Aldo Tortorella (born 10 July 1926) is an Italian journalist, former politician and partisan. He was a historical member of the Italian Communist Party (Partito Comunista Italiano, or PCI).

Biography
Tortorella was born in Naples, but spent his youth in Genoa and Milan. When he was a university student, he became a member of the Milanese resistance movement against fascism. He was imprisoned, but he was later able to escape to Genoa. After the liberation of Northern Italy, Tortorella became journalist (and eventually vice-director) for the Genoese edition of  PCI's newspaper, L'Unità. In 1958-1962 he was vice-director of the Milanese edition and director of the national edition from 1970 to 1975.

Tortorella was elected to the Italian Chamber of Deputies for the first time in 1972, a position he held until 1994. A follower of national secretary Enrico Berlinguer, he was the party's responsible for culture. In the late 1970s he was against Berlinguer's move towards the so-called Historic Compromise (Compromesso storico), which aimed to a government alliance between PCI and the other Italian main party of the period, Democrazia Cristiana.

In 1989 Tortorella was one of the main opponents of the Svolta della Bolognina, the change of PCI's name supported by new secretary Achille Occhetto. However, when PCI became the Democratic Party of the Left (Partito Democratico della Sinistra, PDS), he remained in the party as member of the left-current led by Giovanni Berlinguer. In 1999, at the outbreak of the Kosovo War, Tortorella abandoned PDS in polemics with the then-prime minister and party leader, Massimo D'Alema, who had  Italy take an active part in the conflict.

Tortorella in the following year dedicated to his leftist magazine, Critica marxista, and organized cultural activities dealing with Enrico Berlinguer's figure and politics.

Sources

1926 births
Living people
Politicians from Naples
Italian Communist Party politicians
20th-century Italian politicians
Democratic Party of the Left politicians
Journalists from Naples
Italian male journalists
Italian resistance movement members
L'Unità editors

Aldo Tortorella


Orchha State (also known as Urchha, Ondchha and Tikamgarh) was a kingdom situated in the Bundelkhand region and later a princely state in British India. The state was ruled by Bundela clan of Rajputs. It was located within what is now the state of Madhya Pradesh.

The Chaturbhuj Temple was built by the Queen of Orchha, while the Raj Mandir was built by Madhukar Shah during his reign, 1554 to 1591. In 1811, during the period of Company Rule in India, it became part of the Bundelkhand Agency within the Central India Agency; after the independence of India in 1947, it acceded to the Union of India, in 1950.

History

Before company rule

Orchha State was founded in 1531 by the Rudra Pratap Singh, who became its first king. He had a fortress at Garh Kundar and took advantage of the politically unstable environment of the time to make territorial gains. He moved to Orchha on the banks of the river Betwa and established it as his new capital. He died in the same year.

Rudra Pratap Singh was succeeded by his son, Bharatichand, who died without leaving an heir in 1554 and was in turn succeeded by his younger brother, Madhukar Shah. Both Bharatichand and Madhukar had to deal with attacks, organised under the Afghan Islam Shah Suri (r. 1545-53) and the Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556-1605). Events involving the former were noted by the court poet Keshavdas and those involving Madhukar, who had to relinquish lands to Akbar in 1577 and 1588, were recorded in the Akbarnama. Madhukar's position had become so precarious in the 1570s that he agreed to Orchha becoming a tributary state and to enlistment of himself and his family in the service of the Mughal empire, but another near-contemporary historian, `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni, records him as a rebel in 1583.

During the rule of the Mughal emperor Jahangir, his vassal, Vir Singh Deo, was ruler of the Orchha area. His reign ended in either 1626 or 1627 and it was during this period that Orchha reached its zenith in both political power and architectural splendour. Examples of the architecture include the Jahangir Mahal (built ca. 1605) and the Sawan Bhadon Mahal.

In the early-17th century, Raja Jhujhar Singh rebelled against the Mughal emperor but was defeated. Shah Jahan placed the former raja's brother on the throne in 1641. Orchha was the only Bundela state not entirely subjugated by the Marathas in the 18th century.

The town of Tehri, Tikamgarh, about  south of Orchha, became the capital of Orchha state in 1783, and is now the district town; Tehri was the site of the fort of Tikamgarh, and the town eventually took the name of the fort.

During the British era
On 23rd December 1812, Orchha king made treaty of alliance with Britishers. Hamir Singh, who ruled from 1848 to 1874, was elevated to the style of Maharaja in 1865. During his reign the allied forces of Orchha and Datia invaded Jhansi in 1857 intending to divide the Jhansi territory between them. However they were defeated by Rani Lakshmibai's army and her allies in August 1857. (She intended at this time to hold Jhansi on behalf of the British who had no forces there at the time.) Maharaja Pratap Singh (born 1854, died 1930), who succeeded to the throne in 1874, devoted himself entirely to the development of his state, himself designing most of the engineering and irrigation works that were executed during his reign.

In 1908, the boundaries of the state lay between 24° 26′ and 25° 40′ North and 78° 26′ and 79° 21′ East. It formed a part of the Bundelkhand Agency and had an area of . The 1901 Census of India recorded a population of 321,634. It was the oldest and highest in rank of all the Bundela states, with a 15-gun salute, and its maharajas bore the hereditary title First of the Prince of Bundelkhand.

Vir Singh, Pratap Singh's successor, merged his state with the Union of India on 1 January 1950. The district became part of Vindhya Pradesh state, which was merged into the state of Madhya Pradesh in 1956.

Rulers

Rajas
Prior to Company Rule, the rulers of Orchha all held the title of Raja. They were:

Rudra Pratap Singh (1501–1531)
Bharatichand (1531–1554)
Madhukar Shah (1554–1592)
Ram Shah (1592–1605)
Vir Singh Deo (also spelled Bir Singh Deo) (1605–1626/7)
Jhujhar Singh (1626/7–1635) (brother of Hardaul Singh)
Devi Singh (1635–1641) (brother of Jhujhar Singh)
Pahar Singh (1641–1653)
Sujan Singh (1653–1672)
Indramani Singh (1672–1675)
Jaswant Singh (1675–1684)
Bhagwat Singh (1684–1689)
Udwat Singh (1689–1735)
Prithvi Singh (1735–1752)
Sanwant Singh (1752–1765)
Hati Singh (1765–1768)
Man Singh (1768–1775)
Bharti Singh (1775–1776)
Vikramajit Mahendra (1776–1817)
Dharam Pal (1817–1834) Queen Ladai Sarkar was his wife
Taj Singh (1834–1842)
Surjain Singh (1842–1848)
Hamir Singh (1848–1865) (Queen Ladai Sarkar ruled at this time)

Maharajas
During the British era, initially under Company Rule and then as a part of the British Raj, the title of Raja was in use until 1865, when it was replaced with that of Maharaja. The rulers were:
Hamir Singh (1865–1874) (Queen Ladai Sarkar ruled at this time)
Pratap Singh (1874–1930)
Vir Singh II (4 March 1930 – acceded 1 January 1950) (b.1899 - d.1956)

Titular Maharajas
Vir Singh II (1 January 1950 – 1956)
Devendra Singh (1956 – 1978)
Madhukar Shah (1978 – present)

Postal history

Postage stamps for the state were prepared for use in 1897 but were never issued. The first Orchha State stamps were issued in 1913 (half-anna and one anna); in 1914 there was another issue of four stamps (half-anna to four annas). The third issue was in 1939 when a range of stamps bearing the maharajah's portrait were issued which included denominations from half-anna to eight annas and one rupee to ten rupees.

Separate stamps were discontinued on 30 April 1950 after the state was merged with the Union of India early that year.

Coinage
Orchha minted coins in copper and silver. The currency was known as Gaja Shahi because it most commonly bore the symbol of a mace (gaja) on the reverse. The mace symbol was imitated on coins issued by Datia State.

See also
Hasht-Bhaiya

References

External links

Princely states of Bundelkhand
States and territories established in 1531
States and territories disestablished in 1950
Tikamgarh district
Rajputs
1531 establishments in India
1950 disestablishments in India
Orchha
Gun salute princely states
Princely states of Madhya Pradesh

Orchha State


Ronnie Gafney (; born March 11, 1980) is an American-Israeli footballer.

Though born in the United States, his family moved back to Israel in 1988 where he started to play organized football. His developmental years were spent at Maccabi Tel Aviv, where he made his professional debut during the 1998–99 season in a match against Hapoel Tzafririm Holon. Though he could not break the first team on a regular basis as Dedi Ben Dayan was just coming into his own, so Gafni headed to Hapoel Petah Tikva where he languished on the bench. His move to Bnei Yehuda gave him playing time, and he even scored a game-winning goal in the 2002–03 season against his future club Beitar Jerusalem. Eventually he was recognized as being one of the best left backs in all of Israel at that time. He was rewarded with an appearance at the end of the Avraham Grant send off game versus Denmark.

Honours
Israeli Premier League (2):
2006-07
2008-09

External links
Stats at Bnei Yehuda's official website

1980 births
Living people
American emigrants to Israel
Israeli Jews
Jewish American sportspeople
Israeli men's footballers
Israel men's international footballers
Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C. players
Hapoel Petah Tikva F.C. players
Bnei Yehuda Tel Aviv F.C. players
Beitar Jerusalem F.C. players
Maccabi Haifa F.C. players
Israeli Premier League players
Men's association football defenders
21st-century American Jews

Ronnie Gafney


Johan Strand Johansen (3 February 1903 in Åfjord - 12 February 1970 in Moscow) was Norwegian Minister of Labour in 1945. From 1945-1949 and later from 1954-1957 he represented the Communist Party of Norway in the Parliament of Norway. His importance to posterity has been intimately tied to the dramatic split of the Communist Party in 1949, the so-called Furubotn purge.

Early work and political career
In 1924 he became a journalist in the party daily newspaper Ny Tid in Trondheim, and starting that same year and until 1928 he was the secretary for the Young Communist League. In 1930 he became editor of Hardanger Arbeiderblad in Odda, and from 1931 his base was in Oslo, as a co-worker of the Arbeideren and as a member of the central board of the party. He was the representative of the central board on the strike rally which was later to become the Skirmish of Menstad, and in its aftermath he was given a prison sentence.

Concentration camp and post-war politician
Strand Johansen was arrested by the Gestapo in 1941 and spent a major part of the war in Sachsenhausen. In 1945 he became part secretary, and at the same time he was elected to the Storting, becoming one of two NKP representatives in the coalition government. He was a central figure in the failed coalition negotiations with the Labour Party the same year.

