Eggesford () is a parish in mid-Devon, without its own substantial village. It is served by Eggesford railway station on the Exeter to Barnstaple railway line, also known as the Tarka Line.

Descent of the Manor

de Reigny

The manor of Eggesford is not recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086. In 1233 it was held by Sir John de Reigny, whose family, nearly all the male heirs of which were called John or Richard, remained in possession for many generations. In the 15th century Ibota, the widow of John Reigny, built an almshouse within the parish, which was valued in 1547 at £4 10s 6d per annum. No trace of the building remains and its location is unknown.

Copleston

In the 16th century the male line of Reigny died out, and Anne Reigny (daughter and sole-heiress of Richard Reigny) brought the manor to the family of her husband, Charles Copleston of Bicton. Their son was John I Copleston (died 1586), who is recorded as patron of the church in 1571. As a mural tablet in Eggesford Church records, his son John II Copleston (died 1606), who witnessed a land settlement at Winkleigh in 1589, married Dorothy Beeston (died 1601), the daughter of Sir George Beeston (c. 1520 – 1601) of Beeston House near Bunbury, Crewe, Cheshire, who acquired Beeston Castle from the Crown shortly before his death. He was a naval captain who commanded HMS Dreadnought against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and was knighted at sea on board the Ark Royal by Lord Howard of Effingham the Lord High Admiral. He served as MP for Cheshire in 1589. His wife, and Dorothy's mother, was Alice Davenport (died 1591), daughter of Thomas Davenport Esq., of Henbury. Sir George's effigy and elaborate monument exists against the north wall of the sanctuary in St Boniface's Church, Bunbury. The tablet in Eggesford Church is inscribed as follows:
"Here lyeth buried ye bodies of John Copleston Esq., & Dorothie his wife daughter to Sr. George Biston of Biston Castel in Chelshere, knight. They had issue Anne their sole daught. & heire who is now maryed to Edwarde Chichester Esq., one of ye sonnes of Sr. John Chichester of Rawleigh, knight, in whose memory the said Edwarde Chichester their son in law hath erected this monument in ye yere 1614. She departed ye 22 of July in ye yere 1601 he departed ye 11 of ... in ye yere 1606, living together 30 yeres in much peace w.th God & lovinge societie e.ch w.th other".

Chichester

Anne Copleston (1588–1616), the heiress of Eggesford, married in 1605 Edward Chichester (1568–1648), later created Baron Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of Carickfergus. He was the second son  of Sir John Chichester (died 1569), of Raleigh, in the parish of Pilton, about 3/4 mile NE of the centre of Barnstaple, Devon, by his wife Gertrude Courtenay (1521–1566), a daughter (by his 2nd marriage) of Sir William III Courtenay (1477–1535) "The Great", of Powderham, MP for Devon 1529, Sheriff of Devon 1522, 1525-6, 1533-4 and  Esquire of the Body to King Henry VIII, a distant cousin of the Earl of Devon. He was thus the younger brother of Arthur Chichester, Baron Chichester (1563-1624/5). Anne Copleston died in 1616 aged only 28, having produced at least three sons to continue the Chichester line. Edward married secondly Mary Denham, which marriage is recorded by a date-stone now set in the wall of Eggesford Barton inscribed "E.C.M. 1626". This may be the date on which Edward Chichester completed his rebuilding of the former mediaeval Eggesford House, which is evidenced by William Pole (died 1635) in his "Description of Devon" thus: "Edward Vi.cont Chichester of Cairfus which hath builded a fayre howse dwelleth nowe at Eggesford". Tristram Risdon's 1620 "Survey of Devonshire" furthermore records regarding Eggesford that Edward Lord Chichester "hath made a dainty dwelling thereof". During the Civil War Lord Chichester allowed this house to become a garrison for royalist troops, under the command of Lord Goring, whose HQ was at Tiverton. It was stormed on 18 December 1645 by the Roundhead Colonel John Okey with a regiment of Dragoons, as part of the final push by the parliamentary troops northwards from Exeter to their final victory at the Battle of Torrington in February 1646. About twelve prisoners were captured and taken back top Okey's base at Fulford House near Dunsford.  No trace of this Chichester house remains but it is believed to have stood on a level site some 50 yards to the NW of the parish church, and was later rebuilt on the same site in 1718 by William Fellowes, whose building was demolished in 1824, leaving only a level area in the large field which exists there today.  Edward and Anne's eldest son and heir was
Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall (1606–1674/5), who erected a very elaborate alabaster monument to his first two wives in Eggesford Church.
Although he produced six sons by his second wife Mary Digby (1612–1648), daughter of John Digby, 1st Earl of Bristol, it was his daughter Mary by his first wife Dorcas Hill (died 1630), a daughter of John Hill of Honiley, Warwickshire, who inherited Eggesford. This seemingly arose through the terms of a marriage settlement, not preserved in the records, in which John Hill insisted the manor should descend to the children, male or female, of his daughter and son-in-law. Such terms in marriage settlements were not unusual. Thus were the sons of the Earl excluded from this part of the Chichester lands.

St Ledger

Lady Mary Chichester married in 1655 as his first wife John St Ledger (died 1696) of Doneraile, County Cork, Ireland. He was the son of Sir William St Ledger (died 1642), Lord President of Munster in 1627, MP for County Cork in 1639 and Privy Counsellor, by his wife Gertrude de Vries. Their eldest son was Arthur St Ledger, 1st Viscount Doneraile, MP for Doneraile 1692-3, Privy Counsellor and raised to the Irish peerage in 1703. He married in 1690 Elizabeth Hayes, daughter of John Hayes and had issue. He appears to have had little interest in his Devon manor of Eggesford and sold it in 1718 to William Fellowes.

Fellowes

William Fellowes (1660–1724) purchased the manor of Eggesford in 1718 and immediately rebuilt the Chichester house of c. 1620 in early Palladian style, using red bricks. The following deeds are held by Norfolk Record Office:
"Deeds re £30,000 for purchase of estate for William Fellowes, his son-in-law, left by will of Joseph Martyn 1715; manors of Eggesford, Chawley, Borriston, Cheldon, Cudlip, East Warlington, Witheridge, Drayton; hundred of Witheridge; capital messuage called Eggesford, and farm and advowson, Devon, and manor of Mountsey and estates, Somerset, Lord Doneralle to William Fellowes 1718".
William Fellowes died on 19 January 1723 and was buried at Eggesford.  His heir erected a very impressive neo-classical monument to his memory, which necessitated an eastward expansion of the north aisle of the church, and the creation of an extra window for lighting. The monument fills the entire eastern wall, and seems intended to have held an urn, now missing. He clearly became very fond of his new manor of Eggesford, as the Latin inscription on his monument makes clear:
"M(emoriae) S(acrum) Gulielmi Fellowes Arm(ige)ri almae curiae cancellariae Magistri quo officio tenente summa legis et aequitatis cura decessit 19.mo (undevicensimo) Jan(uar)ii 1723 aeta(tis) 64. Mariam Josephi Martyn de London mercatoris viri integritate insignis filiam et haeredem duxit; liberos quinqe ex ea genitos viz (videlicet) tres filios et duas filias reliquit. Familiam diu hic permanere cupiens ossa sua hoc in loco deponi voluit".
Which may be translated into English as:
"Sacred to the memory of William Fellowes, Esquire, Master of the Court of Chancery in holding which office in the highest care of law and equity he departed on the 19th of January 1723 of his age 64. He married Mary the daughter and heir of Joseph Martyn of London, merchant, a man outstanding in integrity; he left five children born from her namely three sons and two daughters. Desiring his family long to remain here he wished his bones to be deposited in this place".
The monument is said to have been made in Italy and originally included four kneeling figures at the base.  At the top in a heraldic escutcheon are the arms of Fellowes quartered with the arms of Martyn, his wife's family, Argent, a pair of dolphins hauriant proper.

William Fellowes two sons, the younger being William Fellowes of Shotesham Park, and the elder Coulson Fellowes (1696–1769) who in 1725 married Urania Herbert, daughter of Francis Herbert of Oakly Park, Shropshire and sister of Henry Herbert, 1st Earl of Powis (1703–1772). The marriage settlement dated 1725 required him to transfer to trustees in tail male the following lands:

"Manors of Eggesford, Chawley also Chawleigh, Borrington also Burrington, Cheldon Cudlip East Worlington Witherigges also Witheridge and Drayford, the Hundred of Witherigges, the capital messuage called Eggesford in Eggesford parish and Chawley, other lands in parish of Eggesford, Wembworthy, Chawley, Borrington, Winkley Rings Ash Dowland Rose Ash Crediton, South Tawton, Great Torrington, Cholmley Cheldon Cudlip EastWorlington Witheridges and Drayford, parts of the Manor, borough, hundred, rights and lands of Northtawton, the Manor, borough, hundred, rights and lands of Brampton (sic, Bampton), the Manor of Hollacomb Parramore in p. of Wynkley, lands in Winkley and Winkley Town, messuages in Goldsmith Street and Keylane by Key Gate, Exeter, parts of messuages in Moreton Hamstead and Chagford and the advowsons of the churches of Eggesford, Chawley, Cheldon, and East Worlington, Devon, and the Manor of Mountsey also Mounyseaux and lands in Mounseaux and Dullverton, Somerset".

In 1737 Coulson acquired Ramsey Abbey and Abbots Ripton near Huntingdon in Cambridgeshire and was MP for Huntingdonshire from 1741 to 1761. When in London he lived at St James's and at Hampstead, as mentioned in his will. He had two sons and three daughters. In his will dated 1766, two years before his son William's marriage, he bequeathed his lands in Devon, Somerset, Huntingdonshire and Cambridgeshire to his second son Henry, should William die childless. In the event, Henry by the time of his death in 1792 had obtained the manor of Eggesford from his elder brother.

