George Washington (1732–1799) commanded the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and was the first president of the United States, from 1789 to 1797. In terms of personality, leading Washington biographer Douglas Southall Freeman concluded, "the great big thing stamped across that man is character." By character, says David Hackett Fischer, "Freeman meant integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others." Because of his central role in the founding of the United States, Washington is often called the "Father of his Country". His devotion to republicanism and civic virtue made him an exemplary figure among American politicians. His image has become an icon and is commonplace in American culture.

Public opinion

Congressman Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee, a Revolutionary War comrade and father of the American Civil War general Robert E. Lee, famously eulogized Washington as:

First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in humble and enduring scenes of private life. Pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding; his example was as edifying to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting. ... Correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence and virtue always felt his fostering hand. The purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues. ... Such was the man for whom our nation mourns.

Lee's words set the standard by which Washington's overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory. Washington set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular. In 1951 the unwritten two-term limit set by Washington would become the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution. He also set constitutional precedent by being the first president to use the Presidential Veto.

As early as 1778 he was lauded as the "Father of His Country" and is often considered to be the most important of Founding Fathers of the United States. He has gained fame around the world as a quintessential example of a benevolent national founder. As Gordon Wood concludes, the greatest act in his life was his resignation as commander of the armies—an act that stunned aristocratic Europe.  According to painter Benjamin West (as recorded in the diaries of his colleague Joseph Farington):

Washington was long considered not just a military and revolutionary hero, but a man of great personal integrity, with a deeply held sense of duty, honor and patriotism. He was upheld as a shining example in schoolbooks and lessons: as courageous and farsighted, holding the Continental Army together through eight hard years of war and numerous privations, sometimes by sheer force of will; and as restrained: at war's end taking affront at the notion he should be King; and after two terms as president, stepping aside.

In 1790, Washington's close friend Benjamin Franklin died. In Franklin's will, he bequeathed Washington his walking cane, which Franklin received while serving as ambassador to France during the 1780s. Franklin spoke highly of Washington, even as a king, in his will:

My fine crab-tree walking stick, with a gold head curiously wrought in the form of the cap of liberty, I give to my friend, and the friend of mankind, General Washington. If it were a Sceptre, he has merited it, and would become it.

Washington was always the exemplar of republican virtue in America. He is seen more as a character model than war hero or founding father.  One of Washington's greatest achievements, in terms of republican values, was refraining from taking more power than was due. He was conscientious of maintaining a good reputation by avoiding political intrigue. He had no interest in nepotism or cronyism, rejecting, for example, a military promotion during the war for his deserving cousin William Washington lest it be regarded as favoritism. Thomas Jefferson wrote, "The moderation and virtue of a single character probably prevented this Revolution from being closed, as most others have been, by a subversion of that liberty it was intended to establish."

Father of America

According to Mount Vernon's Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington:
As the Father of America, Washington was heralded as the political savior of the nation for delivering America from the bondage of Great Britain, akin to Moses delivering the children of Israel from the bondage of Egypt. Verses from the final chapter of Deuteronomy that described the death of Moses were frequently used in New England eulogies to illuminate the significance of Washington's passing....The Apotheosis of Washington, the famous fresco on the dome of the U.S. Capitol, depicts Washington surrounded by thirteen maidens, one for each colony, as he ascends to heaven and becomes a god.

Though he had been the highest-ranking officer of the Revolutionary War, having in 1798 been appointed a Lieutenant General (now three stars), it seemed incongruous that all later full four star and higher generals outranked Washington.  This issue was resolved in the bicentennial year of 1976 when Washington was, by act of Congress, posthumously promoted to the rank of General of the Armies, this promotion being backdated to July 4, 1976, making Washington permanently the senior military officer of the United States.

First American President
Washington was the first American president under the United States Constitution, and was unanimously elected by the Electoral College in 1789 and again in 1792; he remains the only president to receive the totality of electoral votes. The system in place at the time dictated that each elector cast two votes, with the winner becoming president, and the runner-up vice president. All electors in the elections of 1789 and 1792 cast one of their votes for Washington; thus it may be said that he was elected president unanimously, which has become his legacy alone.

Slavery

Washington believed that the institution of slavery on its own would eventually die out and be replaced by an industrial revolution that was beginning to emerge in the Northern states.

Prior to the American Revolution, Washington never displayed any animosity towards slavery.  His views on slavery were modified during the Revolution, between 1775 and 1784, having been influenced by the egalitarian belief that men were born with natural rights.  Washington also discovered during the Revolution that free blacks who served in the Revolutionary Army could match the industry, dedication, and courage exhibited by white soldiers. In 1794, while President, to resolve his dilemma over slavery, Washington attempted to lease property at Mount Vernon to farmers on the condition that former slaves would work as paid free laborers.  This idea had been suggested to Washington by his close friend, Marquis de Lafayette, an abolitionist, in 1784.  However, the plan proved to be improbable and no buyers could be found to purchase the land.  Although Washington himself could have freed his own slaves and paid them as workers, he never did. According to historians, his death in 1799 under his new will in essence condemned Mt. Vernon to ruin and was in effect an act of atonement for Washington's lifetime involvement in human exploitation.  Martha voluntarily freed Washington's slaves in 1800, sixteen months prior to her own death.

Presidential precedents
As the first President of the United States, George Washington developed lasting traditions that helped shape the role of the executive branch.  Washington knew he needed to establish an effective executive role, but also understood the importance of the sovereignty of the individual and limited government. It was highly important to himself and the nation that the executive bear no resemblance to a monarchy. The Constitution was created for such purpose and divided the power of government into the three distinct branches. Article II of the United States Constitution outlines the powers of the executive branch, but is written with ambiguity. Therefore, Washington had to forge the institution necessary to carry out the president's constitutional powers. In doing so, precedents emerged that are notable to this day.

George Washington impacted the role of the presidency from his inauguration to his retirement. From the beginning, Washington did not want to resemble a king or be referred to as one. He preferred the title "Mr. President," which is how presidents are still addressed to this day. Washington also shaped the inauguration process. As Washington was sworn in during his oath of office, he placed his right hand upon the Bible. This is not required, but for the majority of presidents became tradition.

On January 8, 1790, Washington gave his First Inaugural Address to a joint session of congress. Now known as the State of the Union Address, it established a platform to implement article 2 section 3 of the Constitution which states the president, "shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient". Presidents ever since have given State of the Union Addresses to Congress once a year.

The president's Cabinet and the selection of cabinet members is also not explicitly stated in the Constitution. Washington understood the importance of receiving counsel and thus established the practice of appointing secretaries of the Executive Departments. Article II Section 2 of the Constitution gives him the power to do so and states the President, "with the advice and consent of the senate... shall appoint... all other officers of the United States."

By serving for just eight years, Washington showed that it is acceptable and honorable for a president to step down after two terms in office. This was common practice by all presidents thereafter with the exception of Franklin D. Roosevelt who was elected to four terms of office. The twenty second amendment of the United States Constitution ratified in 1951, set the term limit to two terms maximum for all future presidents, thus transforming the tradition into law. George Washington stepped down from the presidency and assured a smooth transition between his administration and the incoming administration of John Adams. He refused to run for another term and proved that the president can willingly step down from his position and trust the democratic voting process to select the next president.

Memorials

Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States, along with the icons such as the flag and great seal. Perhaps the most pervasive commemoration of his legacy is the use of his image on the one-dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin. Washington, together with Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln, is depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial.

Starting with victory in their Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Democratic-Republicans took control of Congress in 1801. The Democratic-Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore, the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men. Further political squabbling, along with the north–south division on the Civil War, blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial. Predating the obelisk on the National Mall by several decades, the first public memorial to Washington was built by the citizens of Boonsboro, Maryland, in 1827.

Many things have been named in honor of Washington. George Washington is the namesake of the nation's capital, Washington, D.C., and the state of Washington, the only state to be named for a president. The Washington Monument, one of the most well-known American landmarks, was built in his honor. A variety of colleges and universities, throughout the United States, are named for George Washington. The United States Navy has named three ships after Washington. The George Washington Bridge, which extends between New York City and New Jersey, and the palm tree genus Washingtonia, are also named after him. A bronze statue of Washington stands in London at the National Gallery, a gift from the Commonwealth of Virginia.

There are many other "Washington Monuments" in the United States, including two well-known equestrian statues, one in Manhattan and one in Richmond, Virginia. The first statue to show Washington on horseback was dedicated in 1856 and is located in Manhattan's Union Square. The second statue is known as either the Virginia Washington Monument or as the George Washington Equestrian Statue and was unveiled in 1858. It was the second American statue of Washington on horseback but figures prominently in the official seal of the Confederate States of America.

A marble statue of Washington was made from life by sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon, and now sits in the Rotunda of the State Capitol in Richmond, Virginia. A duplicate, one of 22 bronze exact replicas, was given to the British in 1921 by the Commonwealth of Virginia and now stands in front of the National Gallery at Trafalgar Square.

Washington Square Arch (1892) in Washington Square Park, NYC, is perhaps the nation's most prominent monument celebrating the centennial of Washington's inauguration.

In 1917 the 886 Washingtonia asteroid was named in his honor.

Washington Monument 1885

The Federal City (Washington D.C.), during Washington's lifetime, was originally designed for the place of Washington's memorial. Architect Pierre L'Enfant had specifically set apart land space for a monument to Washington, southwest of the Capital and the White House. The city was completed in 1800 and incorporated officially taking on Washington's name. After Washington's death in December 1799, Congress made no appropriations for Washington's marble monument, although it had pledged to do so. For three decades, funding still had not been granted by Congress for Washington's memorial. This created a public outcry and upset many who believed it was time to honor the first President of the United States, and in 1833 the private Washington National Monument Society was formed. The Society solicited funding from private donors and set out to build the monument, without Congressional funding. In 1845, the Society chose Robert Mills's design, an expensive, lavish Egyptian obelisk, 600 feet tall, that would contain thirty 100-foot base columns.