The Furubotn purge
"The Furubotn purge" (Furubotn-oppgjøret) is the term that has been applied to the turbulent split of the Norwegian Communist party in 1949. Strand Johansen, who was the main organizer of NKP's election campaign in 1949, was central also in the internal conflict that ensued and headed the faction that opposed Peder Furubotn – the "Løvlien faction" as it was named after party chairman Emil Løvlien. In the book Fiendebilde Wollweber (Enemy picture Wollweber) by Norwegian historian Lars Borgersrud, Strand Johansen is portrayed as a vitriolic opponent of the Furubotn faction. The conflict climaxed on 26 October 1949, when Strand Johansen together with five or more people showed up in the party offices in Klingenberggata 4 and kicked out Furubotn's supporters. The purge began six days prior when he had initiated the move against Furubotn at a meeting of trustees of the Oslo party, levelling  against the supporters of Peder Furubotn fierce accusations of factionalism and of having set up an illegitimate party leadership – "the second center". In the following days the attacks continued during other party meetings, and on 25 October the central board decided to investigate the accusations and present them to the leadership of Cominform. In the meantime all individuals that had been accused by Strand Johansen would resign from their positions and a new central board was to be constituted. After the removal of Furubotn's people on 26 October, assisted by among others Asbjørn Sunde and Ragnar "Pelle" Sollie, Strand Johansen saw to it that Furubotn was excluded by the newly constituted central board which contained no supporters of Furubotn. Both during this commotion and during the next parliamentary campaign in 1953 witnesses described Johansen as mentally disturbed, initially as a natural reaction of disappointment at the obliteration of the communist representation in the parliament. In 1953 it was even suggested that Johansen should be sent off, either to the countryside or «exported» to the USSR. Asbjørn Sunde even suggested that Johansen be assassinated but received no support for such a drastic measure. Hans I. Kleven who himself was excluded from the party in the purge but was later invited back and went on to become its leader in the 1980s, has characterized Strand Johansen as a "sick, yes, a hysterical person," attributing these traits to the concentration camp period.

Exit politics
In 1953 he was elected deputy chairman of the party, but he resigned in 1955 after having been sent off to Moscow for a spa treatment. He remained in Moscow until his death, and he did not have any political role after 1955.

References

1903 births
1970 deaths
People from Åfjord
Norwegian people imprisoned abroad
Sachsenhausen concentration camp survivors
Government ministers of Norway
Members of the Storting
Communist Party of Norway politicians
Sør-Trøndelag politicians
Norwegian newspaper editors
Norwegian prisoners and detainees
Prisoners and detainees of Norway
Norwegian expatriates in the Soviet Union
20th-century Norwegian writers
20th-century Norwegian politicians

Johan Strand Johansen


Alfred Emil Fredrik Sandström (1886, Nyköping, Sweden – 1962) was a Swedish lawyer. He was the chairman of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies from 1950 to 1959.

Life
In the course of his career he was, among other things, a judge in the Supreme Court, at the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague as well as at the so-called mixed courts that existed in Egypt until 1949 and settled disputes between Egyptians and foreigners. He also acted as an international mediator on many occasions - for example, as Swedish representative (and, from June 1947, Chairman) on the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP), an attempt by the United Nations to test out the situation in Palestine during the termination of the British Mandate. In addition he succeeded Folke Bernadotte as president of the Swedish Red Cross.

In 1950, Emil Sandström became a member of the Institut de Droit International (institute for international law).

References

External links
Red Cross Biography

1886 births
1962 deaths
Red Cross personnel
Members of the Institut de Droit International
Presidents of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Justices of the Supreme Court of Sweden
20th-century Swedish judges
20th-century Swedish lawyers

Emil Sandström


The Zetland was a lifeboat in Redcar, England, and is the oldest lifeboat in the world which still exists. It was put in Redcar in 1802. In 1858, the lifeboat was given to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI). The boat was damaged in 1864, and was to be destroyed - however, following protest it was given to the town's people. Today, it is in its own museum.

Boats

Zetland (lifeboat)


The Cities and Villages Act of 1872 was an act of the Illinois General Assembly governing the operation of incorporated municipalities.  The act was an immediate source of political controversy.  The legacy of the Act is that Illinois municipal elections take place in the spring while county, state, and federal elections continue to occur on the federal Election Day.

History
The Act was adopted by the State of Illinois on April 10, 1872, and went into force on July 1 of the same year.  The purpose of the Act was to provide a standard outline and means for villages and cities in the state to incorporate without requiring separate legislation for each application.

On April 23, 1875, the city of Chicago voted to operate under the Act, as opposed to operating under the city charter which had previously been in effect. The Act has been revised since then, and is located in Chapter 65 of the Illinois Compiled Statutes.

Despite this operation, the Illinois State Constitution was later amended by the addition of Article VII (Adopted September 3, 1970; Entered into force July 1, 1971) which grants home rule powers to Chicago. Among those powers are regulation for the protection of public health, safety, morals, and welfare, to license for regulatory purposes, to tax, and to incur debt.

Legal implications for Chicago

The act moved Mayoral elections to April, whereas they had previously taken place in November. The politically manipulated late April adoption date effectively canceled the 1875 election for Mayor of Chicago.  The act also lengthened the Mayoral term from 1 year to 2 years and expanded Mayoral powers. The law was ambiguous on the extension of the one year-term of the incumbent mayor, Harvey Doolittle Colvin.

In the November 1875 elections, neither the Republicans nor the Democrats ran a candidate for mayor, believing that there was no election. An independent candidate, Thomas Hoyne, received over 82% of the votes for Mayor of Chicago. Colvin refused to surrender his seat, which led to turmoil until a court ruling declared him Mayor until a special election and thus nullified Hoyne's election.

Chicago continues to have municipal elections in the spring. In 1907, four-year mayoral terms were ushered in, and 1935 saw the first 4-year aldermanic terms.

External links
 Illinois Compiled Statutes, Chapter 65

References

1872 in American law
1872 in Illinois
History of Chicago
Legal history of Illinois
Local government in Illinois
Illinois statutes
Local government legislation
History of local government in the United States

Cities and Villages Act of 1872


Moreton Bay Central Sports Complex is a sports field complex in Burpengary, a suburb of the City of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia primarily for both Australian rules football and soccer. It was built and opened in 2013 and are managed by Caboolture Sports Football Club, Moreton Bay Australian Football Club and AFL Queensland's Northern Brisbane Academy Programs. It is the home ground for Caboolture Sports Football Club, playing within Football Queensland competitions, and also the home ground for Moreton Bay in the Queensland Football Association Northern Conference. It was the primary home ground for the Brisbane Lions AFL Women's team from 2019 until the completion of Springfield Central Stadium in 2022.

Soccer
Caboolture Sports Football Club are located in the Moreton Bay Cental Sports Complex. This complex was opened in May 2019 and is a new multi-million-dollar purpose-built football fFacility. The clubhouse is surrounded by a synthetic field and two full size fields. Additionally, 3 more full size fields are planned to be constructed. Caboolture Sports FC is an established, progressive club and in 2016 re-affiliated with Football Brisbane (now Football Queensland Metro) after being part of Sunshine Coast Football for 20 years. The club's senior men side currently play in the Football Queensland Premier League and also has many successful junior teams playing in Football Queensland Metro competitions. The senior women field a Women's Capital 1 League and reserve team. Caboolture Sports FC turned 50 years in 2019 and now have an active membership of over 850 players, ranging from Miniroos, juniors, boys and girls, City league and Over 45's, plus a newly established 7-a-side preseason competition.

AFL
The Brisbane Lions' AFL Women's (AFLW) team uses the venue as a home ground. It hosted its first AFLW game on 10 March 2018, between Brisbane and . It became the Lions' primary home ground for the 2019 season, replacing South Pine Sports Complex.

It has also served as a home ground for the club's reserves team in the NEAFL; and it has hosted AFL pre-season games involving the Brisbane Lions since it was opened.

Attendance records

References

External links

Moreton Bay Central Sports Complex at Moreton Bay City Council
Moreton Bay Central Sports Complex at Austadiums

Brisbane Lions
North East Australian Football League grounds
AFL Women's grounds
Sports venues completed in 2013
2013 establishments in Australia
Multi-purpose stadiums in Australia
Sports venues in Queensland
Sports complexes in Australia

Moreton Bay Central Sports Complex


Magnolia Plantation and Gardens (464 acres, 187.77 hectares) is a historic house with gardens located on the Ashley River at 3550 Ashley River Road west of Ashley, Charleston County, South Carolina. It is one of the oldest plantations in the South, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Magnolia Plantation is located near Charleston and directly across the Ashley River from North Charleston. The house and gardens are open daily; an admission fee is charged.

The plantation dates to 1676, when Thomas and Ann Drayton (née Anna Fox) built a house and small formal garden on the site. (The plantation remains under the control of the Drayton family after 15 generations.) Some of the enslaved people who were forced to work at the house were brought by the Draytons from Barbados in the 1670s. The historic Drayton Hall was built in 1738 by enslaved laborers for John Drayton, grandfather of judge John Drayton II, on an adjoining property.

Magnolia was originally a rice plantation, with extensive earthworks of dams and dikes built in fields along the river for irrigating land for rice cultivation. African enslaved people from rice-growing regions created the works. As time went on, these enslaved people developed a creolized Gullah language and vibrant culture, strongly influenced by their West African cultures. They have retained many combined cultural elements from West Africa to this day in what is known as the Gullah Heritage Corridor of the Lowcountry and Sea Islands of the Carolinas and Georgia.

History
Magnolia became known for its gardens after the Reverend John Grimke' Drayton inherited the property in the 1840s and developed them. Through his mother, Grimké was the grandson of Thomas Drayton, who bequeathed the 1872-acre plantation to him on condition that he take the Drayton surname. Through his father, John was a nephew of sisters Sarah and Angelina Emily Grimké, who moved North and became noted abolitionists.

Drayton, an Episcopal minister, began to have the gardens reworked in an English style; according to legend, this was done to lure his bride south from her native Philadelphia. He was among the first to use Camellia japonica in an outdoor setting (1820s), and is said to have introduced the first azaleas to America. Under his supervision, the gardens of Magnolia on the Ashley became well known in the antebellum period for their azaleas and live oak trees. They were photographed by Mathew Brady, who would later become famous for his photographs of the American Civil War. Another visitor to Magnolia in this period was John James Audubon, for whom Magnolia's Audubon Swamp Garden is named.

The plantation house was burned during the Civil War, likely by Union troops, as was neighboring Runnymede Plantation to the northwest. In the aftermath of the Civil War and postwar economic disruption, John Grimké Drayton sold all but 390 acres to raise money. Today 25 acres of the property are devoted to the gardens, 16 acres for the wide lawn surrounding the live oak allée, and 150 acres for a marsh and water fowl conservatory. Since 1941, about 199 acres have been used for a wholesale ornamental plant nursery to raise money for garden operations.

In the twentieth century, notable visitors included George Gershwin, Henry Ford, Eleanor Roosevelt, Orson Welles and Reba McEntire. In the early 20th century, the impressionist painter William Posey Silva painted the garden a number of times, and several of his canvases are on display in the main house.

Magnolia Plantation hosts weddings and other special events. Some critics have described plantation weddings such as those at Magnolia Plantation as "creepy" and "disturbing", although Magnolia Plantation has been credited for including information regarding slavery on their website.

