Columbus Day is a national holiday in many countries of the Americas and elsewhere, and a federal holiday in the United States, which officially celebrates the anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. Columbus went ashore at Guanahaní, an island in the Bahamas, on October 12, 1492. On his return in 1493, Columbus moved his coastal base of operations 70 miles east to the island of Hispaniola, what is now the Dominican Republic and established the settlement of La Isabela, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the Americas.

Christopher Columbus ( ) was an Italian explorer (from Genoa) who led a Spanish maritime expedition to cross the Atlantic Ocean in search of an alternative route to the Far East, only to land in the New World. Columbus's first voyage to the New World on the Spanish ships Santa María, Niña, and La Pinta took about three months. Columbus and his crew's arrival in the New World initiated the colonisation of the Americas by Spain, followed in the ensuing centuries by other European powers, as well as the transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, and technology between the New and Old Worlds, an event referred to by some late 20th‐century historians as the Columbian exchange.

The landing is celebrated as Columbus Day in the United States, but the name varies internationally. The United States celebrates this day as "The Discovery of America". In some Latin American countries, October 12 is known as Día de la Raza or "Day of the Race". This was the case for Mexico, until it renamed it to "Day of the Pluricultural Nation" (still called Dia de la Raza locally). Some countries such as Spain refer to the holiday as the Day of Hispanicity or Día de la Hispanidad and is also Spain's National Day or Fiesta Nacional de España, where it coincides with the religious festivity of La Virgen del Pilar. Since 2009, Peru has celebrated Día de los pueblos originarios y el diálogo intercultural ("Indigenous Peoples and Intercultural Dialogue Day"). Belize and Uruguay celebrate it as Pan American Day and Día de las Américas ("Day of the Americas"). Columbus Day is also celebrated in Italy, as Giornata Nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo or Festa Nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo, and in the Little Italys around the world.

United States observance

History

The first Columbus Day celebration took place on October 12, 1792, when the Columbian Order of New York, better known as Tammany Hall, held an event to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the historic landing.

Many Italian Americans observe Columbus Day as a celebration of their heritage and not of Columbus himself, and the day was celebrated in New York City on October 12, 1866. The day was first enshrined as a legal holiday in the United States through the lobbying of Angelo Noce, a first-generation American, in Denver. The first statewide holiday was proclaimed by Colorado governor Jesse F. McDonald in 1905, and it was made a statutory holiday in 1907.

For the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1892, following a lynching in New Orleans, where a mob had murdered 11 Italian immigrants, President Benjamin Harrison declared Columbus Day as a one-time national celebration. The proclamation was part of a wider effort after the lynching incident to placate Italian Americans and ease diplomatic tensions with Italy. During the anniversary in 1892, teachers, preachers, poets, and politicians used rituals to teach ideals of patriotism. These rituals took themes such as citizenship boundaries, the importance of loyalty to the nation, and the celebration of social progress, included among them was the Pledge of Allegiance by Francis Bellamy.

In 1934, as a result of lobbying by the Knights of Columbus and New York City Italian leader Generoso Pope, Congress passed a statute stating: "The President is requested to issue each year a proclamation (1) designating October 12 as Columbus Day; (2) calling on United States government officials to display the flag of the United States on all government buildings on Columbus Day; and (3) inviting the people of the United States to observe Columbus Day, in schools and churches, or other suitable places, with appropriate ceremonies that express the public sentiment befitting the anniversary of the discovery of America." President Franklin Delano Roosevelt responded by making such a proclamation. This proclamation did not lead to the modern federal holiday; it was similar to language regarding Thomas Jefferson's birthday and Gold Star Mothers Day. In 1941, Italian and Italian Americans were interned and lost rights as "enemy aliens" due to a belief they would be loyal to Italy and not America in World War II; in 1942, Franklin Roosevelt had the removal of the designation of Italian Americans as "enemy aliens" announced on Columbus Day along with a plan to offer citizenship to 200,000 elderly Italians living in the United States who had been unable to acquire citizenship due to a literacy requirement, but the implementation of the announcement was not completed until those interned in camps were released after Italy's surrender to the Allies on September 8, 1943.

In 1966, Mariano A. Lucca, from Buffalo, New York, founded the National Columbus Day Committee, which lobbied to make Columbus Day a federal holiday. These efforts were successful and legislation to create Columbus Day as a federal holiday was signed by President Lyndon Johnson on June 28, 1968, to be effective beginning in 1971.

Since 1971, when Columbus Day became an officially recognized Federal holiday in the United States, it has been observed on the second Monday in October, as commemorated by annual Presidential proclamation noting Columbus' achievements. It is generally observed by banks, the bond market, the U.S. Postal Service, other federal agencies, most state government offices, many businesses, and most school districts. Some businesses and some stock exchanges remain open, and some states and municipalities abstain from observing the holiday. The traditional date of the holiday also adjoins the anniversary of the United States Navy (founded October 13, 1775), and thus both occasions are customarily observed by the Navy and the Marine Corps with either a 72- or 96-hour liberty period.

On October 10, 1992, Pope John Paul II visited the Dominican Republic to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the discovery of the Americas and the arrival of Christianity in the "New World". His visit ended with a mass in the nation's cathedral, the first cathedral in the Western Hemisphere.

Local observance of Columbus Day

Actual observance varies in different parts of the United States, ranging from large-scale parades and events to complete nonobservance. Most states do not celebrate Columbus Day as an official state holiday.  Some mark it as a "Day of Observance" or "Recognition." Most states that celebrate Columbus Day will close state services, while others operate as normal.

San Francisco claims the nation's oldest continuously existing celebration with the Italian-American community's annual Columbus Day Parade, which was established by Nicola Larco in 1868, while New York City boasts the largest, with over 35,000 marchers and one million viewers around 2010.

As in the mainland United States, Columbus Day is a legal holiday in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico. In the United States Virgin Islands, the day is celebrated as both Columbus Day and "Puerto Rico Friendship Day."

Virginia also celebrates two legal holidays on the day, Columbus Day and Yorktown Victory Day, which honors the final victory at the Siege of Yorktown in the Revolutionary War.

Nonobservance
The celebration of Columbus Day in the United States began to decline at the end of the 20th century, although many Americans continue to celebrate it. The states of Hawaii, Alaska, Vermont, South Dakota, New Mexico, Maine, Minnesota and parts of California including, for example, Los Angeles County do not recognize it and have each replaced it with celebrations of Indigenous Peoples' Day (in Hawaii, "Discoverers' Day", in South Dakota, "Native American Day").  In the states of Oregon and Washington, Columbus Day is not an official holiday.

Iowa and Nevada do not celebrate Columbus Day as an official holiday, but the states' respective governors are "authorized and requested" by statute to proclaim the day each year. Several states have removed the day as a paid holiday for state government workers, while maintaining it either as a day of recognition, or as a legal holiday for other purposes, including California and Texas.

The practice of U.S. cities eschewing Columbus Day to celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day began in 1992 with Berkeley, California. The list of cities that have followed suit as of 2018 includes Austin, Boise, Cincinnati, Denver, Los Angeles, Mankato, Philadelphia, Portland, San Francisco, Santa Fe, Seattle, Saint Paul, Phoenix, Tacoma, and "dozens of others".

Columbus, Ohio, has chosen to honor veterans instead of Christopher Columbus, and removed Columbus Day as a city holiday in 2018. Various tribal governments in Oklahoma designate the day as Native American Day, or name it after their own tribe.

In 2017, the city council of Akron, Ohio, became split along racial lines with the decision to replace Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples' Day, creating pushback from the city's Italian-American community. In 2018, a compromise was reached, with the city council voting to name the first Monday of October as North American First People's Day while keeping Columbus Day, and in 2020, Columbus Day was renamed Italian-American Heritage and Culture Day.

Latin American observance

The date Columbus arrived in the Americas is celebrated in some countries of Latin America. The most common name for the celebration in Spanish (including some Latin American communities in the United States) is the Día de la Raza ("day of the race" or the "day of the [Hispanic] people"), commemorating the first encounters of Europeans and the Native Americans. The day was first celebrated in Argentina in 1917, in Venezuela and Colombia in 1921, in Chile in 1922, and in Mexico, it was first celebrated in 1928. The day was also celebrated under this title in Spain until 1957, when it was changed to the Día de la Hispanidad ("Hispanicity Day"), and in Venezuela, it was celebrated under this title until 2002, when it was changed to the Día de la Resistencia Indígena (Day of Indigenous Resistance). Originally conceived of as a celebration of Hispanic influence in the Americas, as evidenced by the complementary celebrations in Spain and Latin America, Día de la Raza has come to be seen by nationalist activists throughout Latin America as a counter to Columbus Day – a celebration of the native races and cultures and their resistance to the arrival of Europeans in the Americas.

In the United States, Día de la Raza has served as a time of mobilization for panethnic Latino activists, particularly since the 1960s. Since then, La Raza has served as a periodic rallying cry for Hispanic activists. The first Hispanic March on Washington occurred on Columbus Day in 1996. The name was used by the largest Hispanic social justice organization in the nation, UnidosUS, which was known as the National Council of La Raza from 1968 to 2017.

Argentina

The Day of the Race was established in Argentina in 1916 by a decree of President Hipólito Yrigoyen. The name was changed to "Day of Respect of Cultural Diversity" by a presidential decree in 2010 issued by President Cristina Kirchner. The statue of Columbus was removed from its original position near the Casa Rosada and replaced by one of Juana Azurduy, a patriot and leader in the struggle for independence who had indigenous ancestors.

Colombia
Colombia, whose name originated from Columbus himself, celebrates El día de la Raza y de la Hispanidad (meaning "Day of the Race and Hispanicity"), and is taken as an opportunity to celebrate the encounter of "the two worlds" and to reflect on the richness that the racial diversity has brought to the culture. In 2021 the Ministry of Culture changed the name of the holiday to 'Día de la Diversidad Étnica y Cultural de la Nación Colombiana (meaning "Day of Ethnical and Cultural Diversity of the Colombian nation").

Peru
In Peru, it was known as Día del descubrimiento de América ("Day of the discovery of America"). Since 2009, it has been celebrated as Día de los pueblos originarios y el diálogo intercultural (Indigenous Peoples and Intercultural Dialogue Day).