Work began on the monument on July 4, 1848. An 80-square-foot pyramid underground foundation was built followed by a 55-feet 1.5-inch marble base. By 1854, the tower had reached 156 feet above the ground, however, due to lack of funding, further construction was stopped. Throughout the American Civil War, the memorial stood incomplete, while Congress for another decade refused to take over the project. It was not until July 5, 1876, under the Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, that Congress finally passed a law to take over the funding and building of Washington's memorial. On December 6, 1884, a 3,300-pound capstone was placed on top of the tower, and Washington's memorial was finally complete. Although design changes took place, the finished memorial stood at 555 feet tall, ten times the width of the base, making it the tallest tower in the world. The thirty ornate 100-foot base columns were scrapped for aesthetic and cost reasons. The monument was officially dedicated on February 21, 1885.

On August 23, 2011, a 5.8 magnitude earthquake struck 95 miles southwest of Washington, D.C. On the memorial's observation deck, visitors were tossed around from the shaking, while falling mortar and stone debris caused minor injuries. No one was seriously hurt and all safely exited from inside the monument. However, the memorial and park were closed to the public due to the earthquake. Thirty-two months later, on March 12, 2014, the memorial was open to visitors again after repair work allowed visitors to ascend to the observation deck. Elevator issues left visitors and employees stranded, having to walk down the stairs, and the park was closed to the public indefinitely on August 17, 2016. The monument was scheduled to open again to the public during the spring of 2019. Reopening was then delayed until at least August 2019 for mitigation of possibly contaminated underground soil thought to have been introduced in the 1880s.

Mount Rushmore 1941

In 1923, historian Doane Robinson had developed an idea to make a gigantic sculpture on the Black Hills of South Dakota. In August 1924, Robinson contacted by letter and requested renowned sculptor Gutzon Borglum to visit South Dakota and talk to him about creating a mountain sculpture. Robinson had been impressed by Borglum's Confederate memorial on Stone Mountain. Borglum agreed to work on the project and met with Robinson twice in September 1924 and in August 1925. On his second visit Borglum searched for a location suitable for a gigantic sculpture and found Mount Rushmore, composed of granite, named after a New York attorney Charles E. Rushmore. Four prominent presidents were chosen for the sculptor to bring national recognition, including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln. Washington was chosen to represent a "light for liberty and the birth of the Republic." Washington was believed to upheld rights for the common citizen.

The project began on August 10, 1927, and implemented innovative blasting and drilling techniques on a large scale. Lack of funding, however, extended the memorial's creation to 14 years, but in real time, it took  years of difficult and dangerous work to complete the gigantic sculpture. It took 400 men to build the memorial, remarkably, no one was killed in the process. The surface of the stone sculpture was finished to the smooth surface of a concrete sidewalk. The project cost $989,992.32 and was finished in October 1941. $836,000 in federal funding was used while private donations made up the difference. As the first United States President, under the Constitution, Washington's portrait was the first to be sculpted on a grand scale. Honored among presidents, he was chosen to be displayed in front of the other three chosen presidents. Washington was believed to have stood for the cause of liberty during the American Revolution. Washington was held in high esteem, and believed to have stood for holding office with "dignity, prudence, and respect," and was an example for other Presidents to follow.

Robinson was considered the "Father of Mount Rushmore." John Boland raised and kept track of funding for Mount Rushmore. Boland was introduced to the Mount Rushmore project in 1925 through Robinson. During lean times Boland kept the Mount Rushmore project from stalling and worked with unpaid creditors. Congressman William Williamson (South Dakota) was the driving force behind the federal funding for the Mount Rushmore project. Williams convinced President Calvin Coolidge to travel to the Black Hills in 1927. U.S. Senator Peter Norbeck (South Dakota) kept the Mount Rushmore project going in times when federal funding was sparse.

Places

Many places and entities have been named in honor of Washington. Washington's name became that of the nation's capital, Washington, D.C., one of two national capitals across the globe to be named after an American president (the other is Monrovia, Liberia). The state of Washington is the only state to be named after a United States president. George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis were named for him, as was Washington and Lee University (once Washington Academy), which was renamed due to Washington's large endowment in 1796. Washington College in Chestertown, Maryland (established by Maryland state charter in 1782) was supported by Washington during his lifetime with a 50 guineas pledge, and with service on the college's Board of Visitors and Governors until 1789 (when Washington was elected president). According to the US Census Bureau's 1993 geographic data, Washington is the 17th most common street name in the United States, and the only person's name so honored among the twenty most-common street names.

Centennial celebration

The centennial anniversary of Washington's inauguration as president fell on April 30, 1889.  In observance of the occasion President Benjamin Harrison followed the itinerary of one hundred years before, from the Governor's mansion in New Jersey to the foot of Wall Street, in New York City, to old Saint Paul's Church, on Broadway, and to the site where the first Chief Magistrate first took the oath of office.  Three days were a round of naval, military, and industrial parades, with music, oratory, pageantry, and festivities.  For this Centennial Whittier composed an ode.  The venerable S. F. Smith, who had written "America" fifty-seven years before, was also inspired by the occasion to pen a Century Hymn, and to add to "America" the stanza:

Our joyful hearts today,
Their grateful tribute pay,
Happy and free,
After our toils and fears,
After our blood and tears,
Strong with our hundred years,
O God, to Thee.

International

Great Britain
Although Washington was the leader of the war against Great Britain,  British public and elite opinion was highly favorable toward him during and after the war. The British  press almost always  portrayed him in a  favorable light, while at the same time denouncing the Continental Congress and New England radicals. British newspapers routinely praised Washington's personal character and qualities as a military commander.  Speakers in  Parliament typically praised  his courage, endurance, and attentiveness to the welfare of his troops. They often make the point that he was more exemplary than their own British generals. Washington's refusal to become involved in politics  was highlighted as a  leader fully committed to the military mission at hand and above the factional fray.

France
Before the French Revolution in 1789, Washington's prestige, thanks mostly to Lafayette, was very high. He figured prominently in poetry, plays, and histories. Writers exaggerated and even invented some characteristics, casting him as a modern Cincinnatus who exemplified masculinity, virtue, and patriotism. He was viewed with some hostility by French leaders after 1793 but was popular again after Bonaparte's coup d'état. Forgotten after 1815, his popularity was revived during World War I.

Netherlands
Dutch leaders in the late 18th century helped fund the new nation and saw its victory over Great Britain in terms of their own successful battle to break away from the Spanish Empire in the sixteenth century. They compared George Washington to their own historic hero William the Silent.

Latin America
Manuel Belgrano, one of Argentina's independence leaders, in 1813 translated Washington's 'Farewell Address' into Spanish. Belgrano's introduction admired the political ideals it contained and his desire to diffuse these ideals among his countrymen.

Currency and postage
The image of Washington is commonplace on U.S. currency and postage stamps.

Currency

Postage stamps

Washington, along with Benjamin Franklin, appeared on the nation's first postage stamps in 1847. Since that time Washington has appeared on many postage issues, more than all other presidents combined.

Washington's victory over Cornwallis at the Battle of Yorktown was commemorated with a two-cent stamp on the battle's 150th anniversary on October 19, 1931. The 150th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution with George Washington as presiding officer was celebrated with a three-cent issue on September 17, 1937, was adapted from the painting by Julius Brutus Stearns. Washington's presidential inauguration at Federal Hall in New York City was celebrated on its 150th anniversary on April 30, 1939.

See also
 Bibliography of George Washington
 Commemoration of the American Revolution
 List of George Washington articles

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

 Brandt, Lydia Mattice. First in the Homes of His Countrymen: George Washington's Mount Vernon in the American Imagination (U of Virginia Press, 2016). xii, 284 pp

 Cavitch, Max. "The Man That Was Used Up: Poetry, Particularity, and the Politics of Remembering George Washington" American Literature 75#2 (2003) DOI: 10.1215/00029831-75-2-247 online
 Chinard, Gilbert, ed. George Washington as the French Knew Him: A Collection of Texts (Princeton UP, 1940). online
 Cohen,  Sheldon S.  "Monuments to Greatness: George Dance, Charles Polhill, and Benjamin West's Design for a Memorial to George Washington." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 99#2 (1991), pp. 187–203  online
 Costello, Matthew Ryan. "'The Property of the Nation': Democracy and the Memory of George Washington, 1799-1865." (PhD dissertation, Marquette University, 2016).  online
 Cunliffe, Marcus. George Washington: Man and Monument (1958).
 Dalzell, Robert F. and Lee B. Dalzell. George Washington's Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America (Oxford UP, 1998).
 Drozdowski, Marian Marek, Ludwik Krzyzanowski, And Gerard T. Kapolka. "George Washington In Polish Historiography And Historical Periodicals." The Polish Review (1989): 127–172. online
 Ferling, Jon. The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon (Bloomsbury Press, 2009).
 Freeman, Douglas Southall. George Washington: A Biography (7 vols., 1948–1957).
 Galke, Laura J. "Who's the bomb? George's mom! haunting biographies of George Washington." International Journal of Heritage Studies 25.7 (2019): 689–707. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2018.1542332
 Greenhalgh, Adam. "Not a Man but a God: The Apotheosis of Gilbert Stuart's Athenaeum Portrait of George Washington." Winterthur Portfolio 41#4 (Winter 2007): 269–304.
 Griffin, Stephen. "Changing views of George Washington" Journal of America's Military Past (April 2006) 32#1 pp 67–75, especially the role of the Enlightenment.

 Hall, John W. "An Irregular Reconsideration of George Washington and the American Military Tradition." Journal of Military History 78.3 (2014) pp 961–993.
  Hay, Robert. "George Washington: American Moses," American Quarterly 21#4 (1969): 780-791 online
 Jacobs, Phoebe Lloyd. "John James Barralet and the Apotheosis of George Washington." Winterthur Portfolio 12 (1977): 115–137.
 Johnson, Gerald. Mount Vernon: The Story of a Shrine: An Account of the Rescue and Continuing Restoration of George Washington's Home by The Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. (2nd edition 1991)
 Kahler, Gerald. The Long Farewell: Americans Mourn the Death of George Washington (University of Virginia Press, 2008).
 Knox, Amanda. "Imagining George Washington: A Historiography of George Washington in Historical Memory." North Alabama Historical Review 5.1 (2015): 7+. online
 Larson, Edward J. "Approaching the Rubicon and Crossing the Bar: Washington's Death and the Rise of Republican Rule." Georgia Review 62.3 (2008): 551–563. online
 Lengel, Edward G. Inventing George Washington: America's founder, in myth and memory (HarperCollins, 2011). excerpt

 Longmore,  Paul K. The Invention of George Washington (Univ. of Virginia Press, 1999).
  (eBook)
 Marling, Karal Ann. George Washington Slept Here: Colonial Revivals and American Culture, 1876–1986 (Harvard University Press, 1988).
 Morgan, Kenneth. "George Washington and the Problem of Slavery." Journal of American Studies 34#2 (2000): 279–301. online
 Morgan, Philip D. "'To Get Quit of Negroes': George Washington and Slavery." Journal of American Studies 39#3 (2005): 403–429. online
  Olszewski, George J. A History of the Washington Monument, 1844–1968, Washington, D.C. (National Park Service, 1971).
 Osman, Julia. "Cincinnatus Reborn: The George Washington Myth and French Renewal during the Old Regime." French Historical Studies 38.3 (2015): 421–446.

