In chemistry, the term phosphonium (more obscurely: phosphinium) describes polyatomic cations with the chemical formula  (where R is a hydrogen or an alkyl, aryl, or halide group).  These cations have tetrahedral structures.  The salts are generally colorless or take the color of the anions.

Types of phosphonium cations

Protonated phosphines
The parent phosphonium  is  as found in the iodide salt, phosphonium iodide. Salts of the parent  are rarely encountered, but this ion is an intermediate in the preparation of the industrially useful tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride:
PH3 + HCl + 4 CH2O →

Many organophosphonium salts are produced by protonation of primary, secondary, and tertiary phosphines:
PR3 + H+ →
The basicity of phosphines follows the usual trends, with R = alkyl being more basic than R = aryl.

Tetraorganophosphonium cations
The most common phosphonium compounds have four organic substituents attached to phosphorus. The quaternary phosphonium cations include tetraphenylphosphonium, (C6H5)4P+ and tetramethylphosphonium .

Quaternary phosphonium cations () are produced by alkylation of organophosphines. For example, the reaction of triphenylphosphine with methyl bromide gives methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide:
PPh3 + CH3Br → [CH3PPh3]+Br−
The methyl group in such phosphonium salts is mildly acidic, with a pKa estimated to be near 15:
[CH3PPh3]+ + base → CH2=PPh3 +  [Hbase]+
This deprotonation reaction gives Wittig reagents.

Phosphorus pentachloride and related compounds
Solid phosphorus pentachloride is an ionic compound, formulated , that is, a salt containing the tetrachlorophosphonium cation. Dilute solutions dissociate according to the following equilibrium:
PCl5   + Cl−

Triphenylphosphine dichloride (Ph3PCl2) exists both as the pentacoordinate phosphorane and as the chlorotriphenylphosphonium chloride, depending on the medium. The situation is similar to that of PCl5. It is an ionic compound (PPh3Cl)+Cl− in polar solutions and a molecular species with trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in apolar solution.

Alkoxyphosphonium salts: Arbuzov reaction
The Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction is the chemical reaction of a trivalent phosphorus ester with an alkyl halide to form a pentavalent phosphorus species and another alkyl halide.  Commonly, the phosphorus substrate is a phosphite ester (P(OR)3) and the alkylating agent is an alkyl iodide.

Uses

Textile finishes

Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride has industrial importance in the production of crease-resistant and flame-retardant finishes on cotton textiles and other cellulosic fabrics. A flame-retardant finish can be prepared from THPC by the Proban Process, in which THPC is treated with urea. The urea condenses with the hydroxymethyl groups on THPC. The phosphonium structure is converted to phosphine oxide as the result of this reaction.

Phase-transfer catalysts and precipitating agents
Organic phosphonium cations are lipophilic and can be useful in phase transfer catalysis, much like quaternary ammonium salts. Salts or inorganic anions and tetraphenylphosphonium () are soluble in polar organic solvents. One example is the perrhenate (PPh4[ReO4]).

Reagents for organic synthesis
Wittig reagents are used in organic synthesis. They are derived from phosphonium salts. A strong base such as butyllithium or sodium amide is required for the deprotonation:
[Ph3P+CH2R]X− + C4H9Li → Ph3P=CHR + LiX + C4H10

One of the simplest ylides is methylenetriphenylphosphorane (Ph3P=CH2).

The compounds Ph3PX2 (X = Cl, Br) are used in the Kirsanov reaction.
The Kinnear–Perren reaction is used to prepare alkylphosphonyl dichlorides (RP(O)Cl2) and esters (RP(O)(OR′)2). A key intermediate are alkyltrichlorophosphonium salts, obtained by the alkylation of phosphorus trichloride:
RCl + PCl3 + AlCl3 → [RPCl3]+

Ammonia production for "green hydrogen"
The main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia today is the thermal Haber-Bosch process, which generally uses fossil gas as a source of hydrogen, which is then combined with nitrogen to produce ammonia. In 2021, Professor Doug MacFarlane and collaborators Alexandr Simonov and Bryan Suryanto of Monash University devised a method of producing green ammonia that has the potential to make Haber-Bosch plants obsolete. Their process is similar to the electrolysis approach for producing hydrogen. While working with local company Verdant, which wanted to make bleach from saltwater by electrolysis, Suryanto discovered that a tetraalkyl phosphonium salt allowed the efficient production of ammonia at room temperature.

See also
 Ammonium ()
 Arsonium ()
 Hydronium (H3O+)
 Onium compounds
 Organophosphorus chemistry

References

Cations
Functional groups
Phosphonium compounds

Phosphonium


Kauffman Motor Vehicle Company was a pioneer brass era, American automobile company, built in Miamisburg, Ohio, from 1909 until 1912.

History
The company was begun in 1906 as the Kauffman Buggy Company, providing bodies and chassis for Hatfield, located across town. In 1908, as Hatfield ran into financial difficulties, the two firms merged, to form the Advance Motor Vehicle Company.

Under the Advance name, they introduced a four-passenger roadster with a refined version of Hartfield's four-cylinder on a 104 in (2642 mm) wheelbase. The Model C sold for US$1000,

Advance became the Kauffman Motor Car Company in 1911, and folded the next year.

Notes

Sources
Clymer, Floyd. Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877–1925. New York: Bonanza Books, 1950.
Kimes, Beverly Rae. The Standard Catalog of American Cars, 1805–1942. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications, 1989. .

See also
List of automobile manufacturers
List of defunct automobile manufacturers

Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Ohio
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
1900s cars
Brass Era vehicles
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1906
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1912
History of Ohio
Miamisburg, Ohio
Defunct companies based in Dayton, Ohio
1906 establishments in Ohio
1912 disestablishments in Ohio
1910s cars

Kauffman Motor Vehicle Company


Amanda Rose Saccomanno (born July 18, 1990) is an American professional wrestler, television personality, and fitness and figure competitor. She is best known for her time in WWE, where she performed under the ring name Mandy Rose, and was a former NXT Women's Champion and the leader of Toxic Attraction.

Rose began a professional fitness competition career in 2013 and became a bodybuilding competitor the following year. In 2015, she placed second on the WWE competition Tough Enough, after which she signed a contract with WWE and joined the cast of the reality television show Total Divas. After a brief stint in WWE's developmental territory, NXT, Rose made her main roster debut in November 2017 as part of the short-lived faction Absolution with Paige and Sonya Deville. For approximately three years, Rose competed alongside Deville and they were known as Fire and Desire. The two disbanded in March 2020 at WrestleMania 36 and eventually had their own feud that culminated in a Loser Leaves WWE match, which Rose won. After a brief association with Dana Brooke in 2021, she returned to NXT and formed an alliance with Gigi Dolin and Jacy Jayne, dubbed Toxic Attraction. In October at Halloween Havoc, Rose defeated Raquel González to win her first title in her career, the NXT Women's Championship. She was released from the company in December 2022.

Early life
Amanda Rose Saccomanno was born in the New York City suburb of Westchester County, New York. The youngest and only daughter of four children, her older brother, Richard, died on October 3, 2022, after several years battling against depression. She has Irish and Italian ancestry. Her childhood nickname was "Hamburgers". She attended Yorktown High School, where she participated in dance. She later earned her bachelor's degree at Iona College, majoring in speech pathology. She entered her first fitness competition in 2013, and took first place in the World Bodybuilding Fitness & Fashion Boston Show. She was also crowned the 2014 World Beauty Fitness & Fashion Bikini Champion.

Professional wrestling career

WWE (2015–2022)

Tough Enough and NXT (2015–2017)
Saccomanno was a contestant in the sixth season of the WWE competition WWE Tough Enough, which began airing in June 2015. She was at risk of elimination on the July 28 episode, but was saved by judge The Miz. During the season finale, she adopted the ring name Mandy Rose, lost a match against Alicia Fox, and placed second overall, after winners Sara Lee and Josh Bredl.

After the Tough Enough season finale, it was revealed that Rose had signed a five-year contract with the company. Rose made her in-ring debut for WWE's developmental territory, NXT, during a six-woman tag team match at a live event in Venice, Florida on January 30, 2016. On the August 17 episode of NXT, Rose debuted in a six-woman tag team match along with Daria Berenato and Alexa Bliss, in which they were defeated by Carmella, Liv Morgan, and Nikki Glencross. On the September 28 episode of NXT, Rose lost her first televised singles match to Ember Moon.

Fire and Desire (2017–2021)

On the November 20, 2017, episode of Raw, Rose joined Sonya Deville and Paige as they attacked Sasha Banks, Bayley, Mickie James, and Alexa Bliss. A week later, the trio's name was revealed as Absolution. On January 28, 2018, at the Royal Rumble, Rose entered the first women's Royal Rumble match at number 4, and she was the first woman eliminated from the match by Lita. In February, Rose took part of the inaugural women's Elimination Chamber match, which was won by Bliss. At WrestleMania 34, Rose participated in the WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal, which would be won by Naomi.

Both Rose and Deville were drafted to SmackDown during the 2018 WWE Superstar Shake-up, with Paige, who had retired and become the SmackDown general manager, subsequently declaring that Absolution was over. Rose then continued competing in various tag team matches alongside Deville. In October, Rose eliminated Deville before she herself was eliminated by Carmella in a battle royal at the inaugural all women's pay-per-view, Evolution. At Survivor Series in November, Rose competed in her first traditional five-on-five elimination match as part of Team SmackDown in a losing effort. Rose later feuded with Naomi after she flirted with Naomi's husband, Jimmy Uso, to "ruin Naomi's life", which involved Rose hinting at kissing Uso as well as Naomi attacking Rose in a hotel room to which Rose invited Uso. The rivalry continued with Rose and Naomi eliminating each other from the women's Royal Rumble match at the namesake event in January 2019, where Rose managed to last 25:50. The two exchanged victories over each other in February.