Venezuela
Between 1921 and 2002, Venezuela celebrated Día de la Raza along with many other Latin American nations. The original holiday was officially established in 1921 under President Juan Vicente Gómez. In 2002, under President Hugo Chávez, the holiday was changed to Día de la Resistencia Indígena (Day of Indigenous Resistance) to commemorate the Indigenous peoples' resistance to European settlement.

On October 12, 2004, a crowd of progovernment activists toppled a statue of Christopher Columbus by Rafael de la Cova in Caracas. The activists also sprayed allusive graffiti over its pedestal. The walk where the statue had stood was renamed in 2008 "Indigenous Resistance Walk". Later, a statue of an indigenous leader, Guaicaipuro, was erected on the plinth.

Costa Rica
On September 21, 1994, Costa Rica changed the official holiday from Día de la Raza to Día del Encuentro de las Culturas (Day of the Encounter of Cultures) to recognize the mix of European, Native American (autochthonous populations), African and Asian cultures that constitute modern Costa Rican (and Latin American) culture and ethnicity. In accordance to the Costa Rican labor law, the holiday is observed on October 12. However, should this date coincide with a Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, or Friday, the employer shall agree that said holiday be postponed to the following Monday. In 2020, Costa Ricans eliminated this holiday, which was under debate in years prior. Hence, in exchange Costa Rica now celebrates the 'Military Abolition Day' on December 1.

El Salvador
In June 1915, the official holiday of 'Fiesta de la Raza'''   was established, with October 12 being the date of the national holiday. Presently, since October 12, 2021, the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador abolished the previous national Fiesta de la Raza holiday, " [to] vindicate the origin and identity of indigenous peoples who were forgotten by previous governments, who for decades celebrated Race Day as a positive event and who never adopted mechanisms to enhance human rights." The holiday is no longer celebrated officially.

 Mexico
In Mexico, the date was known as Columbus Day or Day of the Race. On December 18, 2020, by decree of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, the name of October 12 was changed to "Day of the Pluricultural Nation". The statue of Columbus along Mexico City's Paseo de la Reforma was removed and replaced with a replica of The Young Woman of Amajac, a sculpture depicting an Indigenous woman.

 Caribbean observance
Only a handful of Caribbean countries observe holidays related to Columbus Day. In Belize, October 12 is celebrated as Day of the Americas or Pan American Day. In the Bahamas, it was formerly known as Discovery Day, until 2001 when it was replaced by National Heroes Day. In 1937, Cuban President Federico Laredo Brú (1936–1940) spoke to the nation and countries of America in Cuba on October 12 commemorating Christopher Columbus's voyage to the New World. Federico Laredo Brú spoke about Columbus's impact on the land and the future of its settlement. He ended his speech with venerating Christopher Columbus's efforts to colonize and establish settlements along the new front and the pride of one's nation. He added "Por mi raza hablo mi espiritu," which translates to "For my race my spirit called," to support the political infrastructure at the time.

 Columbus's legacy in the Caribbean

In December 1937, Cuban president Federico Laredo Brú and Dominican Republic president Rafael Trujillo ordered a crew of aviators to travel through Latin America collecting funds from large capital cities for a monumental light house in the Dominican Republic. The exploration Escuadrilla Binacional Pro Faro de Colón was inspired by Columbus's journey across the North Atlantic Ocean to America. The expedition consisted of three  Stinson Reliant SR-9s  borrowed from the Cuban Air Force – named Santa María, Niña and La Pinta after the vessels commanded by Columbus – and a Curtiss Wright CW-19R from the Dominican military aviation named Colon after Columbus. On December 15, after visiting a majority of South America, their flight to the Peruvian capital Lima was hampered by an unexpected sandstorm. Two planes (Colon and La Pinta) were forced to land in Pisco and Niña disappeared in the storm. The Santa Maria was the only plane to reach Lima as planned, landing at Las Palmas on the day of the storm. After extensive searches, Niña radioed their whereabouts after their radio was damaged in the storm. The aircraft restrategized in Las Palmas, and on December 29 their expedition took off from El Techo airport in Bogotá en route to El Guabito airport in Cali. Later that day, the crew flew into an unexpected storm over the Valley of Cauca. With minimal visibility and poor navigation, Niña, La Pinta, and Santa Maria crashed into high mountains, while Colon, unaware of the other aircraft, flew over the storm and safely made it to Panama City. The plane is preserved today as remembrance of the bravery of the crew and Christopher Columbus's journey.

In 1992, in remembrance of the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America, the Columbus Lighthouse, in Santo Domingo Este was inaugurated. The monument is both a mausoleum and a museum showcasing objects including a boat from Cuba and Colombian jewelry. Constructed of concrete, the monument is  long. Its architecture is cross-shaped and represents the Christianization of the Americas. According to the Dominican authorities, remains of Christopher Columbus are sheltered at the lighthouse. However, Spanish authorities have proved through DNA tests that the remains in the Cathedral of Seville are the real remains of Columbus. The Dominican authorities haven't allowed the same DNA tests to be done to the remains in the lighthouse, so it is impossible to know if the remains of Columbus are divided or if the remains in the lighthouse belonged to another person.

European observance
 Italy

Since the 18th century, many Italian communities in the Americas have observed the Discovery of the New World as a celebration of their heritage, despite Italy not existing as a unified country when Columbus was born, and despite his public renunciation of his Genovese nationality to swear allegiance to the King of Spain.

In Italy, Columbus Day has been officially celebrated since 2004. It is officially named Giornata nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo ("National Christopher Columbus Day").

The "Lega Navale Italiana" has created a Regata di Colombo ("Columbus Regatta") as a celebration of the Columbus achievement. Italians have celebrated Christopher Columbus ( ) naming after him many civilian and military ships, like the ocean liner SS Cristoforo Colombo.

 Spain

The first celebration of the Discovery of the Américas by Columbus in Spain was as early as 1642 when the city of Zaragoza designated the Virgen del Pilar (Our Lady of the Pillar) as symbol of the Hispanidad (Hispanicity) on the date of the Spanish expedition's arrival to the New World. This holiday was declared a religious feast day throughout the Spanish Empire in 1730.
In 1892, the 12 of October was declared a one-time national day in commemoration of the 4th centenary of the Discovery of America and the perpetuation of the festivity was then first considered. The Spanish government suggested other nations (Hispanic American countries, Italy and the United States of America) to join the celebration, which was followed with enthusiasm by them, with a few exceptions.David MARCILHACY « Las fiestas del 12 de octubre y las conmemoraciones americanistas bajo la Restauración borbónica: España ante su pasado colonial », Revista de Historia Jerónimo Zurita (Zaragoza), n°86 (2011), p. 131-147
The Discovery of America and the Hispanicity has been celebrated as a national day since 1918 under different names like "Día de la Hispanidad" or "Dia de la Raza", due to changes of political regimes in the 20th century. The national day emphasises Spain's ties with the Hispanidad, the international Hispanic community and Spanish legacy to the world. In 1981 a royal decree established the Fiesta Nacional y Día de la Hispanidad as a national holiday. However, in 1987 the name was changed again to Fiesta Nacional and October 12 became one of two national celebrations, along with Constitution Day on December 6 as part of a compromise between conservatives, who wanted to emphasize the status of the monarchy and Spain's history, and Republicans, who wanted to commemorate Spain's burgeoning democracy with an official holiday. Since 2000, October 12 has also been Spain's Day of the Armed Forces, celebrated each year with a military parade in Madrid. The holiday is widely celebrated in Spain with official and cultural events throughout the country. Shops and businesses are closed as with other bank holidays. The observation is enhanced with the feast day of Our Lady of the Pillar (Fiestas del Pilar), the so-called Mother of Hispanidad, and of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura (Santa María de Guadalupe) (appointed Queen of Hispanicity in 1928 by the Vatican) from Guadalupe, Caceres, whose Monastery was the venue in June 1492 for the decisive meeting between the Catholic Monarchs and Columbus to start organizing the travel and where the latter came back in 1493, right after returning from his first voyage, to thank Her for his success.

 Opposition to Columbus celebrations

For years after the first Columbus Day celebration in 1892, opposition to Columbus Day recognized the suffering inflicted on American Indians with westward expansion.

It also originated from anti-immigrant nativists who sought to eliminate its celebration because of its association with immigrants from the Catholic countries of Ireland and Italy, and the American Catholic fraternal organization, the Knights of Columbus. Some anti-Catholics, notably including the Ku Klux Klan and the Women of the Ku Klux Klan, opposed celebrations of Columbus or monuments about him because they thought that it increased Catholic influence in the United States, which was largely a Protestant country.

In the summer of 1990, 350 representatives from American Indian groups from all over the hemisphere met in Quito, Ecuador, at the first Intercontinental Gathering of Indigenous People in the Americas, to mobilize against the 500th anniversary (quin-centennial) celebration of Columbus Day planned for 1992. The following summer, in Davis, California, more than a hundred Native Americans gathered for a follow-up meeting to the Quito conference. They declared October 12, 1992, to be "International Day of Solidarity with Indigenous People."

More recently, mainly since the 1990s, more people oppose Columbus's and other Europeans' actions against the indigenous populations of the Americas. This opposition was initially led by Native Americans and was expanded upon by left-wing political parties. Various holidays commemorating Columbus have now been abolished, with various Latin American countries altering the holidays to now recognise indigenous populations.

Two surveys, conducted in 2013 and 2015 by Rasmussen Reports, found 26% to 38% of American adults are not in favor of celebrating Columbus Day.  A similar survey by Catholic Marist Polls showed 26% opposition

There are many interrelated strands of criticism. One refers primarily to the treatment of the indigenous populations during the European colonization of the Americas, which followed Columbus's discovery. Some groups, such as the American Indian Movement, have argued that the ongoing actions and injustices against Native Americans are masked by Columbus myths and celebrations. American anthropologist Jack Weatherford says that on Columbus Day, Americans celebrate the greatest waves of genocide of the American Indians known in history.

A second strain of criticism of Columbus Day focuses on the character of Columbus himself. In time for the 2004 observation of the day, the final volume of a compendium of Columbus-era documents was published by the University of California, Los Angeles' Medieval and Renaissance Center. It stated that Columbus, while a brilliant mariner, exploited and enslaved the indigenous population.

Spelman College historian Howard Zinn described some of the details in his book, A People's History of the United States, of how Columbus personally ordered the enslavement and mutilation of the native Arawak people in a bid to repay his investors.