Wallop/Fellowes

By his will Henry Fellowes appointed as his heir, on condition he should adopt the name and arms of Fellowes, his nephew Newton Wallop (1772–1854), his sister's second son.  Newton's elder brother John Wallop (1767–1853) was destined to become the 3rd Earl of Portsmouth and to inherit the extensive family estates in Hampshire; he was also known to have been insane even from childhood. Henry Fellowes clearly did not wish the Eggesford estate to be merged with the Portsmouth estates, nor for the Fellowes name and arms to be lost. Newton Wallop thus appeared an ideal heir, having no family inheritance of his own. The inheritance was not without legal dispute, as the following record in Cambridgeshire County Record Office, Huntingdon reveals:
"Papers relating to the Case in Chancery brought by Hon. Newton Wallop and Hon. Coulson Wallop, infants, represented by John, Earl of Portsmouth, their father and next friend, and Robert Fellowes of Shottisham, Norfolk, Esq., devisees named in the last Will of Henry Arthur Fellowes, late of Eggesford, Devon, and Hill Street nr. Berkeley Square, Middlesex, Esq., deceased, against William Fellowes his brother and heir at law. The dispute arises over the will of the late H.A.Fellowes. The question is whether, because H.A.Fellowes was duped into leaving his lands in Devon, Somerset, Essex and Middlesex and some money to his supposed, but actually non-existent, children by Mrs Martha Brown, the rest of the will is valid. If the rest is valid, his nephew, Newton Wallop, will inherit: if not valid, his brother William Fellowes, will inherit as heir at law".
William Fellowes had alleged that his sister Mary had influenced both his father and his brother to make wills which were not in his favour. The will was deemed valid, and the unfortunate Mrs Brown was imprisoned in the Fleet, from where she made a plea for financial assistance to fight the case and secure her legacy and annuity. Affidavits had been lodged in court testifying that she was already married, presumably to Mr Brown, and also to her bad character and the fact that she had not been pregnant over the past 12 or so years. Newton Wallop was deemed the legal heir under the will and thus inherited Eggesford and by royal licence in 1794 duly adopted for himself and his issue the name and arms of Fellowes. Fellowes' second wife Lady Catharine Fortescue, a daughter of Hugh Fortescue, 1st Earl Fortescue (1753–1841) of Castle Hill, Filleigh appears to have been the driving force behind the demolition of the old Eggesford House located immediately to the west of the parish church, and the building of the new Eggesford House, about a mile further east on the brow of a hill, the site of Heywood House in the parish of Wembworthy, ancient seat of the Speke family, which was demolished as part of the scheme. Catharine had at first planned merely to enlarge and remodel the old house, and had drawings prepared by her father's architect Thomas Lee (died 1834) of Barnstaple.

Old Eggesford House, Eggesford

The Devon topographer Rev. John Swete visited Eggesford House in 1797 and wrote in his journal as follows:
"I went to reconnoitre the beauties of Eggesford, the seat of the Hon.ble Mr Fellowes, I was first conducted to a range of cottages which the maternal uncle of the present possessor had erected for some poor families: they consisted of three double houses with a narrow alley between each and a long strip of garden. These were severally let for £2 pr. an. to six families of the parish and though they were cheap in the rent I could not allow that for cottages the situation, which was on the top of a high hill, was judiciously chosen, nor the plan an appropriate one". From that criticism followed another, this time of the mansion house itself, the position of which he describes  "On the left stood the house and almost contiguous to it behind was seen the top of the church tower". This is useful evidence in locating the old house next to the church. He praises the setting, but remarks "The detraction, which appeared glaringin my eye, was the red colour: brick houses are always offensive when situate among fields and woods, they should be ever in populous cities pent; the picturesque tint is a sober grey, or a soften'd ruddy brown; it should be in short of, or like, the Portland stone, a modest tint of this cast, when beheld in the bosom of weoods, or relieved by large spreading trees, had the finest possible effect, and was Eggesford mine I would either stucco it or case it with the patent tile, imitative of the Portland hue"...

New Eggesford House, Wembworthy

John Christie, the founder of Glyndebourne Opera Festival, was born here in 1882. Three years later, Thomas Hardy came to Eggesford, and left a description in one of his letters to his wife, dated 13 March 1885:

My Dearest Em
I arrived at Eggesford Station a little after 4, and found there Lord Portsmouth's brougham waiting to take me up to the house, so there was no trouble at all. The  scenery here is lovely and the house very handsome, which is on a hill in the park. I have had tea with Lady Portsmouth and the ladies-the only members of the family at home-Lord Portsmouth not having returned from the hunting yet (6 p.m.). The young ladies are very attractive, and interested in what I tell them-Lady Portsmouth charges them to take care of me-and goes away to her parish people, etc. altogether a delightful household. There are ladies here too, visiting, but of course I have only had a glimpse as yet. They sympathize with you - and Lady Portsmouth says you MUST come when you are well. I am now in the library writing this. I should say that a married daughter, Lady Rosamond Christie, I think she is, who is here, strikes me as a particularlarly sensible woman. If Lady Portsmouth's orders are to be carried out my room will be like a furnace - she is so particularly anxious that I should not take cold, etc. The drawing room is lined with oak panels from a monastery. When I arrived the schoolchildren were practisising singing in the hall, for Sunday in Church
In haste (as you will believe)
yours ever
Tom

Church monuments
There are several memorial monuments in the church, including two particularly fine ones of the Chichester family which include very high quality alabaster effigies, namely monuments to:
Edward Chichester, 1st Viscount Chichester (1568–1648) and his wife Anne Copleston (1588–1616), heiress of Eggesford, against the north wall of the north aisle. On a tablet above to the right is inscribed a memorial to Anne's parents John Copleston Esq., (died 1606) and his wife Dorothy Biston (d.29 July 1601).
Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall (1606–1674) and his two wives, the eldest son of Edward Chichester, 1st Viscount Chichester, an exceptionally fine and ornate monument, situated against the south wall of the nave, directly opposite the entrance to the church via the north porch. This monument was originally sited within the ancient stone arch separating the chancel from the Chichester Chapel in the north aisle.

References

Sources
Axe, Matthew, Chapman, Lesley & Miller, Sharon. The Lost Houses of Eggesford, published by Eggesford Gardens Ltd., Eggesford, 1995
Lauder, Rosemary, Vanished Houses of North Devon, Tiverton, 2005, Eggesford House, pp. 57–69
Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen (Ed.), A Series of Picturesque Views Of Seats Of  Noblemen and Gentlemen Of Great Britain And Ireland, London,1870/80, Volume 6, pp.17-18, Eggesford, genealogy of Wallop. The editor Francis Orpen Morris was a naturalist and ornithologist.

External links

Eggesford Airfield
Eggesford community page
Fox and Hounds Country Hotel
Eggesford Hunt

Villages in Devon
Former manors in Devon

Eggesford


Karl Adolph Gjellerup (; 2 June 1857 – 11 October 1919) was a Danish poet and novelist who together with his compatriot Henrik Pontoppidan won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1917. He is associated with the Modern Breakthrough period of Scandinavian literature. He occasionally used the pseudonym Epigonos.

Biography

Youth and debut
Gjellerup was the son of a vicar in Zealand who died when his son was three years. Karl Gjellerup was raised then by the uncle of Johannes Fibiger, he grew up in a national and romantic idealistic atmosphere. In the 1870s he broke with his background and at first he became an enthusiastic supporter of the naturalist movement and Georg Brandes, writing audacious novels about free love and atheism. Strongly influenced by his origin he gradually left the Brandes line and 1885 he broke totally with the naturalists, becoming a new romanticist. A central trace of his life was his Germanophile attitude, he felt himself strongly attracted to German culture (his wife was a German) and 1892 he finally settled in Germany, which made him unpopular in Denmark on both the right and left wing. As years passed he totally identified with the German Empire, including its war aims 1914–18.

Among the early works of Gjellerup must be mentioned his most important novel  (1882, i.e. The Germans' Apprentice), a partly autobiographic tale of the development of a young man from being a conformist theologian to a pro-German atheist and intellectual, and  (1889), on the surface, a love story but more of a study in woman's psychology. Some Wagnerian dramas show his growing romanticist interests. An important work is the novel  (1896, i. e. The Mill), a sinister melodrama of love and jealousy.

Later years
In his last years he was clearly influenced by Buddhism and Oriental culture. His critically acclaimed work / (1906, i.e. The Pilgrim Kamanita) has been called 'one of the oddest novels written in Danish'. It features the journey of Kamanita, an Indian merchant's son, from earthly prosperity and carnal romance, through the ups and downs of the world's way, a chance meeting with a stranger monk (who, unbeknownst to Kamanita, was actually Gautama Buddha), death, and reincarnation towards nirvana. In Thailand, which is a Buddhist country, the Thai translation of The Pilgrim Kamanita  co-translated by Phraya Anuman Rajadhon was formerly used as part of the school textbooks.

 (1907, i.e. The wife of the perfect) is a versified drama, inspired by Dante's Divine Comedy, about Buddha's earthly life as Siddharta, being inhibited in his spiritual efforts by his wife, Yasodhara. The giant novel  (1910, i.e. The world roamers) takes its contemporary starting point in a German female academic on a study tour in India, but evolves across chronological levels, in which characters re-experience what has happened in former eons, thus featuring souls roaming from one incarnation to another.

 (1913, i.e. The country practice of [physician] Rudolph Sten) is set in the rural Zealand of Gjellerup's youth. The main character develops from a liberal, superficial outlook on life, including youthful romantical conflicts, through years of reflection and ascetic devotion to duty towards a more mature standpoint, hinting at the author's own course of life.

 (1919, i.e. The holiest animal) was Gjellerup's last work.  Having elements of self-parody, it is regarded as his only attempt at humour. It is a peculiar mythological satire in which animals arrive at their own Elysium after death. These include the snake that killed Cleopatra, Odysseus' dog Argos, Wisvamitra (the holy cow of India), the donkey of Jesus and the horses of various historical commanders in field. The assembly select, after discussion, Buddha's horse Kantaka as the holiest of animals, but it has left without a trace to follow its master to nirvana.

Aftermath
In Denmark, Gjellerup's Nobel award was received with little enthusiasm. He had long been regarded as a German writer. During various stages of his career, he had made himself unpopular with both the naturalist left surrounding Georg Brandes and the conservative right. His nomination for the Nobel award was, however, supported from Danish side for several times. Because Sweden was neutral during World War I, the divided prize did not arouse political speculations about partial decision, but showed on the other hand allegiance between the Nordic neighbors.

Today Gjellerup is almost forgotten in Denmark. In spite of this, however, literary historians normally regard him as an honest seeker after truth.

Gjellerup's works have been translated into several languages, including German (often translated by himself), Swedish, English, Dutch, Polish, Thai and others. The Pilgrim Kamanita is his most widely translated book, having been published in several European countries and the United States. In Thailand, a Buddhist country, the first half of the Thai translation of Kamanita have been used in secondary school textbooks.