At Elimination Chamber in February 2019, Rose and Deville competed in a six-team Elimination Chamber match for the inaugural WWE Women's Tag Team Championship, starting the match and becoming the final team eliminated by Sasha Banks and Bayley, who won the match in the process. Rose participated in the second WrestleMania Women's Battle Royal during the WrestleMania 35 pre-show in a losing effort. She competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match at the namesake pay-per-view on May 19. Deville, who was ringside, unsuccessfully tried to climb the ladder and help Rose in the match, which was won by Bayley. On the September 3 episode of SmackDown, Rose and Deville, now dubbed Fire & Desire, earned a match at Clash of Champions for the Women's Tag Team Championship by defeating Alexa Bliss and Nikki Cross. At the event, the two failed to capture the title.

In December 2019, Rose entered a romance storyline with Otis, with Otis helping Rose during her matches. She later agreed to a date with him on Valentine's Day, but Dolph Ziggler appeared in Otis's place during the date, which resulted in a romance between Rose and Ziggler. The storyline then evolved into a love triangle involving a feud between Otis and Ziggler over Rose. It was revealed on SmackDown in April that Deville was working with Ziggler to keep Otis from Rose. At WrestleMania 36, Rose interfered during a match between Otis and Ziggler by attacking Deville, who was at ringside, and Ziggler, which helped Otis score the victory. Following the match, she and Otis shared a kiss. On the May 22 episode of SmackDown, she and Otis lost to Deville and Ziggler in a tag team match. On July 31, Rose's hair was cut by Deville during a backstage attack, which led to Rose debuting a new look with shorter hair the following week. That same month, she defeated Deville in a Loser Leaves WWE match at SummerSlam.

In September, Rose was traded to the Raw brand. She subsequently formed a tag team with Dana Brooke. In April 2021, the two competed in a tag team turmoil match during the first night of WrestleMania 37, where they were eliminated by the Riott Squad (Liv Morgan and Ruby Riott).

Toxic Attraction (2021–2022)

In July 2021, Rose returned to the NXT brand and the following month, she formed an alliance with Gigi Dolin and Jacy Jayne, dubbed Toxic Attraction. She subsequently abandoned her blonde hair and dyed it brown. At Halloween Havoc in October, Rose defeated Raquel González in a Chucky's choice Trick or Street Fight match to win the NXT Women's Championship, the first title in her wrestling career. Earlier that same night, Dolin and Jayne won the NXT Women's Tag Team Championship, in turn having Toxic Attraction holding all women's championships in NXT. On December 5, at WarGames, Rose and Toxic Attraction teamed with Dakota Kai. They were defeated by the team of Cora Jade, Io Shirai, Kay Lee Ray, and González in a WarGames match.

In January 2022, At New Year's Evil, Rose defeated Jade and González in a triple threat match to retain the title. At Stand & Deliver, Rose defended her championship against Jade, Ray, and Shirai in a fatal four-way match. Throughout her championship reign, Rose went on to fend off title contenders such as Roxanne Perez, Wendy Choo and Zoey Stark. At Worlds Collide, Rose unified the NXT UK Women's Championship with the NXT Women's Championship by defeating NXT UK champion Meiko Satomura and Blair Davenport in a triple threat match.

At Halloween Havoc, Rose retained her title against Alba Fyre. On October 26, Rose reached the 365-day mark as champion, becoming only the third woman to hold the title for a continuous reign of one full year. On the December 13 episode of NXT, Rose lost the NXT Women's Championship to Perez in a rematch, ending her reign at 413 days. The next day, Rose was released from her WWE contract due to her FanTime content. On January 10, 2023, she addressed her release in an episode of The Tamron Hall Show.

Other media
Saccomanno has been featured in multiple fitness publications including Fitness Gurls, Fit & Firm, and FitFemme.

Saccomanno appeared as part of the main cast for the fifth season of the WWE reality television series Total Divas, which began airing in January 2016.

Business ventures
Saccomanno is an owner of her own beauty and skincare line named Amarose, a combination of her first and middle names.

On July 28, 2022, Saccomanno alongside fellow wrestler Daria Berenato, best known as Sonya Deville, opened their own virtual donut brand named DaMandyz Donutz, delivered by Uber Eats in Los Angeles.

Personal life
Saccomanno participates in yoga, pilates, and CrossFit. In April 2018, she revealed that she was dating fellow professional wrestler Sabatino Piscitelli, better known by the ring name Tino Sabbatelli. They got engaged in September 2022.

Filmography

Television

Video games

Championships and accomplishments

Fitness and figure competition
 World Bodybuilding Fitness & Fashion
 2013 WBFF Boston – (first place)
 2014 WBFF Diva Bikini Pro World Championship – (first place)

Professional wrestling
 Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 Most Improved Wrestler of the Year (2022)
 Ranked No. 21 of the top 150 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Women's 150 in 2022
 Slam Wrestling Awards
 Best NXT Female (2022)
 WWE
 NXT Women's Championship (1 time)

References

External links

1990 births
Living people
21st-century American women
21st-century female professional wrestlers
People from Yorktown, New York
Iona University alumni
Female models from New York (state)
Fitness and figure competitors
American female professional wrestlers
Professional wrestlers from New York (state)
American people of Irish descent
American professional wrestlers of Italian descent
Tough Enough contestants
NXT Women's Champions

Mandy Rose


Lena Burke, also known as Lena Pérez or simply Lena (February 18, 1978, in Havana, Cuba) is a Cuban singer-songwriter.

Biography
She is the oldest daughter of Malena Burke and granddaughter of Elena Burke. She wrote her first songs at age 3, followed by guitar classes at age 5 by her father (Rey Nerio), and classical piano at age 7. After 12 years of studio recording, Burke becomes a concert pianist, winning several prizes. At this point her voice was discovered.

Burke learned to play guitar and classical piano as a child. Burke started her musical career singing backing vocals on albums by Gloria Estefan, Julio Iglesias, Jennifer Lopez, Thalía, Jaci Velasquez, Chayanne and Alejandro Sanz. Sanz introduced Burke to executives at his label, who signed her. Her debut single, "Tu Corazón", a duet with Sanz, received a Latin Grammy nomination for Song of the Year. Her second album La Mala was released in 2008.

She participated in the chorus of many important productions: Plácido Domingo, Chayanne, Alejandro Sanz, Jennifer Lopez, Gloria Estefan, Julio Iglesias among others. In 2010, Burke joined Alex Ubago and Jorge Villamizar on the trio Alex, Jorge y Lena.

Discography
Lena (2005)
First record of Lena that came out in 2005 with the successful first single "Tu Corazón" a pop ballad recorded with the Spanish singer-songwriter Alejandro Sanz, after this releasing two other not so successful singles "Puedo Jurarlo" and "Que Seria De Mi", the album have a little quiet success, but was praised by critics due to the lyrics and voice of Lena.

Track list:
Arrepentido
Tu Corazón (feat. Alejandro Sanz)
Que te perdone Dios
Amanecerte la Vida
Viejos Tiempos
Sígueme
Que sería de mi
Puedo jurarlo
Ororeiya
Ven y ...
Noche como esta
Eterna pasajera

La Mala (2009)

Soundtrack of the first film released with Lena acting, "La Mala" a biographic film about the famous Cuban singer La Lupe, Lena released this soundtrack and movie in 2009 which contains 9 song covers of La Lupe with one of them featuring with Yotuel from the Cuban rap group Orishas, 3 original songs written by Lena and a cover of the famous jazz song Fever in Spanish and featuring of the reggaeton singer Tito El Bambino

Track list:
La Tirana
Que Te Pedi
Fever (feat. Tito El Bambino)
Puro Teatro
Con El Diablo En El Cuerpo (feat. Yotuel from Orishas)
Yo No Lloro Mas
Si Vuelves Tu
Porque Asi Tenia Que Ser
Que Te Pedi [Acoustic]
Que Puedo Hacer
Cosas De La Vida
Rumbon (Basado En "Yo No LLoro Mas")

Alex, Jorge y Lena (2010)

With this compilation project, Lena made a comeback in the music industry with Spanish singer Alex Ubago and the ex-Bacilos member, Colombia's Jorge Villamizar forming this new project titled "Alex, Jorge y Lena".  Their first single was "Estar Contigo." In 2011 the trio was nominated for a Premio Lo Nuestro for Best Breakout Group or Duo.  They also performed "Estar Contigo" during the ceremony.

Track list:
La Cancion Del Pescado
Mil Maneras De Querer
Estar Contigo
Quien
Las Cosas Que Me Encantan
Ya Sabes Como Soy
Si Ya No Tengo Tu Corazon
Versos De Amor
A La Vuelta De La Esquina
Huella
Sobre El Suelo Mojado
Mas Na' Contigo

References

External links

  Yahoo Music biography (Spanish)

Living people
Warner Music Latina artists
1978 births
Latin music songwriters
21st-century Cuban women singers
Musicians from Havana
Alex, Jorge y Lena members
Women in Latin music

Lena Burke


A booby trap is a device or setup that is intended to kill, harm or surprise a human or another animal. It is triggered by the presence or actions of the victim and sometimes has some form of bait designed to lure the victim towards it. The trap may be set to act upon trespassers that enter restricted areas, and it can be triggered when the victim performs an action (e.g., opening a door, picking something up, or switching something on). It can also be triggered by vehicles driving along a road, as in the case of improvised explosive devices (IEDs).