Description
Magnolia Plantation is operated as a house museum and tourist attraction.  It has a reconstructed and restored plantation house, based on what was built after the Civil War. The oldest section was built prior to the Revolutionary War near Summerville. This structure was transported down the Ashley River after the Civil War and added to the house during its rebuilding.  The wide verandah and huge columns were added more recently.

Enslaved Africans and African Americans worked in large gangs and lived in large groups on such plantations as Magnolia and others in the Low Country and the Sea Islands, often with little interference by whites. They developed a Creole language, now known as Gullah, that was based on West African languages and incorporated some English, as well as a culture that drew from these various cultures. This is considered a unique culture among the various African-American groups, distinguished by certain cuisine, which features rice and seafood, and crafts such as baskets made of sea grass.

Of the five cabins on site, four were built in slavery times and one about 1900.  In the Reconstruction period and later, freedmen lived in the former slave cabins. In order to represent the range of enslaved and free black workers' lives, these cabins have been restored to differing periods: one for 1850 and others to decades after the Civil War and into the twentieth century.  The interpretive program reflects African-American history at the plantation, From Slavery to Freedom.  Archeological work is revealing more about the lives of both slaves and free black workers, who were skilled gardeners and craftsmen.

Other elements of the plantation emphasize the natural setting: a nature train, a marsh boat tour, and a wildlife area.  A petting zoo and the gardens feature a kind of cultivated nature. Many of today's attractions were built starting in 1975 during the garden's renewal.

Major garden features include numerous azalea plantings, as well as:

 Barbados Tropical Garden - indoor tropical garden.
 Biblical Garden - plants mentioned in the Bible, with Old Testament and New Testament areas
 Camellia Collection - First Camellia japonica plantings date from the 1820s, with current plantings containing nearly 900 varieties.  Nearly 150 were bred in the gardens' nursery.
 Cattail Wildlife Refuge - approximately 500 acres (2 km2), with tower for bird observation.

 Cypress Lake - Bald cypress trees, up to 100 years old, along riverbanks and wetlands.
 Flowerdale (50 acres) - Oldest sections established in 1680. Formal plantings of annuals set within triangular beds enclosed by boxwood hedges. Two large camellias date from the 1840s.
 Long Bridge - Built in the 1840s, one of seven bridges on the grounds.
 Maze - replica of England's famous Hampton Court maze, but planted with some 500 Camellia sasanqua interspersed with Burford holly. Nearly  of pathways.
 Nature Center and Zoo - domesticated animals typical to Southern plantations, injured or orphaned native animals, and exotic birds, including Malayan jungle fowl, guinea hens, and peacocks.
 Swamp Garden - emphasizing indigenous plants and rich ecosystem.

See also
 John Grimké Drayton
 McLeod Plantation
 Middleton Place
 List of botanical gardens in the United States
 Old St. Andrew's Parish Church
 St. Andrew's Mission Church (Charleston, South Carolina)

References

External links

 Magnolia Plantation and Gardens, Official website

Houses completed in 1850
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in South Carolina
Botanical gardens in South Carolina
History of South Carolina
South Carolina in the American Civil War
Drayton family
North Charleston, South Carolina
Historic house museums in South Carolina
Museums in Charleston, South Carolina
Plantations in South Carolina
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in South Carolina
Houses in Charleston, South Carolina
Buildings and structures in North Charleston, South Carolina
National Register of Historic Places in North Charleston, South Carolina
Protected areas of Charleston County, South Carolina
Tourist attractions in Charleston, South Carolina
Mazes
Zoos in South Carolina
Nature centers in South Carolina
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in South Carolina
Gullah history

Magnolia Plantation and Gardens (Charleston, South Carolina)


Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, OM, GCMG, GCVO, KCB  (22 February 1857 – 8 January 1941) was an English army officer most known for starting the . He was born in Paddington, in the West End of London and went to British public schools before joining the army. Baden-Powell served in South Africa during the Anglo-Ashanti and Boer Wars, and also served in Malta. Baden-Powell's most notable service was at the Siege of Mafeking. For that, he became a major general, and later a lieutenant general, which he was until 1910. In 1907, he founded the Boy Scouts, and wrote the first Handbook for Boys.  He also started the Woodbadge program, which is based on Scoutcraft and things he learned from the Zulus. He also spied in Germany, Austria and Russia.

1857 births
1941 deaths
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Knights of Grace of the Order of St John
Order of Merit
People from London
Scouting
United Kingdom Barons

Robert Baden-Powell


Voom HD Networks is a suite of 25 original high-definition television channels owned by AMC Networks. The channels were produced in Crystal Clear Hi-Definition with Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround Sound and were the largest suite of HD channels in the world as part of a 15-year agreement between AMC Networks and Dish Network.

History
The Voom HD Networks were originally part of the Voom DTH satellite platform launched by Cablevision and were operated by its subsidiary, Rainbow DBS Company. The original Voom DTH was primed as a competitor to the established DirecTV and Dish Network systems, with its goal to become the first television provider with a lineup consisting mainly of high-definition TV networks. As part of this endeavor, Voom launched in 2003 twenty-one original channels that were completely in HD.

Service was broadcast via the Rainbow-1 communications satellite, which was built by Lockheed Martin and launched on July 17, 2003. It continues to operate from the 61.5°W orbital location, over the Atlantic Ocean.

Voom used the same unique 8PSK Turbo-coded modulation scheme as Dish Network but with a symbol rate of 22 MSPs 5/6 FEC versus Dish Network's 21.5 MSPS 2/3 FEC resulting in a data rate of 50.5 Mbit/s per transponder versus Dish Network's 41 Mpbs. Despite the same modulation scheme, Voom and Dish Network were incompatible given Voom's choice of conditional access and the system's standard. Dish Network uses Nagravision and DVB whereas Voom used Motorola's Digicipher II scrambling and system information.

Voom broadcasts their MPEG-2 video in either low-rate standard definition or medium-rate high definition. Many of their channels were encoded as 1440x1080i versus the 1920x1080i the ATSC system was designed for. Additionally, the video bit rate was often far below the 15 Mbit/s rates chosen for ATSC with its multiplex rate of 19.3 Mbit/s. This resulted in poor video quality both in SD and HD. Dolby AC-3 was the audio standard like all Digicipher-based networks.

In early 2005, Voom's parent company Cablevision announced it would seek "strategic alternatives" for Rainbow Media Enterprises. This business unit contained its Voom satellite service, leaving the future of Voom in question.  Cablevision's board proceeded to shut the Voom satellite service down: The satellite service ceased on April 30, 2005, and Rainbow-1 and VOOM's spectrum allocations were sold to EchoStar.

Work on the Voom HD channels continued.  In April 2005, Rainbow Media and Dish Network entered into a 15-year affiliation agreement whereby EchoStar's Dish Network obtained the right to distribute the Voom channels until 2020 and agreed that it would pay Rainbow Media monthly subscription fees for the life of the agreement.  The subscription fees started at $3.25 per subscriber in the first year of the contract and were to increase to $6.43 per subscriber by the year 2020. In a separate agreement, EchoStar's Dish obtained a 20% ownership interest in Rainbow Media (the business unit that contained the Voom  HD channels) and Rainbow agreed to invest $100 million into the Voom service each year for the first five years of the agreement. As a result, EchoStar's Dish Network announced that they would be adding ten of Voom's original 21 channels to their lineup starting May 1; the remaining channels were added on February 1, 2006.

Upon launch, the Voom HD channels were very well received and EchoStar's HD subscriber base expanded from about 20,000 at the end of 2005 to about 1.3 million at the end of 2007.

In addition to being carried by Dish Network, the HD channels were relaunched by Rainbow Media under the name "Voom HD Networks." Due to issues surrounding the formatting of the channels, fifteen of the 21 original channels were initially retained. Voom's HD collection was added to Cablevision's cable-TV HD lineup in late June 2007.

In January 2008, EchoStar's Dish Network abandoned the affiliation agreement claiming that Voom had failed to invest $100 million in the service during 2006 although Cablevision and Rainbow provided Dish Network with the financial statements documenting their compliance. Dish Network proceeded to remove ten of the channels from their lineup on May 12, 2008, with the remaining five removed the next day,

Following the litigation discovery process, the Court granted Voom's motion for discovery sanctions. The New York State Supreme Court found that EchoStar's Dish Network "systematically destroyed evidence" in the case and stated that "it is entirely possible that the documents destroyed by EchoStar demonstrated that EchoStar knew all along that there was no breach...and would prove Voom's case." The Judge also stated that he would tell jurors that Dish Network destroyed evidence and that the jury may assume the evidence would have been helpful to Voom's case.

According to Sanford C. Bernstein analyst Craig Moffett in a recent Wall Street Journal article, "cases involving spoilation of evidence rarely go to trial because the odds are so skewed against the offending party." In this case, the judge would tell the jury that EchoStar failed to preserve certain evidence and bar Dish from calling its expert witness to testify on damages.

Additionally, the Court stated in its November 3, 2010 ruling: "In conclusion, the court notes EchoStar's pattern of egregious conduct and questionable – and, at times, blatantly improper – litigation tactics. EchoStar's spoliation in this action, and the fact that it has been sanctioned for spoliation in previous actions, is precisely the type of offensive conduct that cannot be tolerated by the court. Similarly egregious is EchoStar's last-minute finagling with expert reports, believing that it can play fast and loose with the rules of procedure to enhance its litigation posture."

The trial commenced on September 19, 2012, in the New York State Supreme Court. During the summer of 2012, financial analysts who covered Dish Networks urged the company to settle the lawsuit in advance of the trial, as "the odds would...appear to be heavily in Cablevision's/AMC's favor."

On October 21, 2012, Cablevision and AMC Networks announced they had settled their legal disputes with Dish Networks over Voom HD, an indirect subsidiary of AMC Networks. The dish was to pay a settlement of $700 million to Cablevision and AMC Networks, $80 million would go to the purchase of Cablevision's multichannel video and distribution licenses in 45 U.S. metropolitan areas.

Legacy

One of its channels, HDNews—managed by veteran news director, William Wright—was responsible for many HDTV firsts, including incorporating Emmy-Award–winning television journalist Zoey Tur's transmission codec which allowed the backhaul of news content via the Internet. Today Tur and HDNews's novel use of the Internet for high definition transmission of breaking news is now used by content creators across the globe.

The satellite which broadcast VOOM is currently still in orbit, incorporated into the Dish Network fleet after the demise of VOOM's satellite operations and rebranded as Echostar XII.

Unlike most discontinued direct broadcast satellite systems in the United States such as PrimeStar and AlphaStar, the Voom set-top boxes are still useful even though the service is gone; they can be used to receive ATSC digital broadcast signals. Voom set-top boxes have commanded prices upwards of $100 on websites such as eBay as people seek a less expensive way to receive digital off-air broadcasts.