Biographies
Georg Nørregård: , 1988 (in Danish)
Olaf C. Nybo: , 2002 (in German)
 Article in Vilhelm Andersen: , 1924–34 (in Danish)
Article in Hakon Stangerup: , 1964–66 (in Danish)

External links

 Knud B. Gjesing: Karl Gjellerup, portrait of the author, Archive for Danish Literature, Danish Royal Library (in Danish) (pdf)
 List of Works

 MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image repository) illustrations from Karl Adolph Gjellerup's work Den Ældre Eddas Gudesange. Clicking on the thumbnail will give you the full image and information concerning it.

1857 births
1919 deaths
People from Faxe Municipality
20th-century Danish novelists
20th-century Danish poets
Danish male poets
Danish atheists
Danish Nobel laureates
Nobel laureates in Literature
Danish male novelists

Karl Adolph Gjellerup


A hyphenated ethnicity (or rarely hyphenated identity) is a reference to an ethnicity, pan-ethnicity, national origin, or national identity combined with the demonym of a country of citizenship-nationality, another national identity, or in some cases country of residency or country of upbringing. The term is an extension of the term "hyphenated American". The term refers to the use of a hyphen between the name of an ethnicity and the name of the country in compound nouns: Irish-American, etc., although modern English language style guides recommend dropping the hyphen: "Irish American".

The concept should not be confused with that of mixed ethnicity and multiraciality, i.e., the ethnicity or race of a person whose parents have different ethnicities/races, which can also be written in a hyphenated way.

United States

The term "hyphenated American" originated in 1890s and was used disparagingly as a reference to immigrants who, by brandishing their ethnic origin, allegedly demonstrated an incomplete allegiance to the United States, especially during the World War I period.

Brazil
Jeffrey Lesser wrote: "While there are no linguistic categories that acknowledge hyphenated ethnicity (a third generation Brazilian of Japanese descendant remains 'Japanese' while a fourth-generation Brazilian of Lebanese descent may become a turco, an arabe, a sirio, or a sirio-libanese), in fact immigrant communities aggressively tried to negotiate a status that allowed for both Brazilian nationality and ethnic difference".

See also
Ethnic origin
Melting pot
Multiculturalism
Nativism (politics)

References

Identity politics
Ethnicity

Hyphenated ethnicity


Gameplanet was a video gaming website that provided news, reviews, previews, videos, and other information. It was the largest video gaming website in New Zealand. Gameplanet New Zealand despite having the same name with the biggest specialized videogame retailer in Mexico, has no connection to Gameplanet S.A.. Gameplanet nalso operated GP Forums, an online forum community site covering video games as well as various other topics.

Gameplanet won the NetGuide People's Choice Web Award for "Best Game Related Site" four years running, in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009. It also won the award for "Best Youth Site" in 2002.

History

In 1999, Simon Garner created the first Counter-Strike game server in New Zealand. At that time, Garner was involved in the development and hosting of the web site for GameZone, a small games retail business owned by fellow entrepreneur Simon Barton. The Counter-Strike server was run under the GameZone name.

The GameZone Counter-Strike server quickly became popular (and was soon followed by servers from other providers operating at the time, such as Paradise.Net and Jetstream Games). In early 2000, Simon Garner launched a Counter-Strike community site called Counter-Strike NZ (CSNZ). The site covered the latest news about the game and provided forums for players to discuss topics related to the game, arrange matches and form clans.

Gameplanet was the brainchild of GameZone owner Simon Barton. The original concept of the site was to combine magazine-style editorial content such as news and reviews with an interactive online gaming community, expanding upon the success of CSNZ by incorporating forums, game servers, tournaments and competitions for a range of different games. Simon Garner designed and developed the Gameplanet website, which launched in September 2000. Thomas Mahoney was the site's first editor in chief.

After the launch of Gameplanet, Counter-Strike NZ was folded into Gameplanet as part of the "Gameplanet Network", which was over time expanded with additional community sites covering PlayStation 2 (PS2NZ), Day of Defeat (DODNZ), Black & White (BWNZ), Xbox (XBNZ) and Half-Life 2 (HL2NZ). Each site had its own homepage and standalone community forum.

In 2002, the forums from each of the Gameplanet Network sites were merged to form a single combined forum, branded as GP Forums. This eliminated duplication of user accounts across all the sites allowing users to browse and post in any of the forums using a single account.

Initially, Gameplanet was operated informally as a non-profit venture supported by the GameZone retail business. In order to grow, however, it would need to become self-sustaining, so in late 2002 Simon Barton incorporated Gameplanet (NZ) Ltd as a limited liability company. Simon Garner became an equal partner in the business in early 2003. At the same time, Gameplanet began selling advertising on its website to generate revenue for the business.

In May 2012, Gameplanet acquired Australian Gamer and created Gameplanet Australia.

Online retailer Mighty Ape acquired a controlling stake in Gameplanet in June 2016, purchasing 60% of the business for an undisclosed sum after falling advertising revenues left Gameplanet "[un]able to continue on its current trajectory" as an independent publisher. Mighty Ape is majority owned by Gameplanet co-founder Simon Barton, and operated under the "Gameplanet Store" brand between 2002–2008. Besides a common shareholder (Barton) the two companies previously had no direct legal relationship.

In April 2020, it was announced that Gameplanet would be shutting down.

Awards

References

External links
 Gameplanet New Zealand
 Gameplanet Australia (archived)

Video game Internet forums
New Zealand entertainment websites
Video game news websites
Internet properties established in 2000
Internet properties disestablished in 2020
2000 establishments in New Zealand
Defunct websites

Gameplanet


The First Punic War started in 264 BC. It lasted for 23 years, ending in 241 BC. It was the first of three wars fought between ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. They were rivals for trade and influence in the Mediterranean. For more than 20 years the two powers struggled for supremacy. Key areas were the island of Sicily and its surrounding waters, and also North Africa. Rome eventually won control of Sicily.

With the help of her own allies and rebels among the indigenous African allies of Carthage, Rome won the First Punic War after 23 years. In the end it became the dominant naval power of the Mediterranean. To get terms for peace, the Carthaginians had to pay a large amount of money (in silver), and give up a number of islands in the Mediterranean. They kept Sardinia and Corsica.

References

3rd century BC
Punic Wars
Wars and battles of Ancient Rome

First Punic War


Silent trade, or barter, is when traders (who do not speak each other's language) trade without talking to each other. This was used in many parts of ancient Africa. Silent bartering was used during 500 A.D to 1500 A.D. and probably had a much longer history.

To do a silent barter, one group of traders would go to a certain place, leaving whatever they are offering to trade. The other group of traders would then decide if they would like to accept the goods (usually salt or gold) that were left. If the goods met with approval, the second group would then take the goods, leave their own goods in return, and leave because the person accepted the offer. This system of trading was used mostly in ancient Ghana.       The popular things they sold were gold and salt. Another system was face-to-face trading using hand signals.

Gold mined south of the Sahel was traded, pound for pound, for salt mined in the desert. The salt from the desert was needed by the people of Sahel to flavor and preserve their food and gold has always had value for adornment (wearing). Because of this trade, cities grew and flourished and parts of West Africa became commercial centers. West Africa produced gold until about 1500 AD.

References

Trade
Non-verbal communication
Simple living

Silent trade


A hedge is an investment position intended to offset potential losses or gains that may be incurred by a companion investment. A hedge can be constructed from many types of financial instruments, including stocks, exchange-traded funds, insurance, forward contracts, swaps, options, gambles, many types of over-the-counter and derivative products, and futures contracts.

Public futures markets were established in the 19th century to allow transparent, standardized, and efficient hedging of agricultural commodity prices; they have since expanded to include futures contracts for hedging the values of energy, precious metals, foreign currency, and interest rate fluctuations.

Etymology
Hedging is the practice of taking a position in one market to offset and balance against the risk adopted by assuming a position in a contrary or opposing market or investment. The word hedge is from Old English hecg, originally any fence, living or artificial. The first known use of the word as a verb meaning 'dodge, evade' dates from the 1590s; that of 'insure oneself against loss,' as in a bet, is from the 1670s.

Hedge-investment duality

Optimal hedging and optimal investments are intimately connected. It can be shown that one person's optimal investment is another's optimal hedge (and vice versa). This follows from a geometric structure formed by probabilistic representations of market views and risk scenarios. In practice, the hedge-investment duality is related to the widely used notion of risk recycling.

Examples

Agricultural commodity price hedging
A typical hedger might be a commercial farmer. The market values of wheat and other crops fluctuate constantly as supply and demand for them vary, with occasional large moves in either direction. Based on current prices and forecast levels at harvest time, the farmer might decide that planting wheat is a good idea one season, but the price of wheat might change over time. Once the farmer plants wheat, he is committed to it for an entire growing season. If the actual price of wheat rises greatly between planting and harvest, the farmer stands to make a lot of unexpected money, but if the actual price drops by harvest time, he is going to lose the invested money.

Due to the uncertainty of future supply and demand fluctuations, and the price risk imposed on the farmer, the farmer in this example may use different financial transactions to reduce, or hedge, their risk. One such transaction is the use of forward contracts. Forward contracts are mutual agreements to deliver a certain amount of a commodity at a certain date for a specified price and each contract is unique to the buyer and seller. For this example, the farmer can sell a number of forward contracts equivalent to the amount of wheat he expects to harvest and essentially lock in the current price of wheat. Once the forward contracts expire, the farmer will harvest the wheat and deliver it to the buyer at the price agreed to in the forward contract. Therefore, the farmer has reduced his risks to fluctuations in the market of wheat because he has already guaranteed a certain number of bushels for a certain price. However, there are still many risks associated with this type of hedge. For example, if the farmer has a low yield year and he harvests less than the amount specified in the forward contracts, he must purchase the bushels elsewhere in order to fill the contract. This becomes even more of a problem when the lower yields affect the entire wheat industry and the price of wheat increases due to supply and demand pressures. Also, while the farmer hedged all of the risks of a price decrease away by locking in the price with a forward contract, he also gives up the right to the benefits of a price increase. Another risk associated with the forward contract is the risk of default or renegotiation. The forward contract locks in a certain amount and price at a certain future date. Because of that, there is always the possibility that the buyer will not pay the amount required at the end of the contract or that the buyer will try to renegotiate the contract before it expires.

