White tie, also called full evening dress or a dress suit, is the most formal evening Western dress code. For men, it consists of a black tail coat (alternatively referred to as a dress coat, usually by tailors) worn over a white dress shirt with a starched or pique bib, white piqué waistcoat and the white bow tie worn around a standing wing collar. Mid or high-waisted black trousers with galon, a braid of trim consisting of two silk stripes to conceal the outer seams of the trousers, along with court shoes (British English) (pumps in American English) complete the outfit. Orders, decorations and medals may be worn. Acceptable accessories include a black top hat, white gloves, a white scarf, a pocket watch, a white pocket square, and a boutonnière. Women wear full-length ball or evening gowns with evening gloves and, optionally, tiaras, jewellery, and a small handbag.

The dress code's origins can be traced back to the end of the 18th century. New fully black-coloured justaucorps styles emerged around the Age of Revolution, notably adopted by the bourgeois third estate of the Estates General of the Kingdom of France. Increasingly following the French Revolution, high society men abandoned the richly decorated justaucorps coats for more austere cutaway dress coats in dark colours, with cuts perhaps further inspired by the frocks and riding coats of country gentlemen. Gradually replacing also breeches, lacy dress shirts and jabots with plain white dress shirts, shorter waistcoats, white cravats and pantaloons, this became known as directoire style. By the early 19th-century Regency era, dark dress tailcoats with light trousers became standard daywear, while black and white became the standard colours for evening wear. Although the directoire style was replaced for daytime by black frock coats and bowties by mid-19th century, cutaway black dress tailcoats with white bowtie has remained established for formal evening wear ever since.

Despite the emergence of the more comfortable semi-formal black tie dress code in the 1880s, full evening dress tailcoats remained the staple. Towards the end of the Victorian era, white bow ties and waistcoats became the standard for full evening dress, contrasting with black bow ties and waistcoats or cummerbunds for black tie.

Following the social changes after the First World War and especially with the counterculture of the 1960s, white tie was increasingly replaced by black tie as default evening wear for more formal events. Since the late 20th century, white tie tends to be reserved for the most formal evening occasions, such as state dinners and audiences, in addition to formal balls and galas such as the Vienna Opera Ball in Austria, the Nobel Prize banquet in Stockholm, Mardi Gras balls in New Orleans, Commemoration balls at Oxford and May balls at Cambridge, and the Al Smith Memorial Dinner in New York. White tie still also occurs at traditional weddings and church celebrations, at certain societies and fraternities, as well as occasionally around some traditional European universities and colleges.

History

19th century: origins and development
Throughout the Early Modern period, western European male courtiers and aristocrats donned elaborate clothing at ceremonies and dinners: coats (often richly decorated), frilly and lacy shirts and breeches formed the backbone of their most formal attire. As the 18th century drew to a close, high society began adopting more austere clothing which drew inspiration from the dark hues and simpler designs adopted by country gentlemen. By the end of the 18th century, two forms of tail coat were in common use by upper-class men in Britain and continental Europe: the more formal dress coat (cut away horizontally at the front) and the less formal morning coat, which curved back from the front to the tails. From around 1815, a knee-length garment called the frock coat became increasingly popular and was eventually established, along with the morning coat, as smart daywear in Victorian England. The dress coat, meanwhile, became reserved for wear in the evening. The dandy Beau Brummell adopted a minimalistic approach to evening wear—a white waistcoat, dark blue tailcoat, black pantaloons and striped stockings. Although Brummell felt black an ugly colour for evening dress coats, it was adopted by other dandies, like Charles Baudelaire, and black and white had become the standard colours by the 1840s.

Over the course of the 19th century, the monotone colour scheme became a codified standard for evening events after 6 p.m. in upper class circles. The styles evolved and evening dress consisted of a black dress coat and trousers, white or black waistcoat, and a bow tie by the 1870s. The dinner jacket (black tie/tuxedo) emerged as a less formal and more comfortable alternative to full evening dress in the 1880s.

By the early 20th century, full evening dress meant wearing a white waistcoat and tie with a black tailcoat and trousers; white tie had become distinct from black tie. Despite its growing popularity, the dinner jacket remained the reserve of family dinners and gentlemen's clubs during the late Victorian period.

20th century
By the turn of the 20th century, full evening dress consisted of a black tailcoat made of heavy fabric weighing . Its lapels were medium width and the white shirt worn beneath it had a heavily starched, stiff front, fastened with pearl or black studs and either a winged collar or a type called a "poke", consisting of a high band with a slight curve at the front. After World War I, the dinner jacket became more popular, especially in the US, and informal variations sprang up, like the soft, turn-down collar shirt and later the double-breasted jacket; relaxing social norms in Jazz Age America meant white tie was replaced by black tie as the default evening wear for young men, especially at nightclubs. According to The Delineator, the years after World War I saw white tie "almost abandoned". But it did still have a place: the American etiquette writer Emily Post stated in 1922 that "A gentleman must always be in full dress, tail coat, white waistcoat, white tie and white gloves" when at the opera, yet she called the tuxedo "essential" for any gentleman, writing that "It is worn every evening and nearly everywhere, whereas the tail coat is necessary only at balls, formal dinners, and in a box at the opera."

It also continued to evolve. White tie was worn with slim-cut trousers in the early 1920s; by 1926, wide-lapelled tailcoats and double-breasted waistcoats were in vogue. The Duke of Windsor (then Prince of Wales and later Edward VIII) wore a midnight blue tailcoat, trousers and waistcoat in the 1920s and 1930s both to "soften" the contrast between black and white and allow for photographs to depict the nuances of his tailoring. The late 1920s and 1930s witnessed a resurgence in the dress code's popularity, but by 1953, one etiquette writer stressed that "The modern trend is to wear 'tails' only for the most formal and ceremonious functions, such as important formal dinners, balls, elaborate evening weddings, and opening night at the opera". It was the dress code for the Lord Mayor of London's Mansion House dinner until 1996.

The last president to have worn white tie at a United States presidential inauguration was President John F. Kennedy in 1961, who wore morning dress for his inauguration, and a white tie ensemble for his inauguration ball.

21st century
While rare in the early 21st century, it survives as the formal dress code for royal and public ceremonies and audiences, weddings, balls, and a select group of other social events in some countries.

Notable international recurrent white tie events include the Nobel Prize ceremony in Sweden and the Vienna Opera Ball in Austria.

In Scandinavia and the Netherlands, white tie is the traditional attire for doctoral conferments and is prescribed at some Swedish and Finnish universities, where it is worn with a top hat variant called a doctoral hat. In Sweden and Finland, a black waistcoat is worn with white tie for academic occasions in the daytime. In the Netherlands, the attendants of the graduate student, called paranymphs, will also wear white tie.

Some fraternities such as Freemasons and Odd Fellows wear dress coats to their meetings.

United Kingdom

In Britain, it is worn at certain formal occasions such as state banquets, City of London livery dinners and certain balls at Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, Edinburgh and St Andrews universities. The president and officers of the Oxford Union are still required to wear white tie at every debate but since the 1930s, other speakers are only required to wear black tie.

United States

A few state dinners at the White House apply white tie, such as the one held for Queen Elizabeth II in 2007. Other notable examples include the Gridiron Club Dinner in Washington, D.C., the Alfred E. Smith Memorial Foundation Dinner in New York City, in additions to a few debutante balls such as the International Debutante Ball in New York City, and the Veiled Prophet Ball in St. Louis.

In the southern United States, white tie is sometimes referred to as "costume de rigueur", adapted from French language due to the historical background of New France. It is sometimes used in invitations to masquerade balls and Mardi Gras celebrations, such as the Mardi Gras in Mobile in Alabama, or New Orleans Mardi Gras in Louisiana, emphasising the white tie expectations for men and full-length evening gowns for ladies.

When the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute Gala in New York City announced a white tie dress code in 2014, a number of media outlets pointed out the difficulty and expense of obtaining traditional white tie, even for the celebrity guests.

Composition

According to the British etiquette guide Debrett's, the central components of full evening dress for men are a white marcella shirt with a wing collar and single cuffs, fastened with studs and cufflinks; the eponymous white marcella bow tie is worn around the collar, while a low-cut marcella waistcoat is worn over the shirt. Over this is worn a black double-breasted barathea wool or ultrafine herringbone tailcoat with silk faced peak lapels. The trousers have two galon down the outside of both legs. The correct shoes are patent leather court shoes. Although a white scarf and evening overcoat remains popular in winter, the traditional white gloves, top hats, canes and cloaks are now rare. Women wear a full-length evening dress, with the option of jewellery, a tiara, a pashmina, coat or wrap, and long white gloves.