Channels

Animania HD (cartoons & animated programming)
Auction HD (televised auctions)
Epics ("A cinematic celebration of the silver screen with magnificent stories and music, all about heroes, noble journeys and the triumphant human spirit."; only non-HD channel)
Equator HD (exotic & unique locations & international cultures)
Gallery HD (physical art & the artistic process)
GamePlay HD (programming dedicated to playing video games, such as tips, tricks, cheats, hidden levels & items, Easter eggs, etc.)
HDNews (high definition news; formerly Voom News Bytes HD)
LAB HD (non-narrative video art & experimental film)
Monsters HD (horror, sci-fi)
Rave HD (music)
Rush HD (extreme sports)
Treasure HD (collections, collectors, & collecting)
Ultra HD (hottest fashion, coolest styles, & insights into the luxury life)
Voom HD Movies (classic & current Hollywood blockbusters)
World Sport HD (international sports)

And it's suite of 10 HD movie channels, HD Cinema 10:

Divine HD (LGBT)
Family Room HD (family-friendly)
Film Fest HD (independent movies & documentaries)
Gunslingers HD (westerns)
Guy TV HD (male-oriented)
Ha Ha HD (comedy)
Kung Fu HD (kung-fu, martial arts, & Japanese anime)
The Majestic HD (pre-1970s films in black & white & Technicolor)
Vice HD (law enforcement)
World Cinema HD (global classics, award-winners, and foreign films)

Voom programming worldwide

Canada
In 2005, Rainbow Media signed a licensing and programming deal with Canadian company High Fidelity HDTV allowing them to air programming from the Voom HD Networks on their own channels and use of the Voom brand and branding of several of their channels. So far, High Fidelity HDTV has launched 4 channels with three having had the same names as their Voom counterparts, before the brandings were changed:

Smithsonian Channel (initially the Canadian version of Equator HD)
Love Nature  (initially Oasis HD)
BBC Earth (initially the Canadian version of Rush HD)
BBC First (initially the Canadian version of Treasure HD)

Singapore

Latin America
Voom HD is launched in Latin America on April 28, 2009, in Brasil was launched in SKY Brasil and TVA cable service (São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro); it is replaced by Rush HD on August 1, 2009, which ceased broadcast in spring 2011. On the continent the channel was distributed by DLA Inc. (Digital Latin America Inc.). On September 12, 2011, as launched Voom HD Latin America.

References

External links

Defunct television broadcasting companies of the United States
AMC Networks
Direct broadcast satellite services
Television channels and stations established in 2003
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2009

Voom HD Networks


Francisco Gomez Vicente (born 1576, died in either 1656 or 1657) was a prominent Portuguese military leader who held the charge of acting governor of New Mexico between 1641 and 1642. He was among the first settlers of Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Early life
Francisco Gomes was born in 1576 in Villa de Coima, Portugal. He was the son of Manuel Gomes and Ana Vicente and became an orphan at an early age. He was then raised in Lisbon by his only brother, Franciscan Alvaro (or Alonso) Gomes, who worked as a high sheriff of the Holy Office of the Inquisition. His family was probably of noble origin. Gomes resided for a time in Madrid at the house of Alonso de Oñate (who was brother of Juan de Oñate). This placed him in the court of King Philip II during the king's illness. Gomes probably lived there until the death of king in 1598.

Career
In 1604, De Oñate took him to Mexico City. There, Gomes contributed to the formation of a colony led by De Oñate. The next year, Gomes moved to New Mexico and joined the military. He ascended to the position of sergeant and eventually became the most prominent military officers in the colony. In 1610, during his military service, he co-founded the town of Santa Fe where he and his family resided. He was also a rancher and a farmer.

In 1641, the governor of New Mexico, Juan Flores de Sierra, appointed him as interim governor while De Sierra was on his deathbed. Although Gomes was rejected by the Board of New Mexico, he continued to govern. He finished his term in 1642. Gomes had a falling out with some of the friars who had power, causing political friction. He was accused of having Jewish heritage. It was believed that he secretly practiced Judaism. He died in Santa Fe around 1656–1657.

Personal life and legacy

Gomes married Ana Robledo Romero in 1626 in San Gabriel. He married her to get land as a dowry. Gomez and Romero had seven children:

 Francisca (a daughter and probably the eldest of their children)
 Francisco (the eldest son, born circa 1628 in Santa Fe),
 Bartolomé (born circa 1639),
 Juan (birth date unknown),
 Andrés (born circa 1643),
 José (born circa 1645)
 Ana Gómes Robledo (birth date unknown).

Gomes' son, Francisco, was a sergeant, and like his father, he was accused of being a Jew. He was incarcerated in a Franciscan friary, and his property was confiscated. However, later he was acquitted in January 1655.

Gomes possessed substantial pasture land. He received land grants in San Juan Pueblo, Taos Pueblo, Tesuque Pueblo and a fourth located south of Isleta Pueblo in San Nicolas de las Barrancas. In addition to his role as an encomendero, Gomes was honored in at least eight village communities, among which were Pecos, New Mexico, Tesuque, and Taos.  As a token of his appreciation, Gomes subsidized military campaigns, deployed horses and allocated supplies to Spanish soldiers and their Pueblo Native American allies.

The complaint leveled by the Franciscans against Francisco Gomes reduced the economic and political power of his family (although, later, the family regained its status). Unfortunately, most of the records were lost with the Pueblo Revolt in August 1680.

References

Colonial governors of Santa Fe de Nuevo México
Portuguese military personnel
1576 births
1650s deaths
Immigrants to New Spain
Portuguese emigrants

Francisco Gomes (governor)


The DEFA Film Library at the University of Massachusetts Amherst is the only research center and archive outside of Germany devoted to a broad spectrum of filmmaking from and related to the former German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany). Researchers are welcome to the archive by pre-arranging their visit.

The DEFA Film Library's mission is twofold: to make East German films available and better known outside of Germany, and to broaden the understanding of filmmaking in the GDR and Eastern and Central Europe through critical interdisciplinary and transnational scholarship. In order to achieve this mission, the nonprofit organization mounts a multi-tiered effort. Through preservation, research initiatives, production, and cultural programming, the DEFA Film Library:

 houses an extensive archive and collection of 35- and 16-mm prints, DCPs, DVDs, film files, books, periodicals, documents and images;

 creates high-quality English-subtitled East German films in various formats, often with educational bonus features that are distributed on DVD or via streaming in North America and in English-speaking countries, as well as worldwide through the international network of Goethe-Institutes;

 offers key programs for teachers and for public and scholarly outreach including touring film series, biennial summer film institutes and the visiting artist program.

 awards an annual Graduate Student Essay Prize (since 2021) and the DEFA Film Library Programming Award (since 2023).

Students from UMass Amherst and the Five Colleges are involved in all aspects of the DEFA Film Library. Through working on productions, public programming, sales and distribution, and teaching and outreach activities, they gain valuable non-academic experiences in translation, subtitling and research, as well as library, conference and arts management.

In February 2019, the DEFA Film Library Endowment was established to support and enhance the mission and activities of the DEFA Film Library at UMass Amherst.

About the DEFA Film Library

History
The DEFA Film Library at UMass Amherst was established in the late 1980s by Barton Byg, professor of Film and German Studies at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. The signing of an UMass Memorandum of Understanding on September 23, 1993, marks the DEFA Film Library's official founding. Byg's idea was to make films from the East German DEFA Studios more available and widely known in North America and to broaden popular and scholarly understanding of filmmaking in the former GDR by critically exploring its aesthetic, political and ideological bases.

As the post-unification fate of East Germany's film heritage was being decided in Germany, the DEFA Film Library's collection grew bit by bit. In 1997, an agreement with two German partners—Progress Film-Verleih and the DEFA-Stiftung—brought a collection of East German film journals and the largest collection of 16mm and 35mm prints of DEFA films outside of Germany to the UMass Amherst campus. Also housed in the DEFA Film Library archive are 16mm prints that were donated by the US-GDR Friendship Committee and the former East German Embassy. This part of the collection includes films that were made specifically to report on and represent the GDR overseas.

In 1998, ICESTORM International Inc., which owned the international video rights for DEFA films, brought East German titles on VHS to North America. ICESTORM and the DEFA Film Library collaborated on the selection of 61 titles for the first U.S. release of subtitled DEFA films on video in 1999. On October 1, 2001, the DEFA Film Library took over the distribution of these titles for ICESTORM International. Since 2003, the DEFA Film Library has produced DVDs for the North American market, expanding in 2014 to educational video on demand. Since 2005, the DEFA Film Library has produced high-quality English subtitles for these films.

Circulating Print Archive
The DEFA Film Library's collection of theatrical film prints has now grown to almost 500 prints that have been screened at venues throughout North America, including: The Museum of Modern Art, Anthology Film Archives and the New York Jewish Film Festival in New York; the Harvard Film Archive and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; the American Film Institute and the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.; the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston; the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Hammer Museum in Los Angeles; the Toronto International Film Festival; the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus, Ohio; Real Art Ways in Hartford, Connecticut; and Darkside Cinema in Corvallis, Oregon.

Most visible have been large-scale touring film series that are co-curated by the DEFA Film Library and various partners and which premiere at prestigious cultural institutions. In 2005, The Museum of Modern Art and the Goethe-Institut New York presented the most comprehensive retrospective of East German films ever screened in North America, Rebels with a Cause: The Cinema of East Germany. In 2009, a series commemorating the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Wall, WENDE FLICKS: Last Films from East Germany, premiered at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Hammer Museum, the Wende Museum, UCLA and the Goethe-Institut Los Angeles.

For a list of selected curated film series, please visit the website of the DEFA Film Library.

Research at the DEFA Film Library
The on-site research collection includes over 1,000 35 and 16mm prints, DVDs, .mp4 files and over 400 books and periodicals (Filmspiegel, Kino DDR, Film und Fernsehen, epd Film, Deutsche Filmkunst).

In addition, Special Collections and University Archives (SCUA) at UMass Amherst's W.E.B. Du Bois Library owns the collection "Social Change and Movements for Social Change," which includes a Cold War Culture Collection with an emphasis on East Germany.

Other Collections:

The Graphic Art of Anke Feuchtenberger (a comprehensive collection of early works—including film and theater posters and smaller-scale pieces—made by (East) German artist Anke Feuchtenberger; donated by film director Jörg Foth).

The Carlos Foth Collection (documents the work of the East German Prosecutor General Carlos Foth, a key player in the legal effort to investigate and punish Nazi war criminals. The collection includes correspondence, case files and legal documents including press articles, speeches, reports, photographs and other research materials and relevant publications. Topics include NS trials, i.e. Robert Mulka, Hans Globke, Adolf Eichmann and Alois Brunner; nuclear weapons /IALANA; East German legal advisory in Cambodia; Weinhold Case and border control in the GDR).

The Jörg Foth Collection (film scripts, festival catalogs, correspondence, miscellaneous film production and project documents)

The Volkmar Andrä Collection (Tapes, Vinyl LPs, catalogs, and miscellaneous materials of VEB Deutsche Schallplatten)

Programming for scholars
The DEFA Film Library supports an international network of scholars with a range of regular programming that has helped shape national and international research agendas on (East) German cinema.