Journalist and media critic Norman Solomon reflects, in Columbus Day: A Clash of Myth and History, that many people choose to hold on to the myths instead of reality in the events surrounding Columbus. He disputes the idea that the Spaniards' arrival was beneficial towards the Indians by quoting History of the Indies'' by the Catholic priest Bartolomé de las Casas, who observed the region where Columbus was governor. Las Casas writes that the Spaniards were driven by "insatiable greed" as they killed and tortured native populations with "the strangest and most varied new methods of cruelty" and laments that "my eyes have seen these acts so foreign to human nature, and now I tremble as I write."

See also

Age of Discovery
Spanish Empire
Indigenous Peoples' Day
 L'Anse aux Meadows
 Leif Erikson Day
 List of monuments and memorials to Christopher Columbus
 Thanksgiving (Canada)
 UN Spanish Language Day
 World's Columbian Exposition

Notes

References

External links

 Berkeley's Indigenous Peoples Day – History of the annual celebration, pow wow and Native American market
 Today in History: October 12 – An article about Columbus Day at the Library of Congress
 Transform Columbus Day Alliance – Denver-based organization with background on opposition to Columbus Day

Christopher Columbus
Federal holidays in the United States
Hispanidad
Holidays and observances by scheduling (nth weekday of the month)
International observances
Italian-American culture
Latin American culture
Monday observances
October observances
Public holidays in the United States
United States flag flying days
Fall events in the United States
Native American-related controversies

Columbus Day


The Bunong (alternatively Phnong, Punong, or Pnong) are an indigenous Cambodian ethnic minority group. They are found primarily in Mondulkiri province in Cambodia. The Bunong is the largest indigenous highland ethnic group in Cambodia. They have their own language called Bunong, which belongs to Bahnaric branch of Austroasiatic languages. The majority of Bunong people are animists, but a minority of them follows Christianity (Evangelical Protestantism or Roman Catholicism) and Theravada Buddhism. After Cambodia's independence in 1953, Prince Sihanouk created a novel terminology, referring to the country's highland inhabitants, including the Bunong, as Khmer Loeu ("upland Khmer"). Under the People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979-89), the generic term ជនជាតិភាគតិច (chuncheat pheaktech) "ethnic minorities" came to be in use and the Bunong became referred to as ជនជាតិព្នង (chuncheat pnong) meaning "ethnic Pnong". Today, the generic term that many Bunong use to refer to themselves is ជនជាតិដើមភាគតិច (chuncheat daem pheaktech), which can be translated as "indigenous minority" and involves special rights, notably to collective land titles as an "indigenous community". In Vietnam, Bunong-speaking peoples are recurrently referred to as Mnong.

Language
Bunong language (sometimes spelled 'Mnong') is the native language of the Bunong people. It is a member of Bahnaric branch of Austroasiatic languages and is distantly related to Khmer and other languages spoken in the Cambodian highlands (excluding Jarai and Rade which are Austronesian languages closely related to Cham). There are several dialects of Bunong, some even recognised as a distinct language by linguists; most Bunong dialects are spoken in neighbouring Vietnam, except for Kraol which is spoken within Cambodia.

Culture

The Bunong practice a very diverse, dynamic, unstructured and often secretive traditional medicine. Originally tied to the large biodiversity of their forest environment, the wars of the 1970s had a significant impact on the Bunong culture and knowledge of traditional medicine, when everybody relocated to either Vietnam or the Cambodian Koh Niek district. New plants and practices were acquired by the Bunong in these new locations, but upon returning in the 1980s and 1990s, knowledge and use of plants native to their homelands had been forgotten by many. Adequate conventional biomedicine and healthcare can be difficult or impossible to obtain by the locals in the countryside of Cambodia - in particular during the rainy season - and it is therefore official policy of the Cambodian government (backed by the WHO) to support the practice of traditional medicines. Research shows that, as of 2011, 95% of the inhabitants in two Bunong villages still regularly use medicinal plants. It is hoped that the Bunong culture of traditional medicine can help to build respect for the environment and halt the deforestation and habitat loss of Cambodia on a local level.

Traditional agriculture
Highland rice varieties formed a staple for the Bunong, grown in slash-and-burn or swidden plots called 'mir'. These are typically on valley slopes. These plots are used for up to 5 years before being left to regrow into forest, recovering soil fertility and allowing use again in the future. Rice was traditionally supplemented with other items gathered from the forest including vegetables, plants, roots, and honey. Over the last two decades, there has been an increasing shift to cash crop cultivation in Bunong communities, especially cassava and cashew.

Spirit practices and religion
Bunong traditionally relate to spirit-gods (brah-yaang) who live in surrounding forests, on mountains, or in rivers. The Bunongs' world is populated by spirits with whom people interact through rituals, offering them jar wine and sacrificed animals. No spirits are more powerful than those of the Spirit Forests." - Chok Marel Ancestors also hold an important place in Bunong ritual life and, like the spirit-gods, they are called to join every ceremony. During Vietnam war, in the early 1970s, number of Bunong converted to Christianity during their exile in South Vietnamese refugee camps. In more recent years, Christian missionaries of many different denominations have been trying to spread their religion in Mondulkiri, notably through concurrent development support. Bunong spirit practices have also been blended with Khmer Buddhism through proximity.

Documentation

Documentary movies

"Bunong guu oh / Bunong's birth practices: between tradition and change" (2011) by Tommi Mendel and Brigitte Nikles http://www.tigertoda.ch/BUNONG_GUU_OH.html

"The last refuge" (2013) by Anne-Laure Porée and Guillaume Suon https://bophana.org/productions/the-last-refuge/

"Last of the Elephant Men" (2015) by Arnaud Bouquet and Daniel Ferguson https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Derniers_Hommes_%C3%A9l%C3%A9phants

"Mirr" (2016) by Mehdi Sahebi http://www.mirr.ch/

Writings

Linguistics

Bequette, Rebecca. 'Participant Reference, Deixis, and Anaphora in Bunong Narrative Discourse'. Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics, 2008.

Butler, Becky. 'Bunong'. In The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages, by Mathias Jenny and Paul Sidwell, 717–45. Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2014.

Butler, Becky. 'Approaching a Phonological Understanding of the Sesquisyllable with Phonetic Evidence from Khmer and Bunong'. In Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: The State of the Art, by N.J. Enfield and Bernard Comrie, 443–99. Pacific Linguistics. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2015.

Vogel, Sylvain, and Jean-Michel Filippi. Eléments de langue phnong. Phnom Penh: Editions Funan, 2006.

Oral literature

Publications by the International Cooperation Cambodia (ICC)

Vogel, Sylvain. Introduction à la langue et aux dits traditionnels des Phnong de Mondulkiri. Phnom Penh: Editions Funan, 2006.

Vogel, Sylvain. Poèmes et chants des Phnong de Mondulkiri. Phnom Penh (Cambodge): Funan, 2008.

Vogel, Sylvain. Aspects de la culture traditionnelle des Bunoong du Mondulkiri. Tuk Tuk Editions. Phnom Penh, 2011.

Vogel, Sylvain. '"Les maisons de pierre du village de Chiang": Un point de vue Bunong sur les temples d'Angkor et la distinction entre peuples des collines et de la plaine'. Péninsule, no. 71 (2015): 149–95.

Vogel, Sylvain. Voix du Mondulkiri historique. Phnom Penh: UNESCO, 2015.

Botany and ethno-pharmacology

Publications by Nomad RSI

Chassagne, François, Sovanmoly Hul, Eric Deharo, and Geneviève Bourdy. 'Natural Remedies Used by Bunong People in Mondulkiri Province (Northeast Cambodia) with Special Reference to the Treatment of 11 Most Common Ailments'. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 191 (15 September 2016): 41–70.

Laval, Pauline. 'Impacts de la raréfaction des plantes médicinales et stratégies villageoises. Cas de deux villages de la province du Mondolkiri, Cambodge'. Istom, 2010.

History

Bourdier, Frédéric. 'De la Sésan à la Srépok, racines et destins des populations indigènes du Nord-Est du Cambodge'. In Khmer Studies, by Sorn Samrang, 1058–79. Phnom Penh, 1996.

Guérin, Mathieu, Andrew Hardy, Van Chinh Nguyen, and Stan Tan Boon Hwee. Des montagnards aux minorités ethniques: Quelle intégration nationale pour les habitants des hautes terres du Viêt Nam et du Cambodge? Paris: L'Harmattan, 2003. https://books.openedition.org/irasec/1420

Guérin, Mathieu. Paysans de la forêt à l'époque coloniale : La pacification des aborigènes des hautes terres du Cambodge. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2008.

Scheer, Catherine. 'Subaltern Soldiers: The Overshadowed Fight of Bunong Highlanders within the Khmer Republic (1970-75)'. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 53, no. 1–2 (2022).

See also
 Mnong people
 Austroasiatic carrying basket known in Mondolkiri as kapha

References

External links
Ethnologue entry

Ethnic groups in Cambodia
Indigenous peoples of Southeast Asia
Bunong culture

Bunong people


Jean-Loup Jacques Marie Chrétien (born 20 August 1938) is a French retired Général de Brigade (brigadier general) in the Armée de l'Air (French air force), and a former CNES spationaut. He flew on two Franco-Soviet space missions and a NASA Space Shuttle mission. Chrétien was the first Frenchman and the first western European in space.

Personal life
Chrétien was born in the town of La Rochelle, France. He was married to and then divorced from Amy Kristine Jensen of New Canaan, Connecticut, and had five children. His father, Jacques, was a Navy sailor, and his mother, the former Marie-Blanche Coudurier, was a housewife. Chrétien is fluent in French, English and Russian.

Education
Chrétien was educated at l'École communale à Ploujean, the Collège Saint-Charles à Saint-Brieuc, and the Lycée de Morlaix. He entered the École de l'Air (the French Air Force Academy) at Salon-de-Provence and graduated in 1961, receiving a master's degree in aeronautical engineering.

Organizations
Member of the board of the "Académie de l'air et de l'espace", and the Musée de l'air et de l'espace. Former counselor for Space Activities (Manned) to the President of Dassault Aviation. Member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, the International Academy of Astronautics, and the Association of Space Explorers. Member of the Board of BRIT AIR, an airline in his hometown, Morlaix. Honorary fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots.