The waistcoat should not be visible below the front of the tailcoat, which necessitates a medium or high waistline and often suspenders (braces) for the trousers. As one style writer for GQ magazine summarises "The simple rule of thumb is that you should only ever see black and white not black, white and black again". While Debrett's accepts double cuffs for shirts worn with white tie, most tailors and merchants suggest that single, linked cuffs are the most traditional and formal variation acceptable under the dress code. Double cuffs are not frequently worn or recommended with white tie. Decorations may also be worn and, unlike Debrett's, Cambridge University's Varsity student newspaper suggests a top hat, opera cloak and silver-topped cane are acceptable accessories.

Gallery

References

Citations

Bibliography
 Philip Carter (January 2011). "Brummell, George Bryan (Beau Brummell) (1778–1840)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online ed. (subscription or UK public library membership required). Retrieved 28 September 2015.
 D. T. Jenkins (2003). Cambridge History of Western Textiles, vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 O. E. Schoeffler (1973). Esquire's encyclopedia of 20th century men's fashions. New York: McGraw-Hill
 Rosalind H. Williams (1982). Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-century France. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

External links

 White Tie Guide at Gentleman's Gazette

19th-century fashion
20th-century fashion
Formal wear
21st-century fashion

White tie


Viktor Arkhipovich Luferov (Russian: Виктор Архипович Луферов; May 20, 1945 – March 1, 2010) was a  Russian singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, poet, and performer. His songs were examples of the Russian music genre author song.

Life
Victor Luferov was born May 20, 1945, in Moscow. He studied at the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute and graduated from Gnessin State Musical College and Moscow Veterinary Academy. He worked as a laboratory assistant, billposter, janitor and fireman.

In the late 1960s, he founded and headed the music ensemble "Osenebri" which existed from 1967 to 1970. In February 1985, he founded the Theater of Song "Perekryostok" (The Crossroads), which nurtured and encouraged many emerging singers. It lasted until 2003 when it was closed for financial reasons. Luferov was a member of the creative association "First Circle" (which at various times included Yury Lores, Alexander Mirzayan, Vladimir Berezhkov, and Mikhail Kochetkov) and the Association of Russian Bards. He published seven CDs, four of them in the author's seven-disc anthology titled Every hunter wants to know... (Каждый охотник желает знать...).

Viktor Luferov was interested in ethnographic folklore, which reverberated in his musical creations.

He died of lymphoma on March 1, 2010, and was buried at the Florus and Laurus Church in the village of Yam in Domodedovsky District, Moscow Oblast.

References

Links
Facebook discussion page dedicated to Viktor Luferov
Viktor Luferov at website of creative union ASIA
Viktor Luferov at bards.ru
Links to selected music albums (CD) by Luferov
Selected MP3 records of songs by Viktor Luferov

1945 births
2010 deaths
Russian bards
Russian male singer-songwriters
Russian singer-songwriters
Soviet musicians
Soviet male singer-songwriters
Soviet singer-songwriters
20th-century Russian male singers

Viktor Luferov


YouPorn is a free pornographic video sharing website that launched in August 2006.

Ownership
YouPorn's own site reports that its owner is Midstream Media International N.V., seated in Willemstad, the capital city of Curaçao, an island in the southern Caribbean Sea that forms a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Sunny Freeman, a reporter pursuing a graduate degree in journalism at UBC, wrote one article in The Tyee calling the company "German-based". The site is run from a hosting service in Texas.

In 2011, YouPorn was purchased by the adult entertainment and IT company Manwin, owners of other popular pornographic websites such as Pornhub and SpankWire based in Luxembourg.

Bandwidth
 ExtremeTech reported YouPorn transferred an average of 950 TB per day, up from a reported figure of 3 TB per day in 2006.

Response
Concerns have surfaced over the inability to verify the age of the persons depicted in the videos, the possibility of copyrighted videos being uploaded to the site, and the possibility of privacy violations when private sex tapes are uploaded without the consent of all involved parties. In 2007 Vivid Entertainment took legal action against YouPorn, claiming that the streaming of copyrighted material was depriving it of revenue.

YouPorn has been called "a good role model for the sexually naive", as many of its homemade videos depict amateur couples having ordinary sex (known as "Amateur"), as opposed to the often unreal scenarios of commercial porn.

Data breaches
In February 2012, the site was hacked, with the details of over 1 million users leaked onto the Internet. MindGeek blamed this on the failings of a third-party chat service.

Blocking

Germany
German law does not allow hardcore pornography without an effective age verification system, and the German Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien (Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons) placed YouPorn on its index. As a result, since April 2007, the German site of the Google search engine (google.de) classified YouPorn.com as a hardcore pornography website and replaced it with a link to Chilling Effects, claiming that a "German regulatory body reported illegal material".

Following a request by Kirchberg, the owner of a competing pornography service (now defunct), German provider Arcor categorized YouPorn and a few other porn sites as hardcore pornographic and also blocked access to the website at the routing level in September 2007, affecting over 2 million users. The German Pirate Party promptly opened a proxy server so that Arcor customers could continue to easily access YouPorn.

Arcor lifted the block on September 17 because the IP address-based filter which had been set up for YouPorn adversely affected other sites. Kirchberg then sued, alleging that Arcor aided unfair competition by YouPorn, and on October 19, 2007 obtained a temporary injunction ordering Arcor to resume limiting the accessibility to YouPorn.com. On October 23, 2007, Arcor started to control access to YouPorn again, this time with a DNS-based approach that is easily circumvented, and successfully filed an appeal against the injunction.

Kirchberg has sent notices to 19 German ISPs demanding that YouPorn be granted access limitations, but none have complied. Efforts by Kirchberg to obtain injunctions regarding YouPorn from internet providers in Kiel and Düsseldorf were unsuccessful.

Singapore
In May 2008 it was reported that Singapore had blocked access to YouPorn and RedTube, in what a government officials described as "a symbolic statement".

Sri Lanka
In July 2009 Sri Lanka blocked access to 12 porn web sites including YouPorn, RedTube, Xvideos and Xhamster. On July 25, 2009 Sri Lanka Chief Magistrate Nishantha Hapuarachchi ordered the Telecommunications Regulatory Commission to block those 12 websites from all local Internet Service Providers.

India
The Government of India banned YouPorn in 2018, among other porn websites, after a Uttarakhand High Court court order demanding the same in a rape case where the perpetrators stated they were motivated to do so after watching online pornography.

Team YP
YouPorn sponsors an esports team known as Team YP. In July 2014, YouPorn stated their intentions to enter the professional esports scene by sponsoring either a Dota 2 or League of Legends team. On December 3, 2014, YouPorn announced their official entry into the Dota 2 scene with the acquisition of a Spanish team previously known as Play2Win. On June 9, 2015 Team YP announced that they had signed Super Smash Bros. player Jason "Bizzarro Flame" Yoon. Team YP's Street Fighter division consists of Valentin "Valmaster" Petit and Anton "Filipin0man" Herrera with the former being signed on September 23 and the latter being signed on October 8. In October 2015, Team YP announced they were searching for a Counter-Strike: Global Offensive team. They stated they wanted one all-male and one all-female team.

See also

Comparison of video services
Internet pornography
List of video hosting services
Porn 2.0

References

MindGeek
American erotica and pornography websites
Gratis pornography
Cypriot erotica and pornography websites
Internet properties established in 2006
Pornhub Network
Pornography in Los Angeles
Video hosting
Video on demand services
Internet censorship in India

YouPorn


Knick Knack is a 1989 American computer-animated short film produced by Pixar that was written and directed by John Lasseter. The short is about a snow globe snowman who wants to join the other travel souvenirs in a summer-themed party. However, the glass dome that surrounds him prevents him from doing so, thus leading to his many attempts to break out of his snow globe. Knick Knack is Pixar's fourth short and the final short produced during the company's tenure as a hardware company.

The short stands out from Lasseter's other early short films at Pixar in its reliance on pure comedy to drive the story. It was inspired by Tom and Jerry, Looney Tunes, and the work of animators Chuck Jones and Tex Avery. Lasseter and his wife, Nancy, collected snow globes and also enjoyed souvenirs from distant places and those elements made their way into the short as well. Singer Bobby McFerrin improvised the a cappella vocal jazz soundtrack to the film while watching a rough cut which was eventually left unchanged in its final edition.

Knick Knack premiered at the 1989 SIGGRAPH convention in Boston and was presented in 3D. The short has enjoyed positive reviews since its debut and has been screened as a part of numerous film festivals. The short has now been associated with Finding Nemo, with a remade version of the short being shown before it in that film's original theatrical runs.