Future contracts are another way our farmer can hedge his risk without a few of the risks that forward contracts have. Future contracts are similar to forward contracts except they are more standardized (i.e. each contract is the same quantity and date for everyone). These contracts trade on exchanges and are guaranteed through clearing houses. Clearing houses ensure that every contract is honored and they take the opposite side of every contract. Future contracts typically are more liquid than forward contracts and move with the market. Because of this, the farmer can minimize the risk he faces in the future through the selling of future contracts. Future contracts also differ from forward contracts in that delivery never happens. The exchanges and clearing houses allow the buyer or seller to leave the contract early and cash out. So tying back into the farmer selling his wheat at a future date, he will sell short futures contracts for the amount that he predicts to harvest to protect against a price decrease. The current (spot) price of wheat and the price of the futures contracts for wheat converge as time gets closer to the delivery date, so in order to make money on the hedge, the farmer must close out his position earlier than then. On the chance that prices decrease in the future, the farmer will make a profit on his short position in the futures market which offsets any decrease in revenues from the spot market for wheat. On the other hand, if prices increase, the farmer will generate a loss on the futures market which is offset by an increase in revenues on the spot market for wheat. Instead of agreeing to sell his wheat to one person on a set date, the farmer will just buy and sell futures on an exchange and then sell his wheat wherever he wants once he harvests it.

Hedging a stock price
A common hedging technique used in the financial industry is the long/short equity technique.

A stock trader believes that the stock price of Company A will rise over the next month, due to the company's new and efficient method of producing widgets. They want to buy Company A shares to profit from their expected price increase, as they believe that shares are currently underpriced. But Company A is part of a highly volatile widget industry. So there is a risk of a future event that affects stock prices across the whole industry, including the stock of Company A along with all other companies.

Since the trader is interested in the specific company, rather than the entire industry, they want to hedge out the industry-related risk by short selling an equal value of shares from Company A's direct, yet weaker competitor, Company B.

The first day the trader's portfolio is:
 Long 1,000 shares of Company A at $1 each
 Short 500 shares of Company B at $2 each

The trader has sold short the same value of shares (the value, number of shares × price, is $1000 in both cases).

If the trader was able to short sell an asset whose price had a mathematically defined relation with Company A's stock price (for example a put option on Company A shares), the trade might be essentially riskless. In this case, the risk would be limited to the put option's premium.

On the second day, a favorable news story about the widgets industry is published and the value of all widgets stock goes up. Company A, however, because it is a stronger company, increases by 10%, while Company B increases by just 5%:
 Long 1,000 shares of Company A at $1.10 each: $100 gain
 Short 500 shares of Company B at $2.10 each: $50 loss  (in a short position, the investor loses money when the price goes up)

The trader might regret the hedge on day two, since it reduced the profits on the Company A position. But on the third day, an unfavorable news story is published about the health effects of widgets, and all widgets stocks crash: 50% is wiped off the value of the widgets industry in the course of a few hours. Nevertheless, since Company A is the better company, it suffers less than Company B:

Value of long position (Company A):
 Day 1: $1,000
 Day 2: $1,100
 Day 3: $550 => ($1,000 − $550) = $450 loss

Value of short position (Company B):
 Day 1: −$1,000
 Day 2: −$1,050
 Day 3: −$525 => ($1,000 − $525) = $475 profit

Without the hedge, the trader would have lost $450. But the hedge – the short sale of Company B – nets a profit of $25 during a dramatic market collapse.

Stock/futures hedging
The introduction of stock market index futures has provided a second means of hedging risk on a single stock by selling short the market, as opposed to another single or selection of stocks. Futures are generally highly fungible and cover a wide variety of potential investments, which makes them easier to use than trying to find another stock which somehow represents the opposite of a selected investment. Futures hedging is widely used as part of the traditional long/short play.

Hedging employee stock options
Employee stock options (ESOs) are securities issued by the company mainly to its own executives and employees. These securities are more volatile than stocks. An efficient way to lower the ESO risk is to sell exchange traded calls and, to a lesser degree, to buy puts. Companies discourage hedging the ESOs but there is no prohibition against it.

Hedging fuel consumption

Airlines use futures contracts and derivatives to hedge their exposure to the price of jet fuel. They know that they must purchase jet fuel for as long as they want to stay in business, and fuel prices are notoriously volatile. By using crude oil futures contracts to hedge their fuel requirements (and engaging in similar but more complex derivatives transactions), Southwest Airlines was able to save a large amount of money when buying fuel as compared to rival airlines when fuel prices in the U.S. rose dramatically after the 2003 Iraq war and Hurricane Katrina.

Hedging emotions

As an emotion regulation strategy, people can bet against a desired outcome. A New England Patriots fan, for example, could bet their opponents to win to reduce the negative emotions felt if the team loses a game. Some scientific wagers, such as Hawking's 1974 "insurance policy" bet, fall into this category.

People typically do not bet against desired outcomes that are important to their identity, due to negative signal about their identity that making such a gamble entails. Betting against your team or political candidate, for example, may signal to you that you are not as committed to them as you thought you were.

Hedging equity and equity futures
Equity in a portfolio can be hedged by taking an opposite position in futures. To protect your stock picking against systematic market risk, futures are shorted when equity is purchased, or long futures when stock is shorted.

One way to hedge is the market neutral approach. In this approach, an equivalent dollar amount in the stock trade is taken in futures – for example, by buying 10,000 GBP worth of Vodafone and shorting 10,000 worth of FTSE futures (the index in which Vodafone trades).

Another way to hedge is the beta neutral. Beta is the historical correlation between a stock and an index. If the beta of a Vodafone stock is 2, then for a 10,000 GBP long position in Vodafone an investor would hedge with a 20,000 GBP equivalent short position in the FTSE futures.

Futures contracts and forward contracts are means of hedging against the risk of adverse market movements. These originally developed out of commodity markets in the 19th century, but over the last fifty years a large global market developed in products to hedge financial market risk.

Futures hedging
Investors who primarily trade in futures may hedge their futures against synthetic futures. A synthetic in this case is a synthetic future comprising a call and a put position. Long synthetic futures means long call and short put at the same expiry price. To hedge against a long futures trade a short position in synthetics can be established, and vice versa.

Stack hedging is a strategy which involves buying various futures contracts that are concentrated in nearby delivery months to increase the liquidity position. It is generally used by investors to ensure the surety of their earnings for a longer period of time.

Contract for difference

A contract for difference (CFD) is a two-way hedge or swap contract that allows the seller and purchaser to fix the price of a volatile commodity. Consider a deal between an electricity producer and an electricity retailer, both of whom trade through an electricity market pool. If the producer and the retailer agree to a strike price of $50 per MWh, for 1 MWh in a trading period, and if the actual pool price is $70, then the producer gets $70 from the pool but has to rebate $20 (the "difference" between the strike price and the pool price) to the retailer.

Conversely, the retailer pays the difference to the producer if the pool price is lower than the agreed upon contractual strike price. In effect, the pool volatility is nullified and the parties pay and receive $50 per MWh. However, the party who pays the difference is "out of the money" because without the hedge they would have received the benefit of the pool price.

Types of hedging
Hedging can be used in many different ways including foreign exchange trading. The stock example above is a "classic" sort of hedge, known in the industry as a pairs trade due to the trading on a pair of related securities. As investors became more sophisticated, along with the mathematical tools used to calculate values (known as models), the types of hedges have increased greatly.

Examples of hedging include:
 Forward exchange contract for currencies
 Commodity future contracts for hedging physical positions
 Currency future contracts
 Money Market Operations for currencies
 Forward Exchange Contract for interest
 Money Market Operations for interest
 Future contracts for interest
 Covered Calls on equities
 Short Straddles on equities or indexes
 Bets on elections or sporting events

Hedging strategies

A hedging strategy usually refers to the general risk management policy of a financially and physically trading firm how to minimize their risks. As the term hedging indicates, this risk mitigation is usually done by using financial instruments, but a hedging strategy as used by commodity traders like large energy companies, is usually referring to a business model (including both financial and physical deals).

In order to show the difference between these strategies, consider the fictional company BlackIsGreen Ltd trading coal by buying this commodity at the wholesale market and selling it to households mostly in winter.

Back-to-back hedging
Back-to-back (B2B) is a strategy where any open position is immediately closed, e.g. by buying the respective commodity on the spot market.
This technique is often applied in the commodity market when the customers' price is directly calculable from visible forward energy prices at the point of customer sign-up.

If BlackIsGreen decides to have a B2B-strategy, they would buy the exact amount of coal at the very moment when the household customer comes into their shop and signs the contract. This strategy minimizes many commodity risks, but has the drawback that it has a large volume and liquidity risk, as BlackIsGreen does not know whether it can find enough coal on the wholesale market to fulfill the need of the households.

Tracker hedging
Tracker hedging is a pre-purchase approach, where the open position is decreased the closer the maturity date comes.

If BlackIsGreen knows that most of the consumers demand coal in winter to heat their house, a strategy driven by a tracker would now mean that BlackIsGreen buys e.g. half of the expected coal volume in summer, another quarter in autumn and the remaining volume in winter. The closer the winter comes, the better are the weather forecasts and therefore the estimate, how much coal will be demanded by the households in the coming winter.

Retail customers' price will be influenced by long-term wholesale price trends. A certain hedging corridor around the pre-defined tracker-curve is allowed and fraction of the open positions decreases as the maturity date comes closer.

Delta hedging

Delta-hedging mitigates the financial risk of an option by hedging against price changes in its underlying. It is so called as Delta is the first derivative of the option's value with respect to the underlying instrument's price. This is performed in practice by buying a derivative with an inverse price movement. It is also a type of market neutral strategy.

Only if BlackIsGreen chooses to perform delta-hedging as strategy, actual financial instruments come into play for hedging (in the usual, stricter meaning).

Risk reversal
Risk reversal means simultaneously buying a call option and selling a put option. This has the effect of simulating being long on a stock or commodity position.

Natural hedges
Many hedges do not involve exotic financial instruments or derivatives such as the married put. A natural hedge is an investment that reduces the undesired risk by matching cash flows (i.e. revenues and expenses). For example, an exporter to the United States faces a risk of changes in the value of the U.S. dollar and chooses to open a production facility in that market to match its expected sales revenue to its cost structure.

Another example is a company that opens a subsidiary in another country and borrows in the foreign currency to finance its operations, even though the foreign interest rate may be more expensive than in its home country: by matching the debt payments to expected revenues in the foreign currency, the parent company has reduced its foreign currency exposure. Similarly, an oil producer may expect to receive its revenues in U.S. dollars, but faces costs in a different currency; it would be applying a natural hedge if it agreed to, for example, pay bonuses to employees in U.S. dollars.

One common means of hedging against risk is the purchase of insurance to protect against financial loss due to accidental property damage or loss, personal injury, or loss of life.