Awards and honors
 Title of Hero of the Soviet Union (on 2 July 1982)
 Order of Lenin
 Order of the Red Banner of Labour
 Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur (Commander of the Order of the Legion of Honour)
 Chevalier de l'Ordre National du Mérite (Knight of the National Order of Merit)
 Titulaire de la Médaille de l'Aéronautique (Holder of the Aeronautics Medal)
 Honorary citizenship of Arkalyk, Kazakhstan

Career
Chrétien received his fighter pilot/pilot-engineer wings in 1962, after one year of training on Mystère IVs. He was promoted to Lieutenant, and joined the 5th Fighter Wing in Orange, in the Southeast of France, where he served for seven years as a fighter pilot in an operational squadron flying Super-Mystere B2's and then Mirage III interceptors. In 1970, he was assigned to the French test pilots school, EPNER (École du personnel navigant d'essais et de réception), then served as a test pilot at the Istres-Le Tubé Air Base for seven years. During that time he was responsible for supervising the flight test program for the Mirage F-1 fighter. In 1977–1978, he was appointed Deputy Commander of the South Air Defence Division in Aix-en-Provence, and he served in this position until his selection as a cosmonaut in June 1980. Chrétien remained a French Air Force officer but was placed on detachment to CNES for his space flight activities ensuring his availability for future flights with the Space Shuttle (NASA), Mir (Soviet Union) or Spacelab (ESA). He has accumulated over 8000 hours of flying time in various aircraft, including Tupolev-154, MiG-25, and Sukhoi Su-26 and Sukhoi Su-27. A veteran of three space flights, Chrétien was the tenth Interkosmos cosmonaut, and has spent a total of 43 days, 11 hours, 18 minutes, 42 seconds in space, including an extra-vehicular activity (EVA) of 5 hours, 57 minutes.

In April 1979, the Soviet Union offered France the opportunity to fly a cosmonaut on board a joint Soviet-French space flight, along the same lines as the agreement to fly non-Soviet cosmonauts from member countries of the Interkosmos program. The offer was accepted, and France began a spationaut selection process in September 1979. Chrétien was one of two finalists named on 12 June 1980. He started training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in September 1980. The following year, he was named as the Research Cosmonaut for the prime crew of the Soyuz T-6 mission.

Soyuz T-6 was launched on 24 June 1982, and Chrétien, Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Aleksandr Ivanchenkov linked up with Salyut 7 and joined the crew of Anatoli Berezovoy and Valentin Lebedev already on board. They spent nearly seven days carrying out a program of joint Soviet-French experiments, including a series of French echography cardiovascular monitoring system experiments, before returning to Earth after a flight lasting 7 days, 21 hours, 50 minutes, 42 seconds. This flight made him the first Western non-American to go to space, as well as the first Western European.

Following the mission he was appointed Chief, CNES Astronaut Office.

Chrétien was selected as the back-up crew member for STS-51-G (Patrick Baudry, another CNES astronaut, flew on that mission). During 1984–1985, he participated in mission training at the Johnson Space Center.

Chrétien made his second space flight as a Research Cosmonaut on board Soyuz TM-7, which launched on 26 November 1988. Together with Alexander Alexandrovich Volkov and Sergei Krikalev, he linked up with Mir and joined the crew of Vladimir Titov, Musa Manarov and Valeriy Polyakov already on board. They spent 22 days carrying out a program of joint Soviet-French experiments, including a 5-hour and 57 minute EVA by Volkov and Chrétien during which the two men installed the French ERA experimental deployable structure and a panel of material samples. In making the EVA, he became the first non-American and non-Soviet to walk in space. In addition, he was the first non-Soviet cosmonaut to make a second space flight aboard a Soviet spacecraft. The mission lasted 24 days, 18 hours, 7 minutes.

During 1990–1993, Chrétien participated in Buran spacecraft pilot training at the Moscow Joukovski Institute. He has also flown the Tupolev Tu-154 and MiG-25 aircraft, flying simulators equivalent to the Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).

In 1994, he was selected as part of NASA Astronaut Group 15 to officially become an International Mission Specialist with NASA.

Chrétien attended ASCAN Training at the Johnson Space Center during 1995. He was initially assigned to work technical issues for the Operations Planning Branch of the Astronaut Office. He served on the crew of STS-86 Atlantis (25 September to 6 October 1997) the seventh mission to rendezvous and dock with the Russian Space Station Mir. Highlights included the delivery of a Mir attitude control computer, the exchange of U.S. crew members Mike Foale and David Wolf, a spacewalk by Scott E. Parazynski and Vladimir Titov to retrieve four experiments first deployed on Mir during the STS-76 docking mission, the transfer to Mir of  of science and logistics, and the return of experiment hardware and results to Earth. Mission duration was 10 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes.

In September 2000, while visiting a Home Depot store in Webster, Texas, he was hit by a  drill press that fell from a shelf more than  above him. The injuries to his neck, head and shoulders were severe enough that a NASA flight surgeon determined that Chrétien could no longer fly. He was forced to retire from the space program in 2001. He filed a US$15 million lawsuit against Home Depot several months after the accident. The company settled the suit in 2002. The terms of the settlement are protected by a confidentiality agreement. Chrétien is currently working for Tietronix Software as the vice president of Research and Development in Houston, Texas.

Books
 Jean-Loup Chrétien, Patrick Baudry and Bernard Chabbert, Spatiale premier: the first French in space, Paris, Plon, 1982, 306 p.
 Jean-Loup Chrétien, Sonata au clair de terre: Itinerary of a Frenchman in space, Paris, Denoël, coll. "Mediations", 1993, 232 p.
 Jean-Loup Chrétien, Mission Mir: Logbook, Paris, Michel Lafon, coll. "Documents", 1998,
 Jean-Loup Chrétien, Catherine Alric, Dreams of stars, Paris, Alphée, coll. "Documents", 2009, 236 p.
 Jean-Loup Chrétien, Roman Gurbanov, Programming with Python in Minecraft, Moscow, Litres, 2020, 148 p.
 Jean-Loup Chrétien, Roman Gurbanov, Python from Scratch. Soyuz-T6 Space Expedition: 41st anniversary edition, Litres, 2023, 100 p.

References

External links

 CNES
  NASA Biography
 Les Travailleurs de l'Espace
 thespaceagency.org
 space-explorers.org
 Spacefacts biography of Jean-Loup Chrétien
 Tietronix Software Inc.
 Python from Scratch. Soyuz-T6 Space Expedition: 41st anniversary edition.

1938 births
Living people
People from La Rochelle
École de l'air alumni
Foreign Heroes of the Soviet Union
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Knights of the Ordre national du Mérite
Recipients of the Aeronautical Medal
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
French spationauts
Mir crew members
Salyut program cosmonauts
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Spacewalkers

Jean-Loup Chrétien


The Cotton Price Stabilization Board (French: Caisse de Stabilisation des Prix du Coton, CSPC) was a Chadian governative board created in 1965. Its task was to stabilize prices paid to peasant producers by funding operating losses incurred by Cotontchad, the parastatal giant that bought, ginned and sold all the cotton produced in Chad. The CSPC also played an important role in the program to improve yields: it is estimated that between 1971 and 1983 57% of all payments by the CSPC were made in conjunction with the program to improve cotton production. As for the funding of the CSPC, between 1971 and 1983, virtually all income to the CSPC derived from rebates paid by Cotontchad into the system. After 1984 the sharply reduced income of Cotontchad made the system for paying the producers heavily dependent on external sources of funds (such as Stabex), while the government completely exempted Cotontchad from the rebates to the CSPC. The difficulties of the CSPC, whose staffs had already been considerably reduced in the late 1980s, came to a head with the great recession that hit the cotton market between 1991 and 1993, leading to the abolition of the board in 1993. It was decided to let the prices paid to the producers fluctuate freely, following the international price of cotton.

References
1965 in Chad
Economy of Chad
Agricultural organisations based in Chad
Agricultural economics
Cotton organizations

Cotton Price Stabilization Board


Campanula shetleri is a rare species of bellflower known by the common name Castle Crags bellflower. The plant is named for Castle Crags, a mountain formation in its limited native range, within the Shasta-Trinity National Forest.

It is endemic to California, where it is known from fewer than ten occurrences in the southern reaches of the Cascade Range near the border between Siskiyou and Shasta Counties.

Description
Campanula shetleri is a plant of the temperate coniferous forests of the range. This is a small, clumpy perennial herb growing from a woody rhizome. It produces a patch of hairy leaves not more than 5 centimeters high, each leaf leathery in texture with approximately two large pointed teeth on each edge.

The flower is about a centimeter long, white to pale blue with corolla lobes curled back and a protruding style.

The fruit is a ribbed, cup-shaped capsule containing tiny seeds each about millimeter wide.

References

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment: Campanula shetleri
USDA Plants Profile
Campanula shetleri — U.C. Photo gallery

shetleri
Endemic flora of California
~

Campanula shetleri


A fallen angel is an angel who has sinned and has been sent out of heaven.

Bible

The Bible mentions "sons of Elohim" (sons of God) in Book of Genesis, who had evil powerful children. Some Jews and Christians think this refers to angels who left heaven and had children together with human women. There is also another opinion. Some Jews and Christians believe they are not angels, but "kings" who had evil and powerful children instead.

Isaiah compares a Babylonian king to an Angel who wanted to be God himself. So he tried to rise to the highest heaven but fell into the deepest underworld instead. For Christians, this angel was Lucifer. Jews usually don't think this verse really refers to an angel but is only a poem.

In the New Testament, it is said that Hell is prepared for Satan and his fellow (fallen) angels. Jesus is reported to say that he saw Satan fall from heaven. This is the reason why Christians believe that Satan has indeed been thrown out of heaven. This verse also confirms for Christians that the "morning star" in the Old Testament indeed speaks about a fallen angel.

The last chapter of the Bible, the Book of Revelation, describes a battle between the Archangel Michael and Satan. Here, Satan and his angels lose and are thrown out of heaven.

Book of Enoch
The Book of Enoch mentions angels who mated with human women. These are supposed to be the same angels mentioned in Genesis. Their children are the giants. According to the Book of Enoch, the giants were slain by the Archangels or died during the Deluge. The fallen angels are imprisoned in the underworld. The most famous fallen angels are named Azazel and Shemyaza. They also teach sorcery and warcraft to humans. Azazel is blamed for corrupting the entire world with his teachings.

Satan is also mentioned in this Book, but he is not among the fallen angels. Satan instead appears to be the one who punishes the fallen angels and sinful humans.