Plot
On a bookshelf filled with vacation-themed souvenirs, a lonely and grumpy playboy knick-knack named Knick the Snowman (who is Frosty the Snowman's cousin, according to the audio commentary), who resides in a Nome, Alaska snow globe, wants to reach a female "Sunny Miami" knick-knack that shows an attractive blonde and tanned pool-lounger, wearing a blue speedo and sunglasses. Knick tries several unsuccessful methods to break out of the globe, which includes ramming the glass with the snow globe's igloo backdrop, using his carrot nose and a hammer on the glass, using a jackhammer (which causes his facial features to fall off), trying to cut the glass using a blowtorch and an igniter, and detonating TNT explosives. The latter causes the globe to fall over the edge. Knick notices an emergency exit in the base and frees himself just before he and the globe fall into a fishbowl where Knick sees an identical mermaid souvenir from "Sunny Atlantis" and starts gawking at her, this only backfires when he attempts to run towards her, the globe settles to the bottom and traps him again, much to his annoyance.

Background
In 1988, Pixar's third short film, Tin Toy, won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, the first computer-animated film to claim the award. It was also the first win for the hardware company, which was still struggling to sell its main product: the Pixar Image Computer. The key animator and director behind Tin Toy, John Lasseter, had once worked at Disney several years prior but was fired by unknowingly stepping on his superiors' toes with his support for computer animation. Now, Disney took notice of the Oscar win for Tin Toy and began a campaign to win Lasseter back.

Lasseter turned the studio's offer for a directorial position down, remarking to Pixar co-founder Ed Catmull, "I can go to Disney and be a director, or I can stay here and make history." Jeffrey Katzenberg, the then-head of Walt Disney Studios, had a reputation for being difficult and controlling. In contrast, Lasseter received complete creative freedom at Pixar's small animation division and was highly respected by his colleagues. In addition to capturing Disney's interest, Pixar owner Steve Jobs' interest in the animation group was invigorated, and he approved production of another short.

Production
After the headaches of animating Billy the baby in Tin Toy, Lasseter backed away from depicting human characters. The team all agreed to do something simpler that would not "drive us all crazy," according to producer Ralph Guggenheim. When watching Who Framed Roger Rabbit during the production of Tin Toy, Lasseter became inspired to create a Chuck Jones-type of cartoon. Rather than challenge the limitations of the computer as they had done in the previous shorts, the animators wanted to make a short based on geometric shapes instead, which was a strength of the computer. In a discussion with the group, Lasseter brought up famed Warner Bros. and MGM director Tex Avery, noting that his cartoons were wild and exuberant, yet not necessarily very complex. Lasseter collected snow globes and also enjoyed souvenirs from distant places; from those elements, Knick Knack—the only pure comedy among Lasseter's early short films at Pixar—began to fall into place.

The rest of the team were also fans of Tom and Jerry cartoons and the work of Chuck Jones and found the idea of cartoonish violence appealing. Animator Flip Phillips and production coordinator Deirdre Warin simultaneously hit on the idea of the snow globe falling into a fishbowl. Craig Good came up with the idea of an "iris out," a shrinking circle at the close, as a reference to Looney Tunes. A skeleton on the shelf in the short was a 3D model from an Ohio State University skeleton data set called George, though the Pixar team stretched George's arms for comic effect. Also distorted were the two female characters—the bikini-attired woman and a mermaid—whose breasts were ultra-exaggerated thanks to a technical director who was a pinup enthusiast.

The singer Bobby McFerrin created the musical soundtrack and a cappella vocal jazz track which he improvised while watching a rough cut of the film. As the rough cut ended, the placeholder credits read blah-blah-blah-blah, so he sang those words and it remained in the film's score. McFerrin did the score for free out of a belief that the film was cool to be involved with. Gary Rydstrom of Lucasfilm created the sound effects for the short.

Release and later re-releases
Knick Knack premiered at the 1989 SIGGRAPH in Boston. It was one of the last pieces of animation that Lasseter would animate personally during Pixar's years as an independent company. In 1990, it won the Best Short Film award at the Seattle International Film Festival. When Lasseter presented it at the London Film Festival in 1991, The Independent of London called it "a four-minute masterpiece" and The Guardian hailed Lasseter as "probably the closest thing to God that has ever graced the electronic images community." In 2001, Terry Gilliam selected it as one of the ten best animated films of all time. After Knick Knack, Pixar took a break from animated shorts and re-focused on animating television commercials to build income and hire new animators.

The film has been released in two versions, and each of these has been shown in both 3-D and 2-D. The original version was shown in 3D in 1989 at the SIGGRAPH program, and was released on the VHS and LaserDisc, Tiny Toy Stories, and also on the Toy Story deluxe CAV LaserDisc edition. The short was later released on May 30, 2003, in theaters with Finding Nemo. For this release, the film was re-rendered with design adjustments for the woman on the "Miami" knick-knack and the mermaid in the fishbowl. Both characters now have much smaller breasts and the mermaid is now wearing a seashell bra rather than just starfish pasties. Lasseter defended the changes by saying, "It wasn't big bad Disney coming in and insisting we do this … it was our own choice. It was just crossing the line for me personally as a father. So I decided to reduce [these characters'] breast size."

This updated version is preceded with the message "In 1989, six years before Toy Story, Pixar Animation Studios made this short film." This version was first made available with the Finding Nemo DVD & VHS. This version is subsequently on Nemo'''s Blu-ray, the Pixar Short Films Collection – Volume 1 DVD and Blu-ray, and on digital services that feature Pixar's shorts including Disney+. A 3-D version of the new edition played to the public as a short attached to the 2006 Disney Digital 3-D release of The Nightmare Before Christmas.

 References to Knick Knack in other media
In the Toy Story franchise, a book titled Knick Knack is often seen on a bookshelf along with other books named after Pixar shorts. Knick and his snow globe appear in Toy Story That Time Forgot.

Sunny Atlantis is seen on the shipwreck in the dentist's fish tank in Finding Nemo.

Sunny Miami appears on a passport in Up when Carl buys plane tickets.

During 2007–2008, a series of commercials released in the United Kingdom for Bupa featured the Knick Knack'' theme tune as their soundtrack.

A store at Pixar Pier at Disney California Adventure references this short film. The name of the store is Knick's Knacks. The sign at the front of the store displays Knick the snowman in his snow globe.

Notes

References

External links

1980s American animated films
1980s animated short films
1989 computer-animated films
1989 short films
1980s 3D films
American comedy short films
3D animated short films
Animated films without speech
Censored films
Fictional humanoids
Films about mermaids
Films with screenplays by John Lasseter
Pixar short films
Short films directed by John Lasseter
American animated short films
Fictional snowmen
Films about snowmen

Knick Knack


100 Best Workplaces in Europe is a ranking of the 100 workplaces in Europe performed each year by the Financial Times, in partnership with Great Place to Work. The list is based on employee surveys and a review of the company's culture. Two thirds of the total score is from employee responses to a 57 question survey on the culture of the company. The rest of the score is based on demographics, pay, benefits, culture, and community involvement.

The 2007 survey winner was the car manufacturer Ferrari of Italy.

Working conditions
Surveys (human research)
Employer awards
Works about labor

100 Best Workplaces in Europe


Nizhnekamsky District is a district of Tatarstan. It lies near the Kama (Chulman) River. Tatar, Russian, Chuvash and other people live in Nizhnekamsky District.
There is a famous Holy Spring in Krasny Klyuch near the town of Nizhnekamsk.
Nizhnekamsk town newspapers - Hezmattash Avazi ("Voice of the counterpart), etc.
Districts of Tatarstan

Nizhnekamsky District


Carlo Caffarra (1 June 1938 – 6 September 2017) was an Italian prelate of the Catholic Church. He was Archbishop of Bologna from 2003 until 2015, when he retired. His previous positions included President of the Pontifical John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family from 1981 to 1995 and Archbishop of Ferrara-Comacchio from 1995 to 2003. He was created a Cardinal in the consistory of 24 March 2006 by Pope Benedict XVI.

Early life
Caffarra was born on 1 June 1938 in Samboseto di Busseto (province of Parma), Emilia Romagna. He was educated at the Episcopal Seminary of Fidenza and the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, where he completed a doctorate in Canon law. He was ordained a priest on 2 July 1961 in Rome.