 In 1997 and 1999, the DEFA Film Library organized two international conferences on East German cinema in the Five College area, in collaboration with PROGRESS Film-Verleih and the DEFA Foundation in Berlin. The DEFA Film Library collaborated on a third international conference with the Academy for Film and Television in Potsdam-Babelsberg in November 2011.
 Since 2001, the DEFA Film Library has hosted a biennial Summer Film Institute. Combining workshop discussions with screenings of a range of films—including little-known and rare titles—the Institutes are known for their stimulation of new research topics. (For a list of Summer Film Institute topics, see the DEFA Film Library's website)
 The DEFA Film Library organizes or participates in panels and panel series at national conferences, including German Studies Association (GSA) and Association for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies (ASEEES).

Visiting Artists and Scholars
The DEFA Film Library Visiting Filmmakers program brings German film directors to colleges, universities and cultural institutions throughout North America. Featured directors have included Frank Beyer, Jürgen Böttcher, Lutz Dammbeck, Andreas Dresen, Jörg Foth, Iris Gusner, Peter Kahane, Helke Misselwitz, Siegfried Kühn, Herrmann Zschoche and Rainer Simon.

Other visiting artists and scholars have included:

 Directors: Egon Günther, Thomas Heise, Dietmar Hochmuth, Günter Jordan, Bernd Sahling, Evelyn Schmidt, Andrea Simon, Andreas Voigt, Lothar Warneke, Lutz Stützner, Gerd Kroske, Vojtěch Jasný.
 Scriptwriters: Wolfgang Kohlhaase, Stefan Kolditz, Helga Schubert.
 Composer: Stefan Carow.
 Cameraman: Thomas Plenert.
 Editor: Gudrun Steinbrück-Plenert.

Film historians and scholars: Monika Albrecht, Seán Allan, Christine Becker, Lothar Bisky, Benita Blessing, Oksana Bulgakova, Burghard Ciesla, Alexander Donev, Stephan Ehrig, April Eismann, Thomas Elsaesser, Thomas Fox, Sabine Hake, Dina Iordanova, Konrad Jarausch, Lars Karl, Heinz Kersten, Mario Kessler, Sylvia Klötzer, Thomas Lindenberger, Claus Löser, Hanno Löwy, Tom Maulucci, Larson Powell, Eric Rentschler, Ralf Schenk, Elke Schieber, Ursula Schröter, Lu Seegers, David Shneer, Frank Stern, Evan Torner, Katie Trumpener, Annette Weinke, Johanna Frances Yunker and others.

Summer Film Institutes
11th DEFA Summer Film Institute, UMass Amherst, June 11-17, 2023

HIDDEN FIGURES: Blackness and Black Experiences in East Germany

For more information and a complete overview of past Institutes, please visit DFL website.

Curated film series

HIDDEN FIGURES: Blackness and Black Experiences in East Germany
[2023, premiere at UMass Amherst and Amherst Cinema]

Free film festival that took place in tandem with the 11th biennial Summer Film Institute. It included 15 full-length and short films.

WAGENSTEIN100
[2022, premiere at Amherst Cinema]

This retrospective took place on the occasion of Wagensteins 100th birthday and included four feature films by scriptwriter Angel Wagenstein and a documentary about him.

EVERYDAY POETRY: The Early Films of Helke Misselwitz
[2021, premiere at Anthology Film Archives, NYC & Mar del Plata Film festival, Argentina]

The most comprehensive retrospective to date that included the nine films the filmmaker produced at the East German DEFA Studios.

Authority & Alterity in East German Movies
[2021, Virtual Festival]

A free virtual Summer Film Festival including 20 full-length and short films that included 3 live Zoom events with the film directors and 7 video introductions by experts.

Black Lives in Germany: Resilience – Art – Hope
[Oct. 2021 – April 2022, Virtual Festival]

A festival showcasing films by and discussions with Black German filmmakers, actors, scholars and activists! Recordings of all five events are available in the DEFA Film Library's FILMBOX, a Digital Teaching Archive.

ART & POWER: LUTZ DAMMBECK
[2019, premiere at the National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.]

This eight-city tour included the complete cinematic oeuvre of German filmmaker and media artist Lutz Dammbeck.

For more curated film programs and detailed information, please visit the DFL website.

Faculty Research Fellows
2014–15	Andy Räder (University of Rostock, Germany)
2011–12	Seán Allan (University of Warwick, UK)
2010–11	Benita Blessing (University of Vienna, Austria)

Recognition and awards
2013, Letter of recognition from Bernd Neumann, Minister of Culture and Media of the Federal Republic of Germany
2011, cinefest Hamburg: Reinhold-Schünzel-Preis to Barton Byg, Founder of the DEFA Film Library
2005, Recipient of the Programming Award of the DEFA Foundation, Berlin.

Current DEFA team
Barton Byg (Professor Emeritus), Founding Director
Mariana Ivanova, Academic Director
Victoria Rizo Lenshyn, Associate Director
Hiltrud Schulz, Production | Outreach | Contracts
Evgeniia Trufanova, Program Assistant
Ester Gonzalez Martin, Book & Film Collection
Sarah Amzil, Sales & Billing
Franchesca Viaud, Web & Tech Assistant

External links
DEFA Film Library Homepage
Special collections at W.E.B. Du Bois at UMass
DEFA Foundation
 Kanopy
 Central Office of the Goethe Institutes
 DEFA Distribution

Cinema of Germany
Film archives in the United States
University of Massachusetts Amherst
DEFA films

DEFA Film Library


Trinomials are polynomials that contain three parts called terms, which are separated by plus and minus symbols. Here is a visual example of a trinomial:

This is a linear expression, a component that makes up linear equations.

Examples

 , a quadratic expression in its standard (normal) form, which happens to be a trinomial.
 Perfect square trinomials, .

Related pages
 Monomial

Mathematics
Algebra

Trinomial


Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon: Wittenbarg; meaning White Mountain; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (Luther City Wittenberg)), is the fourth-largest town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Wittenberg is situated on the River Elbe,  north of Leipzig and  south-west of Berlin, and has a population of 46,008 (2018).

Wittenberg is famous for its close connection with Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation, for which it received the honorific Lutherstadt. Several of Wittenberg's buildings are associated with the events, including a preserved part of the Augustinian monastery in which Luther lived, first as a monk and later as owner with his wife Katharina von Bora and family, considered to be the world's premier museum dedicated to Luther. Wittenberg was also the seat of the Elector of Saxony, a dignity held by the dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg, making it one of the most powerful cities in the Holy Roman Empire.

Today Wittenberg is an industrial centre and popular tourist destination, best known for its intact historic centre and various memorial sites dedicated to Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon. The buildings associated with those two figures were added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1996, along with other sites in Eisleben, because of their religious significance and testimony to one of the most influential movements of medieval Europe.

History

Historical documents first mention the settlement in 1180 as a small village founded by Flemish colonists under the rule of the House of Ascania. In 1260 this village became the residence of the dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg, and in 1293 the settlement was granted its town charter as a free-standing town.

Wittenberg developed into an important trade centre during the following few centuries because of its central location. When the local branch of the Ascanians died out in 1422, control of Saxe-Wittenberg passed to the House of Wettin. The town became an important regional political and cultural centre at the end of the 15th century when Frederick III "the Wise", the Elector of Saxony from 1486 to 1525, made his residence in Wittenberg. Several parts of the boundaries of the town were extended soon afterwards. The second bridge over the Elbe River was built between 1487 and 1490 and the castle church (the Schlosskirche in German) was erected between 1496 and 1506. The Elector's palace was rebuilt at the same time.

In 1502 Elector Frederick founded the University of Wittenberg, which attracted some writers such as Martin Luther—a professor of theology beginning in 1508—and Philipp Melanchthon—a professor of Greek starting in 1518.

On 31 October 1517, according to legend, Luther nailed his 95 theses against the selling of indulgences to the door of the All Saints', the Castle Church – an event taken as marking the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. The Anabaptist movement had one of its earliest homes in Wittenberg, when the Zwickau prophets moved there in late 1521, only to be suppressed by Luther when he returned from the Wartburg in spring of 1522.

The Capitulation of Wittenberg (1547) is the name given to the treaty by which John Frederick the Magnanimous was compelled to resign the electoral dignity and most of his territory to the Albertine branch of the House of Wettin.

In 1760, during the Seven Years' War, the Austrians bombarded the Prussian-occupied town. The French took control in 1806, and Napoleon commanded the refortification of the town in 1813. In 1814 the Prussian Army under Tauentzien stormed Wittenberg; he received the title of "von Wittenberg" as a reward. In 1815 Wittenberg became part of Prussia, administered within the Province of Saxony. Wittenberg continued to be a fortress of the third class until the reorganisation of German defences after the foundation of the new German Empire led to its dismantling in 1873.

It contained a prisoner of war camp from 1914 to 1918. A camp 10½ acres in area was set up at Klein Wittenberg, 2 miles from the city. Eight compounds held 13,000 men. During the typhus epidemic of 1914–1915, conditions were harsh. The camp medical officer, Dr. Aschenbach, was awarded the Iron Cross for his part in the epidemic. The award was questioned by the Allies.
The use of dogs to attack POW's was criticised by American Ambassador James W. Gerard in his book "Four Years in Germany".

Unlike many other historic German cities during World War II, Wittenberg's town centre was spared destruction during the conflict. The Allies agreed not to bomb Wittenberg, though fighting took place in the town, with bullet pock-marks visible on the statues of Luther and Melanchthon in the market square – or so the popular version of the town's history goes. In actual fact the Luther statue was not even present in the town square during much of the war but in storage at Luther Brunnen, a roadhouse a few kilometres north of the town.

Wittenberg's reputation as a town protected from Allied bombing is largely accurate. However, just outside Wittenberg the government had built the Arado Flugzeugwerke (the Arado Aircraft Factory), which produced components of airplanes for the Luftwaffe. This war factory was worked by Jews, Russians, Poles, political prisoners and even a few Americans—all prisoners engaging in forced labour, including POW's who were supposed to be exempt from this sort of labor. American and British planes bombed the factory near the end of the war, and in destroying it killed over one thousand of the prisoners and POW's placed by the Germans in this war plant. The 1995 publication of "...und morgen war Krieg!" by Renate Gruber-Lieblich
attempts to document this tragic bombing outside Wittenberg.

In 1945, Wittenberg issued 19 of its own postage stamps, each depicting Hitler but with a large black round overprint covering his face. At the end of the war, Soviet forces occupied Wittenberg; it became part of East Germany in 1949. During the East German period, it formed part of Halle District. By means of the peaceful revolution in 1989, the communist régime dissolved and the town has been governed democratically since 1990.

Wittenberg is currently characterized by renovation and new construction work, an economic recovery and tourism development as a "place of pilgrimage for the Reformation". With the Luther Decade starting in 2008, the city began preparing for the 500th anniversary of the Reformation, which took place in 2017. Numerous buildings have been restored, the infrastructure has been partially renewed and numerous new attractions have been created in the city (e.g. the new Lutherstadt Wittenberg Hauptbahnhof, Arsenal shopping centre, Luthergarden or the Panometer) .

In 2014 Lutherstadt Wittenberg was awarded the honorary title European City of the Reformation by the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe.