Booby traps should not be confused with mantraps which are designed to catch a person. Lethal booby traps are often used in warfare, particularly guerrilla warfare, and traps designed to cause injury or pain are also sometimes used by criminals wanting to protect drugs or other illicit property, and by some owners of legal property who wish to protect it from theft. Booby traps which merely cause discomfort or embarrassment are a popular form of practical joke.

Etymology
The Spanish word  translates to "stupid, daft, naïve, simple, fool, idiot, clown, funny man, one who is easily cheated" and similar pejorative terms. The slang of , , translates to "dunce". Variations of this word exist in other languages (such as Latin), with their meaning being "to stammer".

In approximately 1590, the word began appearing in the English language as booby, meaning "stupid person, slow bird". The seabird in question was the genus Sula, with their common name being boobies. These birds have large flat feet and wide wingspans for marine habitats but are clumsy and slow on shore making them easy to catch. The birds are also known for landing aboard seagoing vessels, whereupon they have been eaten by the crew.

The phrase booby trap originally applied to schoolboy pranks, but took on its more serious connotation during World War I.

Military booby traps

A military booby trap is designed to kill or injure a person who activates its trigger, or employed to reveal the location of an enemy by setting off a signalling device. Most, but not all, military booby traps involve explosives.

Part of the skill in placing booby traps lies in exploiting natural human behaviors such as habit, self-preservation, curiosity or acquisitiveness. A common trick is to provide victims with a simple solution to a problem, for example, leaving only one door open in an otherwise secure building, luring them straight toward the firing mechanism.

An example that exploits an instinct for self-preservation was used in the Vietnam War. Spikes known as punji sticks were hidden in grassy areas. When fired upon, soldiers instinctively sought to take cover by throwing themselves down on the ground, impaling themselves on the spikes.

Many purpose-built booby-trap firing devices exist such as the highly versatile M142 universal firing device (identical to the British L5A1 or Australian F1A1), or Yugoslavian UMNOP-1 which allow a variety of different ways of triggering explosives e.g. via trip wire (either pulling it or releasing the tension on it), direct pressure on an object (e.g. standing on it), or pressure release (lift/shift something) etc.

Most explosive booby traps use between 250 g and 1 kg of explosive. Since most booby traps are rigged to detonate within a metre of the victim's body, this is adequate to kill or severely wound.

Effects
Booby traps are indiscriminate weapons. Like anti-personnel mines, they can harm civilians and noncombatants during and after the conflict. The use against civilians is prohibited by the Protocol on Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices, and the protocol also prohibits boobytrapping e.g. the wounded or dead, medical equipment, food, and drink.

History
A type of booby trap was referred to in an 1839 news story in The Times.

During the Vietnam War, motorcycles were rigged with explosives by the National Liberation Front and abandoned.  U.S. soldiers would be tempted to ride the motorcycle and thus trigger the explosives. In addition, NLF soldiers would rig rubber band grenades and place them in huts that US soldiers would likely burn. Another popular booby trap was the "Grenade in a Can", a grenade with the safety pin removed in a container and a string attached, sometimes with the grenade's fuse mechanism modified to give a much shorter delay than the four to seven seconds typical with grenade fuses. The NLF soldiers primarily used these on doors and attached them to tripwires on jungle paths.

The CIA and Green Berets countered by booby trapping the enemy's ammunition supplies, in an operation code-named "Project Eldest Son". The propellant in a rifle or machine-gun cartridge was replaced with high explosive. Upon being fired, the sabotaged round would destroy the gun and kill or injure the shooter. Mortar shells were similarly rigged to explode when dropped down the tube, instead of launching properly. This ammunition was then carefully re-packed to eliminate any evidence of tampering, and planted in enemy munitions dumps by covert insertion teams. A sabotaged round might also be planted in a rifle magazine or machine-gun belt and left on the body of a dead NLF soldier, in anticipation that the deceased's ammo would be picked up and used by his comrades. No more than one sabotaged round would be planted in any case, magazine, or belt of ammunition, to reduce the chances of the enemy finding it no matter how diligently they inspected their supplies. False rumors and forged documents were circulated to make it appear that the Communist Chinese were supplying the NLF with defective weapons and ammunition.

Northern Ireland
During the "Troubles" in Northern Ireland, booby trap bombs were often used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) to kill British Army soldiers and Royal Ulster Constabulary officers. A common method was attaching the bomb to a vehicle so that starting or driving it would detonate the explosive. According to the Sutton Index of Deaths, 180 deaths during the Troubles were the result of booby trap bombs, the vast majority of them laid by the Provisional IRA.

Middle East
During the Al-Aqsa Intifada, some Arab-Palestinian groups made wide use of booby traps.

The largest use of booby traps (between 2000 and 2005, the period of the Intifada) was in the Battle of Jenin during Operation Defensive Shield where a large number (1000-2000 according to Palestinian militant captured in Jenin during the battle
) of explosive devices were planted by insurgents. Booby traps had been laid in the streets of both the camp and the town, ready to be triggered if a foot snagged a tripwire or a vehicle rolled over a mine.  Some of the bombs were huge, containing as much as 250 lb (110 kg) of explosives. To counter the booby traps, anti-tank and anti-personnel mines the IDF sent armored D9 bulldozers to clear the area out of any explosive device and booby trap planted. The IDF D9 bulldozers were heavily armored and thus did not sustain any damage from the explosions, which were triggered by them as they pushed forwards.
Eventually, a dozen D9 bulldozers went into action, razing the center of the refugee camp and forcing the Palestinian militants inside to surrender.

Gallery

Civilian use and legal ramifications

Booby traps have been applied as defensive weapons against unwelcome guests or against non-military trespassers, but most jurisdictions consider the practice illegal.

Practical jokes

Instead of being used to kill, maim or injure people, booby traps can also be used for entertainment. Practical joke booby traps are typically disguised as everyday items such as cigars or packets of chewing gum, nuts or other snack items. When the victims attempts to use the item, the trap is triggered. Two of the best known examples of this are the exploding cigar and dribble glass; others include the Snake Nut Can and shocking gum. Booby traps can also be constructed out of household or workplace items and be triggered when the victim performs a common action. Examples of this include loosening the bolts in a chair so that it collapses when sat upon, or placing a bucket of water on top of a partly open door so that when the door is fully opened, the bucket tips onto the victim.

See also

 Area denial
 Anti-personnel
 Anti-handling device
 Cartridge trap
 Combat engineer
 DEMIRA Deutsche Minenräumer
 Improvised explosive device
 Mercury switch
 Microswitch
 Mantrap
 Spring-gun
 Booby prize
 Protocol on Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices

References

External links
 US Army Training Film from 1944 (humorous cartoon with a serious message)
 Mines & Boobytrap devices - British guide dated 1943
 How not to get caught by mines and boobytraps - US warning guide dated 1944, and still relevant
 How not to get caught by Vietnamese boobytraps - US guide dated 1969
 Army Field Manual FM531 Boobytraps - US guide dated 1965
 Photos of booby trap devices used in Angola
 Booby trap concepts and detection techniques
 The Straight Dope: What's the origin of "booby trap"?
Photos of injuries inflicted by explosive boobytraps (Warning: graphic images)
The M142 multi-function boobytrap firing device (technical specifications)
Cut-away diagram and technical specifications of M5 pressure release boobytrap firing device
Photo of M5 pressure release boobytrap firing device connected to a one pound block of TNT explosive
Paolo Borsellino's road side bombing trigered by a booby trapped door bell

Area denial weapons
Guerrilla warfare tactics
Practical joke devices

Booby trap


Milton Keynes ( ) is a city and the largest settlement in Buckinghamshire, England, about  north-west of London. At the 2021 Census, the population of its urban area was 264,349. The River Great Ouse forms the northern boundary of the urban area; a tributary, the River Ouzel, meanders through its linear parks and balancing lakes. Approximately 25% of the urban area is parkland or woodland and includes two Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs).

In the 1960s, the UK government decided that a further generation of new towns in the South East of England was needed to relieve housing congestion in London. This new town (in planning documents, 'new city'), Milton Keynes, was to be the biggest yet, with a target population of 250,000 and a 'designated area' of about . At designation, its area incorporated the existing towns of Bletchley,  Fenny Stratford, Wolverton and Stony Stratford, along with another fifteen villages and farmland in between. These settlements had an extensive historical record since the Norman conquest; detailed archaeological investigations prior to development revealed evidence of human occupation from the Neolithic period to modern times, including in particular the Milton Keynes Hoard of Bronze Age gold jewellery. The government established Milton Keynes Development Corporation (MKDC) to design and deliver this new city. The  decided on a softer, more human-scaled landscape than in the earlier English new towns but with an emphatically modernist architecture. Recognising how traditional towns and cities had become choked in traffic, they established a 'relaxed' grid of distributor roads about  between edges, leaving the spaces between to develop more organically. An extensive network of shared paths for leisure cyclists and pedestrians criss-crosses through and between them. Again rejecting the residential tower blocks that had been so recently fashionable but unloved, they set a height limit of three storeys outside the planned centre.