Beginning in 1965, he taught moral theology in the seminaries of Fidenza and Parma and later at the Studio Teologico Accademico Bolognese, the Università Cattolica in Milan, and at the Theological Faculty of Northern Italy. His academic specialty was the moral doctrine of marriage and the bioethics of human procreation. He also taught medical ethics in the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery at the Università Cattolica's campus in Rome.

Pope Paul VI named him a member of the International Theological Commission where he served from 1974 to 1984. In 1980, Pope John Paul II named him an expert advisor to the Synod of Bishops on Marriage and the Family. He was the first President of the Pontifical John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family from its establishment in 1980 until 1995 and founded sections of the same institute in the United States, Spain and Mexico. John Paul II appointed him a consultor to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in 1983. He was an advisor to John Paul II on sexual issues.

Bishop
Caffarra was named Archbishop of Ferrara-Comacchio on 8 September 1995, and consecrated on 21 October 1995 in the Cathedral of Fidenza by Giacomo Biffi, Archbishop of Bologna. He was installed on 4 November.

Caffarra was appointed Archbishop of the Bologna on 16 December 2003 and installed there on 15 February 2004.

Caffarra was a noted opponent of contraception. In 1988, Caffarra weighed the sin of condom use against acquiring the AIDS virus: "Even the smallest moral wrong is so much greater than any physical wrong. I know this is hard for some to accept when the dangers are great, but the Church is here to combat moral wrongs." The next year, Caffarra argued condom campaigns further exposed society to AIDS because "the means of protection are far from reliable".

On 24 August 2005 Caffarra held the central intervention "Freedom as liberation" at the annual  Rimini Meeting of Communion and Liberation. Subsequently, he and Marcello Pera presented the Ratzinger's book L'Europa di Benedetto nella crisi delle culture.

Cardinal
In the consistory of 24 March 2006, Pope Benedict XVI named Caffarra Cardinal-Priest of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini. On 7 May 2006 he was made a member of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples and the Executive Committee of the Pontifical Council for the Family. He was identified at the time as "a strong conservative" voice for the opposition of the Catholic Church to the modern world and one of Benedict XVI's less centrist appointments to the College of Cardinals.

In a note Caffarra published on 14 February 2010, he wrote "public officials who openly support same-sex marriage cannot consider themselves to be Catholic". He said: "It is impossible for the Catholic faith and support for putting homosexual unions on equal footing with marriage to coexist in one's conscience – the two contradict each other."

He participated as a cardinal elector in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis.

Pope Francis named him to participate in the Synod on the Family in October 2014, in advance of which Caffarra authored an essay that argued that Catholics who divorce and remarry must be denied access to the Eucharist because their situation "is in objective contradiction with that bond of love that unites Christ and the Church, which is signified and actualized by the Eucharist". Allowing them access would mean the Church recognize their extramarital sexual relations as legitimate and contradict Church doctrine on the indissolubility of marriage. When accused of opposing Pope Francis with that essay, he called the statement a "slander" and said he would rather be charged with taking a lover than harboring views not shared by the pope.

On 26 September 2015, Pope Francis appointed Caffarra to a five-year term as a member of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints.

His resignation as archbishop was accepted on 27 October 2015.

In September 2016, Caffarra and three other cardinals publicly asked Pope Francis to clarify five points of doctrine in the Pope's apostolic exhortation, Amoris laetitia. They issued this public letter after the Pope did not reply to the same query made privately. In June 2017, Caffarra wrote on behalf of the four asking Francis for an audience to discuss their questions. He said that varying interpretations were producing inconsistency: "What is sin in Poland is good in Germany, that what is prohibited in the Archdiocese of Philadelphia is permitted in Malta."

References

External links
unofficial collection of Cardinal Caffarra's speeches

1938 births
2017 deaths
People from Busseto
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore alumni
Roman Catholic archbishops of Bologna
21st-century Italian cardinals
21st-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops
Pontifical Council for the Family
International Theological Commission
Cardinals created by Pope Benedict XVI
Pontifical Gregorian University alumni
20th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops

Carlo Caffarra


Ascutney Mill Dam, also known as the Windsor Upper Dam and the Mill Pond Dam, is an arch-gravity dam which is one of the oldest and among the earliest storage dams in the United States. It is made of cut granite and is located in Windsor, Vermont in Windsor County near the Connecticut River, where it functioned as a source of hydropower and, later, hydroelectric power. It is on the ASCE list of historic civil engineering landmarks since 1970 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places (as Ascutney Mill Dam Historic District) since January 09, 2007.

The dam is built in the valley of the Mill Brook, a right tributary of the Connecticut River. The pond above the dam is known as the Mill Pond.

The Ascutney Mill Dam Company was formed to build the dam. Construction began in June 1834, and was finished in November. The purpose of the dam was to regulate seasonal water flow and provide hydropower for nearby sawmills and gristmills, which previously could not operate during periods of low water flow in Mill Brook. The dam allowed water to be stored in the impound during the winter for release during lower flow seasons.

Ithamar A. Beard was a New England engineer who surveyed the area and selected the site for the dam. Simeon Cobb and Joseph Mason were the contractors in charge of building the dam.

Background

History and planning

As early as 1767, several sawmills and gristmills were operating along the banks of Mill Brook in Windsor. However, during periods of low water flow the mills stood idle. Like many early towns, their location was often selected on the availability of such a resource. Water-powered mills have been used to save human labor since ancient times, but like all renewable energy resources, their power is not always available when needed. Sawmills were needed to provide boards for construction, and gristmills were necessary to ground grain into flour. In post-colonial Vermont, these mills were essential for the building and food supply needs of the growing cities.

The Ascutney Mill Dam Company was formed in 1833 to build the dam; it was the owner and was responsible for the dam's maintenance and operation. Despite problems during the financial panic of 1837, the company continued to operate the dam throughout the 19th century. Ithamar A. Beard was the engineer who surveyed the area and made the suggestion for the dam site.

The dam was constructed from mid-April 1834 to mid-November 1834. It was built of cut granite and was one of the first gravity-arch dams built in the United States. It is possibly the oldest masonry dam in the U.S. of any significant size. The original dam had a near-vertical downstream face built in an arch form.

Water filled up behind the dam each winter and was allowed to flow over the spillway the following spring. Water and ice falling over the crest and  to the ledge below caused noise and vibrations throughout the village which concerned citizens. Inspections found that the vibrations caused no damage to the dam, but a stone buttress was built below the dam to stop the vibrations.

Construction
Construction began in April 1834. Simeon Cobb and Joseph Mason were the contractors in charge of building the dam, and Allen Wardner, a prominent Windsor businessman and banker, superintended the work. The first step was to remove a small dam on the site. In June the first granite blocks were placed. The granite was obtained from nearby quarries. The overall construction was fairly simple and finished in November 1834, just seven months after construction began. The finished product was a  high and  long dam. The elevation above mean sea level is .

Condition
The National Program for Inspection of Non-Federal Dams performed an inspection of the dam in September 1978. The report was a Phase I inspection report from the Corps of engineers in Waltham, Massachusetts, New England division. The abstract of the report writes:

"The dam is considered to be in fair condition. The dam is believed to be safe under normal operating conditions. The test flood is the PMF. It is recommended that the owner engage the services of a qualified consultant to evaluate the stability of the dam. In addition to long term recommendations, there are several remedial measures which should be implemented."

The current policy of the state of Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation requires that only dams that are capable of impounding more than  need to be inspected. The Upper Windsor Dam does not fall within this category.

In the twentieth century, a concrete coping was placed on top of the structure to help ensure its stability in times of flood. The dam retains much of its original structure even though it is one of the oldest dams in the United States.

Topographic information

For the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the dam is sourced in the Windsor Windsor quad. The topographic map shows the mountainous terrain of the area. In fact, Windsor County, Vermont is home to a total of 202 mountain summits and peaks. The highest is Gillespie Peak which is at an elevation of  above sea level. The peak flow in the rivers near uneven terrain could fluctuate vastly between periods of high and low precipitation because much of the rainfall flows down to a discharge rather than infiltrating into the ground as it would in flat terrain. This flow could cause a large increase in flow rate and river height in a fairly small amount of time. The fact that the Connecticut River was just a few miles away also played a role in this. Because of all this, the timing of opening and closing the dam to regulate flow and produce hydroelectric power was important.

Nearby areas

Fishing
The Windsor Upper Dam area is a popular fishing spot, both fly fishing and baitcasting. Local fish include bluegill, brook trout and rock bass. Fishing is open to the public but a Vermont fishing license is required.