 Savage,  Kirk. Monument Wars: Washington, D.C., the National Mall, and the Transformation of the Memorial Landscape (2009).
 Schwartz, Barry. "Social change and collective memory: The democratization of George Washington." American Sociological Review (1991): 221–236. online
 Schwartz, Barry. "George Washington and the Whig Conception of Heroic Leadership," American Sociological Review  48#1 (1983) : 18–33.

 Sears, John F. Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century. (Oxford UP, 1989).
 Thane, Elswyth. Mount Vernon is Ours: The Story of the Preservation and Restoration of Washington's Home (Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1966).
 Ward, David C. "Creating a National Culture: Charles Willson Peale's George Washington at the Battle of Princeton in History and Memory." Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University 70 (2011): 4–17.
 "George Washington in Popular Culture" Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington (2020)

External links
 First look inside repaired Washington Monument CBS This Morning Published on May 10, 2014; viewed on July 16, 2019

George Washington
Washington

Legacy of George Washington


is a Japanese engineer, JAXA astronaut, and former commander of the International Space Station. On August 30, 2012, Hoshide became the third Japanese astronaut to walk in space.

Early life and education
He was born in 1968 in Tokyo, Japan.

He received an International Baccalaureate Diploma from the United World College of South East Asia, Singapore in 1987, a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from Keio University in 1992, and a Master of Science degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Houston Cullen College of Engineering in 1997.

Experience
Hoshide joined the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) in 1992 and worked in the development of the H-II launch vehicle for two years. From 1994 to 1999, he was as an astronaut support engineer for the NASDA Astronaut Office, supporting the development of the astronaut training program, and he supported astronaut Koichi Wakata during Wakata's training and mission on STS-72.

Astronaut career

In February 1999 Hoshide was selected by NASDA (now JAXA) as one of three Japanese astronaut candidates for the International Space Station (ISS). He started the ISS Astronaut Basic Training program in April 1999 and was certified as an astronaut in January 2001. Since April 2001, he has participated in ISS Advanced Training, as well as supporting the development of the hardware and operation of the Japanese Experiment Module Kibō and the H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV).

From 21 July 2014 to 29 July 2014 Hoshide commanded NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations Mission 18 (NEEMO 18) to the Aquarius Reef Base of the coast of Key Largo, Florida. He was joined by NASA astronaut Jeanette Epps and Mark Vande Hei as well as ESA astronaut Thomas Pesquet during the nine-day mission.

In 2016 he served as part of the 2016 European Space Agency's Cooperative Adventure for Valuing and Exercising human behaviour and performance Skills (CAVES) expedition. Where he spent two weeks underground in caves alongside NASA astronauts Ricky Arnold and Jessica Meir, CNSA taikonaut Ye Guangfu, Roscosmos cosmonaut Sergei Korsakov and ESA astronaut Pedro Duque in order to simulate spaceflight conditions.

STS-124
Hoshide's first mission was as mission specialist on board Space Shuttle Discovery for the STS-124 mission, which was the second of three missions to deliver the Japanese Experiment Module, nicknamed Kibō, to the ISS. STS-124 launched on 31 May 2008 from the Kennedy Space Center on its mission to the space station.

Discovery and its crew docked to the International Space Station on 2 June 2008, beginning 8 days of operations to install the Japanese Experiment Module-Pressurised Module (JEM-PM). On Flight Day 4, NASA astronauts Mike Fossum and Ronald Garan performed a spacewalk to prepare the ISS and the JEM-PM for installation, during this Hoshide and fellow STS-124 Mission Specialist Greg Chamitoff robotically removed the module from Discoverys payload bay and moved it to its new home on the port the side of Node 2. The next day the STS-124 and Expedition 17 crews opened Kibō for the first time.

Hoshide and the STS-124 crew remained on the ISS until 11 June 2008, when Discovery undocked from the International Space Station and began its return to Earth, leaving Greg Chamintoff on board as a flight engineer on the Expedition 17 crew, and returning Expedition 17 Flight Engineer Garrett Reisman. On 14 June 2008, Discovery landed on the Shuttle Landing Facility at the Kennedy Space Center following 13 days, 18 hours, 13 minutes in space, officially ending the STS-124 mission.

Expedition 32/33
In November 2009 Hoshide was assigned to the crew of ISS Expedition 32/Expedition 33 as a flight engineer. He started training at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, and served on the backup crew for Expedition 30/31, which launched aboard Soyuz TMA-03M on 21 December 2011.

Following the launch of Expedition 30/31, Hoshide started training for his own flight, alongside Roscosmos cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko and NASA astronaut Sunita Williams. The trio launched onboard Soyuz TMA-05M on 15 July 2012 ahead of a two-day flight to the ISS. The three crewmembers arrived on board the ISS on 17 July 2012 and officially became members of the Expedition 32 crew, joining Russian Commander Gennady Padalka, Russian Flight Engineer Sergei Revin and NASA Flight Engineer Joe Acaba.

On 27 August 2012 Hoshide robotically captured and berthed JAXA's HTV-3 uncrewed cargo spacecraft, on 30 August he ventured outside the ISS alongside Williams for his first spacewalk, over the eight hour, 17-minute spacewalk, the two astronauts prepared a Main Bus Switching Unit (MBSU) for replacement on a later spacewalk and switched some cables on the Russian Orbital Segment ahead of the launch and docking of the future Nauka laboratory module. On 5 September he and Williams went outside the station again, for a 6-hour, 28-minute spacewalk to replace the MBSU the two had prepared for replacement on the last spacewalk. They also replaced a camera on Canadarm-2.

On 16 September 2012, Paldalka, Revin and Acaba departed the station onboard Soyuz TMA-04M, following which Hoshide, Williams and Malenchenko became part of the Expedition 33 crew, with Williams taking command of the station for the increment. They were later joined by Soyuz TMA-06M crewmembers Oleg Novitsky and Evgeny Tarelkin, both of Roscosmos, and NASA astronaut Kevin Ford. On 11 October 2012 Hoshide and Williams successfully robotically captured SpaceX's Cargo Dragon CRS-1 uncrewed resupply spacecraft, the first mission contracted under NASA's Commercial Resupply Services contract. On 1 November Hoshide stepped outside the station with Williams for a third time and performed a six-hour, 38-minute spacewalk to carry out several maintenance tasks on the US Orbital Segment of the station, during which Hoshide took hold of the record for most cumulative spacewalk time for a Japanese astronaut, at 21-hours and 23-minutes total.

Expedition 33 officially ended on 18 November 2012 with the undocking of Soyuz TMA-05M. Malenchenko, Williams and Hoshide safely landed approximately six hours after undocking near the remote town of Arkalyk, Kazakhstan following 127 Days in space.

Expedition 65/66
Hoshide launched into space for the third time in 2021 aboard SpaceX Crew-2.  He served as a flight engineer on Expedition 65. On 27 April 2021, Hoshide assumed command of the ISS from NASA astronaut Shannon Walker, becoming only the second Japanese astronaut to command the station, following Koichi Wakata who commanded Expedition 39 in 2014.

References

External links

 NASA bio
 Spacefacts biography of Akihiko Hoshide

1968 births
Living people
Aquanauts
Japanese astronauts
Keio University alumni
People from Setagaya
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Commanders of the International Space Station
Spacewalkers
SpaceX astronauts
University of Houston alumni
People educated at a United World College

Akihiko Hoshide


Louis Bernard Bonjean (4 December 1804 - 24 May 1871) was a French jurist who was a Senator under Napoleon III.
He was a prolific author. During the Paris Commune he was taken prisoner and later shot.

Early years

Bonjean was born in Valence, Drôme, on 4 December 1804.
His family was from Savoy. He studied law in Paris, and received a doctorate in 1830.
He participated in the July 1830 revolution.
He had planned to make a career in legal education, but gave up this ambition after competing unsuccessfully to become a professor.
In 1838 he obtained a position as an advocate for the King's Counsel and for the Court of Cassation.
He gained a reputation from various works that he published on jurisprudence.

Politician

Bonjean entered politics in 1848 and was elected as representative for Drôme on a Republican platform on 23 April 1848.
However, he took his place on the right of the House and joined the conservative and Catholic majority.
On 13 May 1849 he again ran for election for Drôme, and in March 1850 ran in a by-election in Paris, but did not succeed in either attempt.
However, he remained involved in politics.
At the start of 1851 the President gave him the post of Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, which he held for two weeks from 9 to 24 January.
He supported the coup of December 1851, and was one of the members of the Council of State of 1852, presiding over the Interior section.

Bonjean then entered the imperial judiciary. On 16 February 1855 he was named a senator. Although conservative, he sometimes leaned towards a more liberal position and came into conflict with the majority. On 14 August 1862 he was made a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour.
He was made first president of the Court of Riom in 1863 and President of Chamber at the Court of Cassation in 1865.
When the Siege of Paris began on 4 September 1870 he remained in Paris and helped with the defense as a member of the National Guard.
The Paris Commune took him hostage and imprisoned him in Mazas Prison.
He was among those shot at La Roquette by the troops of the Commune on 24 May 1871.