Historical population
The figures are given for the metropolitan district at the point in time. Up to 1791 the figures are generally estimated, later figures are from census or local authorities.

from 2012 census.

Divisions
The town Wittenberg consists of Wittenberg proper and the following Ortschaften or municipal divisions:

 Abtsdorf
 Apollensdorf
 Boßdorf
 Griebo
 Kropstädt
 Mochau
 Nudersdorf
 Pratau
 Reinsdorf
 Schmilkendorf
 Seegrehna
 Straach

Climate

Sights and culture

Lutherstadt Wittenberg has a wide range of cultural sites. Most are located within the historic old town along the Wittenberg Culture Mile.

Wittenberg is home to numerous historical sites, as well as portraits and other paintings by Lucas Cranach the Elder and Younger. On the doors of All Saints' Church, the Schlosskirche ("castle church", built in 1496–1506) Martin Luther is said to have nailed his 95 theses in 1517. It was seriously damaged by fire in 1760 during a bombardment by the French during the Seven Years' War, was practically rebuilt, and was later (1885–1892) restored. The wooden doors, burnt in 1760, were replaced in 1858 by bronze doors, bearing the Latin text of the theses. Inside the church are the tombs of Martin Luther, Philipp Melanchthon, Johannes Bugenhagen, Paul Eber and of the electors Frederick the Wise (by Peter Vischer the Younger, 1527) and John the Constant (by Hans Vischer), and portraits of the reformers by Lucas Cranach the Younger, who is also buried in the church.

St. Mary's Church, the parish church in which Luther often preached, was built in the 14th century, but has been much altered since Luther's time. It contains a painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder, representing the Last Supper (with the faces of Luther and other reformers), Baptism and Confession, also a font by Hermann Vischer the Elder (1457). In addition, there are numerous historic paintings in the church.

The ancient electoral palace is another of the buildings that suffered severely in 1760; it now contains archives.

Martin Luther's home, the Lutherhaus, where he studied and lived both before and after the Reformation, is now a museum containing many artifacts from his life. Melanchthon's house and the house of Lucas Cranach the Elder, mayor of Wittenberg, can also be found here. Statues of Luther (by Schadow), Melanchthon and Bugenhagen embellish the town. The spot outside the Elster Gate where Luther publicly burned the papal bull in 1520 is marked by an oak tree.

The original Wittenberg University quadrangle also lies in the city centre.

Buildings

Churches

Schlosskirche
One of the town's main attractions is the Schlosskirche (Castle Church), most notably associated with the publication of Martin Luther's 95 Theses, a bold attack on the Roman Catholic Church's practice of indulgences. The castle church was remodelled between 1883 and 1892. According to the intentions of the builders, the world-historical significance of the castle church was to be expressed. In the spirit of the historicism period, the statement was related to the precursors and bearers of the Reformation, thus creating a Reformation memorial. On the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the posting of the theses in 2017, the church was extensively renovated.

Stadtkirche Wittenberg
St. Mary's Town Church and Parish Church is the mother church of the Reformation. The first Protestant service was held in it in 1521 by Justus Jonas the Elder and Andreas Bodenstein of Karlstadt. As Martin Luther's preaching church, it was the Reformation official church of the general superintendents of the Saxon Kurkreis. After the Congress of Vienna it became the official residence of the Wittenberg superintendents. The artistic decoration is well preserved and includes works by Lucas Cranach the Elder and Lucas Cranach the Younger. Epitaphs on the interior and exterior walls refer to the work of many important personalities. The cemetery chapel of the Holy Corpse stands to the south of the town church and once belonged to the walled cemetery area of the church.

Unbefleckte Empfängnis Catholic Church
The church on Mauerstraße was consecrated in 1872 by Bishop Konrad Martin. It was renovated in 1999/2000.

Christ Church
Christ Church was built as another church in 1907/1908 in the suburb of Kleinwittenberg in historicist forms.

Other buildings

Augusteum and Luther House
The representative showcase building Augusteum was once an extension of the University of Wittenberg "Leucorea". In the inner courtyard of the Augusteum is the former home of Martin Luther. Today, the building houses the Reformation History Museum with its collections of pictures, writings and contemporary exhibits from the Reformation era. During the renovation of the Luther House, its medieval charm was partially lost.

Melanchthon House
The architectural style of the Melanchthon House in Collegienstraße, which expresses the self-confident modernity of the Renaissance, is an architectural sight. In this house lived and died the reformer Philipp Melanchthon lived and died in this house. It houses an exhibition. In 2013, the house received an extension according to plans by the architects Dietsch & Weber from Halle made of grey brick.

University Leucorea Wittenberg
Founded in 1502, the University of Leucorea in Collegienstraße was and is not only a teaching institution. For example, the famous personalities of the Reformation Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon spent time here. Over the history of the university, which is rich in tradition, developments took place that had an impact not only on Germany but also on large parts of the world.

Hamlethaus
The Hamlethaus in Collegienstraße blends into the ensemble of the town.

Bugenhagenhaus
The Bugenhagen House next to the town church is the oldest Protestant vicarage in the world and is one of the most significant memorials to the Reformation. Until 1997, it was the residence and place of work of the Wittenberg superintendents without interruption since the Reformation. Johannes Bugenhagen was the first pastor to live here until his death in 1558. Between 2004 and 2007, the building was thoroughly renovated and now serves as a spiritual community and meeting centre.

Stadthaus
The Stadthaus is a modern building complex on Arsenalplatz that includes several historic buildings. Their origins date back to the 13th century. The town house contains significant remains of the medieval building fabric of the former monastery church of the Franciscans, which in turn was used as the burial place of the Ascanians. As early as 1536, the building was converted into a granary by Conrad Theiß and heavily remodelled by adding several levels. The medieval windows were closed and pouring openings were installed. During the Seven Years' War, the building was severely damaged and rebuilt with a lower building height. Several building activities in the following period have greatly changed the appearance of the building. At the end of the 19th century, for example, one storey was added and large window openings were broken in on the south side. Between 1945 and 1992, Arsenal Square with the town house was occupied by the Red Army and therefore inaccessible. On the site of the former Franciscan monastery, the city's Central Visitors' Reception was opened in 2014/2015. It includes the event centre Stadthaus, the Historical City Information, the Council Archive and the Tourist and City Information Centre.

Altes Rathaus and Marktplatz
In the centre of the old town is the generously proportioned market square, where a harmonious ensemble of town houses has grown up over the centuries. On it are the Renaissance town hall, the monuments to Martin Luther (designed by Schadow) and Philipp Melanchthon (by Drake), as well as the Marktbrunnen. Since the town administration has been located in the former Tauentzien barracks in Lutherstraße beginning in 2000 (New Town Hall), the town hall on the market square has been called the Old Town Hall and has since served more representative purposes.

Cranach-Höfe
The Cranach Courts attest to the work of Lucas Cranach the Elder, Lucas Cranach the Younger, Hans Cranach, Augustin Cranach, and Lucas Cranach III in Wittenberg. The building at Markt 4 and the pharmacy with the courtyard at Schlossstraße 1 show points of contact with Lucas Cranach and his descendants.

Lucas Cranach the Elder set up his own print shop in the once-famous printing town of Wittenberg. Among other things, the 95 Theses, the first part of the Luther Bible, Luther's Table Talks, and numerous woodcuts were printed here. After the reconstruction of the Cranach courtyards, a historic print shop was re-established in Schlossstrasse, where texts (e.g. Luther's table speeches) and illustrations (in linocut) are now produced as privately printed matter using the letterpress process. The historical Gutenberg press in the Cranachhof at Markt 4 demonstrates how printing was done in the Middle Ages.

Wittenberg Castle
Wittenberg Castle is the former residence of the Saxon Electors. After being destroyed in 1760 and 1814, it was used as a barracks as part of the defensive fortifications. Since the First World War, the castle has served civilian purposes.

Museums
 Cranach-Höfe, Markt 4 (changing exhibitions)
 Altes Rathaus (changing exhibitions)
 Christian Art Foundation Wittenberg with a permanent exhibition and changing special exhibitions in Wittenberg Castle (access via visitor centre)
 Haus der Geschichte (20th century housing culture and in particular that of the former GDR), Schlossstraße 6
 Museum of Municipal Collections in the Zeughaus (city history; Julius Riemer collection: natural history, ethnology), Arsenalplatz
 Science Center futurea, Markt 25
 Historical City Information and burial place of the Ascanians in the monastery church, Arsenalplatz

Other sights
 Luthereiche at the southern end of Lutherstraße, where Martin Luther burned the Bull of Banishment of the Pope in 1520, thus completing his separation from the Roman Catholic Church.
 Röhrwasser, historical water supply system. In the 16th century, the steady growth of the population of the town of Wittenberg made a supply of fresh and clear water increasingly necessary. The existing wells and streams were no longer sufficient, as they were increasingly polluted with rubbish. The tubewater changed all that. With the tube water connection, fresh spring water was available to the citizens day and night, summer and winter. It was not until 1883 that the tubewater lost its importance due to the central water supply. Today, the Wittenberg tube water system with its 20 or so existing wells is the only functioning tube water supply system from the Middle Ages north of the Alps and thus a technical monument. Since 2002, parts of the streams flowing through the town have been opened up.
 Ratsarchiv Wittenberg, Juristentrasse 16.
 Kirchliches Forschungsheim, Friedrichstrasse 1a.
 Luthergarten, park with 270 trees from all over the world near the castle on Kurfürstenring (formerly Hallesche Straße).
 Panoramic circular image Luther 1517 by Yadegar Asisi, Wilhelm-Weber-Straße near the Lutherhaus
 Tierpark Wittenberg (Zoological Garden), Juristenstraße.
 Alaris Butterfly Park, Rothemarkstraße.
 K-Building (Kommandantengebäude), to house the planned study collection of the municipal collections, with attached lecture and conference centre, Juristenstrasse 14

Coat of arms

Wittenberg's civic coat of arms conveys with its various heraldic elements something of the town's history. On 27 June 1293, Wittenberg was granted town rights by Duke Albert II. There then arose a mediaeval town whose highest governing body was its council. This council, known to have existed as early as 1317, was given the job of administering the town in its care through law and legislation, and of handling the town's revenue. For documentation, the administration used its own seal.
One version of what is believed to be the town's oldest town seal, which the council used, and which dated from the first half of the 14th century, set the pattern with its elements for various civic coats of arms down to the present day.

The coat of arms symbolizes, with its crenelated wall and the towers within and each side, a town that was already strongly fortified by 1409.
The two shields in the centre form the coat of arms of the Electorate of Saxony with the Saxon arms on the right, whose gold and black stripes recall the Ascanian rulers' house colours with the
Rautenkranz or crancelin (literally "rue wreath"; see the Saxony article for more) across them symbolizing the town's founder Duke Albrecht II since 1262, when it appeared in his arms.
The shield on the left is the Wittenberg district's arms. In 1356, Emperor Charles IV bestowed upon the Duke of Saxony-Wittenberg the honour of Elector. Wittenberg became an Electoral residence. The shield with its crossed swords stands for the office of "Arch-Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire" inextricably joined by the Electorate, brought to Wittenberg by Rudolf I. Both coats of arms continued to be used by the Wettins after the Ascanians died out.
The flowing water at the foot of the shield symbolizes Wittenberg's location on the River Elbe.
The fish is a salmon, which as once abundant in the Elbe. The fishermen, like all professions in town, got their own order in 1422, and the fish found its way onto their coat of arms.