Footnotes

Further reading

External links

Dams in Vermont
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
Federal architecture in Vermont
Infrastructure completed in 1783
Dams completed in the 18th century
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Dams completed in 1834
Buildings and structures in Windsor, Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Windsor County, Vermont

Ascutney Mill Dam


was formerly a rural district located in Gunma Prefecture, Japan. The district is now divided between the city of Numata and the village of Shōwa.

Kitaseta District was created on December 7, 1878, with the reorganization of Gunma Prefecture into districts. It included nine villages, which were formerly part of the tenryō holdings of the Tokugawa shogunate in Kōzuke Province, three villages under the control of Maebashi Domain and three villages under joint control. With the establishment of the municipalities system on April 1, 1889, the area was organized into three villages (Kuroho, Itonose, Akagine).

On April 1, 1896, the district was merged with Tone District.

Former districts of Gunma Prefecture

Kitaseta District, Gunma


The polynomial remainder theorem states that:

for every polynomial  and every real number  the remainder of division of  by  is .

This theorem can easily be proven, but it is important for various calculations.

Proof
If we divided  by , it means that we found such  and , that

.

Let . Then  Q.E.D.

Example

Let's divide  by .

The theorem says that the remainder will be equal to

So, let's divide  by : .

We get that .

Uses
Sometimes, it can be difficult to calculate  fast (if the polynomial is very big). There exist methods of fast division by , so the computing the remainder could be easier than the whole function.

The theorem itself is also very important for theoretical use. Its proof can easily be applied to another similar objects with little changes. It is used, for example, in the fundamental theorem of algebra, in the form of a generalisation in complex numbers.

Mathematical theorems
Algebra

Polynomial remainder theorem


The South Staffordshire line is a partially mothballed and active former mainline that connects Burton-upon-Trent to Lichfield in Staffordshire and formerly then to the West Midlands towns of Walsall, Wednesbury, Dudley and Stourbridge. However, Dudley and Stourbridge were already joined to the Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway's (OW&WR) line just north of Dudley Station. It in essence, continued to Stourbridge (Dudley and Stourbridge were later to become part of the West Midlands conurbation) along with Wednesbury and Walsall.

History
The line was opened on 1 May 1850. This was soon to become part of the London and North Western Railway as far as Dudley station, which, in 1860, was opened as a joint venture with the OW&WR itself later to become amalgamated into the Great Western Railway. This station was built ten years after the original connection, however, and trains on the South Staffordshire line ran from Walsall to Stourbridge fairly early on. Dudley provided a useful change point for passengers from Walsall and Stourbridge to Wolverhampton, though this wasn't utilised to quite the effect the OW&WR had hoped, due to the similar connection at Dudley Port by the SSR with the Stour Valley Line – which today forms part of the West Midlands section of the West Coast Main Line.

To the north of Dudley Port, a link to the Birmingham Snow Hill- Wolverhampton Low Level route was added sometime between the inauguration of the line and the opening of Great Bridge South railway station in 1866.
All three of the above – Dudley Port, Great Bridge and Wednesbury – were completed in 1850, and the line was then opened accordingly. All other stations on the route – from Lichfield to Walsall – were in operation from 1849.

Route
The line began in Burton, it then continued to Lichfield Trent Valley running on a small section of the present-day Cross City Line. It then branched off south of Lichfield City towards Walsall via Hammerwich, Brownhills, Pelsall and Rushall. It then continued towards Dudley via Wednesbury, Great Bridge and Dudley Port. Dudley served as the terminus although some services continued onto Stourbridge on the Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway. This allowed passengers to change for the other lines on the route at Lichfield, Walsall, Dudley and Stourbridge. The line also had sidings on certain parts of the route. Including at Angelsea Sidings, a branch to Wednesbury via Darlaston and sidings at Great Bridge and Dudley Freightliner Terminal.

Landmarks
Just before Stourbridge, the OW&WR crossed (and continues to cross) the massive Stambermill Viaduct which is one of the local area's most significant landmarks.  It also crossed Parkhead Viaduct just south of Dudley and for several hundred yards passed through Dudley Railway Tunnel. Another landmark on the route is a restored bridge over the M6 Toll at Brownhills which was built during the opening of the M6 Toll

Places served by the line
The line officially began at Wychnor Junction, north of Lichfield, and ran through what is now Lichfield Trent Valley. Trains then continued through to Lichfield City itself. From there, a plethora of stations along the route were served. The line continued through to Walsall and a low-level station at Dudley Port. This was technically the terminus of the line but it was connected to the OW&WR's line which ran through Dudley itself from 1860. It went on to serve other stations at the south-western extremity of the Black Country at Stourbridge Junction.

The towns and villages the line formerly served before joining the OW&W railway were:

Burton
Branston
Barton-under-Needwood and Walton-on-Trent
Alrewas
Lichfield
Hammerwich (also served Burntwood)
Angelsea Sidings
Brownhills
Pelsall
Rushall
Walsall
Darlaston
Wednesbury
Great Bridge
Dudley Port
Dudley

Services
Services began at Burton and terminated at either Walsall, Dudley or Stourbridge. There was also a Derby to Wolverhampton service that also ran on the line via the northern end at Walsall to Lichfield. When the section to Dudley closed to passengers in 1964, the section Burton continued to see a rapid decline in use from passengers. Resulting in the section to Burton closing to passengers in 1965.

Closure

Burton-Lichfield-Walsall (Northern Section)

Freight used the northern section of the line after closure to passengers and continued to do so until the section from Angelsea Sidings to Ryecroft Junction was closed to all traffic when the last train ran along the line 1984 and the track being lifted two years later. A stub from Angelsea Sidings to Lichfield City continued to see usage to serve an oil terminal at Newtown, Brownhills until 2001, when the stub was closed and mothballed by Network Rail.

The section from Lichfield to Burton is still open for freight traffic and depot returning trains. The line sees one passenger service a week though is used for diversions.

Walsall-Dudley-Stourbridge (Southern Section)

Despite the withdrawal of all passenger services and the complete closure of the line between Dudley and Bilston by 1968, the southern section of the line was still used by freight as a diversion line and to serve Dudley Freightliner Terminal. The terminal closed in the 1989 although the line remained in use until the section between Walsall and Harts Hill on the border of Dudley and Brierley Hill closed in 1993.

Present day

Northern Section
The section from Burton to Lichfield remains open to freight traffic and Voyager trains returning to a depot near Barton. The section from Lichfield to Brownhills remains in situ but mothballed. Beyond Angelsea Sidings, the section from Angelsea Sidings to Rushall is now a public greenway. Ryecroft Junction remains open for traffic on the Chase Line and Sutton Park Line. There has been multiple proposals to reopening the northern section including:

The Connecting Communities: Expanding Access to the Rail Network suggested reopening of the Walsall-Lichfield section for passenger services with new stations at Pelsall and Brownhills which identified the line as viable for reopening but nothing has become of the scheme so far.

In a strategy which has been conducted by the West Midlands Combined Authority, the line from Walsall to Lichfield has been identified as a disused rail corridor and this means that it is a long-term ambition to reopen the line from Walsall to Lichfield as either a rail/light rail corridor. There are also aspirations to reconnect the disused line at Wednesbury to Walsall as either rail or tram.

In January 2019, the Campaign for Better Transport released a report identifying the line which was listed as Priority 2 for reopening. Priority 2 is for those lines which require further development or a change in circumstances (such as housing developments).

In June 2019, the Derby Telegraph released an article showing support being built for the reopening of the South Staffordshire Line for trams from Stourbridge Junction to Burton on Trent. According to the article, London-based consultants Cushman and Wakefield had put forward suggestions to both Staffordshire County Council and East Staffordshire Borough Council. Suggestions to look at bringing trams into Burton to promote tourism and businesses. Among the suggestions was the following quote from the article:

"The report is part of the Burton upon Trent Regeneration Strategy which looks at how the town could be improved for its shoppers, employees and visitors up to 2030 and beyond. If given the go-ahead, the tram trains could take passengers on the existing Ivanhoe freight line and the Worcester to Derby Main Line Railway between Stourbridge and Burton." This was among the support for reopening the Leicester to Burton upon Trent line which closed in the 1960s along with the South Staffordshire Line.