Selected works

Louis Bernard Bonjean was a prolific author, and also acted as an editor and translator. Selected works:

De la donation entre vifs 56 p. 1837 Paris impr. Terzuolo
Mémoire à consulter pour les colons de la Guyane française spoliés par la violation de la capitulation du 12 janvier 1809 avec le Portugal In-8°, 24 p. 1839 Paris impr. de Béthune et Plon
Traité des actions, ou Exposition historique de l'organisation judiciaire et de la procédure civile chez les Romains 2 vol. in-8° 1841-1845 Paris Videcoq
De la Propriété et de la prescriptibilité des îles du Rhin, extrait de la "Revue étrangère et française de législation" In-8°, 46 p. 1843 Paris Joubert
Chrestomathie, ou Choix de textes pour un cours élémentaire du droit privé des Romains In-8°, CXVI-484 p. 1843 Paris Videcoq et fils
De l'Inconstitutionnalité de la juridiction militaire en Algérie à l'égard des citoyens français non militaires In-8°, 32 p. 1843 Paris impr. de Rignoux
Socialisme et sens commun, 68 p. May 1849 Paris Vve Le Normant
Conservation des oiseaux, leur utilité pour l'agriculture 56 p. 1862 Tarbes impr. de Telmon
Du Pouvoir temporel de la papauté In-8°, 533 p. 1862 Paris impr. de C. Lahure
Cour impériale de Riom 7 Mai 1863 In-8°, 63 p. Riom, U. Jouvet
Les Allopathes et les homéopathes devant le Sénat, discours de MM. Dumas, Bonjean et Dupin. Séance du 1er juillet 1865, 125 p. 1865 Paris Garnier frères

References
Citations

Sources

1804 births
1871 deaths
People from Valence, Drôme
Bonapartists
French Ministers of Agriculture and Commerce
Members of the 1848 Constituent Assembly
Members of Parliament for Drôme
French senators of the Second Empire
19th-century French lawyers
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Executed French people
People executed by France by firearm

Louis Bernard Bonjean


The alpaca (Lama pacos) is a species of South American camelid mammal. It is similar to, and often confused with, the llama. However, alpacas are often noticeably smaller than llamas. The two animals are closely related and can successfully crossbreed. Both species are believed to have been domesticated from their wild relatives, the vicuña and guanaco. There are two breeds of alpaca: the Suri alpaca and the Huacaya alpaca.

Alpacas are kept in herds that graze on the level heights of the Andes of Southern Peru, Western Bolivia, Ecuador, and Northern Chile at an altitude of  above sea level. Alpacas are considerably smaller than llamas, and unlike llamas, they were not bred to be working animals, but were bred specifically for their fiber. Alpaca fiber is used for making knitted and woven items, similar to sheep's wool. These items include blankets, sweaters, hats, gloves, scarves, a wide variety of textiles, and ponchos, in South America, as well as sweaters, socks, coats, and bedding in other parts of the world. The fiber comes in more than 52 natural colors as classified in Peru, 12 as classified in Australia, and 16 as classified in the United States.

Alpacas communicate through body language. The most common is spitting to show dominance when they are in distress, fearful, or feel agitated. Male alpacas are more aggressive than females, and tend to establish dominance within their herd group. In some cases, alpha males will immobilize the head and neck of a weaker or challenging male in order to show their strength and dominance.

In the textile industry, "alpaca" primarily refers to the hair of Peruvian alpacas, but more broadly it refers to a style of fabric originally made from alpaca hair, such as mohair, Icelandic sheep wool, or even high-quality wool from other breeds of sheep. In trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and the several styles of mohair and luster.

An adult alpaca generally is between  in height at the shoulders (withers). They usually weigh between . Raised in the same conditions, the difference in weight can be small with males weighting around  and females .

Background

The relationship between alpacas and vicuñas was disputed for many years. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the four South American lamoid species were assigned scientific names. At that time, the alpaca was assumed to be descended from the llama, ignoring similarities in size, fleece and dentition between the alpaca and the vicuña. Classification was complicated by the fact that all four species of South American camelid can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. The advent of DNA technology made a more accurate classification possible.

In 2001, the alpaca genus classification changed from Lama pacos to Vicugna pacos, following the presentation of a paper on work by Miranda Kadwell etal. on alpaca DNA to the Royal Society showing the alpaca is descended from the vicuña, not the guanaco.

Origin and domestication
Alpacas were domesticated thousands of years ago. The Moche people of Northern Peru often used alpaca images in their art. There are no known wild alpacas, and its closest living relative, the vicuña (also native to South America), is the wild ancestor of the alpaca.

The family Camelidae first appeared in Americas 40–45 million years ago, during the Eocene period, from the common ancestor, Protylopus. The descendants divided into Camelini and Lamini tribes, taking different migratory patterns to Asia and South America, respectively. Although the camelids became extinct in North America around 3 million years ago, it flourished in the South with the species we see today. It was not until 2–5 million years ago, during the Pliocene, that the genus Hemiauchenia of the tribe Lamini split into Palaeolama and Lama; the latter would then split again into Lama and Vicugna upon migrating down to South America.

Remains of vicuña and guanaco have been found throughout Peru for around 12,000 years. Their domesticated counterparts, the llama and alpacas, have been found mummified in the Moquegua valley, in the south of Peru, dating back 900 to 1000 years. Mummies found in this region show two breeds of alpacas. More precise analysis of bone and teeth of these mummies has demonstrated that alpacas were domesticated from the Vicugna vicugna. Other research, considering the behavioral and morphological characteristics of alpacas and their wild counterparts, seems to indicate that alpacas could find their origins in Lama guanicoe as well as Vicugna vicugna, or even a hybrid of both.

Genetic analysis shows a different picture of the origins of the alpaca. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows that most alpacas have guanaco mtDNA, and many also have vicuña mtDNA. But microsatellite data shows that alpaca DNA is much more similar to vicuña DNA than to guanaco DNA. This suggests that alpacas are descendants of the Vicugna vicugna, not of the Lama guanicoe. The discrepancy with mtDNA seems to be a result of the fact that mtDNA is only transmitted by the mother, and recent husbandry practices have caused hybridization between llamas (which primarily carry guanaco DNA) and alpacas. To the extent that many of today's domestic alpacas are the result of male alpacas bred to female llamas, this would explain the mtDNA consistent with guanacos. This situation has led to attempts to reclassify the alpaca as Vicugna pacos.

Breeds
The alpaca comes in two breeds, Suri and Huacaya, based on their fibers rather than scientific or European classifications.

Huacaya alpacas are the most commonly found, constituting about 90% of the population. The Huacaya alpaca is thought to have originated in post-colonial Peru. This is due to their thicker fleece which makes them more suited to survive in the higher altitudes of the Andes after being pushed into the highlands of Peru with the arrival of the Spanish.

Suri alpacas represent a smaller portion of the total alpaca population, around 10%. They are thought to have been more prevalent in pre-Columbian Peru since they could be kept at a lower altitude where a thicker fleece was not needed for harsh weather conditions.

Behavior

Alpacas are social herd animals that live in family groups, consisting of a territorial alpha male, females, and their young ones. Alpacas warn the herd about intruders by making sharp, noisy inhalations that sound like a high-pitched bray. The herd may attack smaller predators with their front feet and can spit and kick. Their aggression towards members of the canid family (coyotes, foxes, dogs etc.) is exploited when alpacas are used as guard llamas for guarding sheep.

Alpacas can sometimes be aggressive, but they can also be very gentle, intelligent, and extremely observant. For the most part, alpacas are very quiet, but male alpacas are more energetic when they get involved in fighting with other alpacas. When they prey, they are cautious but also nervous when they feel any type of threat. They can feel threatened when a person or another alpaca comes up from behind them.

Alpacas set their own boundaries of "personal space" within their families and groups. They make a hierarchy in some sense, and each alpaca is aware of the dominant animals in each group. Body language is the key to their communication. It helps to maintain their order. One example of their body communication includes a pose named broadside, where their ears are pulled back and they stand sideways. This pose is used when male alpacas are defending their territory.

When they are young, they tend to follow larger objects and to sit near or under them. An example of this is a baby alpaca with its mother. This can also apply when an alpaca passes by an older alpaca.

Training
Alpacas are generally very trainable and usually respond to reward, most commonly in the form of food. They can usually be petted without getting agitated, especially if one avoids petting the head or neck. Alpacas are usually quite easy to herd, even in large groups. However, during herding, it is recommended for the handler to approach the animals slowly and quietly, as failing to do so can result in danger for both the animals and the handler.

Alpacas and llamas have started showing up in U.S. nursing homes and hospitals as trained, certified therapy animals. The Mayo Clinic says animal-assisted therapy can reduce pain, depression, anxiety, and fatigue. This type of animal therapy is growing in popularity, and there are several organizations throughout the United States that participate.

Spitting
Not all alpacas spit, but all are capable of doing so. "Spit" is somewhat euphemistic; occasionally the projectile contains only air and a little saliva, although alpacas commonly bring up acidic stomach contents (generally a green, grassy mix) and project it onto their chosen targets. Spitting is mostly reserved for other alpacas, but an alpaca will also occasionally spit at a human.

Spitting can result in what is called "sour mouth". Sour mouth is characterized by "a loose-hanging lower lip and a gaping mouth."

Alpacas can spit for several reasons. A female alpaca spits when she is not interested in a male alpaca, typically when she thinks that she is already impregnated. Both sexes of alpaca keep others away from their food, or anything they have their eyes on. Most give a slight warning before spitting by blowing air out and raising their heads, giving their ears a "pinned" appearance.

Alpacas can spit up to ten feet if they need to. For example, if another animal does not back off, the alpaca will throw up its stomach contents, resulting in a lot of spit.

Some signs of stress which can lead to their spitting habits include: humming, a wrinkle under their eye, drooling, rapid breathing, and stomping their feet. When alpacas show any sign of interest or alertness, they tend to sniff their surroundings, watch closely, or stand quietly in place and stare.

When it comes to reproduction, they spit because it is a response triggered by the progesterone levels being increased, which is associated with ovulation.

Hygiene
Alpacas use a communal dung pile, where they do not graze. This behaviour tends to limit the spread of internal parasites. Generally, males have much tidier, and fewer dung piles than females, which tend to stand in a line and all go at once. One female approaches the dung pile and begins to urinate and/or defecate, and the rest of the herd often follows. Alpaca waste is collected and used as garden fertilizer or even natural fertilizer.

Because of their preference for using a dung pile for excreting bodily waste, some alpacas have been successfully house-trained.

Alpacas develop dental hygiene problems which affect their eating and behavior. Warning signs include protracted chewing while eating, or food spilling out of their mouths. Poor body condition and sunken cheeks are also telltales of dental problems.