Categories of hedgeable risk
There are varying types of financial risk that can be protected against with a hedge. Those types of risks include:
 Commodity risk: the risk that arises from potential movements in the value of commodity contracts, which include agricultural products, metals, and energy products. Corporates  exposed on the "procurement side" of the value chain, require protection against rising commodity prices, where these cannot be "passed on to the customer"; on the sales side, corporates look towards hedging against a decline in price. Both may hedge using  commodity-derivatives where available.

 Credit risk: the risk that money owing will not be paid by an obligor. Since credit risk is the natural business of banks, but an unwanted risk for commercial traders, an early market developed between banks and traders that involved selling obligations at a discounted rate. The contemporary practice in commerce settings is to purchase trade credit insurance; in an (investment) banking context, these risks can be hedged through credit derivatives. In the latter, analysts use models such as Jarrow–Turnbull and Merton / KMV to estimate the probability of default, and/or (portfolio-wide) will use a transition matrix of Bond credit ratings  to estimate the probability and impact of a "credit migration". See Fixed income analysis.

 Currency risk: the risk that a financial instrument or business transaction will be affected unfavorably by a change in exchange rates.  Foreign exchange risk hedging is used both by investors to deflect the risks they encounter when investing abroad, and by non-financial actors in the global economy for whom multi-currency activities are a "necessary evil" rather than a desired state of exposure.

 Equity risk: the risk that one's investments will depreciate because of stock market dynamics causing one to lose money. Additional to diversification – the fundamental risk mitigant here – investment managers will apply various risk management techniques to their portfolios as appropriate: these may relate to the portfolio as a whole or to individual stocks as above;  see  for further discussion.

 Interest rate risk:  the risk that the value of an interest-bearing liability, such as a loan or a bond, will worsen due to an interest rate increase (see ). Interest rate risks can be hedged using Interest rate derivatives such as interest rate swaps; sensitivities here are measured using duration and convexity for bonds, and DV01 and key rate durations generally.  At the portfolio level, cash-flow risks are typically managed via immunization or cashflow matching, while valuation-risk is hedged through bond index futures or options

 Volatility risk: is the threat that an exchange rate movement poses to an investor's portfolio in a foreign currency.

 Volume risk is the risk that a customer demands more or less of a product than expected.

Related concepts
 Forwards: A contract specifying future delivery of an amount of an item, at a price decided now. The delivery is obligatory, not optional.
 Forward rate agreement (FRA): A contract specifying an interest rate amount to be settled at a pre-determined interest rate on the date of the contract.
 Option (finance): similar to a forward contract, but optional.
 Call option: A contract that gives the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy an item in the future, at a price decided now.
 Put option: A contract that gives the owner the right, but not the obligation, to sell an item in the future, at a price decided now.
 Non-deliverable forwards (NDF): A strictly risk-transfer financial product similar to a forward rate agreement, but used only where monetary policy restrictions on the currency in question limit the free flow and conversion of capital. As the name suggests, NDFs are not delivered but settled in a reference currency, usually USD or EUR, where the parties exchange the gain or loss that the NDF instrument yields, and if the buyer of the controlled currency truly needs that hard currency, he can take the reference payout and go to the government in question and convert the USD or EUR payout. The insurance effect is the same; it's just that the supply of insured currency is restricted and controlled by government. See capital control.
 Interest rate parity and Covered interest arbitrage: The simple concept that two similar investments in two different currencies ought to yield the same return. If the two similar investments are not at face value offering the same interest rate return, the difference should conceptually be made up by changes in the exchange rate over the life of the investment. IRP basically provides the math to calculate a projected or implied forward rate of exchange. This calculated rate is not and cannot be considered a prediction or forecast, but rather is the arbitrage-free calculation for what the exchange rate is implied to be in order for it to be impossible to make a free profit by converting money to one currency, investing it for a period, then converting back and making more money than if a person had invested in the same opportunity in the original currency.
 Hedge fund: A fund which may engage in hedged transactions or hedged investment strategies.

See also

References

External links
 Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Financial Markets Group
 Basic Fixed Income Derivative Hedging Article on Financial-edu.com
 Hedging Corporate Bond Issuance with Rate Locks article on Financial-edu.com

Derivatives (finance)
Market risk
Capital management

Hedge (finance)


Georgios Ioannou Rallis (; 26 December 1918 – 15 March 2006), anglicised to George Rallis, was a Greek conservative politician and the 2nd Prime Minister of Greece from 1980 to 1981.

Ancestors in politics

Georgios was descended from the old, noble and political Rallis family. Alexandros Rallis, born in 1760, was a prominent Phanariote (Greek from Constantinople). In 1849 his son  became Chief Justice of the Greek Supreme Court. Dimitrios Rallis, paternal grandfather of Georgios Rallis, served as Prime Minister of Greece for five separate short periods in 1897, 1903, 1905, 1909 and 1921. Dimitrios' son and Georgios' father, Ioannis Rallis, was a collaborationist Prime Minister from 1943 to 1944, during the German occupation. After the liberation of Greece he was sentenced to life imprisonment for collaboration and died in jail in 1946. His maternal grandfather, Georgios Theotokis, was four times Prime Minister of Greece, between 1901 and 1907.

Early life
Georgios Rallis was born on 26 December 1918 in the prestigious Kolonaki district of Athens.

He studied law and political sciences at the University of Athens. Shortly after graduating he joined the fight against fascist Italy after the italian invasion on 28 October 1940 as a cavalry Second Lieutenant of the Reserve. He was recalled to active service during the Greek Civil War of 1946–49, during which he served in the armoured corps.

Political career
Rallis was first elected to the Greek Parliament as a member of the People's Party in the 1950 general election, and was re-elected in all subsequent elections until the end of his political career in 1993, except the 1958 election and the June 1989 election, where he did not run. He was first appointed a cabinet minister on 11 April 1954 in the government of Alexander Papagos, as Minister for the Presidency of the Government.

A close collaborator of Constantine Karamanlis, he retained the position under the first Karamanlis cabinet (6 October 1955 – 29 February 1956), and went on to serve as Minister for Transport and Public Works in the 1956–58 Karamanlis cabinet, and as Minister for the Interior in the 1961–1963 Karamanlis cabinet. He was also among the founding members of the National Radical Union (ERE) in 1956. In 1958, he quarrelled with Karamanlis over the latter's adoption of a new electoral law, on which he had not been consulted, and for a few years left ERE, before returning to the fold in 1961.

Rallis was appointed to the post of Minister for Public Order in the caretaker cabinet of Panagiotis Kanellopoulos on 3 April 1967. It was in this position that the coup d'état of the Colonels found him on 21 April 1967. Rallis managed to evade capture by the putschists and go to the command centre of the Greek Gendarmerie, from where by radio he tried in vain to get in contact with the III Army Corps and order it to descend onto Athens and suppress the coup. Following the establishment of the Junta of the Colonels, he was arrested thrice, imprisoned and sent to internal exile to the island of Kasos. Among his anti-regime activities were his campaigning against the Junta-sponsored Republic referendum of 1973, and his criticism of the regime through his editorship of the magazine Politika Themata.

In 1974, following the fall of the dictatorship, Rallis became briefly Minister for the Interior and then again Minister to the Prime Minister in the national unity government under Karamanlis, and held on to the post (from 2 January 1975 as Minister for the Presidency of the Government) under the government formed by Karamanlis' new party, New Democracy, after the November 1974 election. On 5 January 1976 he also assumed the post of Minister for National Education and Religious Affairs, which he held in tandem with the former post until the end of the cabinet term on 28 November 1977. From the post of Minister for Education he oversaw the educational reform, the institution of the Demotic Greek as the formal language in schools and the administration, replacing the Katharevousa, and the reform of the school curricula.

Following the 1977 election, he served first as Minister for Coordination, before becoming Minister for Foreign Affairs in May 1978. He was the first Greek Foreign Minister to visit the Soviet Union, in October 1978, and negotiated Greece's accession to the EEC, signing Greece's accession agreement in May 1979. He also worked to restore relations with Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.

After Karamanlis was elected to the post of President of the Republic, on 8 May 1980 Rallis was elected by New Democracy's parliamentary group as the new party chairman, and was sworn in as Prime Minister on 10 May. During his tenure Greece rejoined the military wing of NATO.

He led the government until his defeat by Andreas Papandreou's PASOK in the 18 October 1981 election, resigning on 21 October. Shortly after, in early December, having lost the confidence of his party's MPs, he resigned from the chairmanship of New Democracy.

In May 1987 he split from New Democracy and became an independent MP. He did not participate in the June 1989 election, but after a personal invitation by the new New Democracy chairman, Konstantinos Mitsotakis, he rejoined the party and was elected an MP for Corfu. After a renewed dispute with Mitsotakis, now Prime Minister, over the handling of the Macedonia naming dispute, he resigned from his post and retired from politics in March 1993. During his retirement, Rallis established and cultivated organically-farmed vineyards and olive groves at his family estate on Corfu.

Although Rallis became Prime Minister at a time when the fortunes of his party were in decline, he remained a popular figure because of his well-liked personal attributes of mildness, modesty and straightforwardness. A wealthy patrician by birth, he always made a point of living modestly, walking to work (even as a Prime Minister, much to the frustration of his security detail), and taking the time to greet and talk with those he met on the street. He died of heart failure at his home on 15 March 2006. He is survived by his wife, Lena Rallis (née Voultsou) and their two daughters, Zaira Papaligouras and Joanna Farmakidis.

Rallis spoke English, French, and German, and wrote 14 books.

A bust of Rallis in Corfu was stolen in April 2019.

References

External links
Athens News obituary
1991 interview of Rallis on his career in the 1950s and early 1960s, ERT Archive

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Georgios Rallis


A melting-point apparatus is a scientific instrument used to determine the melting point of a substance. Some types of melting-point apparatuses include the Thiele tube, Fisher-Johns apparatus, Gallenkamp (Electronic) melting-point apparatus and automatic melting-point apparatus.

Design
While the outward designs of apparatuses can vary greatly, most apparatuses use a sample loaded into a sealed capillary tube (melting-point tube), which is then placed in the apparatus. The sample is then heated, either by a heating block or an oil bath, and as the temperature increases, the sample is observed to determine when the phase change from solid to liquid occurs. The operator of the apparatus records the temperature range starting with the initial phase-change temperature and ending with the completed phase-change temperature. The temperature range that is determined can then be averaged to gain the melting point of the sample being examined.

Apparatuses usually have a control panel that allows the starting and final temperatures, as well as the temperature gradient (in units per minute), to be programmed. Some machines have several channels, which permit more than one sample to be tested at a time. The control panel might have buttons that allow the start and end of the melting point range to be recorded.