Islam
In the Quran, creatures fallen from heaven appear twice. One is Satan (named Iblis in the Quran) and the other is a pair of fallen angels called Harut and Marut. However, Muslims are undecided if these beings are really angels. Some Muslims don't believe that angels could sin, therefore think that angels will never be cast away from heaven. They think that Satan was not an angel himself but only lived among the angels. Harut and Marut are alternatively thought to be kings instead of angels, like the "Sons of Elohim" in Genesis. Others have no worries about the idea of fallen angels. But even if they are fallen, they don't rebel against God for Muslims. The angels are still the servants of God. Iblis and Harut and Marut do not fall together but each are punished for their own sins:

 Iblis: When God creates the first human (Adam), God commands the angels to bow before Adam. But Iblis argues that the angels are better than humans, so they shouldn't bow down. Because Iblis thinks God's command was unjust, he is no longer allowed to be in heaven and is thrown to the earth. Iblis promises revenge and proves to be right and tries to show God that humans are sinful. For this reason, Iblis seduced humans into sin, including Adam and Eve. Iblis is now punished again for tempting Adam and Eve into sin, and this time banished to hell.
 Harut and Marut: Their sin is not mentioned in the Quran, but used to explain why they are on earth. According to the Quran, they are on earth and teach humans sorcery. According to the Muslim story, some angels wanted to destroy all humans because they are sinful, but God said, they shouldn't be so harsh to humans. If angels would live on earth, they would also sin. So Harut and Marut made a bet with God, they wouldn't sin if they lived on earth. However, they lose the bet, commit sins, and are not allowed to return to heaven.

Scholarly explanation
Scholars think that the idea of "fallen angels" comes from humans observing shooting stars. Before humans knew what stars are, many humans believed they are gods or angels. So, when they so a shooting star, and it looked like they fall to earth, they believed a creature (like an angel) from heaven was falling down.

The idea that fallen angels taught sorcery and sin, could also explain how sin entered a perfect world. If God created a good and perfect world, there would be no sin. But when there is sin in the world, sin must have come from outside of the world, what is the world of the angels.
Theology

Fallen angel


Aqua is the Latin word for water. As such, it is often used in many words which relate to water, such as aquatic life. In English, it may also refer to:

Arts
 Aqua (color), a greenish-blue color

Business
 Aqua (skyscraper), an 82-story residential skyscraper in Chicago, US
 Aqua Multiespacio, a 22-story office building in Valencia, Spain
 Aqua Restaurant, an upscale seafood restaurant in San Francisco, US
 Aqua, an appliance brand owned by Haier
 Aqua, a brand of drinking water owned by Danone in Indonesia

Entertainment
 Aqua (Kingdom Hearts), a fictional character from Square Enix's video game series
 Aqua (KonoSuba), a fictional character from the light novel series KonoSuba: God's Blessing on This Wonderful World!
 Aqua (manga), a Japanese manga by Amano Kozue.
 Aqua (video game), a 2010 video game for Xbox LIVE
 Team Aqua, a fictional villainous team from Pokémon Sapphire and it's remake, as well as Pokémon Emerald
 Aquamarine "Aqua" Hoshino, the male protagonist from the manga and anime series Oshi no Ko

Music
 Aqua (Angra album), 2010
 Aqua (Asia album), 1992
 Aqua (band), a Danish eurodance group
 Aqua (Edgar Froese album), 1974
 Aqua (record producer) (born 1982), an American record producer and composer
 "Aqua", a song by Ryuichi Sakamoto on the 1999 album BTTB

Other uses
 Aqua (ingredient), purified water used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals
 Aqua (satellite), a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite
 Aqua (user interface), the visual theme of Apple's macOS operating system
 Aqua America, a water and wastewater utility company in several states, US
 Project Aqua, a proposed hydroelectric scheme for the Waitaki River, New Zealand

See also
 Agua (disambiguation)
 Aquagrill, a seafood restaurant in New York City
 Aquaman, a fictional comic book superhero
 Aquamarine (disambiguation)
 Aquaculture
 Aqwa, the capital of Abkhazia

Aqua


The House of Rohan is a French noble family of viscounts, later dukes and princes. They come from the area called Rohan in Brittany. Their line descends from the viscounts of Porhoët. It is said to trace back to the legendary Conan Meriadoc. Through the Porhoët, the Rohan are related to the Dukes of Brittany. They also later developed ties with the French and English royal houses. They played an important role in French and European history.

In France there were generally considered to have been two individual lines, the Princes of Soubise and the Princes of Guéméné. Both had many other titles. Four Archbishops of Strasbourg were members of the family. The Princes of Rochefort descended from the Guéméné  line.

Architectural legacy

The great wealth of the family allowed them to build several palaces and townhouses. They built them in cities and countries in and around Europe. Well known examples of these are:

The "Hôtel de Soubise": the Parisian townhouse of the Prince of Soubise. The building is now the property of the French government.
The Château des Rohan or  Rohan-Schloss in Saverne, France. Built by the Cardinal de Rohan. Now a museum.
Palais Rohan in Vienna, Austria (completed in 1864)
The Palais Rohan in Strasbourg, Alsace (completed in 1742) built by another Archbishop of Strasbourg.

French nobility

House of Rohan


Patricio Schiavone (born February 8, 1985) is an Argentine actor who is perhaps better known for his role as "Patricio" in Chiquititas, a child- and teenage telenovela.

Patricio Schiavone grew up as the only son Jorge Schiavone and his wife Graciela had. He admits to having a pampered childhood and enjoying the fact his parents gave him many things he asked for.

Schiavone's mother was a gymnastics teacher. Betina O'Connel. a well known actress in Argentina during the early 1990s, was a client of Schiavone's mother. O'Connel kept telling young Patricio that he was "made" to become a television star. After overhearing O'Connel talk about her career achievements, Schiavone finally became interested in acting, and he proceeded to tell his mom that he wanted to be on television.

His parents were supportive of Schiavone's decision. They took him to have some photographs done in order to create a portfolio. His parents signed him to a talent agency, and he was soon called to participate in various newspaper and magazine ads. He also acted in some theater plays and a short film.

His first experience as a television actor came in a show named Nico. He also participated in Decime Cuál, Cuál... ("Tell me Which One"). His participation on those shows, however, was limited to short sketches, and he did not gain fame from those shows.

In 1998, Alberto Fernández de Rosa, one of his co-stars in Chiquititas, chose him, after an audition, to join the show as "Patricio". Chiquititas by then had a large national and international fan base, and Schiavone quickly became a teen idol across Latin America. He also became known in Israel and Russia.

Schiavone lasted only one season at Chiquititas, and has not acted on television after that.

Trivia
 Schiavone's Chiquititas character, Patricio, was a troublesome kid who had difficulty establishing friendships with the rest of the soap opera's characters.
 Schiavone lists Tom Cruise as his favorite actor, and Fito Páez as one of his favorite musicians.
 Schiavone participates in football, athletics and chess; he has won awards at those sports.
 Schiavone had two dogs.
 Schiavone lists Mar del Plata and Miramar, Argentina as his favorite places to vacation at.

External links

Fan page ()

1985 births
Living people
Argentine male actors
Argentine people of Italian descent
Place of birth missing (living people)

Patricio Schiavone


Black women are women of sub-Saharan African and Afro-diasporic descent, as well as women of Australian Aboriginal and Melanesian descent. The term 'Black' is a racial classification of people, the definition of which has shifted over time and across cultures. As a result, the term 'Black women' describes a wide range of cultural identities with several meanings around the world.

Intersectionality and misogynoir

Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw developed the theory of intersectionality, which highlighted the overlapping discrimination faced by Black women (on the basis of both race and gender) in the United States. The theory has been influential in the fields of feminism and critical race theory as a methodology for interpreting the ways in which overlapping social identities relate to systems of oppression. More recently, the term misogynoir has been created to describe the specific effect of intersectionality on Black women. Misogynoir is the term that is used to describe the overlapping cases of misogyny and racism. Examples of misogynoir experienced by Black women include the stereotype of the angry Black woman or Jezebel (stereotype that black women are more sexually promiscuous) and vulnerability to sex trafficking among others. These more specific terms were created as Black women have been historically left out of movements for both racial justice and feminist equality.

Womanism is a social theory based on the history and experiences of black women. Coined by Alice Walker, the concept now encompasses a spectrum of various fields, such as Africana womanism and womanist theology.

Around the world

Africa

The 2003 Maputo Protocol on women's rights in Africa set the continental standard for progressive expansion of women's rights. It guarantees comprehensive rights to women, including the right to participate in the political process, social and political equality with men, autonomy in their reproductive health decisions, and an end to female genital mutilation (FGM).

Ghana
Women in Ghana have been experiencing poverty at higher rates than their male counterparts as a result of less educational opportunities, elevated unemployment rates, and gender inequality. Historically, Ghanaian culture has created the role of women to be in the home cooking, cleaning, and taking care of children. Ghanaian women, on average, complete only primary school as a result of these societal expectations. Men are primarily regarded as breadwinners and have more economic mobility as a result of their ability to carry on the family name and amass ownership of land, one of the highest forms of capital. These societal conditions originated from European colonization of Ghana from the 15th century up until the 20th century. The structural frameworks set up during those five centuries favored Eurocentric beauty standards, work ethic, and culture. This fractured Ghanaian identity and customs, leading to harmful practices such as providing space for only men to further their education, secure a well-paying job, and be politically active. As well as only teaching women how to be suitable for men, and promoting skin bleaching among women to become closer to whiteness. After Ghana gained their independence in 1957 from Britain, women were not compensated for their inability to own land and gain foundational skills under colonial frameworks, creating the cycle of poverty.

Ghana's patriarchal society, stemming from colonialism, has been impacting women not only economically but relationally as well. Abuse is a prevalent component of polygamous and monogamous relationships in Ghana. This normalization of domestic violence lends itself to the topic of sex trafficking in Ghana and how women are objectified through the male gaze and ultimately abused. Sex trafficking in Ghana is very common as a result of poverty and lack of education and employment skills. It can be hard for women to get out of being a sex worker because it might be viewed as the only way to provide for their families or themselves. The criminalization of sex work in Ghana also makes it difficult for women to escape abuse from their pimps and customers and seek help.