Sounds

Alpacas make a variety of sounds:
 Humming: When alpacas are born, the mother and baby hum constantly. They also hum as a sign of distress, especially when they are separated from their herd. Alpacas may also hum when curious, happy, worried or cautious.
 Snorting: Alpacas snort when another alpaca is invading its space.
 Grumbling: Alpacas grumble to warn each other. For example, when one is invading another's personal space, it sounds like gurgling.
 Clucking: Similar to a hen's cluck, alpacas cluck when a mother is concerned for her cria. Male alpacas cluck to signal friendly behavior.
 Screaming: Their screams are extremely deafening and loud. They will scream when they are not handled correctly or when they are being attacked by a potential enemy.
 Screeching: A bird-like cry, presumably intended to terrify the opponent. This sound is typically used by male alpacas when they are in a fight over dominance. When a female screeches, it is more of a growl when she is angry.

Reproduction
Females are induced ovulators; meaning the act of mating and the presence of semen causes them to ovulate. Females usually conceive after just one breeding, but occasionally do have trouble conceiving. Artificial insemination is technically difficult, expensive and not common, but it can be accomplished. Embryo transfer is more widespread.

A male is usually ready to mate for the first time between two and three years of age. It is not advisable to allow a young female to be bred until she is mature and has reached two-thirds of her mature weight. Over-breeding a young female before conception is possibly a common cause of uterine infections. As the age of maturation varies greatly between individuals, it is usually recommended that novice breeders wait until females are 18 months of age or older before initiating breeding.

Alpacas can breed at any time throughout the year but it is more difficult to breed in the winter. Most breed during autumn or late spring. The most popular way to have alpacas mate is pen mating. Pen mating is when they move both the female and the desired male into a pen. Another way is paddock mating where one male alpaca is let loose in the paddock with several female alpacas.

The gestation period is, on average, 11.5 months, and usually results in a single offspring, or cria. Twins are rare, occurring about once per 1000 deliveries. Cria are generally between 15 and 19 pounds, and are standing 30 to 90 minutes after birth. After a female gives birth, she is generally receptive to breeding again after about two weeks. Crias may be weaned through human intervention at about six months old and 60 pounds, but many breeders prefer to allow the female to decide when to wean her offspring; they can be weaned earlier or later depending on their size and emotional maturity.

The average lifespan of an alpaca is between 15 and 20 years, and the longest-lived alpaca on record is 27 years.

Pests and diseases
Cattle tuberculosis can also infect alpacas: Mycobacterium bovis also causes TB in this species worldwide. Krajewska‐Wędzina et al., 2020 detect M. bovis in individuals traded from the United Kingdom to Poland. To accomplish this they develop a seroassay which correctly identifies positive subjects which are false negative for a common skin test. Krajewska‐Wędzina et al. also find that alpacas are unusual in mounting a competent early-infection immune response. Bernitz et al., 2021 believe this to generalise to all camelids.

Habitat and lifestyle
Alpacas can be found throughout most of South America. They typically live in temperate conditions in the mountains with high altitudes.

They are easy to care for since they are not limited to a specific type of environment. Animals such as flamingos, condors, spectacled bears, mountain lions, coyotes, llamas, and sheep live near alpacas when they are in their natural habitat.

Population
Alpacas are native to Peru, but can be found throughout the globe in captivity. Peru currently has the largest alpaca population, with over half the world's animals. The population declined drastically after the Spanish Conquistadors invaded the Andes mountains in 1532, after which 98% of the animals were destroyed. The Spanish also brought with them diseases that were fatal to alpacas.

European conquest forced the animals to move higher into the mountains, which remained there permanently. Although alpacas had almost been wiped out completely, they were rediscovered sometime during the 19th century by Europeans. After finding uses for them, the animals became important to societies during the industrial revolution.

In popular culture
Nuzzle and Scratch was a British children's television programme featuring two fictional alpacas that was first broadcast between 2008 and 2011.

Interest in alpacas grew as a result of Depp v. Heard, the 2022 trial in which Johnny Depp sued Amber Heard for defamation in Virginia after Heard wrote an op-ed saying she was a public victim of domestic violence. Depp testified, under oath, that he would not make another Pirates of the Caribbean film for "300 million dollars and a million alpacas".

Diet

Alpacas chew their food which ends up being mixed with their cud and saliva and then they swallow it. Alpacas usually eat 1.5% of their body weight daily for normal growth. They mainly need pasture grass, hay, or silage but some may also need supplemental energy and protein foods and they will also normally try to chew on almost anything (e.g. empty bottle). Most alpaca ranchers rotate their feeding grounds so the grass can regrow and fecal parasites may die before reusing the area. Pasture grass is a great source of protein. When seasons change, the grass loses or gains more protein. For example, in the spring, the pasture grass has about 20% protein while in the summer, it only has 6%. They need more energy supplements in the winter to produce body heat and warmth. They get their fiber from hay or from long stems which provides them with vitamin E. Green grass contains vitamin A and E.

Alpacas can eat natural unfertilized grass; however, ranchers can also supplement grass with low-protein grass hay. To provide selenium and other necessary vitamins, ranchers will feed their domestic alpacas a daily dose of grain to provide additional nutrients that are not fully obtained from their primary diet. Alpacas may obtain the necessary vitamins in their native grazing ranges.

Digestion
Alpacas, like other camelids, have a three-chambered stomach; combined with chewing cud, this three-chambered system allows maximum extraction of nutrients from low-quality forages. Alpacas are not ruminants, pseudo-ruminants, or modified ruminants, as there are many differences between the anatomy and physiology of a camelid and a ruminant stomach.

Alpacas will chew their food in a figure eight motion, swallow the food, and then pass it into one of the stomach's chambers. The first and second chambers (called C1 and C2) are anaerobic fermentation chambers where the fermentation process begins. The alpaca will further absorb nutrients and water in the first part of the third chamber. The end of the third chamber (called C3) is where the stomach secretes acids to digest food and is the likely place where an alpaca will have ulcers if stressed.

Poisonous plants
Many plants are poisonous to the alpaca, including the bracken fern, Madagascar ragwort, oleander, and some azaleas. In common with similar livestock, others include acorns, African rue, agave, amaryllis, autumn crocus, bear grass, broom snakeweed, buckwheat, ragweed, buttercups, calla lily, orange tree foliage, carnations, castor beans, and many others.

Fiber

Alpaca fleece is soft and possesses water and flame resistant properties, making it a valuable commodity.

Alpacas are typically sheared once per year in the spring. Each shearing produces approximately  of fiber per alpaca. An adult alpaca might produce  of first-quality fiber as well as  of second- and third-quality fiber. The quality of alpaca fiber is determined by how crimpy it is. Typically, the greater the number of small folds in the fiber, the greater the quality.

Prices
Alpacas were the subject of a speculative bubble between their introduction to North America in 1984 and the early 21st century. The price for American alpacas ranged from US$50 for a castrated male (gelding) to US$675,000 for the highest in the world, depending on breeding history, sex, and color. In 2006, researchers warned that the higher prices sought for alpaca breeding stock were largely speculative and not supported by market fundamentals, given the low inherent returns per head from the main end product, alpaca fiber, and prices into the $100s per head rather than $10,000s would be required for a commercially viable fiber production herd.

Marketed as "the investment you can hug" in television commercials by the Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association, the market for alpacas was almost entirely dependent on breeding and selling animals to new buyers, a classic sign of speculative bubbles in livestock. The bubble burst in 2007, with the price of alpaca breeding stock dropping by thousands of dollars each year thereafter. Many farmers found themselves unable to sell animals for any price, or even give them away.

It is possible to raise up to , as they have a designated area for waste products and keep their eating area away from their waste area. However, this ratio differs from country to country and is highly dependent on the quality of pasture available (in many desert locations it is generally only possible to run one to three animals per acre due to lack of suitable vegetation). Fiber quality is the primary variant in the price achieved for alpaca wool; in Australia, it is common to classify the fiber by the thickness of the individual hairs and by the amount of vegetable matter contained in the supplied shearings.

Livestock

Alpacas need to eat 1–2% of body weight per day, so about two  bales of grass hay per month per animal. When formulating a proper diet for alpacas, water and hay analysis should be performed to determine the proper vitamin and mineral supplementation program. Two options are to provide free choice salt/mineral powder or feed a specially formulated ration. Indigenous to the highest regions of the Andes, this harsh environment has created an extremely hardy animal, so only minimal housing and predator fencing are needed. The alpacas' three-chambered stomachs allow for extremely efficient digestion. There are no viable seeds in the manure, because alpacas prefer to only eat tender plant leaves, and will not consume thick plant stems; therefore, alpaca manure does not need composting to enrich pastures or ornamental landscaping. Nail and teeth trimming are needed every six to twelve months, along with annual shearing.

Similar to ruminants, such as cattle and sheep, alpacas have only lower teeth at the front of their mouths; therefore, they do not pull the grass up by the roots. Rotating pastures is still important, though, as alpacas have a tendency to regraze an area repeatedly. Alpacas are fiber-producing animals; they do not need to be slaughtered to reap their product, and their fiber is a renewable resource that grows yearly.

Cultural presence

Alpacas are closely tied to cultural practices for Andeans people. Prior to colonization, the image of the alpaca was used in rituals and in their religious practices. Since the people in the region depended heavily on these animals for their sustenance, the alpaca was seen as a gift from Pachamama. Alpacas were used for their meat, fibers for clothing, and art, and their images in the form of conopas.

Conopas take their appearance from the Suri alpacas, with long locks flanking their sides and bangs covering the eyes, and a depression on the back. This depression is used in ritual practices, usually filled with coca leaves and fat from alpacas and lamas, to bring fertility and luck. While their use was prevalent before colonization, the attempts to convert the Andean people to Catholicism led to the acquisition of more than 3,400 conopas in Lima alone.

The origin of alpacas is depicted in legend; the legend states they came to be in the world after a goddess fell in love with a man. The goddess' father only allowed her to be with her lover if he cared for her herd of alpacas. On top of caring for the herd, he was to always carry a small animal for his entire life. As the goddess came into our world, the alpacas followed her. Everything was fine until the man set the small animal down, and the goddess fled back to her home. On her way back home, the man attempted to stop her and her herd from fleeing. While he was not able to stop her from returning, he was able to stop a few alpacas from returning. These alpacas who did not make it back are said to be seen today in the swampy lands in the Andes waiting for the end of the world, so they may return to their goddess.