Thiele tube

A Thiele tube is a glass instrument that is filled with oil that is heated by using an open flame. The sample is placed in the opening in a melting-point tube alongside a thermometer and heated by the oil as the oil circulates through the Thiele tube. By using different oils, different temperature ranges can be reached and used to determine melting points. The Thiele tube may also be used to determine boiling points of liquid samples using the Siwoloboff method.

External links

 FisherSci: Fisher-Johns melting point apparatus

Laboratory equipment

Melting-point apparatus


Lieutenant-Colonel Sir James Nockells Horlick, 4th Baronet, OBE, MC (1886–1972) was the second son of Sir James Horlick, first holder of the Horlick Baronetcy, of Cowley Manor in the County of Gloucester, England, and Margaret Adelaide Burford. James, the 1st Baronet, was co-inventor (with his brother William) of Horlicks Malted Milk drink.

A recipient of the MC from both the UK and Greece for his actions during World War I, he briefly served as MP for Gloucester, was chairman of Horlicks Ltd and in later life become a renowned breeder of rhododendrons at his island home at Gigha in the west of Scotland.

Biography
Born in Brooklyn, New York on 22 March 1886, James was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford. While at Oxford Horlick played one first-class cricket match for Oxford University Cricket Club against Yorkshire in 1906, before playing two first-class matches for Gloucestershire, making an appearance each in the 1907 County Championship and the 1910 County Championship.  He joined the Coldstream Guards at the outbreak of war in 1914, serving in Salonika. It was here that he met King Alexander of Greece and his wife Aspasia Manos, to whom he was later to donate the Garden of Eden in Venice and with whom he remained good friends. Mentioned in dispatches four times, James was also a recipient of the Military Cross, Greek Military Cross, Order of the White Eagle with Swords (4th class), and the Chevalier Legion d'Honneur and was returned as Conservative member of parliament for Gloucester in the 1923 General Election, which he served until 1929.

In 1944 he purchased Achamore House and the island of Gigha where he set about planting a rhododendron garden that still exists today. His work as a rhododendron breeder earned him, in 1963, the Victoria Medal of Honour. He also set about using his experience of the family business to support the island's dairy industry.
Inheriting the Horlick baronetcy from his nephew in 1958, Sir James died at his home in Gigha on 31.December 1972 and was succeeded by his son, Sir John James McDonald Horlick.

Family
Sir James Married twice. First in 1909 to Flora McDonald Martin, CB, daughter of Col Cunliffe Martin and granddaughter of Sir James Ranald Martin. Their children were:
Rachel Katherine Horlick
Ursula Priscilla Marie Gabrielle Horlick
John James McDonald Horlick

He married secondly, in 1956, Joan Isabel MacGill.

References

1886 births
1972 deaths
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
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Recipients of the Military Cross
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Sir James Horlick, 4th Baronet


Vodafone Limited, trading as Vodafone UK, is a British telecommunications services provider, and a part of Vodafone Group Plc, the world's second-largest mobile phone company. Vodafone is the third-largest mobile network operator in the United Kingdom, with 18.0 million subscribers as of July 2023, after O2 and EE, followed by Three. The country's first cellular phone call was made on the Vodafone network in 1985.

In June 2023, it was announced that subject to regulatory approval Vodafone UK and Three UK will merge to create Britain's biggest mobile network. The merger is expected to be finalised before the end of 2024, and would create a group with 27 million mobile customers.

History

Mobile network
In 1981, Racal Electronics Group won its bid for the private sector UK Cellular licence, and created Racal Telecomms Division. The same year, Racal formed a joint venture with Millicom named 'Racal Vodafone'. The Vodafone name was first unveiled on 22 March 1984. Vodafone made the first cellular telephone call in the United Kingdom on 1 January 1985, from St Katharine Docks to Newbury, and launched the UK's first cellular network later that year. 'Vodapage' was launched two years later, providing 80% of the United Kingdom's population with a paging service, and a service called 'Vodata' was also launched for voice and data.

Racal Telecom was demerged from Racal Electronics in 1991, becoming Vodafone Group, and introduced the country's first GSM mobile phone network the same year. The company launched digital data, fax and a text messaging service with Vodata in 1994. Vodafone also began working with Globalstar to develop and launch a satellite to provide a Satellite phone service.

On 5 January 1999, Vodafone UK connected its 5 millionth customer. By the end of 1999 it had 8 million customers, rising to 12 million in 2001,

The first 3G voice call in the UK was made in April 2001 on the Vodafone UK network, with an initial network of 30 base stations in the Thames Valley set for the commercial launch in 2002. That same month Vodafone launched GPRS services. Around the same time, Vodafone's analogue TACS network was closed after 16 years of service. In 2003, Vodafone introduced the 'Speaking Phone', a phone for blind & visually impaired users. Vodafone Mobile Connect 3G was launched in 2005, a data card that uses the network's 3G capabilities to connect laptop users to the internet.

Vodafone UK won Mobile Retailer's 'National Retailer of the Year' in 2005 and was awarded 'Best Network' in the 2010 Mobile News and Mobile Awards.

In May 2011, Vodafone and Justgiving launched 'JustTextGiving', which allows mobile phone user to donate between £1 and £10 to a registered charity using a SMS message, which is paid for by the donor through reverse SMS billing.  Vodafone invested £5 million to ensure that charities do not incur any set-up costs, or commissions deducted from donations, ensuring that they receive 100% of donations and Gift Aid.

Vodafone and O2 signed a deal in June 2012 which will see the two companies 'pool' their network technology, creating a single national grid of 18,500 transmitter sites. Both networks will continue to carry their own independent mobile spectrum.

On 20 February 2013, Ofcom announced that Vodafone had been awarded spectrum in the 800 MHz and 2.6 GHz bands for 4G LTE coverage, bidding around £790 million for the spectrum. The service became available to customers in London on 29 August, and will expand to a further twelve cities by the end of 2013.

On 29 March 2018, following the release of iOS 11.3, Vodafone launched VoLTE (4G Calling) for iPhone users, with devices from the iPhone 6S to the iPhone X being compatible. The feature had been active on some Android phones from Huawei, Samsung Mobile and Sony Mobile prior to its launch on Apple Inc. devices.

On 3 July 2019, Vodafone launched their 5G network in Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, Manchester, Liverpool and London, with more towns and cities launching throughout 2019.

Fixed network
On 1 April 2012, Vodafone agreed a takeover of Cable & Wireless Worldwide at a cost of just over £1 billion. The acquisition gave Vodafone access to its own fixed line network, in addition to the already established mobile network, allowing the company to begin work on launching a variety of fixed line services to Enterprise customers in addition to the ex-CWW customers which it acquired during the initial takeover.

Following the acquisition of CWW, Vodafone began working on a consumer Broadband and TV proposition, using its fibre network. Vodafone launched its broadband offering to the UK public on 12 October 2015. Work is ongoing for the launch of Vodafone's UK TV service, which the company originally planned to launch before the spring of 2016, however has since delayed to a later date.

Radio frequency summary

Vodafone LTE 1800 MHz is only available in some areas, having been refarmed from 2G (1800 MHz), whereas the LTE 2100 MHz is available in a rapidly increasing number of areas and is very potent in areas such as Cardiff, London, Manchester and Birmingham.

Marketing

Stores
Vodafone operates a retail estate consisting of both company owned and franchise (known as Partner Agent) stores. In total, there are 363 stores located across the UK.

A 'Tech Team' section (similar to Apple's Genius Bar) was rolled out in November 2011 to Vodafone 'Elite' status Stores in cities & large towns, offering free advice to all customers of the mobile network. Vodafone also introduced the 'RED Box' to its stores at the same time, which allows phone users to transfer contents between handsets.

Vodafone VIP

Beginning in 2010, Vodafone UK operated a 'VIP' reward scheme as part of a partnership with Live Nation, in which customers could access tickets 48 hours before release for major UK events including T in the Park, Isle of Wight Festival, Reading & Leeds festival, London Fashion Week and the British Grand Prix. Some of the music festivals involved in the scheme had their own 'Vodafone VIP' areas, available to customers by winning certain competitions. In May 2013, the Vodafone VIP Mobile Application developed by Invitation Digital was launched on both iPhone and Android platforms.
In January 2014, Vodafone announced the closure of Vodafone VIP with immediate effect.

Freebee Rewardz

Vodafone UK launched a loyalty scheme named 'Freebee Rewardz' in late 2011, accompanied by a £3million marketing campaign featuring two CGI bees named Jack and Mike voiced by Dan Antopolski and Karl Theobald. Each time a pay-as-you-go customer top-up £15 (such as a discount on a film from Blockbuster, or free credit toward their balance) to collect 'Pointz' that can be added to their bigger prize.
 In May 2015 Rewardz were renamed Rewards to reflect marketing  changes

30 Day Service Guarantee and Flexi-Upgrade

In 2017 Vodafone UK launched two new features one called 30-day network satisfaction for new and upgrading customers that if they aren't happy with the Vodafone service and coverage within the first 30 days of having the contract the user can cancel and leave the network, the other is called Flexi-Upgrades this allows Vodafone customers after 6 months of being in their current contract to upgrade to a new device and contract after paying a certain amount off of their contract/device plans.

In June 2018 the 30-day Network Satisfaction was renamed and readvertised as the 30-day Service Guarantee, however in July 2019 the 30-day return period was removed by Vodafone and has now been reduced to only 14-days.

Slogans

Vodafone used the slogan 'How are you?' in the UK between 2003 and 2006, but briefly switched in 2007 to "Make the Most of Now". In 2009 they switched to the international 'Power to you' branding, which the company used for eight years.

In October 2017, Vodafone unveiled a new global brand campaign. This saw the logo return to its former 2D appearance and the introduction of a new slogan "The future is exciting... Ready?"

In March 2021, Vodafone unveiled a new global brand campaign with the slogan "Together We Can".

The Official Vodafone Big Top 40

From November 2010, Vodafone had used commercial radio's syndicated chart show to advertise its products and offers. Sunday evenings between 4 & 7, produced at London's Capital FM and syndicated to some of the biggest local radio stations in the UK, the show was hosted by Marvin Humes & Kat Shoob.

For the first 12 months of their sponsorship, Vodafone pushed their 'Freebees' brand and the show was named 'The Vodafone Freebees Big Top 40 Show' before being changed to simply 'The Vodafone Big Top 40' in 2011.

In 2017, the show was named 'The Official Vodafone Big Top 40' and the logo was re-made to fit the colours of Vodafone's new subsidiary mobile network, VOXI.