Another factor that plays a role in the susceptibility of women being in poverty is the rise in female-headed households as a result of divorce, women becoming widows, or women being separated from their partners. This has exacerbated the issue of poverty among women because they're unable to have access to the benefits of the socio-economic status men hold in Ghana.

Economically, the majority of Ghanaian women are in the informal sector of Ghana's economy, meaning they are mostly self-employed. Self-employment doesn't always guarantee a stable source of income, making it hard for women to make enough money to support themselves and their families. Some of the prominent entrepreneurial jobs women take up in Ghana are hairdressing, dressmaking, market trading, and agriculture. Market trading, especially, has been a good way for women to better their chances of getting out of poverty because they are given the opportunity to take part in credit services, acquire insurance on their personal items, and build their savings. According to Wrigley-Asante in her journal article, "Market women are considered the backbone of food distribution, ensuring food security for the urban economy". Ghanaian women are very important contributors to Ghana's economy despite not having access to steady wages.

Ghana's government has made strides to address the inequalities present within the culture by creating the WID (women in development) initiative in the 70's to cater to women's welfare, SAP (structural adjustment programs) in the 80's to help women in their productivity, and PAMSCAD (Program of Action to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment) in the late 80's and early 90's to help boost the socioeconomic status of Ghanaian women. These initiatives and programs ultimately failed because they were not addressing the root cause of poverty among women, and colonialism's lasting impacts has rendered the Ghanaian government ill-prepared to give the necessary resources to such complex programs.

Women play a modest role in Ghana's two major political parties, the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and New Patriotic Party (NP), as well as in the Convention People's Party (CPP). The first president, Kwame Nkrumah (CPP), made Ghana the first African nation to introduce a quota in 1959, reserving 10 seats for women in Parliament. Ghana has recently been laggard, however, with a representation of 11% women after the election in 2012 and 13% after the election in 2016.

Tunisia
In Tunisia, Black women are victims of double discrimination, facing prejudice both because of their gender and race. Testimonial evidences complied by the Tunis-branch of Rosa Luxemburg Foundation presented cases of Black women being "stigmatised, hyper-sexualised, and objectified" It has been noted that this sexualization of Black Tunisian women leads to them being viewed as objects by Arab men to "achieve sexual satisfaction" and face sexual harassment.

The feminist movement in the Arab world—including Tunisia—has been labelled as racist, failing to take into consideration the issues of women who are not Arab; this has led to parallels between Arab feminism and White feminism. In 2020, four Black Tunisian women created the Facebook group Voices of Tunisian Black Women in an attempt to bring to light these issues affecting them, which they felt were not being discussed in the Me Too movement.

Caribbean

Caribbean society
Jennifer Palmer argues that in the plantation world of the colonial Caribbean, women of color were typically treated as property owned by White men. In the French islands, race and gender shape popular assumptions about who could own property. However, there were legal loopholes that sometimes opened up windows of opportunity for women of color to be landowners.

United States

According to the American Community Survey from the US Census Bureau, the Black female population in the United States was 21.7 million in 2018.

American slavery

Black slaves, many of whom were women, often faced severe abuse from their owners and other non-black people. Black female slaves were sexually abused by their white male owners and were bred with them in order to bear mulatto children in an attempt to maintain White supremacy, have more slaves to pick cotton and produce superior slaves in the South. Black female slaves received the same treatment in Brazil, Central America, Mexico, Peru and the Caribbean. An example of this is former president and slave owner Thomas Jefferson who fathered mixed-race children with Sally Hemings, a slave that he owned. Black slave women and their bodies were also fetishized by their white male slave owners.

Enslaved black women had no legal means to protect and prevent themselves from sexual assault by white men and their white slave owners. In 1855 in Missouri, an enslaved Black woman named Celia was convicted of murder and executed by hanging for killing a white man who had raped and enslaved her. The court had rejected her self-defense claim, stating that enslaved Black women had no right to resist their white enslavers' sexual advances. Black women were also killed and lynched by white people. In May 1870, 15 white men raped a Black woman while other members of the white mob lynched and killed her husband.

Entrepreneurship

According to State of Women Owned Business report of 2020, Black women are the fastest growing entrepreneur group in the United States, creating many innovative businesses across the nation. Despite their entrepreneurial achievements, Black women continue to face racism and discriminatory barriers in business building.

Education
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, Black women are among the most educated in the United States of America.

Self-Esteem and Confidence

Black women have higher self-confidence and self-esteem than any group of women, according to a survey by Glamour and L'Oreal Paris, along with Dr. Jean Twenge, Ph.D., a researcher on the effects of race and self-confidence. Racism and discrimination haven't created a downturn in how Black women view themselves. Black women also have a more positive outlook on their physical appearances versus white women. This self-esteem and confidence is celebrated in what is known as "Black Girl Magic".

Hair
Black women's hair, which is of various textures, has deep cultural meanings, ranging from political statements to pride, beauty, and fashion. Despite there being a lack of education in Black American hair and why Black women choose particular hairstyles and products, cosmetologists and educators have paved the way for greater education in this area, for example, bringing awareness to the fact that Black hair doesn't create its own oil like white hair does which creates a need for Black women's hair to be treated with moisturizers and oils for it to remain healthy.

Because of greater education in Black women's hair, the United States Army lifted a ban on dreadlocks, which were previously banned. The Navy, Air Force and Army now allow two-strand twists as well as braids at an increased size. The latter change came after a fight against hair discrimination.

Increased risk for health problems
Black women are often at a higher risk of contracting certain diseases than White women are. According to the American Cancer Society, the death rate for all cancers for Black women is 14% higher than that of White women. While the probability of being diagnosed with cancer in Black women is one in three, the chance of dying from cancer is one in five. Cancer is not the only disease that disproportionately affects African-American women. Black women are three times more likely to develop uterine fibroids. Lupus is two-three times more common in women of color, but more specifically, one in every 537 Black women will have lupus. Black women are also at a higher chance of being overweight thus making them open to more obesity-related diseases.  There is also a racial disparity when it comes to pregnancy-related deaths. While there are 12.4 deaths for every 100,000 births for White women, the statistics for Black women is 40.0 deaths for every 100,000 births. In a 2007 US study of five medical complications that are common causes of maternal death and injury, Black women were two to three times more likely to die than White women who had the same condition.  The World Health Organization in 2014 estimated that Black expectant and new mothers in the United States die at about the same rate as women in countries such as Mexico and Uzbekistan. A 2018 study found that "The sexual and reproductive health of African-American women has been compromised due to multiple experiences of racism, including discriminatory healthcare practices from slavery through the post-Civil Rights era." Another 2018 study found that darker skin tones were underrepresented in medical textbook imagery and that these omissions "may provide one route through which bias enters medical treatment". Black women are more likely to die from breast cancer. Black women are also more likely to die from diabetes. Black women have higher rates of HIV than white and Hispanic women. Black women have the highest risk for genital herpes. Black women also have higher rates of chlamydia than white women. Trichomoniasis is more common among African American women. Black women are more likely to die from cervical cancer.

Brazil

Black women make up 28% of the Brazilian population and still suffer discrimination in Brazil. The legacy of slavery and mistreatment of Black women during the Portuguese colonial era is still dealt with today. Interracial marriage between Black women and white Portuguese men was common in Brazil. Black women were often raped by white men in Brazil in effort to whiten the Brazilian population.

Famous leaders

Some of the most important artistic and political leaders in history have been Black women. For instance, Queen Qalhata and Candace of Meroe are important early African queens.

Thus far, 21 Black women have been elected or appointed as head of a UN recognized state, all of which have been in Africa or the Caribbean. The first Black woman to be appointed head of state was Elisabeth Domitien, who served as the Prime Minister of the Central African Republic from January 1975 to April 1976. The longest-serving Black woman head of government was Eugenia Charles, who served as the head of government for Dominica for nearly 15 years, from July 1980 to June 1995. President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf served as President of Liberia for 12 years.

In 2021, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala became the first Black woman to lead a major multilateral organization when she was appointed Director-General of the World Trade Organization.

Four Black women have been awarded Nobel Prizes. Toni Morrison was the first Black woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize when, in 1993, she was awarded the prize for literature. Wangari Maathai was the first Black woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize which she received in 2004. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and Leymah Gbowee shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 2011.

In the United States, Toni Morrison was the first Black woman Nobel laureate. Shirley Chisholm was an important Democratic candidate for U.S. President in the 1970s. In the 2020 United States presidential election, Kamala Harris was named Joe Biden's running mate, making her the first Black and South Asian woman to be on a major party ticket. Biden won the election, making Harris the first Black/South Asian person and Black/South Asian woman to be Vice President of the United States. With Justice Stephen Breyer's announcement of his intention to retire at the end of the 2021–22 term, President Joe Biden nominated Ketanji Brown Jackson to succeed him as Supreme Court justice. She was confirmed by the United States Senate in a 53–47 vote on April 7, 2022, and took her seat on June 30, 2022.

As leaders in the Civil Rights movements over the course of time, Ida B. Wells led an anti-lynching movement in the United States of America and founded the Alpha Suffrage Club. Betsy Stockton paved the way for non-royals in Hawaii to gain access to an education by founding the first non-Royal school in Maui and all of Hawaii in 1823.

LGBT black women

One survey found that 23% of black women aged 18 to 34 identify as bisexual in the United States. Black women are increasingly identifying as bisexual. Lesbian marriage is also increasing among black women. Black trans women often face high levels of discrimination.

Discrimination

Dark-skinned black women often face more discrimination than light-skinned black women due to colorism. When Black women were enslaved in America, the sexual assault of Black women produced light-skinned children, who were afforded more privileges than their darker skinned mothers, although they were seldom acknowledged as legitimate children. Light-skinned black women have more privileges and advantages than dark-skinned black women. Lighter skinned black women are also more likely to be married than dark-skinned black women because light skin is associated with status and beauty. Light-skinned black women are more represented in the media than dark-skinned black women.

Studies of human attractiveness have consistently shown that black women are rated as less attractive than white, Asian and Latina women in the United States. In studies of heterosexual men's preferences in the United States, black women are the least desired group of women, followed by white women and Latina women, while Asian women are the most desired women. However, black men showed a strong preference for black women in dating, preferring them over white women. Nevertheless they still preferred Asian women over black women, and Asian, Latino and White men preferred any race over black women. It has been proposed that discrimination against black women in dating is linked to anti-black stereotypes in the media. Black women have also long been viewed as more 'sexual' than other races of women (a phenomenon known as the 'Jezebel' stereotype) which can make men less interested ionv term relationships with black women.