Southern Section
The line from Bescot to Harts Hills is mothballed and is planned to be converted from Potters Lane, Wednesbury to Brierley Hill via Dudley to become part of the Midland Metro. This would involve using sections of the former track. There is also plans to build a light rail test centre at Dudley and to test rolling stock of trams as far as Castle Hill using the Dudley Railway Tunnel. There would also be passive provisions to allow heavy rail to run the section for freight and potential passenger services. The proposals for the line include:

To run a passenger service between Stourbridge Junction and Brierley Hill, with stations being re-opened along the OWWR, including Brierley Hill. The service would be operated by railcars built by Parry People Movers, who built the Class 139 units which run the Stourbridge Town service.
The re-opening of the line between Wednesbury and Brierley Hill had received government backing, and work is set to begin in 2017.
The scheme had been awarded backing by the government and the councils at Sandwell and Dudley. The scheme also has been discussed by TfWM and Network Rail as the line remains from Stourbridge Junction to Walsall in the ownership of Network Rail.
TfWM (Transport for West Midlands) and Midland Metro Alliance began negotiations with Network Rail regarding the sharing of the line from the former level crossing at Potters Lane which is where the disused Wednesbury Town station was to Harts Hill where the goods trains would serve both the Round Oak Steel Terminal and connect to the mainline at Stourbridge Junction.
Currently, the negotiations are ongoing  but there are hopes to open a Light Railway Test Centre on the site of the former Dudley Freightliner Terminal. This would utilise the trackbed from the site of Dudley to Blowers Green which would include Dudley Railway Tunnel. Network Rail have so far agreed but have the right to break a clause to allow freight to re-use the line but there is a chance the line can be shared as the trams will run at street level from the former trackbed.

Restoring Your Railway

In March 2020, two bids were made to the Restoring Your Railway fund to get funds for a feasibility study into reinstating the section of the line between  and  and the line between  and . This bid was unsuccessful.

See also
Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway
London and North Western Railway

References

Sources

External links
Rail around Birmingham website
South Staffordshire site
Oxford, Worcester & Wolverhampton Railway on Railscot
South Staffs Rail website
Walsall to Lichfield Railway Line

Closed railway lines in the West Midlands (region)
Rail transport in Dudley
Rail transport in Walsall
Rail transport in Sandwell
Rail transport in Staffordshire
Railway lines opened in 1849
1849 establishments in England

South Staffordshire line


Dot matrix printing, sometimes called impact matrix printing, is a computer printing process in which ink is applied to a surface using a relatively low-resolution dot matrix for layout. Dot matrix printers are a type of impact printer that prints using a fixed number of pins or wires and typically use a print head that moves back and forth or in an up-and-down motion on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper. They were also known as serial dot matrix printers. Unlike typewriters or line printers that use a similar print mechanism, a dot matrix printer can print arbitrary patterns and not just specific characters.

The perceived quality of dot matrix printers depends on the vertical and horizontal resolution and the ability of the printer to overlap adjacent dots. 9-pin and 24-pin are common; this specifies the number of pins in a specific vertically aligned space. With 24-pin printers, the horizontal movement can slightly overlap dots, producing visually superior output (near letter quality or NLQ), usually at the cost of speed.

Dot matrix printing is typically distinguished from non-impact methods, such as inkjet, thermal, or laser printing, which also use a bitmap to represent the printed work. These  other technologies can support higher dot resolutions and print more quickly, with less noise. Unlike other technologies, impact printers can print on multi-part forms, allowing multiple copies to be made simultaneously, often on paper of different colors. It can also employ endless printing using continuous paper fanfolded with perforations for each page to be easily torn from each other.

History

In 1925, Rudolf Hell invented the Hellschreiber, an early facsimile-like dot matrixbased teletypewriter device, patented in 1929.

Between 1952 and 1954 Fritz Karl Preikschat filed five patent applications for his teletype writer 7 stylus 35 dot matrix aka PKT printer, a dot matrix teletypewriter built between 1954 and 1956 in Germany. Like the earlier Hellschreiber, it still used electromechanical means of coding and decoding, but it used a start-stop method (asynchronous transmission) rather than synchronous transmission for communication. In 1956, while he was employed at Telefonbau und Normalzeit GmbH (TuN, later called Tenovis), the device was offered to the Deutsche Bundespost (German Post Office), which did not show interest.
When Preikschat emigrated to the US in 1957 he sold the rights to utilize the applications in any countries (except for the USA) to TuN. The prototype was also shown to General Mills in 1957. An improved transistorized design became the basis for a portable dot matrix facsimile machine, which was prototyped and evaluated for military use by Boeing around 1966–1967.

IBM marketed its first dot matrix printer in 1957, the same year that the dye-sublimation printer entered the market.

In 1968, the Japanese manufacturer OKI introduced its first serial impact dot matrix printer (SIDM), the OKI Wiredot. The printer supported a character generator for 128 characters with a print matrix of 7 × 5. It was aimed at governmental, financial, scientific and educational markets. For this achievement, OKI received an award from the Information Processing Society of Japan (IPSJ) in 2013.

In 1970 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced an impact dot matrix printer, the LA30, as did Centronics (then of Hudson, New Hampshire): the Centronics 101. The search for a reliable printer mechanism led it to develop a relationship with Brother Industries, Ltd of Japan, and the sale of Centronics-badged Brother printer mechanisms equipped with a Centronics print head and Centronics electronics. Unlike Digital, Centronics concentrated on the low-end line printer marketplace with their distinctive units. In the process, they designed the parallel electrical interface that was to become standard on most printers until it began to be replaced by the Universal Serial Bus (USB) in the late 1990s.

DEC was a major vendor, albeit with a focus on use with their PDP minicomputer line. Their LA30 30 character/second (CPS) dot matrix printer, the first of many, was introduced in 1970. In the mid-1980s, dot-matrix printers were dropping in price, and began to outsell daisywheel printers, due to their higher speed and versatility. The Apple ImageWriter was a popular consumer dot matrix printer in the 1980s until the mid 1990s.

In the 1970s and 1980s, dot matrix impact printers were generally considered the best combination of cost and versatility, and until the 1990s were by far the most common form of printer used with personal and home computers.

Increased pincount of the printhead from 7, 8, 9 or 12 pins to 18, 24, 27, or 36 permitted superior print quality, which was necessary for success in Asian markets to print legible CJKV characters. Epson's 24-pin LQ-series rose to become the new de facto standard, at 24/180 inch (per pass – 7.5 lpi). Not only could a 24-pin printer lay down a denser dot-pattern in a single-pass, it could simultaneously cover a larger area and print more quickly. Although the text quality of a 24-pin was still visibly inferior to a true letter-quality printer such as a daisy wheel or laser printer, print quality was greatly superior to a 9-pin printer. As manufacturing costs declined, 24-pin printers gradually replaced 9-pin printers.

By the dawn of the 1990s, inkjet printers became more common as PC printers.

Design

Dot matrix printing uses a print head that moves back-and-forth, or in an up-and-down motion, on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a typewriter. However, unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced.

Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "wire" or "pin", which is driven forward by the power of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through small levers (pawls). Facing the ribbon and the paper is a small guide plate named ribbon mask holder or protector, sometimes also called butterfly for its typical shape. It is pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins. The plate may be made of hard plastic or an artificial jewel such as sapphire or ruby.

The portion of the printer that contains the pin is called the print head. When running the printer, it generally prints one line of text at a time. The printer head is attached to a metal bar that ensures correct alignment, but horizontal positioning is controlled by a band that attaches to sprockets on two wheels at each side which is then driven with an electric motor. This band may be made of stainless steel, phosphor bronze or beryllium copper alloys, nylon or various synthetic materials with a twisted nylon core to prevent stretching.  Actual position can be found out either by dead count using a stepper motor, rotary encoder attached to one wheel or a transparent plastic band with markings that is read by an optical sensor on the printer head (common on inkjets).

Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, dot matrix printers can create carbon copies and carbonless copies.

Although nearly all inkjet, thermal, and laser printers also print closely spaced dots rather than continuous lines or characters, it is not customary to call them dot matrix printers.

Dot matrix printers have one of the lowest printing costs per page.

They are able to use fanfold continuous paper with tractor holes.

Dot matrix printers create noise when the pins or typeface strike the ribbon to the paper, and sound-damping enclosures may have to be used in quiet environments.

They can only print lower-resolution graphics, with limited color performance, limited quality, and lower speeds compared to non-impact printers.

Variations

The common serial dot matrix printers use a horizontally moving print head. The print head can be thought of featuring a single vertical column of seven or more pins approximately the height of a character box. In reality, the pins are arranged in up to four vertically or/and horizontally slightly displaced columns in order to increase the dot density and print speed through interleaving without causing the pins to jam. Thereby, up to 48 pins can be used to form the characters of a line while the print head moves horizontally. The printing speed of serial dot matrix printers with moving heads varies from 30 to 1550 characters per second (cps).