See also

Alpaca fiber
Guanaco
Llama
 Skrjabinema – an intestinal parasite that infects the guanaco
Vicuña

References

External links

 International Alpaca Association (IAA)
 Alpaca Owners Association (AOA) (US)
 Alpaca Association of Australia (AAA) (AU)
 View the alpaca genome in Ensembl

Camelids
Mammals of the Andes
Mammals of Argentina
Mammals of Bolivia
Mammals of Chile
Mammals of Ecuador
Mammals of Peru
Animal hair products
Livestock
Articles containing video clips
Mammals described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Wool animals

Alpaca


Canopus, or Alpha Carinae in the Bayer designation system, is the brightest star in its constellation (Carina) and the brightest star in the southern night sky.

Canopus is quite unusual, because its distance from Earth was not known until the 1990s. Before the launching of the Hipparcos satellite telescope, distance estimates for the star varied widely, from 96 light years to 1200 light years. Hipparcos established Canopus as lying 310 light years (96 parsecs) from our solar system.

The difficulty in measuring Canopus' distance stemmed from its being a "less luminous supergiant". Such stars are rare and poorly understood. They are stars that can be either in the process of evolving to or away from red giant status. This in turn made it difficult to know how intrinsically bright Canopus is, and therefore how far away it might be. Direct measurement was the only way to solve the problem. Canopus is too far away for Earth-based parallax observations to be made, so the star's distance was not known with certainty until the early 1990s.

Canopus is 13,600 times more luminous than the Sun and the most intrinsically bright star within about 700 light years. In fact, from 1 astronomical unit, Canopus would have an apparent magnitude of -37. Canopus appears less bright than Sirius in our sky only because Sirius is much closer to the Earth (8.6 light years).

The surface temperature of Canopus is 7350 ± 30 K. Its diameter has been measured at 0.6 astronomical units (the measured angular diameter being 0.006 arcseconds), 65 times that of the Sun. If it were placed at the centre of the solar system, it would extend three-quarters of the way to Mercury. An Earth-like planet would have to lie three times the distance of Pluto for its star to appear the same size in the sky as our own sun. Canopus is a strong source of X-rays, which are probably produced by its corona, magnetically heated to around 15 million K.

Canopus is part of the Scorpius-Centaurus Association, a group of stars which share similar origins.

References

Supergiants
Stars

Canopus


COSI (), officially the Center of Science and Industry, is a science museum and research center in Columbus, Ohio. COSI was opened to the public on 29 March 1964 and remained there for 35 years. In 1999, COSI was moved to a  facility, designed by Japanese architect Arata Isozaki along a bend in the Scioto River in the Franklinton neighborhood. COSI features more than 300 interactive exhibits throughout themed exhibition areas.

Until the COVID-19 pandemic, COSI operated the largest outreach education program of any science museum in the United States. Anchored by COSI on Wheels – a whole-school outreach program traveling throughout Ohio and the surrounding Midwest – as well as local COSI on Wheels Workshops, Camp COSI on Wheels, and Interactive Videoconference programs reaching 350,000 learners each year outside of the museum at their peak.

In 1972, COSI originated the Camp-In overnight program for Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts – a concept now commonplace in museums nationwide. Since 1964, COSI has engaged with nearly 30 million unique visitors through on-site and outreach programs.

As a non-profit organization, COSI is supported by ticket sales, a network of community and statewide partnerships (including relationships with a variety of donors and sponsors), a volunteer program supported by 10,000 volunteers annually, and nearly 20,000 member households. In 2008, COSI was named the #1 science center in the United States for families by Parent Magazine. In 2020, it was named the #1 Science Museum in the United States by USA Today.

Exhibit areas

Upon relocating in 1999, COSI was developed with large, self-contained, themed atria, each dedicated to a single topic and designed as immersive theatrical learning worlds. As of 2018, COSI contains seven main exhibit areas: Ocean, Energy Explorers, Space, Progress, Gadgets, Life, and the American Museum of National History Dinosaur Gallery. Hallways between each learning world are filled with hands-on exhibits and displays.

Ocean
Accessed via an underwater cave through a crashed shipwreck, the cavern path splits as guests pass to the right or left. The pathway to the right leads to a docked submarine laboratory where hands-on exhibits explore the realities of ocean research, submersibles, SCUBA, water pressure, and remote-operated vehicles. Lilypad Lab focuses on drainage basin and Central Ohio wildlife. The path forking left from the shipwreck leads to the Temple of Poseidon, an ancient stone chamber built around a 30-foot tall statue of Poseidon with waterfalls, fountains, and water jets. Another realm focuses on the properties of water and the stories it inspires – laminar flow, whirlpools, erosion, water bells, and mythology.

Energy Explorers
Energy Explorers, which opened in 2013, allows visitors to choose an avatar character that follows the guest to the Home Zone, Transportation Zone, and Product Zone of a town, making decisions via computer kiosks to balance energy efficiency and cost.

Space
The Space exhibit area features a replica space station pod to tour, a recreation of John Glenn's Friendship 7 spacecraft from the Mercury-Atlas 6, remote-operated vehicles, balance tests, and other hands-on experiments that deal with space flight trajectory, gravitational pull, and simulated rover landings. Space was originally located on Level 2 in its own enclosed atrium exhibit area, entered via a "black hole" spinning funhouse hallway meant to disorient guests. The exhibit itself   was in a dark, immersive, themed area, stylized after the 1969 Moon landing of Apollo 11. Under starry skies, guests interacted with "retro" stylized monitors and exhibits with a matching wood-panel / brushed metal motif that was reminiscent of the era, even included a 1960s living room (including shag carpeting) where guests could watch the recorded landing.

When the south end of COSI's building was closed due to lost levies in 2004, the Space exhibit was relocated from Level 2 to an empty gallery on Level 1. In 2012, that area become Energy Explorers, necessitating yet another location switch. Some of the Space exhibits' displays moved to the Mezzanine Level while much remained in storage. With the re-opening of COSI's Planetarium in November 2014, the location of Space on the Mezzanine leading toward the Planetarium's lobby was reinforced by the return and refurbishment of the rest of Space's exhibits. However, Space remains the only one of COSI's seven learning worlds to not have its own dedicated, theatrical, immersive atrium, instead being located on the bright Mezzanine bridge. The original home of Space is now Gallery 3, available for traveling exhibits and special event rentals. Gallery 3 still contains the Galaxy Theater, fittingly still painted with murals of planets and stars leftover from its time as a live theater for Space.

Progress
The Progress exhibit (modeled after the Streets of Yesteryear exhibit at COSI's original location) traces the hopes and fears of a small town called Progress in 1898, just as electricity, horseless carriages, and canned food become available. The recreated town (specifically, the shops, homes, and restaurants at the corner of Hope Street and Fear Street) includes a telegraph office, livery, stable, grocer, apothecary, and clothiers. After visitors walk through Progress in 1898, they turn the corner and enter the same intersection of the same town 64 years later in 1962, where a new set of hopes and fears have arisen.

In 1962, the town of Progress includes an appliance store, a working TV studio, a radio station (where the telegraph office was), a department store, a diner, and a gas station (replacing the livery). At the exit, the exhibit challenges guests to consider how the streets of the village of Progress might look today, and to question why the concept of progress deserves as much weight in the scientific study as that of oceans, space, or energy.

Gadgets
The Gadgets exhibit area contains many classic science museum hands-on experiments, such as pulleys, wind tunnels, plasmaglobes, magnets, light bulbs, engines, and counterweights. As well, Gadgets contains the Gadgets Café, where families are seated and given a menu with quick science experiments to choose from. A take-apart menu allows visitors to disassemble donated phones, computers, clocks, and other electronic devices, which are recycled afterward.

Life
Life explores humanity through three separate areas dedicated to the mind, body, and spirit. The Mind area contains optical illusions, physical illusions, an anechoic chamber, and a posable zoetrope. Spirit discusses the concept of birth and death and how human cultures understand them. Body features interactive health stations where visitors can record their weight, flexibility, and heart rate, then compare their statistics to that of COSI visitors and national averages. Life also contains the Labs in Life, three working research pods staffed by OSU students and staff.

Dinosaur Gallery
On November 19 of 2017, COSI, in partnership with the American Museum of Natural History, opened a permanent Dinosaur Gallery. A traveling special exhibition gallery opened in the Spring of 2018. Together, they occupy 22,000 square feet on the first floor.

Other features
The building also contains an interactive "little kid space" area designed for children up through first grade, the National Geographic Giant Screen Theater (the largest digital screen in Ohio), and an outdoor Big Science Park. On November 22, 2014, COSI reopened its 60-foot diameter, 220-seat Planetarium (Ohio's largest) with all new digital projection. In addition, there is a History of COSI exhibit.

The building also includes three large galleries for traveling exhibits and special event hosting, a Dive Theater in Ocean, the Galaxy Theater in Gallery 3 (its name a remnant of when Gallery 3 was once the Space exhibit), the Gadgets Stage, the Atomic Cafe, the Science2Go! retail store, and five meeting rooms utilizing refurbished areas within the former Central High School, which the new COSI location was built around.

COSI Science Festival
On May 1-4, 2019, COSI, joined by Battelle, NASA, businesses, organizations, universities, and STEM leaders, hosted over one hundred community events showcasing science across Central Ohio as part of the inaugural COSI Science Festival. The 2019 COSI Science Festival was among the largest science events in Ohio history and included four days of events at central Ohio businesses, community centers, libraries, schools, and more. As part of the COSI Science Festival, COSI, Battelle, NASA, and other Central Ohio STEM leaders formed an unprecedented partnership that impacted 40,000 people. In May 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, an all-digital COSI Science Festival garnered 118,990 total online views of 39 separate virtual science events.

History

COSI opened on March 29, 1964, as a venture of the Franklin County Historical Society. COSI is a founding member of the Science Museum Exhibit Collaborative (SMEC) and a long-standing member of the Association of Science-Technology Centers (ASTC).

From its 1964 opening, COSI was housed in Memorial Hall, a Columbus landmark constructed in 1906. COSI closed at the Memorial Hall location on East Broad Street on September 6, 1999, and re-opened two months later on November 6, 1999, at its new location on the Scioto riverfront in downtown Columbus. The 320,000 square foot facility was designed by  Japanese architect Arata Isozaki, who designed an elliptical, geometric, "blimp" shaped structure composed of 159 curved concrete panels. The museum is designed to appear progressively futuristic from the neighborhood of Franklinton, while from downtown Columbus it uses the exterior of the original Central High School to blend into the city.