See also

 African-American culture
 African-American women in the civil rights movement
 African-American women in computer science
 African-American women in politics
 African National Congress Women's League
 African Women's Union of the Congo
 Black feminism
 Black people
 Black women filmmakers
 Black women in the music industry
 Daughters of Africa
 List of African-American women in medicine
 Women of color
 Women in Africa
 Strong black woman
 Black women in ballet
 African and African-American women in Christianity

References

Further reading
 Blain, Keisha N., and Tiffany M. Gill (eds). To Turn the Whole World Over: Black Women and Internationalism (University of Illinois Press, 2019). 280 pp. online review.
 Blain, Keisha N. Set the World on Fire: Black Nationalist Women and the Global Struggle for Freedom (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018).
 Busby, Margaret (ed.), New Daughters of Africa: An international anthology of writing by women of African (Myriad Editions, 2019).
 Coquery-Vidrovitc, Catherine. African Women: A Modern History (1997).
 Hafkin, Nancy, and Edna G. Bay. Women in Africa: Studies in social and economic change (Stanford University Press, 1976).
 Harris-Perry, Melissa V. Sister Citizen: Shame, stereotypes, and Black women in America (Yale University Press, 2011).
 Hine, Darlene Clark, and Kathleen Thompson. A Shining Thread of Hope: The History of Black Women in America (1999).
 Hooks, Bell. Ain't I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism (Routledge, 2014).
 Jones, Jacqueline. Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present (2nd edn. 2010).
 Nelson, Nicki. African Women in the Development Process (Routledge, 2013).
 Scales-Trent, Judy. "Black women and the constitution: Finding our place, asserting our rights." Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 24 (1989): 9–44.
 Smith, Barbara (ed.), Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology (Rutgers University Press, 2000), primary sources.
 Stichter, Sharon B., and Jane Parpart. Patriarchy and Class: African women in the home and the workforce (Routledge, 2019).
 Strobel, Margaret. "African women." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 8.1 (1982): 109–131.
 Vaz, Kim Marie, ed. Black Women in America (Sage Publications, 1995).

Black (human racial classification)
People of African descent
Women by ethnicity

Black women


Maria Nicole Jeremiah Dulalia (born October 20, 1997) is a Filipino television actress. She entered showbiz when she was chosen to play the role of Sha-sha in the telefantasya, Super Twins. She played Lev in GMA Network's telenovela, Alice Bungisngis and her Wonder Walis which concluded in June 2012. She has since played supporting roles in a range of television series of GMA, including Villa Quintana (2013-2014) as Maricel Mangaron, Niño (2014) as Patty, Strawberry Lane as Chloe Bermudez and Once Upon a Kiss (2015) as Margaux.

Filmography

Television

References

Living people
Filipino television actresses
1997 births
Filipino child actresses
GMA Network personalities

Nicole Dulalia


Hans Poulsen Egede (31 January 1686 – 5 November 1758) was a Dano-Norwegian Lutheran missionary who launched mission efforts to Greenland, which led him to be styled the Apostle of Greenland. He established a successful mission among the Inuit and is credited with revitalizing Dano-Norwegian interest in the island after contact had been broken for about 300 years. He founded Greenland's capital Godthåb, now known as Nuuk.

Background
Hans Egede was born into the home of a civil servant in Harstad, Norway, nearly  north of the Arctic Circle. His paternal grandfather had been a vicar in Vester Egede on southern Zealand, Denmark. Hans was schooled by an uncle, a clergyman in a local Lutheran Church. In 1704 he travelled to Copenhagen to enter the University of Copenhagen, where he earned a Bachelor's degree in Theology. He returned to Hinnøya Island after graduation, and on 15 April 1707 he was ordained and assigned to a parish on the equally remote archipelago of Lofoten. Also in 1707 he married Gertrud Rasch (or Rask), who was 13 years his senior. Four children were born to the marriage – two boys and two girls.

Greenland
At Lofoten, Egede heard stories about the old Norse settlements on Greenland, with which contact had been lost centuries before. Beginning in 1711, he sought permission from Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway to search for the colony and establish a mission there, presuming that it had either remained Catholic after the Danish–Norwegian Reformation or been lost to the Christian faith altogether. Frederick gave consent at least partially to re-establish a colonial claim to the island.

Egede established the Bergen Greenland Company () with $9,000 in capital from Bergen merchants, $200 from Frederick IV of Denmark and Norway, and a $300 annual grant from the Royal Mission College. The company was granted broad powers to govern the peninsula (as it was then considered to be), to raise its own army and navy, to collect taxes and to administer justice; the king and his council, however, refused to grant it monopoly rights to whaling and trade in Greenland out of a fear of antagonizing the Dutch.

Haabet ("The Hope") and two smaller ships departed Bergen on 2 May 1721 bearing Egede, his wife and four children, and forty other colonists. On 3 July they reached Nuup Kangerlua and established Hope Colony () with the erection of a portable house on Kangeq Island, which Egede christened the Island of Hope (Haabets Ø). Searching for months for descendants of the old Norse colonists, he found only the local Kalaallit people and began studying their language.

A common myth states that, as the Inuit had no bread nor any idea of it, Egede adapted the Lord's Prayer as "Give us this day our daily seal". Egede at first tried the word "mamaq" but it does not mean "food", as Hans Egede thought, but "how delicious!" This first attempt stems from 1724, when he had only been in the country for three years and he has probably often heard someone say "mamaq!" It was not long before he came up with the word "neqissat", "food". When Egede's son Poul published the four Gospels in print in 1744, he used the word "timiusaq". This word was already written down by Hans in 1725 and is used by Greenlanders as an explanation of how bread looks. The old dictionaries suggest that at that time one could use the word "timia" in the sense of "bone marrow" or, as Samuel Kleinschmidt wrote in his dictionary in 1871, "the inner, porous part of the leg or Horn". "Timiusaq" therefore originally means "it which resembles bone marrow ". Today, this word is used in it ecclesiastical languages in the sense of "wafer" and in North Greenland in the sense of "ship's custom".

By the end of the first winter, many of the colonists had been stricken with scurvy and most returned home as soon as they could. Egede and his family remained with a few others and in 1722 welcomed two supply ships the king had funded with the imposition of a new tax. His (now ship-borne) explorations found no Norse survivors along the western shore and future work was misled by the two mistaken beliefs  both prevalent at the time  that the Eastern Settlement would be located on Greenland's east coast (it was later established it had been among the fjords of the island's extreme southwest) and that a strait existed nearby communicating with the western half of the island. In fact, his 1723 expedition found the churches and ruins of the Eastern Settlement, but he considered them to be those of the Western. At the end of the year, he turned north and helped establish a whaling station on Nipisat Island. In 1724 he baptized his first child converts, two of whom would travel to Denmark and there inspire Count Zinzendorf to begin the Moravian missions.

In 1728, a royal expedition under Major Claus Paarss arrived with four supply ships and moved the Kangeq colony to the mainland opposite, establishing a fort named Godt-Haab ("Good Hope"), the future Godthåb. The extra supplies also allowed Egede to build a proper chapel within the main house. More scurvy led to forty deaths and abandonment of the site not only by the Danes but by the Inuit as well. Egede's book The Old Greenland's New Perlustration () appeared in 1729 and was translated into several languages, but King Frederick had lost patience and recalled Paarss's military garrison from Greenland the next year. Egede, encouraged by his wife Gertrud, remained with his family and ten sailors.

A supply ship in 1733 brought three missionaries and news that the king had granted 2,000 rixdollars a year to establish a new company for the colony under Jacob Severin. The Moravians (their leader was Christian David) were allowed to establish a station at Neu-Herrnhut (which became the nucleus of modern Nuuk, Greenland's capital) and in time a string of missions along the island's west coast. The ship also returned one of Egede's convert children with a case of smallpox. By the next year, the epidemic was raging among the Inuit and in 1735 it claimed Gertrud Egede. Hans carried her body back to Denmark for burial the next year, leaving his son Poul to carry on his work. In Copenhagen, he was named Superintendent of the Greenland Mission Seminary (Seminarium Groenlandicum) and in 1741 the Lutheran Bishop of Greenland. A catechism for use in Greenland was completed by 1747. He died on 5 November 1758 at the age of 72 in Stubbekøbing at Falster, Denmark.

Legacy
Egede became something of a national "saint" of Greenland. The town of Egedesminde (lit. "Memory of Egede") commemorates him. It was established by Hans's second son, Niels, in 1759 on the Eqalussuit peninsula. It was moved to the island of Aasiaat in 1763, which had been the site of a pre-Viking Inuit settlement. His grandson and namesake Hans Egede Saabye also became a missionary to Greenland and published a celebrated diary of his time there.

The Royal Danish Geographical Society established the Egede Medal in his honour in 1916. The medal is in silver and awarded 'preferably for geographical studies and researches in the Arctic countries'.

A crater on the Moon is named after him: the Egede crater on the south edge of the Mare Frigoris (the Sea of Cold). The historical fiction novel "The Prophets of Eternal Fjord" narrates a tale of a missionary priest under Egede's instruction embarking upon Greenland to convert its indigenous peoples to Christianity.

Statues of Hans Egede stand watch over Greenland's capital in Nuuk and outside of Frederik's Church (Marmorkirken) in Copenhagen. Egede's statue at Frederick's Church in Copenhagen was vandalized with the word "decolonize" spray-painted on its base on June 20, 2020, during worldwide protests against memorials of colonial figures. Another Egede statue in Nuuk, Greenland was likewise vandalized ten days later.  In a subsequent vote, 921 voted to keep the statue while 600 wanted it removed.

Hans Egede gave one of the oldest descriptions of a sea serpent, now believed to have been a giant squid. On 6 July 1734 he wrote that his ship was off the Greenland coast when those on board "saw a most terrible creature, resembling nothing they saw before. The monster lifted its head so high that it seemed to be higher than the crow's nest on the mainmast. The head was small and the body short and wrinkled. The unknown creature was using giant fins which propelled it through the water. Later the sailors saw its tail as well. The monster was longer than our whole ship".