In a considerably different configuration, so called line dot matrix printers use a fixed print head almost as wide as the paper path utilizing a horizontal line of thousands of pins for printing. Sometimes two horizontally slightly displaced rows are used to improve the effective dot density through interleaving. While still line-oriented, these printers for the professional heavy-duty market effectively print a whole line at once while the paper moves forward below the print head. Line matrix printers are capable of printing much more than 1000 cps, resulting in a throughput of up to 800 pages per hour.

A variation on the dot matrix printer was the cross hammer dot printer, patented by Seikosha in 1982. The smooth cylindrical roller of a conventional printer was replaced by a spinning, fluted cylinder. The print head was a simple hammer, with a vertical projecting edge, operated by an electromagnet. Where the vertical edge of the hammer intersected the horizontal flute of the cylinder, compressing the paper and ribbon between them, a single dot was marked on the paper. Characters were built up of multiple dots.

Manufacturers and models

DEC

Unlike the LA30's 80-column, uppercase-only 5 x 7 dot matrix, DEC's product line grew. New models included:
 LA36 (1974): supported upper and lower case, with up to 132 columns of text (also 30 CPS)
 LA34: a lower-cost alternative to the LA36
 LA38: an LA34 with more features
 LA180: 180 CPS
 LS120: 120 CPS
 LA120: 180 CPS (and some advanced features)
 LA12: a portable terminal – the DECwriter Correspondent

LA30
The DECwriter LA30 was a 30 character per second dot matrix printing terminal introduced in 1970 by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) of Maynard, Massachusetts

It printed 80 columns of uppercase-only 7 × 5 dot matrix characters across a unique-sized paper. The printhead was driven by a stepper motor and the paper was advanced by a noisy solenoid ratchet drive. The LA30 was available with both a parallel interface (LA30-P) and a serial interface (LA30-S); however, the serial LA30 required the use of fill characters during the carriage-return. In 1972, a receive-only variation named LA30A became available.

LA36
The LA30 was followed in 1974 by the LA36, which achieved far greater commercial success, becoming for a time the standard dot matrix computer terminal. The LA36 used the same print head as the LA30 but could print on forms of any width up to 132 columns of mixed-case output on standard green bar fanfold paper. The carriage was moved by a much-more-capable servo drive using a DC electric motor and an optical encoder / tachometer. The paper was moved by a stepper motor. The LA36 was only available with a serial interface but unlike the earlier LA30, no fill characters were required. This was possible because, while the printer never communicated at faster than 30 characters per second, the mechanism was actually capable of printing at 60 characters per second. During the carriage return period, characters were buffered for subsequent printing at full speed during a catch-up period. The two-tone buzz produced by 60-character-per-second catch-up printing followed by 30-character-per-second ordinary printing was a distinctive feature of the LA36, quickly copied by many other manufacturers well into the 1990s. Most efficient dot matrix printers used this buffering technique.

Digital technology later broadened the basic LA36 line into a wide variety of dot matrix printers.

LA50
The DEC LA50 was designed to be a "compact, dot matrix" printer. When in graphic mode (as opposed to text mode), the printhead can generate graphic images. When in (bitmap) graphics mode, the LA50 can receive and print Sixel graphics format.

Centronics 101

The Centronics 101 (introduced 1970) was highly innovative and affordable at its inception. Some selected specifications:
 Print speed: 165 characters per second
 Weight: 155 pounds (70.3 kg)
 Size: 27 ½" W x 11 ¼" H x 19 ¼ D (approx. 70 cm x 29 cm x 49 cm)
 Shipping: 200 pounds (approx. 91 kg), wooden crate, unpacked by removal of 36 screws
 Characters: 62, 10 numeric, 26 upper case and 26 special characters (no lower case)
 Character size: 10 characters per inch (10 "pitch")
 Line spacing: 6 lines per inch (6 LPI)
 Vertical control: punched tape reader for top of form and vertical tab
 Forms thickness: original plus four copies
 Interfaces: Centronics parallel, optional RS-232 serial

IBM 5103

The IBM 5103 was the only IBM printer that could be attached to the IBM 5100, an early day portable computer. Printing was 8 DPI, 10 pitch, 6 LPI, and capable of printing bidirectionally from a 128 character set. Two models were offered: 80 and 120 characters per second.

Near Letter Quality (NLQ)

Near Letter Quality mode—informally specified as almost good enough to be used in a business letter—endowed dot-matrix printers with a simulated typewriter-like quality. By using multiple passes of the carriage, and higher dot density, the printer could increase the effective resolution. In 1985, The New York Times described the use of "near letter-quality, or NLQ" as "just a neat little bit of hype" but acknowledged that they "really show their stuff in the area of fonts, print enhancements and graphics."

NLQ printers could generally be set to print in "draft mode", in which case a single pass of the print head per line would be used. This produced lower quality print at much higher output speed.

PC usage
In 1985, PC Magazine wrote "for the average personal computer user dot matrix remains the most workable choice". At the time, IBM sold Epson's MX-80 as their IBM 5152.

Another technology, inkjet printing, which uses the razor and blades business model (give away the razor handle, make money on the razor blade) has reduced the value of the low cost for the printer: "a price per milliliter on par with liquid gold" for the ink/toner.

Personal computers
In June 1978, the Epson TX-80/TP-80, an 8-pin dot-matrix printer mainly used for the Commodore PET computer, was released. This and its successor, the 9-pin MX-80/MP-80 (introduced in 1979–1980), sparked the popularity of impact printers in the personal computer market. The MX-80 combined affordability with good-quality text output (for its time). Early impact printers (including the MX) were notoriously loud during operation, a result of the hammer-like mechanism in the print head. The MX-80 even inspired the name of a noise rock band. The MX-80's low dot density (60 dpi horizontal, 72 dpi vertical) produced printouts of a distinctive "computerized" quality. When compared to the crisp typewriter quality of a daisy-wheel printer, the dot-matrix printer's legibility appeared especially bad. In office applications, output quality was a serious issue, as the dot-matrix text's readability would rapidly degrade with each photocopy generation.

PC software
Initially, third-party printer enhancement software offered a quick fix to the quality issue. General strategies were:
 doublestrike (print each line twice), and
 double-density mode (slow the print head to allow denser and more precise dot placement).

Some newer dot-matrix impact printers could reproduce bitmap images via "dot-addressable" capability. In 1981, Epson offered a retrofit EPROM kit called Graftrax to add this to many early MX series printers. Banners and signs produced with software that used this ability, such as Broderbund's Print Shop, became ubiquitous in offices and schools throughout the 1980s.

As carriage speed increased and dot density increased (from 60 dpi up to 240 dpi), with some adding color printing, additional typefaces allowed the user to vary the text appearance of printouts. Proportional-spaced fonts allowed the printer to imitate the non-uniform character widths of a typesetter, and also darker printouts. 'User-downloadable fonts' gave until the printer was powered off or soft-reset. The user could embed up to two NLQ custom typefaces in addition to the printer's built-in (ROM) typefaces.

Contemporary use
The desktop impact printer was gradually replaced by the inkjet printer. When Hewlett-Packard's patents expired on steam-propelled photolithographically produced ink-jet heads, the inkjet mechanism became available to the printer industry. For applications that did not require impact (e.g. carbon-copy printing), the inkjet was superior in nearly all respects: comparatively quiet operation, faster print speed, and output quality almost as good as a laser printer. By 1995, inkjet technology had surpassed dot matrix impact technology in the mainstream market and relegated dot matrix to niche applications.

, dot matrix impact technology remains in use in devices and applications such as:
 Cash registers,
 ATMs,
 Banking, passbook and cashier's checks,
 Time cards and parking stubs,
 Multi-layer contracts for signature,
 Fire alarm systems,
 Point-of-sale terminals,
 British and Irish fire stations for turnout sheets,
 Applications requiring continuous output on fan-fold paper.

Thermal printing is gradually supplanting them in some of these applications, but full-size dot-matrix impact printers are still used to print multi-part stationery. For example, dot matrix impact printers are still used at bank tellers and auto repair shops, and other applications where use of tractor feed paper is desirable such as data logging and aviation. Most of these printers now come with USB interfaces as a standard feature to facilitate connections to modern computers without legacy ports.

Notes

See also
 Daisy wheel printing
 ESC/P
 Dye-sublimation printer
 IBM Proprinter
 Typeball printer

References

External links

 Flatbed Dot Matrix Printers
 Printek
 Erwin Tomash's The U.S. Computer Printer Industry

Impact matrix printers

fr:Imprimante#Imprimante à aiguilles ou imprimante matricielle
American inventions
20th-century inventions
Computer-related introductions in 1970

Dot matrix printing


Decaydance Records is the vanity label of Pete Wentz, Patrick Stump (of Fall Out Boy) and Travis McCoy (of Gym Class Heroes). It is an impression of the Fueled by Ramen record label. It uses the Pete Wentz's trademark 'Batheart' as its logo.