Shortly after the move to the riverfront, the museum experienced a shortfall of funds. With an initial construction budget of over $210 million, high maintenance costs of the new facility, "six-figure" utility bills, and "lower-than-expected" ticket sales, COSI's reliance on admission revenue proved an unsuitable long term plan. In 2004, the museum spearheaded an effort to assess a property tax levy, chaired by former NASA astronaut John Glenn. The levy would have imposed a property tax on residents of Franklin County, who would receive free admission in return. The levy failed. As a result, the south wing of COSI's "blimp" structure was closed.

As part of the reconfiguration of the museum following the loss of the levy in 2004, COSI opened only five days per week instead of seven. Many of the museum's exhibits were announced to close permanently (though many have re-opened in stages in the years since). Two of the original exhibit areas were closed permanently (called i|o and SimZone, the spaces they formerly occupied are now Gallery 1 and Energy Explorers, respectively).

Closures from 2004 that have since been reversed include Space (relocated to Level 1 in 2005, then to the Mezzanine in 2012), the original Gallery 1 (space reused as WOSU@COSI in September 2006), Adventure (re-opened as an additional-charge experience in September 2010), CityView (still off-limits to the public; now available for special events), and the Planetarium (re-opened in November 2014 as the final piece of the building to come back online).

During the spring and summer of 2005, COSI hosted the blockbuster traveling exhibition "Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition" and saw record attendance (prompting the return of the exhibit in 2010). In the summer of 2006, COSI hosted another large exhibit: "Star Wars: Where Science Meets Imagination", produced by the Museum of Science, Boston.

In April 2006, Dr. David Chesebrough, former president and CEO of the Buffalo Museum of Science, became COSI's new president and CEO.  He replaced former NASA astronaut Kathryn D. Sullivan, who became COSI science advisor on a volunteer basis while serving  as the Director of Ohio State University's Battelle Center for Mathematics and Science Education Policy.

Since then, COSI has integrated additional-cost traveling exhibits as part of its funding model. The museum has hosted EINSTEIN, An Exhibition on the Man and his Science (2007), Gregor Mendel: Planting the Seeds of Genetics  (2007), CSI: The Experience (2008), Geckos: From Tail to Toepads (2011), Dinosaurs: Explore.  Escape. Survive. (2011) (2011), RACE: Are We So Different? (2012), WATER (2012), LEGO Castle Adventure (2012), BODYWORLDS and The Brain (2012), MindBender Mansion and Amazing Mazes (2013), MythBusters: The Explosive Exhibition (2013), and Sherlock Holmes: The Exhibition (2014). COSI also developed its own traveling exhibit, Lost Egypt: Ancient Secrets, Modern Science (2009) in cooperation with the Science Museum Exhibit Collaborative, built by the Science Museum of Minnesota.

In January 2016, Dr. Chesebrough announced that he planned to retire at the end of 2016. On November 10, 2016, the COSI board of trustees announced the selection of Dr. Frederic Bertley as COSI Columbus' new president and CEO, effective January 1, 2017.

On August 23, 2016, the Capitol South Community Redevelopment Corp. announced the approval of a $37 million plan to replace the 600-spot parking lots on COSI's west side with an underground parking garage topped with an 8-acre green space and programmatic park as a complement to the larger Scioto Peninsula green space along the Scioto River. The construction project is expected to be completed in spring 2018.

On September 16, 2016, COSI announced a partnership between the city of Columbus and the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) in New York City to build a $5 million permanent Dinosaur Exhibition Gallery and a dedicated AMNH Traveling Exhibition Gallery replacing the WOSU and Adventure exhibits. The WOSU exhibit has since relocated; however, the Adventure exhibition closed permanently on January 1, 2017.

See also
Imagination Station, formerly COSI Toledo, formerly affiliated with COSI Columbus
List of museums in Ohio
 List of science centers

References

External links

Museums established in 1964
1964 establishments in Ohio
Museums in Columbus, Ohio
Culture of Columbus, Ohio
Science museums in Ohio
Science museums
Association of Science-Technology Centers member institutions
Franklinton (Columbus, Ohio)
Broad Street (Columbus, Ohio)

COSI


Amanita Pestilens is a 1963 Canadian-American psychological horror-fantasy/drama film produced by F. R. Crawley, and directed by René Bonnière. It was "the first Canadian feature film to be shot in both English and French with the same set of actors". It included an early career performance by Geneviève Bujold, along with performances by Jacques Labrecque and Huguette Oligny. This was the first Canadian feature film to be produced in colour. It was filmed at Harrington Lake, Québec.

The film's script was written by Canadian author David Walker and was initially titled Staircases. Bonnière persuaded Crawley to fund and produce a film based on this script. The new title, Amanita Pestilens, meant "Poisoned Love".

Premise
The plot concerns a Montreal suburbanite who becomes obsessed with his award-winning lawn, which has become infested with a ground fungus. His neighbour across the street identifies the species as Amanita pestilens (not a real species, although Amanita is a real genus). The mushrooms prove impossible to eradicate, and the homeowner directs all his efforts to getting rid of them, to the exclusion of all else. His obsession very nearly destroys his life and leads to a deadly confrontation with his neighbour. A surprise ending, however, gives the viewer hope that the main character will see the error of his ways.

Cast

Production
Amanita Pestilens was the second Canadian colour film, after Étienne Brûlé gibier de potence/The Immortal Scoundrel from 1952, shot in English and French.

Release
The film was screened at the Berlin International Film Festival in 1965. It was broadcast on West German television and also broadcast into East Germany. Despite the innovations of its bilingual, colour production, Amanita Pestilens was a commercial failure.

There is no known video release although the film was shown on Moviepix (Mpix) on 10 May 1998.

References

Works cited

External links

1963 films
Canadian drama films
1960s English-language films
Bilingualism in Canada
Lost Canadian films
1963 drama films
French-language Canadian films
1960s French-language films
English-language Canadian films
1960s Canadian films

Amanita Pestilens


Patrick M. Hanrahan (born 1954) is an American computer graphics researcher, the Canon USA Professor of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering in the Computer Graphics Laboratory at Stanford University.
His research focuses on rendering algorithms, graphics processing units, as well as scientific illustration and visualization. He has received numerous awards, including the 2019 Turing Award.

Education and academic work
Hanrahan grew up in Green Bay, Wisconsin. He attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison and graduated with a B.S. in nuclear engineering in 1977, continued his education there, and as a graduate student taught a new computer science course in graphics in 1981. One of his first students was an art graduate student, Donna Cox, now known for her art and scientific visualizations. In the 1980s he went to work at the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Laboratory and at Digital Equipment Corporation under Edwin Catmull. He returned to U.W. Madison and completed his Ph.D. in biophysics in 1985.

Career
As a founding employee at Pixar Animation Studios, from 1986 to 1989 Hanrahan was part of the design of the RenderMan Interface Specification and the RenderMan Shading Language.
He was credited in Pixar productions including The Magic Egg (1984), Tin Toy (1988) and Toy Story (1995).

In 1989 Hanrahan joined the faculty of Princeton University. In 1995 he moved to Stanford University. In 2003 Hanrahan co-founded Tableau Software and remains its chief scientist. In February 2005 Stanford University was named the first regional visualization and analytics center for the United States Department of Homeland Security, focused on problems in information visualization and visual analytics. In 2011 Intel Research announced funding for a center for visual computing, co-led by Hanrahan and Jim Hurley of Intel.

He was the doctoral advisor of Peter Schröder and Tamara Munzner.

Awards
Hanrahan received three Academy Awards for his work in rendering and computer graphics research. In 1993 Hanrahan and other Pixar founding employees were awarded a scientific and engineering award for RenderMan. In 2004 he shared a technical achievement award with Stephen R. Marschner and Henrik Wann Jensen, for research in simulating subsurface scattering of light in translucent materials.
In 2014 he shared a technical achievement award with Matt Pharr and Greg Humphreys, for their formalization and reference implementation of the concepts behind physically based rendering, as shared in their book Physically Based Rendering.

Hanrahan received the 2003 SIGGRAPH Steven A. Coons Award for Outstanding Creative Contributions to Computer Graphics, for "leadership in rendering algorithms, graphics architectures and systems, and new visualization methods for computer graphics", and the 1993 SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics Achievement Award. He was inducted into the 2018 ACM SIGGRAPH Academy Inaugural Class.

He received the 2006 Career Award for Visualization Research from the IEEE Technical Committee on Visualization and Graphics (VGTC) at the IEEE Visualization Conference,

He became a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1999, a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2007 and of the Association for Computing Machinery in 2008, and received three university teaching awards at Stanford.

Hanrahan shared the 2019 ACM A.M. Turing Award with Catmull for their pioneering efforts on computer-generated imagery.

Quotes
 Curiosity and passion determine success

References

External links
 Pat Hanrahan's academic home page

Living people
Computer graphics researchers
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Stanford University School of Engineering faculty
Stanford University Department of Electrical Engineering faculty
University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Engineering alumni
1954 births
New York Institute of Technology faculty
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Academy Award for Technical Achievement winners
Turing Award laureates

Pat Hanrahan


A club fighter (or clubfighter) is a professional boxer who usually fights locally and has a mediocre record. Club fighters generally are not nationally recognized and have not won any fights that show the ability to win a championship. The term is often used as a pejorative for over-hyped fighters or for older boxers when they begin to decline. For example, Floyd Mayweather Jr. called Arturo Gatti "a blown-up club fighter", even though Gatti was the WBC super lightweight champion at the time.

A club fighter is less respected than a contender, who defeats gatekeepers, journeymen and club fighters in order to establish themselves as a challenger for a world title. A journeyman is slightly more respected than a club fighter — often by way of having a superficially good record.

Boxing terminology
Pejorative terms for people

Club fighter


Maxime of Lyon () was the 10th bishop of Lyon. He succeeds Vocius in the first half of the 4th century.

Very little is known of his life. His name is known to us from the various lists of the first archbishops of Lyon and chronicles the history of the Church of Lyon. It is sometimes likened to a Maximus mentioned in the Litany of the Church of Lyon but without no basis to this attachment.