Facilities include a 1,400-seat theatre, a municipal art gallery, two multiplex cinemas, an ecumenical central church, a 400-seat concert hall, a teaching hospital, a 30,500-seat football stadium, an indoor ski-slope and a 65,000-capacity open-air concert venue. Seven railway stations serve the Milton Keynes urban area (one inter-city). The Open University is based here and there is a small campus of the University of Bedfordshire. Most major sports are represented at amateur level; Red Bull Racing (Formula One), MK Dons (association football), and Milton Keynes Lightning (ice hockey) are its professional teams. The Peace Pagoda overlooking Willen Lake was the first such to be built in Europe. The many works of sculpture in parks and public spaces include the iconic Concrete Cows at Milton Keynes Museum.

Milton Keynes is among the most economically productive localities in the UK, ranking highly against a number of criteria. It has the UK's fifth-highest number of business startups per capita (but equally of business failures). It is home to several major national and international companies. Despite economic success and personal wealth for some, there are pockets of nationally significant poverty. The employment profile is composed of about 90% service industries and 9% manufacturing.

History

Birth of a 'new city'

In the 1960s, the UK government decided that a further generation of new towns in the South East of England was needed to relieve housing congestion in London. Since the 1950s, overspill housing for several London boroughs had been constructed in Bletchley. Further studies in the 1960s identified north Buckinghamshire as a possible site for a large new town, a new city, encompassing the existing towns of Bletchley, Stony Stratford, and Wolverton. The New Town (informally and in planning documents, 'New City') was to be the biggest yet, with a target population of 250,000, in a 'designated area' of . The name 'Milton Keynes' was taken from that of an existing village on the site.

On 23 January 1967, when the formal "new town designation order" was made, the area to be developed was largely farmland and undeveloped villages. The site was deliberately located equidistant from London, Birmingham, Leicester, Oxford, and Cambridge, with the intention that it would be self-sustaining and eventually become a major regional centre in its own right. Planning control was taken from elected local authorities and delegated to the Milton Keynes Development Corporation (MKDC). Before construction began, every area was subject to detailed archaeological investigation: doing so has exposed a rich history of human settlement since Neolithic times and has provided a unique insight into the history of a large sample of the landscape of North Buckinghamshire.

The corporation's strongly modernist designs were regularly featured in the magazines Architectural Design and the Architects' Journal. MKDC was determined to learn from the mistakes made in the earlier new towns, and revisit the garden city ideals. They set in place the characteristic grid roads that run between districts ('grid squares'), as well as a programme of intensive planting, balancing lakes and parkland. Central Milton Keynes ("CMK") was not intended to be a traditional town centre but a central business and shopping district to supplement local centres embedded in most of the grid squares.  This non-hierarchical devolved city plan was a departure from the English new towns tradition and envisaged a wide range of industry and diversity of housing styles and tenures. The largest and almost the last of the British New Towns, Milton Keynes has 'stood the test of time far better than most, and has proved flexible and adaptable'. The radical grid plan was inspired by the work of Melvin M. Webber, described by the founding architect of Milton Keynes, Derek Walker, as the 'father of the city'.  Webber thought that telecommunications meant that the old idea of a city as a concentric cluster was out of date and that cities which enabled people to travel around them readily would be the thing of the future, achieving "community without propinquity" for residents.

The government wound up MKDC in 1992, 25 years after the new town was founded, transferring control to the Commission for New Towns (CNT) and then finally to English Partnerships, with the planning function returning to local council control (since 1974 and the Local Government Act 1972, the Borough of Milton Keynes). From 2004 to 2011 a government quango, the Milton Keynes Partnership, had development control powers to accelerate the growth of Milton Keynes.

Formal award of city status
Along with many other towns and boroughs, Milton Keynes competed (unsuccessfully) for formal city status in the 2000, 2002 and 2012 competitions. However the Borough (including rural areas, in addition to the MK urban area) was successful in 2022, in the Queen's Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours competition. On 15 August 2022, the Crown Office announced formally that Queen Elizabeth II had ordained by letters patent that the Borough of Milton Keynes has been given city status.

Name

The name 'Milton Keynes' was a reuse of the name of one of the original historic villages in the designated area, now more generally known as 'Milton Keynes Village' to distinguish it from the modern settlement. After the Norman conquest, the de Cahaignes family held the manor from 1166 to the late 13th century as well as others in the country (Ashton Keynes in Wiltshire, Somerford Keynes in Gloucestershire, and Horsted Keynes in West Sussex). The village was originally known as Middeltone (11th century); then later as Middelton Kaynes or Caynes (13th century); Milton Keynes (15th century); and Milton alias Middelton Gaynes (17th century).

Prior history

The area that was to become Milton Keynes encompassed a landscape that has a rich historic legacy. The area to be developed was largely farmland and undeveloped villages, but with evidence of permanent settlement dating back to the Bronze Age. Before construction began, every area was subject to detailed archaeological investigation: this work has provided an unprecedented insight into the history of a very large sample of the landscape of south-central England. There is evidence of Stone Age, late Bronze Age/early Iron Age,  Romano-British, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, Medieval, and late Industrial Revolution settlements such as the railway towns of Wolverton (with its railway works) and Bletchley (at the junction of the London and North Western Railway with the OxfordCambridge Varsity Line). The most notable archaeological artefact was the Milton Keynes Hoard, which the British Museum described as 'one of the biggest concentrations of Bronze Age gold known from Britain and seems to flaunt wealth.'

Bletchley Park, the site of World War II Allied code-breaking and Colossus, the world's first programmable electronic digital computer, is a major component of MK's modern history. It is now a flourishing heritage attraction, receiving hundreds of thousands of visitors annually.

When the boundary of Milton Keynes was defined in 1967, some 40,000 people lived in four towns and fifteen villages or hamlets in the "designated area".

Urban design

The radical plan, form and scale of Milton Keynes attracted international attention. Early phases of development include work by celebrated architects, including
Sir Richard MacCormac,
Norman Foster,
Henning Larsen,
Ralph Erskine,
John Winter,
and Martin Richardson.
Led by Lord Campbell of Eskan (chairman) and Fred Roche (General Manager), the Corporation attracted talented young architects, led by the respected designer, Derek Walker. In the modernist Miesian tradition is the Shopping Building designed by Stuart Mosscrop and Christopher Woodward, a grade II listed building, which the Twentieth Century Society inter alia regards as the 'most distinguished' twentieth century retail building in Britain.

The Development Corporation also led an ambitious public art programme.

The urban design has not been universally praised. In 1980, the then president of the Royal Town Planning Institute, Francis Tibbalds, described Central Milton Keynes as "bland, rigid, sterile, and totally boring." Michael Edwards, a member of the original consultancy team, believes that there were weaknesses in their proposal and that the Development Corporation implemented it badly.

Grid roads and grid squares

The Milton Keynes Development Corporation planned the major road layout according to street hierarchy principles, using a grid pattern of approximately  intervals, rather than on the more conventional radial pattern found in older settlements. Major distributor roads run between communities, rather than through them: these distributor roads are known locally as grid roads and the spaces between them the districts are known as grid squares. This spacing was chosen so that people would always be within six minutes' walking distance of a grid-road bus-stop. Consequently, each grid square is a semi-autonomous community, making a unique collective of 100 clearly identifiable neighbourhoods within the overall urban environment. The grid squares have a variety of development styles, ranging from conventional urban development and industrial parks to original rural and modern urban and suburban developments. Most grid squares have a local centre, intended as a retail hub, and many have community facilities as well. Each of the original villages is the heart of its own grid-square. Originally intended under the master plan to sit alongside the grid roads, these local centres were mostly in fact built embedded in the communities.

Although the 1970 master plan assumed cross-road junctions, roundabout junctions were built at intersections because this type of junction is more efficient at dealing with small to medium volumes. Some major roads are dual carriageway, the others are single carriageway. Along one side of each single carriageway grid road, there is usually a (grassed) reservation to permit dualling or additional transport infrastructure at a later date. , this has been limited to some dualling. The edges of each grid square are landscaped and densely planted some additionally have noise attenuation mounds to minimise traffic noise from the grid road impacting the adjacent grid square. Traffic movements are fast, with relatively little congestion since there are alternative routes to any particular destination other than during peak periods. The national speed limit applies on the grid roads, although lower speed limits have been introduced on some stretches to reduce accident rates. Pedestrians rarely need to cross grid roads at grade, as underpasses and bridges were specified at frequent places along each stretch of all of the grid roads. In contrast, the later districts planned by English Partnerships have departed from this model, without a road hierarchy but with conventional junctions with traffic lights and at grade pedestrian crossings.

Redways

There is a separate network (approximately  total length) of cycle and pedestrian routes  the redways  that runs through the grid-squares and often runs alongside the grid-road network. This was designed to segregate slow moving cycle and pedestrian traffic from fast moving motor traffic. In practice, it is mainly used for leisure cycling rather than commuting, perhaps because the cycle routes are shared with pedestrians, cross the grid-roads via bridge or underpass rather than at grade, and because some take meandering scenic routes rather than straight lines. It is so called because it is generally surfaced with red tarmac. The national Sustrans national cycle network routes 6 and 51 take advantage of this system.

Height

The original design guidance declared that commercial building heights in the centre should not exceed six storeys, with a limit of three storeys for houses (elsewhere), paraphrased locally as "no building taller than the tallest tree". In contrast, the Milton Keynes Partnership, in its expansion plans for Milton Keynes, believed that Central Milton Keynes (and elsewhere) needed "landmark buildings" and subsequently lifted the height restriction for the area. As a result, high rise buildings have been built in the central business district.
More recent local plans have protected the existing boulevard framework and set higher standards for architectural excellence.