In March 2022, the show gained a new sponsor and was renamed The Sky VIP Official Big Top 40.

Be Unlimited
On 10 July 2019, Vodafone launched their new ad campaign "Be Unlimited" to accompany the launch of their new Unlimited Data plans which include 4G and 5G network coverage.

Controversies

Data charges

Vodafone UK came under criticism in June 2011 after they scrapped their fair-use policy on data charges, meaning those without monthly allowances would pay 50p for every 10MB of data used.

Loss of network

A break-in at the Vodafone exchange centre in Basingstoke on 28 February 2011 left several hundreds of thousands of customers in the west of London without network access, after burglars stole computer equipment and damaged network hardware.

Subcontracting to third-parties

Vodafone came under fire after the Manchester Arena bombing of May 2017. The company outsourced the  National Mutual Aid Telephony system out to a third party under the name of Content Guru. When the attack took place, the system failed to operate and resulted in those affected by the attack not being able to contact police or emergency services.

Proposed merger with Three
In 2023, Vodafone UK struck a deal with Three UK to merge their UK businesses, subject to approval by the competition regulator. The combined company would have 27 million customers, which would make them the largest mobile network in the UK, surpassing O2 which has 24 million customers and EE which has 20 million. The deal would give Vodafone Group a 51% stake in the new business with CK Hutchison (the owner of Three UK) owning the remaining 49%. Vodafone has an option to buy out Hutchison's stake, three years after completion of the merger.

Vodafone claim that the deal would lead to £11bn of investment into 5G over the next 10 years. Consumer group Which? and others raised concerns that the merger would risk lowering the quality of service and increasing prices due to less competition being present.

VOXI by Vodafone
On 9 September 2017, Vodafone launched their VOXI SIM-only plans which offered users under 25 unlimited minutes, texts and endless data to social media websites and apps. In 2018 the upper age limit was raised to 30. In November 2018, Voxi started selling contracted and SIM-free phones. In April 2019 the upper age limit was removed by Vodafone, meaning that VOXI is available to all users regardless of their age.

VOXI users gained access to Vodafone's 5G services in October 2019 although access was limited to users on the unlimited plan only. Users of lower-priced plans gained access to the new technology in September 2020 along with unlimited video streaming.

References

External links

Vodafone
Mobile phone companies of the United Kingdom
Telecommunications companies established in 1985
Companies based in Newbury, Berkshire
1985 establishments in England

Vodafone UK


Johannes Petrus Meintjes (19 May 1923 – 7 July 1980) was a South African artist and writer.

Meintjes grew up on his family's farm in the mountains near Molteno.
He lived and worked in Cape Town for several years, taught art, travelled for exhibitions and won a range of South African and international awards.
In 1965 he retired to Molteno, where he focused on his writing. He went on to win several literary awards.

References

South African artists
1923 births
1980 deaths
Alumni of Hoërskool Jan van Riebeeck

Johannes Meintjes


Gdud HaAvoda   () was a socialist Zionist work group in Mandate Palestine.

History
Officially known as the Yosef Trumpeldor Labor and Defense Battalion (), Gdud HaAvoda was established on 8 August 1920 for the purpose of Jewish labor, settlement and defense. It was named after Joseph Trumpeldor, who was killed at Tel Hai by Lebanese Shia villagers, and was joined by many of Trumpeldor's followers who had made aliyah from Crimea; initial membership was around 80.

The group drained swamps, paved roads, worked in agriculture and construction, establishing several kibbutzim, including Tel Yosef (14 December 1921), Ein Harod (22 September 1921), Kfar Giladi and Ramat Rachel. Many former members left to join the Solel Boneh construction company after learning their trade in the battalion.

In 1923 the battalion split on ideological grounds; the left-wing demanded socialism, whilst the right-wing were more interested in Zionist pioneering. Despite the split, by 1925 the group had over 650 members, including Israel Shochat, Manya Shochat and Yitzhak Sadeh.

In December 1926 a communist faction of the battalion was expelled. Some members of the faction returned to Russia, where they formed a commune named Vojo Nova (Esperanto for  "A New Way"), which was later liquidated during the Stalinist purges. The following year Gdud HaAvoda stopped work, and in 1929 it was dissolved after Kfar Giladi, Ramat Rachel, Tel Hai and Tel Yosef formed the HaKibbutz HaMeuhad movement.

References

Organizations established in 1920
Zionist organizations
Jewish organizations in Mandatory Palestine
Organizations disestablished in 1929
Labor Zionism
1920 establishments in Mandatory Palestine
Socialism in Mandatory Palestine
Zionism in Mandatory Palestine

Gdud HaAvoda


Bartolomeo Veneto (active 1502–31) was an Italian painter who worked in Venice, the Veneto (the mainland), and Lombardy. During his time in Venice, he studied under Gentile Bellini. The little information available about Bartolomeo's life has been derived from his signatures, dates, and inscriptions. His best-known works are portraits or pictures with portrait-like character. Bartolomeo's later works, and especially those done on commission in Milan, indicate an influence from the artist Leonardo da Vinci.

Work and style
Bartolomeo's early works consist of small devotional pictures. Bartolomeo changed his subject matter to suit his patrons as the interest in portraiture grew in Venice and the Veneto. His portraits became quite popular and in his later life Bartolomeo obtained many commissions in Northern Italy.

Attribution
While forty paintings are generally accepted to be by Bartolomeo, only nine bear inscriptions with the artist's name. A fourth of the generally accepted works are devotional paintings, which were painted during his early career. All of his paintings were done on wood (few were later moved to canvas.) He appears to have received no public commissions and the majority of his work consists of portraiture.

Inscriptions
Bartolomeo's earliest dated work, Virgin and Child from 1502, bears an interesting signature important to our understanding of the painter's developing style, "Bartolamio mezo venizian e mezo cremonexe" ("Bartolomeo half-Venetian and half-Cremonese.") The inscription sheds light on the painter's citizenship, as well as a reference to his diverse stylistic influence. The Venetian half reflects his knowledge of Bellini. The Cremonese suggests some knowledge of the Cremonese school founded by Giulio Campi.

Another inscription is found on a similar Virgin and Child. The inscription is difficult to read and the date is unknown. What is left is "7 April 15... bartolamio s...o de z...be..." It is assumed that Bartolomeo inscribed the painting to indicate that he was a pupil of Gentile (Zentile) Bellini.

At court
Bartolomeo is very likely to have been "Bartolomeo da Venetia" who the Este court recorded as a craftsman in its service from 1505 to 1507. There, Bartolomeo gilded frames and made carnival decorations along with painting a Virgin with saints.

Portraiture
Flora from c. 1515 is currently attributed to Bartolomeo. The unknown figure is painted with hard edges and a descriptive quality. Though the sitter is unknown, she is thought (and perhaps wrongly) to be Lucrezia Borgia. Close to a genre painting, the painting could be a response to similar paintings by Giorgione including the Laura. Bartolomeo placed the figure in front of a black background, a theme that would follow in his later paintings such as Saint Catherine, Salome with the Head of the St. John the Baptist, and Lady playing a Lute.

Documents suggest Bartolomeo went to Padua in 1512 and Milan in 1520. Leonardo da Vinci had recently been to Milan, where he transformed the current mundane portraiture into one of intrigue and sfumato. Leonardo's effect is evident in Bartolomeo's developing style when juxtaposing Flora and Lady playing a Lute. Flora's hair is flat and each detailed single strand is painted, much detail is paid to the flowers and jewelry draped across her body. Lady Playing a Lutes figure is more three-dimensional with an emphasis of chiaroscuro. Her hair, rather than individual strands, has some sense of being whole while still being separate.

Recent interest
Bartolomeo's signed works have been recorded since the 16th century. However, it wasn't until the nineteenth century that interest arose in the collection of his works. The mid-nineteenth century saw sales of Bartolomeo's works to prominent museums. Alexander Barker, a collector of Italian paintings, acquired (along with paintings attributed to Titian and Giorgione) a painting by Bartolomeo. He later sold the painting to Baron Meyer Amschel de Rothschild and eventually the painting ended up in the Timken Museum of Art in San Diego. In the same year, the National Gallery acquired a portrait by Bartolomeo. In 1871 four of Bartolomeo's works were given to the Louvre. At the very end of the nineteenth century, in 1899, Adolfo Venturi published the first article about the painter.

Main works
 Salome with the Head of Saint John the Baptist, c. 1520, Dresden, Germany, Gemäldegalerie
 The Circumcision, 1506, Paris, France, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. R.F. 2485
 Portrait of Gentleman, Rome, Italy, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Sala 6
 Portrait of a Man, c. 1510, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, The Cleveland Museum of Art
 Beatrice d'Este ''', c.1510. Snite Museum of Art, IN, USA
 Lady Playing Lute, c. 1530, Los Angeles, USA, The J. Paul Getty Museum at the Getty Center
 Madonna, 1502, Venice, Italy, Collection of Donà delle Rose
 Madonna della Ca'd'Oro, 1505, Bergamo, Italy, Accademia Carrara
 Madonna di Bergamo, 1505, Bergamo, Italy, Accademia Carrara Image
 Ritratto di Beatrice d'Este II, 1510, Ferrara, Italy
 Ritratto di gentiluomo, 1512, Rome, Italy, Palazzo Barberini
  Saint Catherine (attributed), 1510–1520, Glasgow, United Kingdom, Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum
 Courtesan, c. 1520-25, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, Städelsches Kunstinstitut und Städtische Galerie
 Lucrezia Borgia, 1510–1520, Nîmes, France, Musée des Beaux-Arts.
 Portrait of a Lady, c. 1520, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, National Gallery of Canada, Inv. no. 16909
 Ludovico Martinengo (attributed), 1530, London, United Kingdom, National Gallery, Inv. no. NG287Portrait of a Man (attributed), c. 1525–1630, Madrid, Spain, Thyssen-Bornemizsa Museum, Inv. no. 30 (1930.8)

References
 Bartolomeo Veneto: www.wga.hu — Web Gallery of Art
 Cremonese School: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/142536/Cremonese-school
 Nicholas Penny. 2004. The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings'' Vol 1. London: National Gallery Company Limited.
 Thomas Nichols, "Bartolomeo Veneto." In Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online, Bartolomeo Veneto (accessed 20 April 2009).