References

Bishops of Lyon
4th-century bishops in Gaul
Year of birth unknown
Year of death missing
4th-century Gallo-Roman people

Maximus of Lyon


Wolfgang Lettl (18 December 1919 – 10 February 2008) was a surrealist painter who was born and who died in Augsburg, Germany. His retrospective was exhibited at the Schaezlerpalais in 2019.

In 1939, at the age of 20, Wolfgang joined the German Army and served as a communications officer in occupied Paris from 1940 to 1943, during which time he worked on his watercolours and first became exposed to surrealism. Later in the war, he became a reconnaissance airman in Norway, where he was captured at the end of the war and held for four months.

He returned to Augsburg in 1945, and worked there as a freelance painter from 1945 to 1948. In 1949, however, the currency reform forced him to turn to construction work to make ends meet. He continued working on his landscapes, portraits and surrealist art while working construction jobs and odd jobs. From 1954 onwards, he was able to concentrate on his art.

He married Franziska Link in 1949.

Success with his freelance art led him to develop his surrealism, and in 1963 he participated in the Grosse Kunstausstellung München (the "Grand Art Exhibition Munich"), becoming a member of the Neue Münchener Künstlergenossenschaft ("New Munich Artists' Cooperative Society"). One-man shows in Germany and abroad followed. In addition to his surrealist work, the landscapes around Manfredonia, his second home in Apulia, Italy, inspired him to sometimes paint in an impressionistic style.

In 1992, on the occasion of a retrospective exhibition at the Toskan Hall of Columns, he offered his paintings to the city of Augsburg on permanent loan. After the opening of the "Lettl Atrium - Museum for Surreal Art" in Augsburg in 1993, Lettl has concentrated on experiments in other media (including film), as well as continuing with his painting. A major retrospective exhibition was held in Augsburg in 2000.

References

External links

 Official Lettl Website
 Wolfgang Lettl at Google Arts & Culture

1919 births
2008 deaths
German Army personnel of World War II
20th-century German painters
20th-century German male artists
German male painters
21st-century German painters
21st-century German male artists
Artists from Augsburg

Wolfgang Lettl


Schelte a Bolswert (1586–1659) was a leading Dutch engraver, noted for his works after Rubens and Van Dyck.

Life
He was born in the town of Bolswert, in Friesland, in 1586. Both he and his older  brother, Boetius à Bolswert,  worked in Amsterdam and Haarlem before settling in Antwerp. For the last five years of his life Boetius worked exclusively on engravings after Rubens. Following his death in 1633, Schelte was employed by Rubens in his place, working closely with the painter, who sometimes retouched his proofs.  He continued to engrave his works after Rubens' death in 1640.

Bolswert's plates were worked entirely with the graver, and he does not seem to have made any use of the drypoint. Basan said of his work:The freedom which this  excellent artist handled the graver, the picturesque roughness of etching, which he could imitate without any other assisting instrument, and the ability he possessed of distinguishing the different masses of colours, have always been admired by the conoisseurs". Joseph Strutt, after quoting this passage, adds that Bolswert "drew excellently, and without any manner of his own; for his prints are the exact transcripts of the pictures he engraved from". His plates are generally signed with his name.

He died at Antwerp in 1659.

Principal prints

Various subjects, mostly after his own designs
The Infant Jesus and St. John playing with a Lamb.
The Virgin Mary, and Infant Jesus sleeping.
The Virgin giving suck to the Infant.
The Virgin Mary, with her hands folded on her Breast.
The Virgin Mary with the Infant in the clouds, with Angels and Cherubim.
The Infant Jesus caressing the Virgin Mary, and St. Joseph holding a Pear.
Twelve half-length figures of Saints.
Twelve other half-length figures of Saints, beginning with St. Peter.
A Hermit kneeling before a Crucifix.
Mater Dolorosa.
Jesus Christ triumphing over Death.
St. Barbe, Martyr.
St. Stanislaus Koska, kneeling before an Altar.
St. Francis Borgia.
St. Alfonso Rodriguez.
Robert Bellarmin, of the Society of Jesus.
Leonard Lessius; another Jesuit.
An emblematical subject of Prince Ferdinand; inscribed In te spes reclinata recumbit.
Two plates of a Thesis; dedicated to Sigismund, King of Poland.
Six plates, with the Frontispiece, for the Académie de I'Espée; by Thibault. 1628.
The Dispute between the Gras and the Meagre; B. A. Bolswert inv.

Various subjects, after different Flemish masters

The Death of a Saint, and that of a Sinner; after Diepenbeeck.
The Dead Christ on the Knees of the Virgin Mary.
The Crucifixion of the Three Jesuits at Japan; after the same.
The Crucifixion; Jac. Jordans inv. et pinx.; the best impressions are before the cum Privilegio Regis.
Mercury and Argus; after the same; the good impressions are before the address of Blooteling.
The infant Jupiter.
Pan playing on a Flute; after the same.
A Concert; entitled Soo Doude songen, soo pepen de Jongen; after the same.
Pan holding a Basket of Fruit, and Ceres crowned with Corn, and a Man sounding a Horn; after the same.
The Salutation; after Gerard Zegers.
The Return of the Holy Family out of Egypt; after the same.
The Virgin appearing to St. Ignatius, who is kneeling; after the same.
St. Francis Xavier, tempted by the Devil; after the same.
Peter denying Christ; after the same.
Abraham sacrificing Isaac; after Theoodor Rombouts.
A Concert; after the same.
The Virgin with the Infant Jesus holding a Globe; after Erasmus Quellinus.
The Communion of St. Rosa; after the same.
The Triumph of the Archduke Leopold William, Governor of the Netherlands, 1653; four sheets; after the same.

Portraits, etc., after Van Dyck

Andries van Ertvelt, painter of Antwerp.
Martin Pepin, painter.
Adriaan Brouwer, painter.
Jan Baptist Barbé, engraver. (pictured)
Justus Lipsius, historiographer royal.
Albert de Ligne, Prince of Barbançon and Arenberg.
Mary Ruthven, wife of Van Dyck.
Margaret of Lorraine, Duchess of Orleans.
Willem de Vos, painter. (pictured)
Sebastiaan Vranck, painter.
Maria mater Dei.
The Holy Family, with an Angel holding a Crown.
The Virgin and the Infant Christ on her Knoe, with a Female Saint holding a Palm.
The Holy Family, with the Infant sleeping in the Arms of the Virgin.
The Holy Family in a landscape, with several Angels.
Christ crowned with Thorns; very fine.
The Elevation of the Cross.
The Crucifixion, a grand composition, with two Men on horseback, and a figure presenting the Sponge to Christ. On the other side, the Virgin Mary and St. John standing, and Mary Magdalene kneeling and embracing the Cross. This is considered one of the most beautiful engravings by Bolswert. In the first impressions, which are very scarce, the hand of St. John is not seen on the shoulder of the Virgin: in the second impressions, the hand of St. John rests on the Virgin's shoulder, and the name of Van Dyck is changed from the left to the right hand comer of the plate. In the last impressions the hand was erased, probably to give them the appearance of first impressions, but the trick is easily discovered by the superiority of the first in point of clearness and colour.

Subjects after Rubens
The Brazen Serpent; the best impressions are those which have the word Antwerpiae at the right hand corner, without the name of G. Hendrix.
The Marriage of the Virgin; the best impressions have the name of Hendrix, without the word Antwerpiae.
The Annunciation; the best impressions are those with the address of Martinus van den Enden the Elder.
The Nativity; the best impressions have the same address.
The Adoration of the Magi; the same.
The Return of the Holy Family from Egypt: the same.
The Feast of Herod, with Herodias presenting the Head of St. John to her Mother.
The Executioner giving the Head of St. John to Herodias.
The miraculous Draught of Fishes; in three plates.
Christ crucified between the Thieves; G. Hendrix exc.
The Crucifixion, a Soldier on horseback piercing the side of Our Saviour; dated 1631; extremely fine.
The Crucifixion, with the city of Jerusalem in the distance; M. van den Enden exc.
The Dead Christ in the Lap of the Virgin Mary, with. St. Francis; the same subject is engraved by Pontius.
The Resurrection; M. van den Enden excudit.
The Ascension; the same.
The Four Evangelists.
The Fathers of the Church; Nic. Lauwers exc.
The Destruction of Idolatry; in two sheets; the same.
The Triumph of the Church; in two sheets; the same.
The Immaculate Conception; Ant. Bon. Enfant exc.
The Assumption; arched; M. van den Enden exc.
The Assumption, with one of the Disciples lifting the Stone of the Sepulchre; M. van den Enden; the impressions with the address of G. Hendrix are posterior, and those with the name of C. van Merlen are retouched.
The Infant Jesus embracing the Virgin Mary; M. van den Enden exc.
The Virgin Mary holding a Globe, and the Infant Jesus holding a Sceptre.
The Holy Family, vrith the Infant Jesus and St. John caressing a Lamb.
The Holy Family, with a Parrot on a Pillar; A. Bonenfant exc.
St. Ignatius and St. Francis Xavier; the first impressions are before the name of Rubens.
The Education of the Virgin by St. Anne; the best impressions are without the name of Hendrix.
St. Cecilia; very fine.
St. Theresa at the Feet of Christ, interceding for the Souls in Purgatory; M. van den Enden exc.
The Continence of Scipio; the best impressions are before the address of G. Hendrix.
Silenus, drunk, supported by a Satyr, with another figure; the best impressions are those with the name of Bolswert only, without the address.
A Peasant Dance, Gillis Hendricx excudit.

Landscapes and hunting scenes
A set of six 'large landscapes' after Rubens
Philemon and Baucis (Ovid) - grand landscape deluged by a torrent.
Shipwreck of AEneas (Virgil) - grand landscape, sea-coast, beacon and a shipwreck.
Shipwreck of St Paul at Malta. - landscape with rainbow.
The Calydonian Boar Hunt, with Atalanta and Meleager in a grand woody landscape.
A view near Mechlin, with Haymakers and a Waggon, and figures driving Cattle.
Return of the Prodigal Son - including a stable with horses and cows.
A set of twenty 'smaller landscapes'.
A set of twelve Huntings of different animals, of which one is a Lion Hunt, with figures on horseback.

References

Attribution:

Further reading
 (see index).

1586 births
1659 deaths
Dutch engravers
People from Bolsward

Schelte a Bolswert