Linear parks

The flood plains of the Great Ouse and of its tributaries (the Ouzel and some brooks) have been protected as linear parks that run right through Milton Keynes; these were identified as important landscape and flood-management assets from the outset. At  ten times larger than London's Hyde Park and a third larger than Richmond Park the landscape architects realised that the Royal Parks model would not be appropriate or affordable and drew on their National Park experience. As Bendixson and Platt (1992) write: "They divided the Ouzel Valley into 'strings, beads and settings'. The 'strings' are well-maintained routes, be they for walking, bicycling or riding; the 'beads' are sports centres, lakeside cafes and other activity areas; the 'settings' are self-managed land-uses such as woods, riding paddocks, a golf course and a farm".

The Grand Union Canal is another green route (and demonstrates the level geography of the area there is just one minor lock in its entire  meandering route through from the southern boundary near Fenny Stratford to the "Iron Trunk" aqueduct over the Ouse at Wolverton at its northern boundary). The initial park system was planned by Peter Youngman (Chief Landscape Architect),  who also developed landscape precepts for all development areas: groups of grid squares were to be planted with different selections of trees and shrubs to give them distinct identities. The detailed planning and landscape design of parks and of the grid roads was evolved under the leadership of Neil Higson, who from 1977 took over from Youngman. Campbell Park is described by Nikolaus Pevsner as "... the largest and most imaginative park to have been laid out in Britain in the 20th century". The park is listed (grade 2) by Historic England,

In a national comparison of urban areas by open space available to residents, Milton Keynes ranked highest in the UK.

Forest city concept
The Development Corporation's original design concept aimed for a "forest city" and its foresters planted millions of trees from its own nursery in Newlands in the following years. Parks, lakes and green spaces cover about 25% of Milton Keynes; , there are 22 million trees and shrubs in public open spaces. When the Development Corporation was being wound up, it transferred the major parks, lakes, river-banks and grid-road margins to the Parks Trust, a charity which is independent of the municipal authority. MKDC endowed the Parks Trust with a portfolio of commercial properties, the income from which pays for the upkeep of the green spaces. , approximately 25% of the urban area is parkland or woodland.  It includes two  Sites of Special Scientific Interest, Howe Park Wood and Oxley Mead.

Centre

As a key element of the planners' vision, Milton Keynes has a purpose built centre, with a very large "covered high street" shopping centre,
a theatre,
municipal art gallery,
a multiplex cinema,
hotels,
central business district,
an ecumenical church,
City Council offices and central railway station.

Original towns and villages

Milton Keynes consists of many pre-existing towns and villages that anchored the urban design, as well as new infill developments. The modern-day urban area outside the original six towns (Bletchley, Fenny Stratford, Newport Pagnell, Stony Stratford, Wolverton, and Woburn Sands) was largely rural farmland but included many picturesque North Buckinghamshire villages and hamlets: Bradwell village and its Abbey, Broughton, Caldecotte, Great Linford, Loughton, Milton Keynes Village, New Bradwell, Shenley Brook End, Shenley Church End, Simpson, Stantonbury, Tattenhoe, Tongwell, Walton, Water Eaton, Wavendon, Willen, Great and Little Woolstone, Woughton on the Green. These historical settlements were made the focal points of their respective grid square. Every other district has an historical antecedent, if only in original farms or even field names.

Bletchley was first recorded in the 12th century as Blechelai. Its station was an important junction (the London and North Western Railway with the Oxford-Cambridge Varsity Line), leading to the substantial urban growth in the town in the Victorian period. It expanded to absorb the village of Water Eaton and town of Fenny Stratford.

Bradwell  is a traditional rural village with earthworks of a Norman motte and bailey and parish church. There is a YHA hostel beside the church.

Bradwell Abbey, a former Benedictine Priory and scheduled monument, was of major economic importance in this area of North Buckinghamshire before its dissolution in 1524. Nowadays there is only a small medieval chapel and a manor house occupying the site.

New Bradwell, to the north of Bradwell and east of Wolverton, was built specifically for railway workers. The level bed of the old Wolverton to Newport Pagnell Line near here has been converted to a redway, making it a favoured route for cycling. A working windmill is sited on a hill outside the village.

Great Linford appears in the Domesday Book as Linforde, and features a church dedicated to Saint Andrew, dating from 1215. Today, the outer buildings of the 17th century manor house form an arts centre.

Milton Keynes (Village) is the original village to which the New Town owes its name. The original village is still evident, with a pleasant thatched pub, village hall, church and traditional housing. The area around the village has reverted to its 11th century name of Middleton (Middeltone). The oldest surviving domestic building in the area (c. 1300 CE), "perhaps the manor house", is here.

Stony Stratford began as a settlement on Watling Street during the Roman occupation, beside the ford over the Great Ouse. There has been a market here since 1194 (by charter of King Richard I). The former Rose and Crown Inn on the High Street is reputedly the last place the Princes in the Tower were seen alive.

The manor house of Walton village, Walton Hall, is the headquarters of the Open University and the tiny parish church (deconsecrated) is in its grounds.

The small parish church (1680) at Willen was designed by the architect and physicist Robert Hooke. Nearby, there is a Buddhist Temple and a Peace Pagoda, which was built in 1980 and was the first built by the Nipponzan-Myōhōji Buddhist Order in the western world.

The original Wolverton was a medieval settlement just north and west of today's town. The ridge and furrow pattern of agriculture can still be seen in the nearby fields.  The 12th century (rebuilt in 1819) 'Church of the Holy Trinity' still stands next to the Norman motte and bailey site. Modern Wolverton was a 19th-century New Town built to house the workers at the Wolverton railway works, which built engines and carriages for the London and North Western Railway.

Among the smaller villages and hamlets are three Broughton, Loughton and Woughton on the Green that are of note in that their names each use a different pronunciation of the ough letter sequence in English.

Education

Schools
In early planning, education provision was carefully integrated into the development plans with the intention that school journeys would, as far as possible, be made by walking and cycling. Each residential grid square was provided with a primary school (ages 5 to 8) for c.240 children, and for each two squares there was a middle school (ages 8 to 12) for c.480 children. For each eight squares there was a large secondary education campus, to contain between two and four schools for a total of 3,000 – 4,500 children. A central resource area served all the schools on a campus. In addition, each campus included a leisure centre with indoor and outdoor sports facilities and a swimming pool, plus a theatre. These facilities were available to the public outside school hours, thus maximising use of the investment. Changes in central government policy from the 1980s onwards subsequently led to much of this system being abandoned. Some schools have since been merged and sites sold for development, many converted to academies, and the leisure centres outsourced to commercial providers.

As in most parts of the UK, the state secondary schools in Milton Keynes are comprehensives, although schools in the rest of Buckinghamshire still use the tripartite system. Private schools are also available.

Universities and colleges

The Open University's headquarters are in the Walton Hall district; though because this is a distance learning institution, the only students resident on campus are approximately 200 full-time postgraduates. Cranfield University, an all-postgraduate institution, is in nearby Cranfield, Bedfordshire. Milton Keynes College provides further education up to foundation degree level. A campus of the University of Bedfordshire provides some tertiary education facilities locally.

, Milton Keynes is the UK's largest population centre without its own conventional university, a shortfall that the Council aims to rectify. In January 2019, the council and its partner, Cranfield University, invited proposals to design a campus near the Central station for a new university, code-named MK:U. However this project seems unlikely to proceed, following a government decision in January 2023 to deny funding. In June 2023, the Open University announced that it would "initiate work on the strategic and financial case to relocate [from] the OU's existing campus at Walton Hall to a new site adjacent to the central railway station" and possibly commence teaching full-time undergraduates.

Through Milton Keynes University Hospital, the city also has links with the University of Buckingham's medical school.

City development archive and library
Milton Keynes City Discovery Centre at Bradwell Abbey  holds an extensive archive about the planning and development of Milton Keynes and has an associated research library. The centre also offers an education programme (with a focus on urban geography and local history) to schools, universities and professionals.

Culture, media and sport

Music

The open-air National Bowl is a 65,000-capacity venue for large-scale events.

In Wavendon, the Stables founded by the jazz musicians Cleo Laine and John Dankworth provides a venue for jazz, blues, folk, rock, classical, pop and world music.  It presents around 400 concerts and over 200 educational events each year and also hosts the National Youth Music Camps summer camp for young musicians. In 2010, the Stables founded the biennial IF Milton Keynes International Festival, producing events in unconventional spaces and places across Milton Keynes.

Milton Keynes City Orchestra is a professional freelance orchestra based at Woughton Campus.

Arts, cinema, theatre and museums
The municipal public art gallery, MK Gallery, presents free exhibitions of international contemporary art. The gallery was extended and remodelled in 2018/19 and includes an art-house cinema. There are also two multiplex cinemas; one in CMK and one in Denbigh.

In 1999, the adjacent 1,400-seat Milton Keynes Theatre opened. The theatre has an unusual feature: the ceiling can be lowered closing off the third tier (gallery) to create a more intimate space for smaller-scale productions. There is a further professional performance space in Stantonbury.

There are three museums: the Bletchley Park complex, which houses the museum of wartime cryptography; the National Museum of Computing (adjacent to Bletchley Park, with a separate entrance), which includes a working replica of the Colossus computer; and the Milton Keynes Museum, which includes the Stacey Hill Collection of rural life that existed before the foundation of MK, the British Telecom collection, and the original Concrete Cows.
Other numerous public sculptures in Milton Keynes include work by Elisabeth Frink, Philip Jackson, Nicolas Moreton and Ronald Rae.

Milton Keynes Arts Centre offers a year-round exhibition programme, family workshops and courses. The centre is based in some of Linford Manor's historical exterior buildings, barns, almshouses and pavilions. The Westbury Arts Centre in Shenley Wood is based in a 16th-century grade II listed farmhouse building. Westbury Arts has been providing spaces and studios for professional artists since 1994.