External links

 www.artcyclopedia.com — Bartolomeo Veneto

References

15th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
16th-century Italian painters
Italian Renaissance painters
Painters from Venice
1480s births
1530s deaths

Bartolomeo Veneto


Legião Urbana (Portuguese for Urban Legion) was a Brazilian rock band formed in 1982 in Brasília, Distrito Federal. The band primarily consisted of Renato Russo (vocals, bass and keyboards), Dado Villa-Lobos (guitar) and Marcelo Bonfá (drums). In its earlier days, Legião Urbana also had a full-time bassist, Renato Rocha, but he left the band due to creative divergences.

While Legião Urbana disbanded officially in 1996, after frontman Renato Russo's death, it is one of the most famous Brazilian rock bands, alongside Os Mutantes, Titãs, Os Paralamas do Sucesso, and Barão Vermelho.

History

The beginning
Renato Russo (born Renato Manfredini, Jr.) founded Legião Urbana in 1982 in Brasília, after leaving his previous band Aborto Elétrico ("Electric Abortion"). Aborto Elétrico broke up due to repeated disagreements between Russo and brothers Flávio and Fê Lemos, his bandmates. After Aborto Elétrico split and Russo created Legião Urbana, the two brothers would also go on to found Capital Inicial.

Legião Urbana was initially formed by Renato Russo (vocals and bass) Marcelo Bonfá (drums), Eduardo Paraná (guitars) and Paulo Paulista (keyboards), but Paraná and Paulista would quickly leave the band. Ico Ouro Preto replaced Paraná as the guitarist. Dado Villa-Lobos replaced Ouro Preto in 1983. In the beginning of 1984, Renato Rocha joined the group as the bass player. Renato Russo would then focus on the vocals. He also played keyboards and acoustic guitar.

Many elements helped shape the identity of Legião Urbana. Russo was heavily influenced by The Smiths and U2.

Thematically, Russo and the other members were also influenced by literature, especially that of Portuguese poet Luís de Camões, whose poetry is featured in more than one of the band's songs.

Legião Urbana
Legião Urbana's self-titled first album was recorded and released in 1985. The album included the hits "Será" ("Could It Be"), "Ainda É Cedo" ("It's Still Early") and "Geração Coca-Cola" ("Generation Coca-Cola"). The album was released on the EMI label, and the band would stay with this record label for their entire career, with both positive and negative experiences.

Dois
In 1986, the band released Dois ("Two" – the album was planned to have two discs, but EMI refused to do it). The lyrics, melodies and personality of Renato Russo brought the band considerable notoriety in Brazil, especially among the younger generation which had grown up under the fear of the authoritarian Brazilian Military Dictatorship (1964–1985). The songs Tempo Perdido ("Lost Time"), Quase sem Querer ("Almost by Accident"), Eduardo e Mônica, Andrea Doria and "Índios" ('"Indians"') were particularly popular. The song "Indios" is particularly culturally relevant as it mentions Brazil's troubled history with indigenous people, and remains one of the band's most popular songs to this day.

Que País É Este
The band's success was cemented in 1987, with Que País É Este ("What Country Is This"). They developed a devoted following, and the band came to carry the nickname "Religião Urbana" (meaning "Urban Religion"), something Renato Russo professed to hate.

This was the heaviest album Legião Urbana released during its existence, the only one which can be classified as punk rock. Two of the songs, "Conexão Amazônica" ("Amazonic Connection" – censored to contain heavy texts about drug trafficking and its routes via the Amazon, and critical intellectuals.) and the Dylan-esque "Faroeste Caboclo" – the latter with 168 different lines and ten minutes long – were censored because they contained what was then considered obscene content. "Faroeste Caboclo" was a huge success, nevertheless. Others, such as Que País é Este? ("What Country Is This?"), Eu Sei ("I Know"), Química ("Chemistry"), Angra dos Reis (a reference to a homonymous nuclear power plant that exists in Brazil) and Mais do Mesmo ("More of the Same") were hits.

In the first concert in Brasília after the release of their first album, 200 people were wounded in a riot. The band would never again perform publicly in Brasília, the city from which Russo and other band members hailed.

As Quatro Estações
In 1989, before the release of As Quatro Estações ("The Four Seasons"), Renato Rocha decided to quit under pressure from Bonfá and Villa-Lobos. Russo returned to play bass, but he joined three touring musicians (bassist Bruno Araújo, keyboardist Mu Carvalho and guitarist Fred Nascimento). Although this album had the most financial success of any released by the group (and nearly every song on the disc garnered significant radio play), many fans disliked the big changes in the band's style, especially punk rock fans. The songs would now talk about love and soul. "Pais e Filhos" ("Parents and children"), about broken, intact, happy and dysfunctional families, included the lyrics "É preciso amar/as pessoas como se não houvesse amanhã/Porque se você parar/pra pensar/Na verdade não há" ("We must love people as if there was no tomorrow/Because if you stop to think about it/There really isn't").

1990s
V was released in December 1991, considered the band's darkest and most introspective album until then; at this point, the band was appearing less and less in public, doing only a few (very contentious) concerts. The album ran a long gamut of emotions and topics, with songs about drug abuse, the confused sentiments of a soul consecrated to a life of celibacy, and even the bizarre, classic French film The Golden Age.

"Metal Contra as Nuvens" ("Metal Against the Clouds") clocked in at 11 minutes and is the longest song ever recorded by the band. Some of the more popular entries on the album are O Teatro dos Vampiros ("The Theater of the Vampires"), Sereníssima ("Most Serene"), Vento no Litoral ("Coastal Wind"), and O Mundo Anda Tão Complicado ("The World Has Been So Complicated").  One year after V, EMI released Música P/ Acampamentos (Music 4 Camping), which is a compilation of rarities and live material. A previously unreleased song, A Canção do Senhor da Guerra ("The Warlord's Song"), which was to be in Dois and was rejected by EMI, turned into an immediate hit. The album had got featuring keyboardist Carlos Trilha and bassist Bruno Araújo, later the recording, Araújo left the band, and joined bassist Tavinho Fialho and guitarist Sérgio Serra.

The band released O Descobrimento do Brasil ("The Discovery of Brazil", alluding both to Cabral's discovery and to a new look at Brazil and its problems) in November 1993. "Giz" ("Chalk"), "Perfeição" ("Perfection"), "Vinte e Nove" ("Twenty Nine"), "Vamos Fazer um Filme" ("Let's Make A Movie") and "La Nuova Gioventù" (Italian for "The New Youth") are the main hits of the CD, though the album as a whole received a rather chilly critical reception.

"Perfeição" was a scathing rebuke of Brazilian government and society, inviting the listener to celebrate everything stupid, evil and ugly about the country. The song compares Brazil to a house of marked cards, a den of thieves, and a State that is not a nation, but the song explodes any pretensions of moral superiority towards the end by remarking on, above all else, the stupidity of the person singing the song. After the energy and anger of the main body of the song, this final section is almost wistful. The music continues to race ahead, but the vocal seems to be trying to pull it back, simultaneously celebrating and undercutting the belief that perfection is achievable, at least in the heart. The song's popular success is emblematic of the political changes that had taken place in Brazil since the band's inception: it certainly could not have been distributed during the days of Brazil's military dictatorship.

The band members confessed that the track "Giz" was one of Renato Russo's favorite songs among all Legião Urbana's discography.

The same year, Russo released a solo album in English, The Stonewall Celebration Concert.

A Tempestade, ou O Livro dos Dias ("The Storm" or "The Book of Days") was recorded between January and June 1996 and released on 20 September 1996. This would be the last album released before Renato Russo's death less than a month later. This album surpassed V in terms of introspection and sadness in the lyrics, probably related to the state of Russo's health.

Disbanding
In January 1995 the band performed its last concert. In December Renato Russo released his second solo album, Equilíbrio Distante.
A posthumous album recorded between January and June 1996 and released on 18 July 1997. Most of the tracks are leftovers from A Tempestade, which was originally planned as a double album. Uma Outra Estação ("Another Season") was completed by the remaining members of the band plus keyboardist Carlos Trilha and guitarist Tom Capone.

Acústico MTV: Legião Urbana is an MTV Unplugged album that was recorded on 28 January 1992 and released on 27 October 1999.

In September 1996 the band released its last album with Renato Russo still alive: A Tempestade. The CD has a very sad tone, directly connected to the fact that Russo and his health were deteriorating very quickly, both psychologically and physically.

Renato Russo would die one month after the release of Tempestade, on 11 October 1996, from an AIDS-related illness. Eleven days later, Bonfá and Villa-Lobos announced that the band was officially disbanded.

Uma Outra Estação was released in June 1997 and is the last album with previously unreleased songs, produced and finished by Villa-Lobos. In October 1999 EMI released a Live album, Acústico MTV, a concert which was presented on MTV Brasil in 1992. Another two albums, As Quatro Estações Ao Vivo and Como É Que Se Diz Eu Te Amo, are best-of compilations that achieved relative success among the fans and people whose interest in Legião Urbana grew after the death of Russo.

Discography

Studio albums

 (1985) Legião Urbana
 (1986) Dois
 (1987) Que País É Este
 (1989) As Quatro Estações
 (1991) V
 (1993) O Descobrimento do Brasil
 (1996) A Tempestade ou O Livro dos Dias
 (1997) Uma Outra Estação

Compilation albums

 (1992) Música P/ Acampamentos
 (1998) Mais do Mesmo

Live albums

 (1999) Acústico MTV: Legião Urbana
 (2001) Como É Que Se Diz Eu te Amo
 (2004) As Quatro Estações ao Vivo

Members

Last line-up
 Renato Russo: bass (1982 - 1984; 1989 - 1996), electric guitar (1984 - 1989), keyboards (1982 - 1996), lead vocals, acoustic guitar (1982 - 1996; died 1996)
 Marcelo Bonfá: drums, percussion (1982 - 1996), ocarina, keyboards (1989 - 1996)
 Dado Villa-Lobos: electric guitar (1983 - 1996), bass, keyboards (1989 - 1996)

Past members
 Renato Rocha: bass (1984 - 1989; died 2015)
 Eduardo Paraná: guitars (1982)
 Ico Ouro Preto: guitars (1982 - 1983)
 Paulo Paulista: keyboards (1982)

Timeline

References

External links

 Official website
 Legião Urbana, Dicionário Cravo Albin da Música Popular Brasileira
 Lyrics in Portuguese and English

Musical groups established in 1982
Musical groups disestablished in 1996
Brazilian alternative rock groups
Brazilian punk rock groups
Folk rock groups
Musicians from Brasília
Brazilian rock music groups
1982 establishments in Brazil
1996 disestablishments in Brazil

Legião Urbana