Gallery

References

Sources
Bobé, Louis Hans Egede: Colonizer and Missionary of Greenland (Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1952)
Ingstad, Helge. Land under the pole star: a voyage to the Norse settlements of Greenland and the saga of the people that vanished (translated by Naomi Walford, Jonathan Cape, London: 1982)
Garnett, Eve To Greenland's icy mountains; the story of Hans Egede, explorer, coloniser missionary (London: Heinemann. 1968)
Barüske, Heinz Hans Egede und die Kolonisation Grönlands (Zeitschrift für Kulturaustausch, vol. 22 (1972) Nr.1)

External links

Hans Egede entry in online Norwegian history book (in Norwegian)
Hans Egede on Norwegian stamp
SS Hans Egede

1686 births
1758 deaths
18th-century Norwegian Lutheran clergy
University of Copenhagen alumni
People from Harstad
Danish explorers
Norwegian polar explorers
Scandinavian explorers of North America
Explorers from Denmark–Norway
Greenlandic polar explorers
City founders
Norwegian Lutheran missionaries
Lutheran missionaries in Greenland
Norwegian emigrants to Greenland
Greenlandic Lutheran clergy
17th-century Danish translators
Norwegian translators
Translators to Inuit
Danish Lutheran missionaries
Missionary linguists
18th-century explorers

Hans Egede


John Reilly Lewis (September 15, 1944 – June 9, 2016) was an American choral conductor who founded the Washington Bach Consort and was the music director of the Cathedral Choral Society. As a keyboard artist he specialised in baroque music, particularly the music of J. S. Bach.

Education and career
Born in 1944 in Vallejo, California, he received a bachelor's degree from the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music and a master's and doctorate from The Juilliard School.  A Fulbright Fellowship enabled him to spend a year at the Hochschule für Musik in Frankfurt am Main, where he studied conducting, organ and harpsichord.  Several years later, he spent a summer in France studying composition with Nadia Boulanger.

Career
From 1971 until his death, Lewis was organist and choirmaster at Clarendon United Methodist Church in Arlington, Virginia, where he led the adult choir, as well as choral and instrumental programs for youth. He led semiannual singalong presentations of Handel's Messiah (Handel) during Advent and Easter seasons, featuring guest soloists accompanied by full orchestra.  This was the first and the longest-running series of performances of Messiah presenting the complete oratorio in the Washington, D.C. area.

In November 2005, he performed Samuel Barber's Toccata Festiva for the second time in the Washington National Cathedral with Leonard Slatkin conducting.  He also performed the complete Bach Goldberg Variations in recital on multiple occasions and was a featured organ soloist with the National Symphony Orchestra.

Lewis's performing and conducting career included appearances with the Minnesota Orchestra, the New York Philharmonic, the Handel Festival, Halle, the Bachfest Leipzig, the Aspen Music Festival, the Cologne New Music Festival and the Mozart Festival in New York and Washington.  During a Chinese/American Festival in Taipei's main concert hall, he played the organ and later conducted the orchestra and chorus in 20th century works, including a world premiere by the Chinese composer Gordon Shi-Wen Chin. He made his National Symphony Orchestra debut in December 2002, guest conducting Handel's Messiah at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.

Honors and awards
Lewis received the Paul Hume Award from the Levine School of Music, for "outstanding commitment to enriching the cultural life of Washington". His work with children and youth includes the education and outreach programs of both the Cathedral Choral Society and the Washington Bach Consort. In April 2004, he received the Distinguished Washingtonian Award from the University Club of Washington, DC in honor of its centennial. In January 2006, Washingtonian magazine named Lewis as a 2005 "Washingtonian of the Year".
In 2010, Lewis was inducted in Washington, D.C. as a National Patron of Delta Omicron, an international, professional music fraternity.

Death
Lewis died of a heart attack on June 9, 2016, at his home in Arlington, Virginia. He is survived by his wife, Beth Lewis; daughter Lauren Currie Lewis; and grandson Ocea Currie.

References

1944 births
2016 deaths
Musicians from Washington, D.C.
Oberlin Conservatory of Music alumni
Juilliard School alumni
American choral conductors
American male conductors (music)
American classical organists
American male organists
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century organists
21st-century American conductors (music)
21st-century organists
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American keyboardists
Male classical organists
Fulbright alumni

J. Reilly Lewis


Salvia mellifera (Californian black sage, also known as seel by the Mahuna) is a small, highly aromatic, evergreen shrub of the genus Salvia (the sages) native to California, and Baja California, Mexico. It is common in the coastal sage scrub of Southern California and northern Baja California. Black sage has a dark appearance, especially during drought.

Description
Californian black sage is a perennial shrub that grows approximately  tall. It is covered with simple hairs with some glandular hairs, which makes it highly aromatic. The leaves are oblong-elliptic to obovate in shape and are about  long. The upper surface of the leaf is somewhat glabrous, while the lower surface of the leaf is hairy.

The inflorescence occurs in  wide clusters. The flowers are usually a pale blue or lavender color, and rarely a pale rose color. The upper lip of the flower is 2-lobed. The style and stamens are slightly exserted. The fruit produced by the black sage is a schizocarp composed of four  brown nutlets.

Ecology
Californian black sage grows in the coastal sage scrub and lower chaparral plant communities. It occurs from sea level to  elevation. Black sage is able to grow on a variety of different soils, including sandstone, shale, granite, serpentinite, and gabbro or basalt. It is semi-deciduous, depending on the location and severity of drought, shallow rooted, and drought tolerant by leaf curling rather than drought-avoiding through leaf drop.

Black sage readily hybridizes with three other coastal scrub Salvias: Salvia apiana (Californian white sage), Salvia leucophylla (San Luis purple sage), and Salvia clevelandii. It rarely hybridizes with the annuals Salvia columbariae and Salvia carduacea.

Traditional use
The Chumash people used a strong sun tea of the leaves and stems of the plant. This was rubbed on the painful area or used to soak one's feet. The plant contains diterpenoids, such as aethiopinone and ursolic acid, that are pain relievers.

Californian black sage also produces a nectar that black sage honey is made from. This honey is typically peppery and strong, and is prized as a rare honey due to the plant's dry climate. Black sage honey can only be made when specific rain conditions are met and the plant produces enough nectar.

See also
California chaparral and woodlands

Notes

External links

 Jepson Flora Project – Salvia mellifera
 USDA Forest Service: SPECIES:  Salvia mellifera
 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Treatment: Salvia mellifera

mellifera
Flora of California
Flora of Baja California
Natural history of the California chaparral and woodlands
Natural history of the California Coast Ranges
Natural history of the Channel Islands of California
Natural history of the Peninsular Ranges
Natural history of the San Francisco Bay Area
Natural history of the Santa Monica Mountains
Natural history of the Transverse Ranges
Plants used in traditional Native American medicine
Garden plants of North America
Drought-tolerant plants
Flora without expected TNC conservation status

Salvia mellifera


The FG-46 (a.k.a. EPKM and SpaB-170) is a Chinese spin stabilized solid rocket motor burning HTPB. It was developed by China Hexi Chemical and Machinery Corporation (also known as the 6th Academy of CASIC) for use in the Long March 2E on GTO missions. It first flew as a prototype SPTS-M14 on July 16, 1990 on the Badr A mission. It had its first commercial mission orbiting the AsiaSat 2 on November 28, 1995 and exactly one month later, on December 28 its second and last mission for EchoStar 1.

It has a total nominal mass of , of which  is propellant load and its burn out mass is . It has an average thrust of  with a specific impulse of 292 seconds burning for 87 seconds, with a total impulse of . It is spin stabilized at 40 rpm and the propellant mass can be reduced by up to  eight months before launch or up to  on the launch site.

References

Rocket engines of China
Solid-fuel rockets

FG-46


The National Front of Catalonia (, FNC) is a Catalan far-right and pro-independence political party, presented in 2013. It had a local councilor in Ripoll between 2019 and 2020. Their main ideological principles are Catalan nationalism and opposition to irregular immigration.

History

Foundation
The party was registered in 1999 with the same name as the National Front of Catalonia, which had dissolved in 1990. In 2013 Jordi Casacubera i Pérez, Pere Soler i Montoliu, Miquel Àngel Rodríguez i Fernàndez and Moisès Font i Casademont publicly launched the party. Jordi Casacuberta had been a member of the National Front of Catalonia, Catalan State, Republican Left of Catalonia,  and Reagrupament. Pere Soler and Miquel Àngel Rodríguez had been members of the Democratic Union of Catalonia, and Moisès Font had been councilor of Platform for Catalonia in Olot and territorial president of PxC in Girona.

Former members of the original FNC made a statement saying that when they had dissolved the FNC in 1990, they had approved in the last General Assembly that no-one would use the name in future, and that the ideology defended by the new FNC was different from the socialism that the original FNC stood for. On June 27, 2014, Jordi Casacuberta i Pere Soler re-introduced the party with the name of National Democratic Bloc in Girona. They were defined as social conservatives and republicans.

They wanted to present tenths of lists for the 2015 local elections, but finally they didn't do so. The party announced they would not participate in Catalan regional elections before independence in order to avoid dividing the vote.

2019 local elections
In the 2019 local elections, the party presented a list in Ripoll, with the same name as the National Front of Catalonia, dissolved in 1990. The first on the list was Sílvia Orriols Serra and the second candidate was Fina Guix, who had been a councillor for Convergència i Unió in the previous legislature. Alternative for Ripoll, the Republican Left of Catalonia, Together for Catalonia and the Socialists' Party of Catalonia pledged not to negotiate or work with the other two candidates from the FNC and Som Catalans, because they believed they were racist. The FNC denied this allegation. The party obtained 503 votes (9.44%) and Sílvia Orriols Serra was elected as a councillor.

During the 2020 coronavirus pandemic, Sílvia Orriols left the FNC because of differences with the party on how to «face the serious national situation and the problem of immigration». As she continued to be councillor, the FNC was left without representation.

2023 local elections
In the 2023 local elections, the party presented a total of 9 lists. Sergi Perramon, former member of the JNC and current general secretary of the Catalan Business Circle, and Maria Àngels Curtichs obtained the act of councilors in Manresa, and in the municipality of La Masó, with a candidacy led by former Junts councilor Albert Camps, obtained an absolute majority. In total, the FNC collected 3,529 votes throughout Catalonia.

Electoral performance

Parliament of Catalonia

References

External links

1999 establishments in Catalonia
Political parties in Catalonia
Catalan nationalist parties
Right-wing populism in Spain
Conservative parties in Spain

National Front of Catalonia (2013)