Communications and media
For television, the area is allocated  to BBC East and ITV Anglia.  For radio, Milton Keynes is served by Heart East (a regional commercial station based locally)  and two community radio stations (MKFM and Secklow 105.5). BBC Three Counties Radio is the local BBC Radio station. CRMK (Cable Radio Milton Keynes)  is a voluntary station broadcasting on the Internet.

, Milton Keynes has one local newspaper, the Milton Keynes Citizen, which has a significant online presence.

Sport

Milton Keynes has professional teams in football (Milton Keynes Dons F.C. at Stadium MK), in ice hockey (Milton Keynes Lightning at Planet Ice Milton Keynes), and in Formula One (Red Bull Racing).

The Xscape indoor ski slope and the iFLY indoor sky diving facility are important attractions in CMK; the National Badminton Centre in Loughton is home to the national badminton squad and headquarters of Badminton England.

Many other sports are represented at amateur level.

Near the central station, in a space beside the former Milton Keynes central bus station, there is a purpose-built street skateboarding plaza named the Buszy.

Willen Lake hosts watersports on the south basin.

Government

Local government
The responsible local government is Milton Keynes City Council, which administers the City of Milton Keynes, a unitary authority, and non-metropolitan county in law, since May 1996. Until then, it was controlled by Buckinghamshire County Council. Historically, most of the area that became Milton Keynes was known as the "Three Hundreds of Newport".

The unitary authority area is fully parished.

International co-operation
Although Milton Keynes has no formalised twinning agreements, it has partnered and co-operated with various cities over the years. The most contact has been with Almere, Netherlands, especially on energy management and urban planning. For several years from 1995, the city co-operated with Tychy, Poland, after participating in the European City Cooperation System in Tychy in March 1994.

Due to the twinning of the borough and the equivalent administrative region of Bernkastel-Wittlich, the council worked with Bernkastel-Kues, Germany, for example on art projects.

In 2017 they partnered with the Chinese fellow smart city of Yinchuan.

Infrastructure

Hospitals
Milton Keynes University Hospital, in the Eaglestone district, is an NHS general hospital with an Accident and Emergency unit.
It is associated for medical teaching purposes with the University of Buckingham medical school. There are two small private hospitals: BMI Healthcare's Saxon Clinic and Ramsay Health Care's Blakelands Hospital.

Prison
There is a Category A male prison, HMP Woodhill, on the western boundary. A section of the prison is a Young Offenders Institution.

Transport

The Grand Union Canal, the West Coast Main Line, the A5 road and the M1 motorway provide the major axes that influenced the urban designers.

The urban area is served by seven railway stations. ,  and  stations are on the West Coast Main Line and are served by local commuter services between London and Birmingham or Crewe. Milton Keynes Central is also served by inter-city services between London and Scotland, Wales and the North West and the West Midlands of England: express services to London take 35 minutes. Bletchley, , ,  and  railway stations are on the Marston Vale line to .

The M1 motorway runs along the east flank of MK and serves it from junctions 13 and 14 within the environs of the city, and junctions 11a and 15 slightly further away via other connecting roads. The A5 road runs right through as a grade separated dual carriageway. Other main roads are the A509 to Wellingborough and Kettering, and the A421 and A422, both running west towards Buckingham (and Oxford) and east towards Bedford (and Cambridge). Additionally, the A4146 runs from (near) junction 14 of the M1 to Leighton Buzzard. Proximity to the M1 has led to construction of a number of distribution centres, including Magna Park at the south-eastern flank of Milton Keynes, near Wavendon and M1 J13.

Many long-distance coaches stop at the Milton Keynes Coachway, (beside M1 Junction 14), about  from the centre and  from Milton Keynes Central railway station. There is also a park and ride car park on the site. Regional coaches stop at Milton Keynes Central.

Milton Keynes is served by (and, via its Redway network, provides part of) routes 6 and 51 on the National Cycle Network.

The nearest international airport is London Luton and is easily reached by coach. Cranfield Airport, an airfield, is  away.

Demographics

At the 2011 census, the population of the Milton Keynes urban area, including the adjacent Newport Pagnell and Woburn Sands, was 229,941. The population of the borough in total was 248,800, compared with a population of around 53,000 for the same area in 1961. In 2016, the Office for National Statistics estimated that the Borough population will reach 300,000 by 2025. Provisional data for the 2021 census records the population of the Milton Keynes Built-up Area as 256,385, and that of the Borough (now City) as approximately 287,000.

According to the 2011 census, the average age of the population is lower than is typical for the UK's 63 primary urban areas: 25.3% of the borough population were aged under 18 (5th place) and 13.4% were aged 65+ (57th out of 63). The "mean age is 35.7 and the median age is 35. 18.5% of residents were born outside the UK (11th). At the 2011 census, the ethnic profile was 78.9% white, 3.4% mixed, 9.7% Asian/Asian British, 7.3% Black/African/Caribbean/Black British, and 0.7% other. The religious profile was that 62.0% of people were reported having a religion and 31.4% having none; the remainder declined to say: 52% are Christian, 5.1% Muslim, 3.0% Hindu; other religions each had less than 1% of the population.

Economy, finances and business

In 2014 and 2017, Milton Keynes ranked third in terms of contribution to the national economy, as measured by gross value added per worker, of the 63 largest conurbations in the UK. In 2020, its ranking slipped to seventh.

Major businesses
Milton Keynes has consistently benefited from above-average economic growth, ranked as one of the UK's top five cities. In 2020 it was ranked sixth of 63 for business startups (per 10,000 people).

Milton Keynes is home to several national and international companies, notably
Argos,
Domino's Pizza,
Marshall Amplification,
Mercedes-Benz,
Suzuki,
Volkswagen Group,
Red Bull Racing,
Network Rail, and Yamaha Music Europe.

Santander UK and the Open University are major employers locally.

Small and medium enterprise
In 2013, 99.4% of enterprises being SMEs, just 0.6% of businesses locally employ more than 250 people (but more than one third of employees), whereas 81.5% employ fewer than 10 people. The 'professional, scientific and technical sector' contributes the largest number of business units, 16.7%. The retail sector is the largest contributor of employment. Milton Keynes has one of the highest number of business start-ups in England, but also of failures. Although education, health and public administration are important contributors to employment, the contribution is significantly less than the averages for England or the South East.

Employment
75% of the population is economically active, including 8.3% (of the population) who are self-employed. 90% work in service industries of various sorts (of which wholesale and retail is the largest sector) and 9% in manufacturing.

Social inequality
In 2015, the City of Milton Keynes had nine 'lower super output areas' that are in the 10% most deprived in England, but also had twelve 'lower super output areas' in the 10% least deprived in England. This contrast between areas of affluence and areas of deprivation in spite of a thriving local economy, inspired local charity The Community Foundation (in its 2016 'Vital Signs' report) to describe the position as a 'Tale of Two Cities'.

In 2018, the number of homeless young people sleeping rough in tents around CMK attracted national headlines as it became the apex of a national problem of poverty, inadequate mental health care and unaffordable housing. On a visit to refurbishment and extension work on the YMCA building, Housing Minister Heather Wheeler declared that 'Nobody in this day and age should be sleeping on the street'.

Geography

Location and nearest settlements
Milton Keynes is in south central England, at the northern end of the South East England region, about  north-west of London.

The nearest larger towns are Northampton, Bedford, Luton and Aylesbury. The nearest larger cities are Coventry, Leicester, Cambridge, London and Oxford.

Geology
Its surface geology is primarily gently rolling Oxford clay or, more formally:

Its highest points are in the centre () and at Woodhill on the western boundary (). The lowest point of the urban area is in Newport Pagnell, where the Ouzel joins the Great Ouse ().

Parks and environmental infrastructure
Because of the (poorly drained) clay soils and the urban hard surfaces, the development corporation identified water runoff into the Ouzel and its tributaries as a significant risk to be managed and so put in place two large balancing lakes (Caldecotte and Willen) and a number of smaller detention ponds. These provide an important leisure amenity for most of the year. Building in the floodplains of the Ouse and Ouzel was precluded too, thus providing long-distance linear parks that are within easy reach of most residents.

The north basin of Willen Lake is a bird sanctuary.

The two Sites of Special Scientific Interest, Howe Park Wood and Oxley Mead, are the most significant of a number of important wildlife sites in and around MK.

Just outside the Milton Keynes urban area lies Little Linford Wood, a conservation site and nature reserve managed by the Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire Wildlife Trust. It is considered to be one of the best habitats for dormice.

Climate
Milton Keynes experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) as is typical of almost all of the United Kingdom.