Economy and infrastructure
The town is an important centre of chemical industry with the . The whole area of the industrial park covers more than 220 hectares with more than 1,500 workers. Wittenberg is also the headquarters of the eco-friendly web search engine Ecosia. Tourism plays a major role. Wittenberg is one of the top destinations in Saxony-Anhalt.

Lutherstadt Wittenberg station is the main railway station. It connects Wittenberg hourly with Berlin to the north and Leipzig and Halle (Saale) to the south. The station was rebuilt to be more environmentally friendly and re-opened in December 2016.

Theatre, culture and education

Wittenberg has a long tradition of cultural events. The Central German State Theatre (Mitteldeutsches Landestheater) reached great importance in GDR times. Since 1996, the town has staged open-air theatre shows based on the Lutheran history still alive in many historical places of the ancient town. As highlights, in 2001 and 2005, Fernando Scarpa became the artistic director of the "Bühne Wittenberg" (Stage Wittenberg), a project for theatre, art and culture in the whole of Germany which attracts many visitors to the town and whose success is known European-wide. On 2002 and 2003 Stefano Vagnini, Italian composer and organist created the music for Thesys and Luther Stories. Prince Hamlet is said to have studied in Wittenberg and it was the supposed home of Dr. Faustus.

Wittenberg is the seat of the Leucorea which is part of the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, the largest university in Saxony-Anhalt.

Personalities from the 19th to the 21st century
Not only the men of the Reformation era Martin Luther, Philipp Melanchthon and Lucas Cranach left their mark on Wittenberg. Much more than in its role as the capital of Kursachsen and as the residential town of Saxony-Wittenberg, the city was shaped by what was probably the most important university in Central Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. It was the place of work for many personalities, who at the same time exerted influence on the city. Today, the names and dates of many personalities are recorded on memorial plaques on the houses in the old town.

1801–1850
 Johann Friedrich von Brandt (* 1802 in Jüterbog; † 1879 in Merreküll), medical doctor and naturalist
 Friedrich Drake (* 1805 in Pyrmont; † 1882 in Berlin), sculptor
 Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl (* 1806 in Großvargula; † 1876 in Leipzig), philologist.
 Johann Hinrich Wichern (* 1808 in Hamburg; † 1881 in Hamburg), theologian
 Johann Gottfried Galle (* 1812 in Pabsthaus; † 1910 in Potsdam), astronomer
 Werner von Siemens (* 1816 in Lenthe; † 1892 Berlin), industrialist, founder of electrical engineering
 Karl Wilhelm Nitzsch (* 1818 in Zerbst; † 1880 in Berlin), historian
 Adalbert Falk (* 1827 in Metschkau; † 1900 in Hamm), Prussian minister of culture, honorary citizen of Wittenberg

1851–1900
 Karl Lamprecht (* 1856 in Jessen; † 1915 in Leipzig), historian
 Nathan Söderblom (* 1866 in Trönö; † 1931 in Uppsala), theologian, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, honorary citizen of Wittenberg
 Otto Kleinschmidt (* 1870 in Geinsheim 1870; † 1954 in Wittenberg), natural scientist.
 Otto Dibelius (* 1880 in Berlin; † 1967 in Berlin), theologian
 Julius Riemer (* 1880 in Berlin; 1958 in Wittenberg), museum founder
 Else Hertzer (*1884 in Wittenberg; † 1978 in Berlin), expressionist painter
 Otto Rasch (* 1891 in Friedrichsruh; † 1948 in Nuremberg), Lord Mayor 1934–36, as commander of Einsatzgruppe C responsible, among other things, for the massacre of Babyn Yar
 Hermann Oberth (* 1894 in Hermannstadt; † 1989 in Nuremberg), nuclear physicist

1901–1945
 Erwin Wickert (* 1915 in Bralitz; † 2008 in Remagen), diplomat and writer
 Konrad Wolf (* 1925 in Hechingen; † 1982 in Berlin), director
 Ezard Haußmann (* 1935 in Potsdam; † 2010 in Potsdam), actor
 Wolfgang Böhmer (* 1936 in Dürrhennersdorf), medical doctor, former Minister President of Saxony-Anhalt
 Friedrich Schorlemmer (* 1944 in Wittenberge), theologian.

After 1945
 Reiner Haseloff (* 1954 in Bülzig), politician (CDU), Minister-President of Saxony-Anhalt since 2011.
 Frank Wartenberg (* 1955 in Prenzlau), track and field athlete
 Christiane Wartenberg (* 1956 in Prenzlau), track and field athlete
 Peter Fitzek (* 1965 in Halle an der Saale), activist of the Reich citizenship movement, founder of the fantasy state Kingdom of Germany
 Fernando Scarpa (* 1968 in Milan), Italian film director
 Nils Seethaler (* 1981 in Berlin), provenance researcher and museum initiator

Twin towns – sister cities

Wittenberg is twinned with:

 Göttingen, Germany (1988)
 Bretten, Germany (1990)
 Springfield, United States (1995)
 Békéscsaba, Hungary (1999)
 Haderslev, Denmark (2004)
 Beveren, Belgium (2019)
 Mediaș, Romania (2019)
 Mogilev, Belarus (2019)

Gallery

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg UNESCO Official Website
Municipal website
Wittenberg Photo Gallery
Theatre of Wittenberg
Theatre of Wittenberg
Info on the camp typhus epidemic in World War One
Luther and the Chemicals Industry, a 2013 documentary in English by Deutsche Welle covering the history of the city

Landmarks in Germany
Towns in Saxony-Anhalt
Martin Luther
Holy cities
World Heritage Sites in Germany
Wittenberg (district)
Populated riverside places in Germany
Populated places on the Elbe

Wittenberg


(; ) is an Italian daily newspaper published in Milan with an average circulation of 410,242 copies in December 2015. First published on 5 March 1876,  is one of Italy's oldest newspapers and is Italy's most read newspaper. Its masthead has remained unchanged since its first edition in 1876. It reached a circulation of over 1 million under editor and co-owner Luigi Albertini between 1900 and 1925. He was a strong opponent of socialism, clericalism, and Giovanni Giolitti, who was willing to compromise with those forces during his time as prime minister of Italy. Albertini's opposition to the Italian fascist regime forced the other co-owners to oust him in 1925.

A representative of the moderate bourgeoisie,  has always been generally considered centre-right-leaning, hosting in its columns liberal and democratic Catholic views. In the 21st century, its main competitors are Rome's  and Turin's . Until the late 1970s and early 1980s, when the country underwent a nationalization process,  and  were not real national daily newspapers, as their geographical area of circulation was mostly limited to Lombardy for  and Piedmont for ; thus, both papers shared a readership that was linked to its place of residence and its social class, mostly from the industrialist class and financial circles. Alongside , , and , it is one of the main national newspapers in Italy.

History and profile

 was first published on Sunday, 5 March 1876, by . In 1899, the paper began to offer a weekly illustrated supplement, La Domenica del Corriere ("Sunday of the Courier"). In the 1910s and 1920s, under the direction of Luigi Albertini,  became the most widely read newspaper in Italy, maintaining its importance and influence into the present century. It was  that introduced comics in Italy in 1908 through a supplement for children, namely Corriere dei Piccoli ("Courier of the Little Ones").

The newspaper's headquarters has been in the same buildings since the beginning of the 20th century, and therefore it is popularly known as "the Via Solferino newspaper", after the street where it is still located. As the name indicates, it was originally an evening paper. During the Fascist regime in Italy,  funded the Mussolini Prize, which was awarded to the writers Ada Negri and Emilio Cecchi, among the others. Mario Borsa, a militant anti-fascist, was appointed the editor-in-chief of  in May 1945; the next year, the paper was relaunched as Il Nuovo Corriere della Sera, a name that it kept until 1959, to distance itself from its support of Fascism. Borsa was fired because of his political leanings in August 1946 and was replaced by Guglielmo Emanuel, a right-wing journalist. Emanuel served in the post until 1952.

In the 1950s,  was the organ of the conservative establishment in Italy and was strongly anti-communist and pro-NATO. The paper was functional in shaping the views of the Italian upper and middle classes during this period. The owners of the , the Crespi family, sold a share to the RCS MediaGroup in the 1960s and was listed in the Italian stock exchange. Its main shareholders were Mediobanca, the Fiat group, and some of the biggest industrial and financial groups in Italy. In 1974, the RCS Media moved on to control the majority of the paper.

During the early 1980s, Alberto Cavallari was the editor-in-chief of the paper. In 1981, the newspaper was laterally involved in the Propaganda Due scandal when it was discovered that the secret Freemason lodge had the newspaper's editor Franco Di Bella and the former owner Angelo Rizzoli on its member lists. In September 1987, the paper launched the weekly magazine supplement Sette, which is the first in its category in Italy. From 1987 to 1992, the editor-in-chief of  was Ugo Stille.

The 1988 circulation of  was 715,000 copies, making it the second most read newspaper in Italy. The paper started its Saturday supplement, IO Donna, in 1996. In 1997,  was the best-selling Italian newspaper with a circulation of 687,000 copies.  had a circulation of 715,000 copies in 2001. In 2002, it fell to 681,000 copies. In 2003, its then editor Ferruccio de Bortoli resigned from the post. The journalists and opposition politicians stated that the resignation was due to the paper's criticism of Silvio Berlusconi.

In 2004,  launched an online English section focusing on Italian current affairs and culture. That same year, it was the best-selling newspaper in Italy with a circulation of 677,542 copies. In May 2007, the paper's website was listed 15th among the top 30 brands of the month in Italy, with over 4 million unique visitors, and behind only  among daily newspapers; during the same month, the paper had sold about 594,000 copies compared to the circa 566,000 copies of . Its circulation in December 2007 was 662,253 copies; excluding digital copies, its circulation in December 2013 was 99,145 copies. By 2015, the paper had the country's highest circulation at about 308,000 copies. One of the most visited Italian-language news websites, attracting over 2,4 million readers every day in July 2019, the online version of the paper was the thirteenth most visited website in the country in 2011.

In 2004,  categorized  as an institution daily (), alongside , in contrast to the agenda daily () like , and the activist daily () like , , and . On 24 September 2014,  changed its broadsheet format to the Berliner format. On 7 March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy,  leaked a draft decree to put into lockdown several northern provinces particularly affected by the virus. The leaked news sparked a panic exodus to the south, and the threat of further contagion led to COVID-19 lockdowns in Italy.

