlberg and the village of Jungholz in Tyrol are German customs union territories. Both areas are accessible by road only from German territory. Although the Kleines Walsertal has a relatively long border with the rest of Vorarlberg, high mountains have prevented a road connection being built. In the 1960s and 1970s there were plans for a road tunnel between the Kleines Walsertal and the valley of the Bregenzerach. However, the local population turned down the tunnel, on the one hand, because the Kleines Walsertal would have become a corridor for through traffic and, on the other hand, it would still have been further to the central locations of Vorarlberg than the centres of the Allgäu. The village of Jungholz is only connected at one point with the rest of the Tyrol: on the top of the Sorgschrofen.

Peaks
All independent summits with a topographic prominence of over 30 metres are given at the List of mountains of the Allgäu Alps.

The ten highest peaks
The highest peaks of the Allgäu Alps are located either on Austrian soil or on the Austro-German border.

Other well-known summits
In the Allgäu Alps there are over 600 named summits with spot heights. Amongst the better known are the following (in order of height excluding the top ten). Those marked with an asterisk (*) are outside the narrower definition of the Allgäu Alps (see Boundary section):

 Trettachspitze – 2,595 m
 Hochvogel – 2,591 m
 Großer Widderstein – 2,533 m
 Berge der guten Hoffnung – 2,392 m
 Rauheck – 2,385 m
 Geißhorn – 2,366 m
 Schafalpenköpfe – up to 2,320 m
 Großer Daumen – 2,280 m
 Leilachspitze – 2,276 m
 Schneck – 2,268 m
 Angererkopf – 2,263 m
 Höfats – 2,259 m
 Gaishorn – 2,247 m
 Rauhhorn - 2,240 m
 Kellenspitze – 2,238 m
 Hoher Ifen – 2,230 m
 Nebelhorn – 2,224 m
 Sechszinkenspitze – 2,291 m
 Lärchwand – 2,187 m
 Gimpel – 2,176 m
 Nördliches Höllhorn – 2,145 m
 Südliches Höllhorn – 2,145 m
 Rote Flüh – 2,111 m
 Alpkopf – 2,102 m
 Schänzlekopf – 2,070 m
 Kanzelwand – 2,058 m
 Große Schlicke – 2,056 m
 Schänzlespitze – 2,052 m
 Seichereck – 2,044 m
 Fellhorn – 2,038 m
 Obere Gottesackerwände – 2,033 m
 Rotspitze – 2,033 m
 Spichererkopf – 2,024 m
 Bschießer - 2000 m
 Walmendinger Horn – 1,990 m
 Aggenstein – 1,987 m
 Mußkopf – 1,968 m
 Rubihorn – 1,957 m
 Hüttenkopf – 1,949 m
 Seeköpfle – 1,920 m
 Mädelekopf – 1,909 m
 Kühgundkopf – 1,907 m
 Breitenberg – 1,893 m
 Breitenberg – 1,838 m
 Hochgrat – 1,834 m
 Riedberger Horn – 1,786 m
 Känzele – 1,765 m
 Grünten – 1,738 m
 Sonnenkopf – 1,712 m
 Wannenkopf – 1,712 m
 Wertacher Hörnle – 1,695 m
 Steineberg – 1,683 m
 Mittagspitze – 1,682 m
 Besler – 1,680 m
 Älpelekopf – 1,606 m
 Immenstädter Horn – 1,490 m
 Mittagberg – 1,451 m
 Ofterschwanger Horn – 1,406 m
 * Schwarzer Grat – 1,118 m
 Riedholzer Kugel – 1,065 m
 * Pfänder – 1,063 m
 Iberg – 960 m

Grass mountains
The following are the so-called "grass mountains" (Grasberge), made from rocks of the Black Jurassic, whose mountainsides have gradients of up to 70°. They are the distinguishing feature of the Allgäu Alps and are not found in any other mountain group as prominently as they are here (listed in alphabetical order).

References

External links

The Allgäu Alps on SummitPost

Mountain ranges of the Alps
Northern Limestone Alps
Mountain and hill ranges of Baden-Württemberg
Mountain ranges of Bavaria
Mountain ranges of Tyrol (state)
Mountain ranges of Vorarlberg

Allgäu Alps


Sanna Abubkheet (; born December 7, 1984 in Deir al-Balah) is a retired female Palestinian middle-distance runner, who specialized in the 800 metres. Abubkheet qualified for the Palestinian squad in the women's 800 metres at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens by receiving a wild card entry slot from IAAF. Running against seven other athletes in heat three, Abubkheet crossed the finish line by more than half a minute behind leader and top medal favorite Kelly Holmes of Great Britain with a seventh-place time in 2:32.10. Abubkheet failed to advance into the semifinals as she placed farther from two automatic slots for the next round and ranked no. 42 overall in the prelims. Building a historic milestone as the first female athlete from Gaza Strip to compete at the Olympics, Abubkheet was appointed by the Palestine Olympic Committee to carry the nation's flag in the opening ceremony.

References

External links

1984 births
Living people
Palestinian female middle-distance runners
Olympic athletes for Palestine
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics

People from Deir al-Balah

Sanna Abubkheet


Swan Bluff is an unincorporated community in Hickman County, in the U.S. state of Tennessee.

History
A post office called Swan Bluff was established in 1874, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 1914. The community was named from a nearby natural bluff.

References

Unincorporated communities in Hickman County, Tennessee
Unincorporated communities in Tennessee

Swan Bluff, Tennessee