The nearest Met Office weather station is in Woburn, Bedfordshire, just outside the south eastern fringe of Milton Keynes. Recorded temperature extremes range from  during July 2022, to as low as  on 25 February 1947; this is the lowest temperature ever reported in England in February. In 2010, the temperature fell to

Notable people

Sports

 Charles Ademeno, former professional footballer
 Dele Alli, professional footballer
 Andrew Baggaley, English table tennis champion
 Brothers George and Sam Baldock, professional footballers.
 Ben Chilwell, professional footballer
 Chris Clarke, English sprinter
 Lee Hasdell, professional Mixed martial artist and Kickboxer
 James Hildreth, professional cricketer
 Liam Kelly, professional footballer
 Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong the only Ghanaian winter Olympian.
 Craig Pickering, English sprinter
 Ian Poulter, PGA & European Tour golf professional. Member of the 2010 and 2012 European Ryder Cup Teams
 Mark Randall, professional footballer
 Antonee Robinson, professional footballer
 Greg Rutherford, long jump gold medallist for Team GB at the 2012 Olympic Games
 Ed Slater, professional rugby union player
Fallon Sherrock, professional darts player.
 Sam Tomkins, professional rugby league player
 Dan Wheldon (1978–2011), Indy car driver
 Leah Williamson, professional footballer

Business
 Jim Marshall (1923–2012), founder and CEO of Marshall Amplification was living in and ran his business from Milton Keynes when he died
 Pete Winkelman, Chairman of Milton Keynes Dons Football Club, owner of Linford Manor recording studios, long-term resident

Academic
 Christopher B-Lynch, (visiting) Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at Cranfield University, responsible for inventing the eponymously named B-Lynch suture
 Alan P. F. Sell (1935–2016), academic and theologian lived in Milton Keynes in his later years and died there
 Alan Turing (1912–1954), played a significant role in the creation of the modern computer. He lodged at the Crown Inn, Shenley Brook End, while working at Bletchley Park

Stage, screen and media
 Errol Barnett, an anchor and correspondent for CNN
Emily Bergl, an actress known for her roles in Desperate Housewives and Shameless
 Richard Macer, documentary maker
 Clare Nasir, the meteorologist, TV and radio personality, was born in Milton Keynes in 1970
Kevin Whately, professional actor

Literature

 Sarah Pinborough, English horror writer
 Jack Trevor Story, novelist, was a long-term resident of Milton Keynes

Politics
 Frank Markham (Sir Sydney Frank Markham, MP) (18971975), born in Stony Stratford and was local MP (19511964).
 Nat Wei, Baron Wei, member of the House of Lords (born in Watford, grew up in Milton Keynes)

Music

Individual
 Adam Ficek, drummer of London band Babyshambles
 Gordon Moakes, the bassist for the London-based rock band Bloc Party

Bands

 Capdown, a ska punk band, came from and formed in Milton Keynes in 1997
 Fellsilent, a metal band, come from and formed in Milton Keynes in 2003
 Tesseract, a djent band, formed as a full live act in Milton Keynes in 2007. Tesseract's guitarist, songwriter and producer Acle Kahney is also a former member of Fellsilent.
 Hacktivist, a Grime and djent band
 RavenEye, the rock band, formed in Milton Keynes in 2014

Freedom of the City

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

External links

  (Independent Television News)
 Official visitor website for Milton Keynes (Milton Keynes Council agency)
 City Discovery Centre (MK urban studies centre)
 Urban Design magazine "Milton Keynes at 40"
 Milton Keynes and the area (1968), on BFI Player
 Milton Keynes - a village city (1973), on BFI Player

 , ~5800 words. (The opening paragraph about astronomical alignment is not true.)

Populated places on the River Great Ouse
Cities in South East England
Planned communities in England
Populated places established in 1967
1967 establishments in England
New towns started in the 1960s
Towns in Buckinghamshire

Milton Keynes


Chief Wapello's Memorial Park, also known as Chief Wapello's Gravesite and the Site of Sac and Fox Indian Agency, is a historic site located near Agency, Iowa, United States. The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. The park is on the site of the Indian Agency that became the home of the Sauk and Meskwaki (Fox) tribes. They were relocated here by the United States government after the Black Hawk War of 1832. General Joseph M. Street was appointed the Indian Agent and settled with his family on the agency. He earned the respect of the Meskwaki chief Wapello. A stone marker marks the site of the Agency House. Another stone marker commemorates the 1842 negotiations for the tribes to hand over their Iowa lands to the United States government, and the first Christian services that were held in Iowa's interior by the Reverend Thomas Kirkpatrick, a Methodist Circuit Rider, in 1838. The tribes were relocated from here to Kansas.

This land was the agency's garden area. When Street died in 1840 he was buried at this location on the agency and the tribes gave the property that surrounds the grave to his wife so she and her family could make a living. Two years later Wapello was buried next to General Street. Other graves include those of Eliza Street and their children and Major John Beach who was the Street's son-in-law and who replaced General Street as Indian Agent. The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad was granted an easement on the south side of the park by the Street family with the stipulation that they take care of it. This they have done and the stainless steel marker in the park was installed by the railroad.

References

Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
National Register of Historic Places in Wapello County, Iowa
Tourist attractions in Wapello County, Iowa
Native American history of Iowa

Chief Wapello's Memorial Park


Francis Mackenzie, was a Scottish member of the Plymouth Brethren Nazarene group, who travelled to Belgrade to start work for the British and Foreign Bible Society to foster religious observance among the people of Principality of Serbia. He stayed in Belgrade from 1876 till 1895.

Biography
He settled there when the Turks left, as did many Austrians, Germans, Czechs, and Italians. He was a prominent figure in Belgrade society and a friend of many Serbian politicians including Čedomilj Mijatović, who was the Serbian Foreign Minister. Mackenzie became  very wealthy and influential and correctly predicted that Belgrade's city limits would spread eastwards.  In 1879, he bought a large piece of agricultural and swampy land named "Simić's Majur" from the son of president/chairman of Serbian Parliament-Council Stojan Simić for 7500 Dukats (gold coins). He parceled it out into lots for selling and sold them much later when out of the money he earned, he built a large Peace Hall (Sala Mira) which was renowned for political events.  He was also known for policies such as not allowing restaurants on his land and forbidding smoking in all public places, which were generally disliked and eventually failed.Mackenzie contributed around eight thousand square meters of his land for the construction of the Temple of Saint Sava  . His and the names of his heirs were inscribed in the list of Great Benefactors, right after the members of the royal family and senior church dignitaries.

A street in Vračar was named after him: Francis Mackenzie Street ( or ).

Historical references
Beogradske opštinske novine - Belgrade City Newspaper, 1894
Beograd-Izdanje opstine beogradske 1911
Zapisi starog Beogradjanina 2000
Iz starog Beograda - Zivorad P. Jovanovic, 1964
Siluete starog Beograda - Milan Jovanovic - Stojimirovic, 1971
Uspon Beograda, Milivoje M.Kostic, 2000
Beogradske gradske pijace, JKP Beogradske pijace, 1999
Vracarski glasnik, 1997-2004

References

Scottish Methodist missionaries
Protestant missionaries in Serbia
Scottish evangelicals
1833 births
1895 deaths
British emigrants to Serbia
17th-century Scottish people
Methodist missionaries in Europe
Immigrants to the Principality of Serbia

Francis Mackenzie (missionary)


Jackie Brown (8 November 1914 – 1990), also referred to as Johnny Brown or John Brown, was a dual internationalist who played football for both Ireland teams – the IFA XI and FAI XI. He was born in Belfast, Ireland.

Club career
Brown was serving an apprenticeship in the linen trade and playing football for his works team, William Ewart & Son F.C., when he was spotted by Belfast Celtic during the early 1930s. In 1934, while playing for Celtic, he was selected to play for the Irish League XI and he subsequently scored in a 6–1 defeat against an English League XI.

In December 1934, shortly after his 20th birthday, Brown signed for English First Division side Wolverhampton Wanderers, making his debut on 12 January 1935 in a 4–0 win over Notts County in the FA Cup. Although his time at Molineux saw him become an international, he failed to hold down a regular place at club level. He left in October 1936 to join fellow Midlanders Coventry City after just 31 appearances for Wolves (and 7 goals).

He stayed at Coventry for just under two years, making 73 appearances, scoring 29 times. In September 1938 he joined Birmingham and during the final season before the suspension of league football due to World War, 1938–39, he played 34 league games and scored 6 goals. He also played 4 games in the FA Cup and scored 1 goal. He remained with the club during wartime, making a further 28 wartime regional league appearances (scoring 7 times).

As the war ended, Brown was playing for Barry Town. Then in May 1948, aged 33, he signed for Ipswich Town, at the time playing in Division Three South. He made his debut for Town away to Bristol Rovers on 21 August 1948. He subsequently made 106 competitive appearances and scored 27 goals for Town before retiring as a player in June 1951. He made his last appearance for the club against Bristol City on 5 May 1951

International career
When Brown began his international career in 1935 there were, in effect, two Ireland teams, chosen by two rival associations. Both associations, the Northern Ireland – based IFA and the Irish Free State – based FAI claimed jurisdiction over the whole of Ireland and selected players from the whole island. As a result, several notable Irish players from this era, including Brown played for both teams.

IFA XI
Between 1935 and 1939 Brown made 10 appearances and scored 1 goal for the IFA XI. Within three months of signing for Wolves, he made his international debut for the IFA XI, against England in a 2–1 defeat, on 6 February 1935. He scored his only goal for the IFA XI on 19 October 1935 in a 3–1 defeat to England. Brown played regularly for the IFA XI before the outbreak of the Second World War, making his last appearance on 15 March 1939 in a 3–1 defeat to Wales.

FAI XI
In 1937, while playing for Coventry City, Brown also made 2 appearances and scored 1 goal for the FAI XI (forerunners of the Republic of Ireland national football team). However injury and controversy denied him the opportunity to add to this total. Brown was one of several players born in Northern Ireland who benefited from the FAI's attempts to establish their all-Ireland influence. He was first called up by the FAI for a game against Germany on 17 October 1936 but he was injured at the time.

In May 1937 the FAI organised a European tour with a squad that included Brown and two other Northerners, Davy Jordan and John Feenan. Brown made his debut for the FAI XI on 17 May in a 1–0 win against Switzerland. A week later, on 23 May, he scored the second goal as the FAI XI defeated France 2–0. This would prove to be his last appearance for the FAI XI. However, in May 1938, for another European tour, the FAI once again called up Brown, together with two other Northerners, Harry Baird and Walter McMillen. However this time the IFA objected and all three players received telegrams from the English FA ordering them not to accept the offer on the grounds they were not born in the Irish Free State.