Content and sections

Terza pagina ("Third Page"), a one page-survey dedicated to culture, used to feature the main article "Elzeviro" (named after the House of Elzevir font originally used), which over the years published contributions from all the editors, as well as major novelists, poets, and journalists. On Monday, Corriere della Sera is published alongside L'Economia ("The Economy"), a weekly finance and business magazine. On Thursday, it is published with Sette ("Seven"), a current events magazine. On Sunday, it is published along with la Lettura ("The Reading"), a weekly literary supplement.

Contributors past and present
The Italian novelist Dino Buzzati was a journalist at the . Other notable contributors include Adolfo Battaglia, Eugenio Montale, Curzio Malaparte, Gabriele D'Annunzio, Enzo Bettiza, Italo Calvino, Alberto Moravia, Amos Oz, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Guido Piovene, Giovanni Spadolini, Oriana Fallaci, Alessandra Farkas, Lando Ferretti, Brunella Gasperini, Enzo Biagi, Indro Montanelli, Giovanni Sartori, Paolo Brera, Francesco Alberoni, Tracy Chevalier, Goffredo Parise, Sergio Romano, Sandro Paternostro, Arturo Quintavalle, Roberto Gervaso, Alan Friedman, Tommaso Landolfi, Alberto Ronchey, Maria Grazia Cutuli, Camilla Cederna, Marida Lombardo Pijola, and Paolo Mieli.

Editors

 Luciano Fontana (editor-in-chief)
 Barbara Stefanelli (vice editor-in-chief)
 Massimo Gramellini (deputy editor ad personam)
 Federico Fubini (deputy editor ad personam)
 Daniele Manca (deputy editor)
 Venanzio Postiglione (deputy editor)
 Giampaolo Tucci (deputy editor)

Columnist and journalists

 Alberto Alesina (columnist)
 Pierluigi Battista (journalist)
 Giovanni Bianconi (journalist)
 Francesca Bonazzoli (journalist)
 Isabella Bossi Fedrigotti (journalist)
 Ian Bremmer (columnist)
 Goffredo Buccini (journalist)
 Sabino Cassese (columnist)
 Aldo Cazzullo (journalist)
 Benedetta Cosmi (corsivista)
 Lorenzo Cremonesi (journalist)
 Ferruccio de Bortoli (columnist, former editor-in-chief)
 Dario Di Vico (journalist)
 Michele Farina (journalist)
 Luigi Ferrarella (journalist)
 Antonio Ferrari (journalist)
 Massimo Franco (journalist)
 Davide Frattini (Jerusalem correspondent)
 Milena Gabanelli (journalist)
 Massimo Gaggi (New York correspondent)
 Ernesto Galli della Loggia (columnist)
 Mario Gerevini (journalist)
 Francesco Giavazzi (columnist)
 Aldo Grasso (columnist)
 Marco Imarisio (journalist)
 Luigi Ippolito (London correspondent)
 Paolo Lepri (journalist)
 Claudio Magris (columnist)
 Dacia Maraini (columnist)
 Viviana Mazza (journalist)
 Paolo Mereghetti (columnist)
 Paolo Mieli (columnist, former editor-in-chief)
 Stefano Montefiori (Paris correspondent)
 Guido Olimpio (journalist)
 Angelo Panebianco (columnist)
 Mario Pappagallo (columnist)
 Magda Poli (journalist)
 Antonio Polito (columnist)
 Maurizio Porro (journalist)
 Sergio Romano (columnist)
 Arianna Ravelli (journalist)
 Nicola Saldutti (journalist)
 Guido Santevecchi (Beijing correspondent)
 Giuseppe Sarcina (Washington correspondent)
 Fiorenza Sarzanini (journalist)
 Beppe Severgnini (journalist)
 Lina Sotis (columnist)
 Gian Antonio Stella (journalist)
 Danilo Taino (journalist)
 Paolo Valentino (Berlin correspondent)
 Chiara Vanzetto (journalist)
 Franco Venturini (columnist)
 Francesco Verderami (journalist)

Supplements
 L'Economia (on Monday)
 Buone Notizie (on Tuesday)
 ViviMilano (on Wednesday, only in the Province of Milan)
 Sette (on Thursday)
 Liberi Tutti (on Friday)
 IO Donna (on Saturday)
 La Lettura (on Sunday)
  Style (monthly)
 Corriere Innovazione (monthly)

Local editions
  Brescia (in the Province of Brescia)
  Bergamo (in the Province of Bergamo)
  Milano (in the Province of Milan)
  Roma (in the Province of Rome)
  Torino (in the Province of Turin)
 Corriere di Verona (in the Province of Verona)
 Corriere del Veneto (in Veneto)
 Corriere del Trentino (in Trentino)
 Corriere dell'Alto Adige (in South Tyrol)
 Corriere di Bologna (in the Province of Bologna)
 Corriere Fiorentino (in Tuscany)
 Corriere del Mezzogiorno (in Apulia, Campania, and Basilicata)

See also

 List of non-English-language newspapers with English-language subsections
 Mass media in Italy
 Propaganda and censorship in Italy during the First World War

References

Further reading
 Merrill, John C.; Fisher, Harold A. (1980). The World's Great Dailies: Profiles of Fifty Newspapers. pp. 104–110.

External links

1876 establishments in Italy
Conservatism in Italy
Daily newspapers published in Italy
Italian-language newspapers
Italian news websites
Liberalism in Italy
Liberal media
Newspapers established in 1876
Newspapers published in Milan
RCS MediaGroup newspapers

Corriere della Sera


The National Council of Maubere Resistance (Portuguese: Conselho Nacional da Resistência Maubere, or CNRM) was an umbrella organisation of East Timorese individuals and organisations dedicated to resisting the Indonesian occupation of 1975–1999.

In March 1986, FRETILIN and the UDT announced the formation of a coalition. In a re-organisation of the resistance structure, resistance leader Xanana Gusmão declared the resistance force Falintil to be a non-partisan 'national' army. In 1988, he relinquished membership of FRETILIN, believing the fight for a free East Timor transcended political loyalties. He established the National Council of Maubere Resistance (CNRM) and was declared leader. José Ramos-Horta became external spokesperson.

The term Maubere was coined by Ramos-Horta in the 1970s. Initially used by the Portuguese to describe illiterate members of the Mambai, one of the largest ethnic groups of East Timor, it was reinvented as a badge of national pride by FRETILIN.

In April 1998, all Timorese political parties gathered in Peniche, Portugal and agreed to join the CNRM under a new name. Accordingly, it was renamed the National Council of Timorese Resistance (Portuguese: Conselho Nacional de Resistência Timorense), or CNRT.

In May 1998, Indonesian president Suharto stepped down and his successor B. J. Habibie offered East Timor "special autonomy." The CNRT rejected the proposal on 11 August 1998, calling instead for a referendum on independence and the release of Xanana Gusmão from prison. The United Nations agreed to hold a referendum allowing the Timorese to choose autonomy (represented on the ballot paper by the Indonesian flag) or independence (represented on the ballot paper by the CNRT flag). 78.5% opted for independence. After mass violence blamed on pro-Indonesian militias, the UN took over administration and accepted the CNRT as its Timorese counterpart organization.

In 2000, the CNRT held its first congress inside East Timor, in Dili. With independence slated for 2002, the CNRT dissolved in 2001 to allow for a multi-party democracy.

References

Bibliography

 Dunn, James. Timor: A People Betrayed. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 1996. .
 Gusmao, Xanana ''To Resist is to Win: The Autobiography of Xanana Gusmao, with selected letters & speeches' ' Edited by Sarah Niner, Melbourne:[Aurora Books], 2000. .

Separatism in Indonesia
Indonesian occupation of East Timor
National liberation movements
Political organizations based in East Timor

National Council of Maubere Resistance


The Brew-Hatcher or B & H was an American automobile introduced in January 1904 at the Chicago Automobile Show and manufactured from 1904 until 1905.

Around 1903 William A. Hatcher, one of the founders of and engineers for the Ohio Automobile Company (which later became known as the Packard Motor Car Company) and Francis O. Brew started a component supply company.  They launched their first automobile, built from many of their company's components, in January 1904.

1904 Model: A five-passenger, 16 hp tourer, it hailed from Cleveland, Ohio.
16 hp horizontally-opposed twin engine and rear-entrance tonneau body.

Specifications:
 Weighs 1,000 lbs, everything on.
 Bevel Gear Drive - Sliding Gear.
 Three speeds forward and reverse.
 Direct drive on high speed.
 Wheel base, 83 1/2" inches.
 Two sets Brakes, double acting.
 Heavy cylinder Double Tube, 30x3 1/2 inch Tires.
 Foot Control.
 Irreversible Steering Wheel."
Price: $1,750

1905 Model: The same model was offered, but on a longer wheelbase, which allowed for a side-entrance tonneau, and there was also an 18/24 hp 4-cylinder tourer.

Car manufacture ended in Fall 1905 when Brew retired to join the Internal Revenue Service.

References
 David Burgess Wise, The New Illustrated Encyclopedia of Automobiles.
 G. N. Georgano, The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile.

Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Ohio
Defunct companies based in Ohio
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1903
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1905
1903 establishments in Ohio
1905 disestablishments in Ohio
Brass Era vehicles
American companies established in 1903
American companies disestablished in 1905

Brew-Hatcher


Richard Lockhart (born 3 January 1963) is a New Zealand swimmer. He competed in two events at the 1988 Summer Olympics. Lockhart also represented New Zealand in the 1983, 1985 and 1987 World Student Games.

Biography
In 1986, Lockhart competed in 100 and 200 Breaststroke at the XIII Commonwealth Games held in Edinburgh, Scotland.  In the 100 Breaststroke, he swam a time of 1:06.74 earning him 13th place overall. In the 200 Breaststroke, he swam a time of 2:25.50 earning him 13th place behind fellow New Zealand swimmer Grant Forbes (2:24.89).  In the same year, he also competed at the 1986 FINA World Swimming Championships held in Madrid.

During the 1988 Summer Olympic Games, Lockhart competed in the men's 100 meter and 200 meter Breaststroke events. During the 100 Breaststroke, Lockhart finished 46th out of 61 competitors. In the 200 Breaststroke, he finished 36th out of 53 competitors.

In 1990, Lockhart returned to the XIV Commonwealth Games held in Auckland, New Zealand swimming the 100 and 200 Breaststroke as well as the Breaststroke leg on the 4x100 men's Medley Relay. In the 100 Breaststroke he finished in 10th place overall with a time of 1:05.05. During the 200 Breaststroke, he finished 10th with a time of 2:23.46 just ahead of fellow countryman Grant Forbes (2:23.53).  Later in 1990, Lockhart retired from swimming.

After a 14 year break, Lockhart continues to swim today in masters events and has competed at the past two World Masters Games (2009 and 2013) where he claimed six gold medals in the pool.  In 2014 Lockhart was named New Zealand Masters Swimmer of the Year at the annual Swimming New Zealand Awards.

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1963 births
Living people
New Zealand male breaststroke swimmers
Olympic swimmers for New Zealand
Swimmers at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Swimmers from Wellington City
20th-century New Zealand people
21st-century New Zealand people

Richard Lockhart