Sources
The Boys in Green – The FAI International Story (1997): Sean Ryan
Soccer at War – 1939 – 45 (2005): Jack Rollin

External links
 Northern Ireland's Footballing Greats
Ireland (FAI) stats
  Ipswich Town fansite

1914 births
1990 deaths
Barry Town United F.C. players
Belfast Celtic F.C. players
Birmingham City F.C. players
Coventry City F.C. players
Dual Irish men's international footballers
Men's association football wingers
Ipswich Town F.C. players
Irish Free State men's international footballers
NIFL Premiership players
Republic of Ireland men's international footballers from Northern Ireland
Association footballers from Belfast
Men's association footballers from Northern Ireland
Pre-1950 IFA men's international footballers
English Football League players
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Irish League representative players

Jackie Brown (footballer)


Holger Pedersen (born 3 November 1946), Emeritus at the Niels Bohr Institute is a Danish astronomer at the European Southern Observatory. He specialises in gamma-ray bursts, meteorites and minor planets.

Asteroids 9266 Holger and 3312 Pedersen are named after him.

Amateur archaeology
In his earlier years, Pedersen was a keen amateur archaeologist on the Danish island of Funen. In this capacity, in 1985 as a gift to the Odense City Museums 125 year jubilee, he donated a sum of money for the creation of a legate for education of fellow amateur archaeologists.

2015 Discovery of astronomical photographs
In 2015 Pedersen discovered a collection in the archives of the Bohr Institute of more than 150 photographic plates of astronomical observations, shot from 1895 to 1957. The glass plates were well preserved and clear shots of lunar eclipses, the stellar constellations and the passing of the 1957 Comet Arend–Roland. Pedersen called the find exciting, as per their being archaeoastronomy, showing how humans saw the sky a century ago.
Especially interesting among the plates in the collection is a rare copy of a plate of a solar eclipse shot in 1919 by English astronomer Arthur Eddington.

References

1946 births
Living people
20th-century Danish astronomers
21st-century Danish astronomers

Holger Pedersen (astronomer)


WAXY (790 kHz) is an AM radio station licensed to South Miami, Florida, with a Spanish language classic hits format. The station is owned by Audacy, Inc. Its studios are located in Audacy's Miami office on Northwest Second Avenue, and its transmitter is in Everglades National Park.

The callsign was formerly used on FM at 105.9, until Jefferson-Pilot acquired the callsign. That station, now WBGG-FM and owned by iHeartMedia with a classic rock format, is not affiliated with the current WAXY.

History
This station was once WFUN, a legendary Top 40 station that competed with WQAM. Originally, the station was located at 800 on the AM dial, and was a daytime-only operation. While on 800, it was licensed to Miami Beach and was the first station in the area to hold the WMBM callsign, which is now on 1490 kHz. In the early 1960s, the station migrated down to 790, and went full-time as WFUN. The 790 frequency was a moderately directional signal, as there was already a 790 in Havana, Cuba, and another in central Florida (Leesburg-Eustis). Despite coverage limitations, especially to the southwest (in the Florida Keys, toward Havana), WFUN competed vigorously with WQAM throughout the 1960s, and even won some of the ratings sweeps. During the early 1970s, pop music showed up first on FM at WMYQ, and then on WHYI-FM, and the field of top 40 stations (including WQAM and even WINZ for a brief time) became crowded; ultimately many listeners moved to FM for music, and on January 7, 1976, WFUN abandoned its top 40 format for an Adult Standards/MOR format. WFUN was used by one of its disc jockeys to create the Boss Radio broadcasting sound of Swinging Radio England from the coast of southern England during 1966. For a short time in 1965 Morton 'Doc' Downey was a DJ on this Miami station.

WFUN was the home of several DJs who became famous on both sides of the Atlantic in 1966. They included Ron O'Quinn and Larry Dean. The format of WFUN in Miami was used in part by Ron O'Quinn as the foundation for the hybrid mix of sounds that were heard over the 50,000 watts offshore pirate radio station Swinging Radio England between May and November 1966. Morning man Bruce Bartley later moved to Atlanta at WSB as the voice of the news and later Program Director of WCNN.

Also in 1976, the station became WNWS with a news/talk format. Miami talk show legend Neil Rogers hosted his own show and did play-by-play announcing for the Miami Hurricanes baseball team on WNWS from 1978 to 1984. Popular talk show host Tom Leykis was heard in the early 1980s. It changed back to music and became WMRZ ("790 Memories") on October 27, 1990, running "AM Only", a Satellite-based Adult Standards format from the Unistar radio network (now America's Best Music from Dial Global).

WMRZ switched to a schedule of brokered programming in late 1993, and became WAXY on October 12, 1994 (after the original WAXY on FM abandoned that callsign), airing an eclectic mix of shows from investments, sports, radio theater, religion as well as a mixed bag of music shows including hip hop, Cajun/zydeco, oldies and gospel.

As a sports station
From 2004 to 2022, WAXY was an all-sports station. At one point, the station was branded as "ESPN Radio 790", but then stopped carrying ESPN Radio programs in favor of Fox Sports Radio, then carried the Sporting News Radio shows of Todd Wright and David Stein, and then returned to ESPN Radio after WQAM took the Sporting News Radio affiliation.

The weekday lineup was mainly local, with hosts Jonathan Zaslow and former NFL lineman Brett Romberg with South Florida sports personality Amber Wilson, with guest hosts such as ESPN columnist Israel Gutierrez; Miami Herald sportswriter Dan LeBatard with the nationally syndicated and flagship home for The Dan Le Batard Show with Stugotz; former NFL Running back Leroy Hoard and radio personality Brian "The Beast" London host a show with Zaslow show producer Brendon Tobin; longtime sports talk show host Curtis Stevenson host the weekly afternoon/evening shows.  Zach Duarte hosted the weeknight shows and hosts such as Greg Likens host on weekends.

The station was the flagship station for the Miami Marlins after they were not renewed by WQAM at the request of the Miami Dolphins, back in 2007. On November 6, 2013, WINZ announced that they became the new flagship station for the Marlins, ending a 5-year relationship with The Ticket.

During the 2010–11 season, WAXY took over as the Miami Heat's flagship station due to a dispute with previous station WINZ.

On August 29, 2012, the station began an FM simulcast on 104.3 WMSF as WAXY-FM, after the station was acquired by WAXY's parent company Lincoln Financial Media. The Miami Herald reported that the company intended to move the sports format to FM full-time (with 790 breaking away for a new format) after it completed the re-location of its city of license to within the Miami market. Until then, WAXY would not be able to carry certain sports properties on FM due to rights conflicts with WEFL. On December 8, 2014, Entercom announced its intent to acquire Lincoln Financial Media. The transition of The Ticket to FM would not be realized: shortly after the completion of the sale, WAXY-FM broke away from the simulcast in August 2015, and flipped to alternative rock as 104.3 The Shark.

In November 2017, Entercom merged with CBS Radio, owner of WQAM. On August 2, 2019, Entercom announced that WAXY would introduce a new lineup on August 5, assuming WQAM's CBS Sports Radio affiliation and most of its local hosts, and moving ESPN Radio, including The Dan Le Batard Show and the network's overnight and weekend programming, to WQAM (which concurrently rebranded as The Joe). Due to the changes, The Dan Le Batard Show discontinued the local-only hour it had historically produced (although it was allowed to air its local hour on WAXY one last time on August 5 as a "farewell").

On October 26, 2021, most of WAXY's local programming was moved back to WQAM, with WAXY introducing a new weekday lineup primarily featuring sports betting-oriented shows from Audacy's BetQL network, and The Jim Rome Show from CBS Sports Radio at middays. After having been simulcast in full by both stations since August 2020 due to a realignment of ESPN Radio's schedule, Hochman & Crowders first hour became exclusive to WQAM.

As a Spanish station
On September 29, 2022, Americano Media and Audacy agreed to launch the former's Spanish-language conservative talk format similar to Fox News's opinion programming via WAXY on October 3 through a time brokerage agreement. Americano was generally unsuccessful at marketing the format altogether, and Americano ceased its lease at the start of September 2023. Audacy has since maintained an automated Spanish oldies format in the meantime, along with using WAXY as an overflow station for English-language sports play-by-play coverage.

Interference from Cuba and temporary power increase
WAXY has been operating under special temporary authority from the FCC since December 1981. The temporary authority allows an increased power level of 25,000 watts both day and night. This "temporary" increase was granted by the FCC to offset interference to WAXY from a Cuban radio station.

References

External links

AXY
Spanish-language radio stations in Florida
Audacy, Inc. radio stations
1939 establishments in Florida
Radio stations established in 1939
Conservative talk radio

WAXY (AM)


For the hockey team, see St. Louis Blues.

The St. Louis blues is a type of blues music.  It is played on the piano and is closely related to the jump blues, ragtime and piano blues.

St. Louis blues artists
Fontella Bass
Chuck Berry
Henry Brown
Teddy Darby
Walter Davis
Donny Hathaway
Johnnie Johnson
Lonnie Johnson
Albert King
Robert Lockwood, Jr.
Jimmy McCracklin
Robert Nighthawk
St. Louis Jimmy Oden
Roosevelt Sykes
Henry Townsend
Ike Turner
Bennie Smith

Blues music

St. Louis blues