Other websites
 Official website

Independent record labels

Decaydance Records


GST was a group of computer companies based in Cambridge, England, founded by Jeff Fenton in June 1979. The company worked with Atari, Sinclair Research, Torch Computers, Acorn Computers, Monotype Corporation and Kwik-Fit, amongst others.

The group included:

 GST Computer Systems: the original name of the company.
 GST Professional Services: a software consultancy that was sold and became OTIB A.T.
 GST Software Products: produced retail software, most notably Timeworks Publisher.
 GST Training Centre: a class based software training provider in Cambridgeshire, UK.
 Electric Software: a games software label, producing titles for home computers such as the Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, and MSX-compatible models in the early 1980s.

GST Computer Systems started as a contract software development company. In 1983, it  became involved with Sinclair Research, producing the 68K/OS operating system  (later rejected by Sinclair) and development software for the Sinclair QL. In 1985 it was approached by Atari Corporation to port products from the QL on to the just to be launched Atari ST. The word processing package 1st Word was bundled with every Atari ST for the first two years of its life and GST became the leading software supplier for the Atari ST platform.

In 1987 GST developed its first desktop publishing application, Timeworks Publisher. This was sold in the US by Timeworks, Inc. (a Chicago based software publisher) as Publish-It!. This product went on to become the world-leading budget DTP product until competition from Microsoft Publisher in 1993 caused the eventual demise of Timeworks, Inc. The product was sold under new names including NEBS PageMagic (changed after objections from Adobe), Macmillan Publisher, Canon Publisher, and many other brands, distinguished by use of the  file extension. The latest version was sold as Greenstreet Publisher 4 and is downwards file compatible with earlier versions.

In 2001 GST merged with eGames Europe as a new company, Greenstreet Software. It remains a developer and publisher of computer software for Windows operating systems. In July 2008 the company was reconstructed and now trades as Greenstreet Online Limited.

In November 2012, Greenstreet Online Limited was declared insolvent, and went into voluntary liquidation.

See also
 GEM/5

References

External links
greenstreet Softwrap product announcement

Defunct software companies of the United Kingdom
Defunct computer companies of the United Kingdom
Software companies established in 1979
Software companies disestablished in 2001
1979 establishments in England
2001 disestablishments in England
British companies disestablished in 2001
British companies established in 1979

GST Computer Systems


Anjali Gopalan (born September 1, 1957) is a gay rights activist in India. She specifically focuses on HIV/AIDS. She forced the Indian government to pay attention to people with HIV/AIDS. The Indian government had to give more money to help people with HIV/AIDS. The government also made a law that doctors have to give good medical care to people with this disease.

Gopalan was born in India. Her father was in the army, so they moved around a lot. She went to school in India and the United States. She went to Lady Shri Ram College. She studied politics, journalism, and international development.

Gopalan worked as a journalist in India. She moved to New York City. She became a social worker and saw how HIV/AIDS affected people. She returned to India to take care of her parents. She then began to inform her community about HIV/AIDS in India.

References

"Anjali Gopalan." Newsmakers, vol. 1, Gale, 2013. Biography In Context, Accessed 3 May 2018.

1957 births
Living people
Indian activists
HIV/AIDS activists

Anjali Gopalan


Sayed Haider Raza  (22 February 1922 – 23 July 2016) was an Indian painter who lived and worked in France for most of his career. Born on 22 February 1922 in Kakkaiya (District Mandla), Central Provinces, British India (present-day Madhya Pradesh), Raza moved to France in 1950, marrying the French artist Janine Mongillat in 1959. Following her death from cancer in 2002, Raza returned to India in 2010, where he would live until his death on 28 July 2016.

Having maintained strong ties with India throughout his career, Raza was an acclaimed for his art both there and in France. He was awarded the Padma Shri in 1981, Fellowship of the Lalit Kala Academi in 1984, Padma Bhushan in 2007, and Padma Vibhushan in 2013. He was conferred with the Commandeur de la Legion d'honneur (Legion of Honour) on 14 July 2015.

His seminal work Saurashtra sold for 16.42 crore ($3,486,965) at a Christie's auction in 2010.

Early life and education

Sayed Haider Raza was born in Kakkaiya,  Mandla district, Madhya Pradesh, to Sayed Mohammed Razi, the Deputy Forest Ranger of the district and Tahira Begum. It was here where he spent his early years, completed primary education, and took to drawing at the age of 12. He moved to Damoh (also in Madhya Pradesh) at 13; where he completed his high school education from Government High School, Damoh.

After high school, he studied further at the Nagpur School of Art, Nagpur (1939–43), followed by Sir J. J. School of Art, Mumbai (1943–47), before moving to France in October 1950 to study at the École Nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts (ENSB-A), Paris (1950-1953) on a Government of France scholarship. After his studies, he traveled across Europe, and continued to live and exhibit his work in Paris. He was later awarded the Prix de la critique in Paris in 1956, becoming the first non-French artist to receive the honor.

Art career

Early career

Sayed Haider Raza, had his first solo show when he was 24 in 1946 at Bombay Art Society Salon, and was awarded the Silver Medal of the society.

His work evolved from painting expressionistic landscapes to abstract ones. From his fluent water colours of landscapes and townscapes executed in the early 1940s, he moved toward a more expressive language, painting landscapes of the mind.

Raza carefully crafted his career to become an inspiration to two generations of artists. The year of 1947 proved to be a very important year for him. First, his mother died. Then, he co-founded the revolutionary Bombay Progressive Artists' Group (PAG) (1947–1956) along with K. H. Ara and F. N. Souza. This group set out to break free from the influences of European realism in Indian art and bring Indian inner vision (Antar gyan) into the art. The group had its first show in 1948. A revolutionary amount of art was created by the people in this group from 1940 to 1990. Raza's father died the same year his mother had died in Mandla. The majority of his four brothers and sister, migrated to Pakistan, after the partition of India. In the early years, the group continued its close rapport. Krishen Khanna speaks of the first exhibition Raza, Akbar Padamsee and F. N. Souza mounted together at the Gallery Cruz in Paris. "Souza and Padamsee painted in a quasi-modern fashion. Raza, however, made a throwback to the Mughal period, creating jewel-like water colours, with the pigment rubbed in with a shell. He was vastly successful and acquired by important collectors."

Once in France, he continued to experiment with currents of Western Modernism, moving from Expressionist modes towards greater abstraction and eventually incorporating elements of Tantrism from Indian scriptures. Whereas his fellow contemporaries dealt with more figural subjects, Raza chose to focus on landscapes in the 1940s and 50s, inspired in part by a move to France. In 1956, he was awarded the prestigious Prix de la Critique, this was a monumental award to the art scene in India.

In 1962, he became a visiting lecturer at the University of California in Berkeley, USA. Raza was initially enamored of the bucolic countryside of rural France. Eglise is part of a series which captures the rolling terrain and quaint village architecture of this region. Showing a tumultuous church engulfed by an inky blue night sky, Raza uses gestural brushstrokes and a heavily impasto-ed application of paint, stylistic devices which hint at his later 1970s abstractions.

The "Bindu" and beyond

By the 1970s Raza had grown increasingly unhappy and restless with his own work and wanted to find a new direction and deeper authenticity in his work, and move away from what he called the 'plastic art'. His trips to India, especially to caves of Ajanta - Ellora, followed by those to Varanasi, Gujarat and Rajasthan, made him realize his role and study Indian culture more closely, the result was "Bindu", which signified his rebirth as a painter.  The Bindu came forth in 1980, and took his work deeper and brought in, his new-found Indian vision and Indian ethnography.  One of the reasons he attributes to the origin of the "Bindu", have been his elementary school teacher, who on finding him lacking adequate concentration, drew a dot on the blackboard and asked him to concentrate on it. The "Bindu" is related to Indian philosophy of being the point of all creation. The reason this interested Raza so much is because he was looking for new inspiration for his art and this created a new point of creation for himself.

After the introduction of "BUNDU" (a point or the source of energy), he added newer dimensions to his thematic oeuvre in the following decades, with the inclusion of themes around the Tribhuj (Triangle), which bolstered Indian concepts of space and time, as well as that of "prakriti-purusha" (the cosmic substance and the energy or the spirit respectively), his transformation from an expressionist to a master of abstraction and profundity, was complete. His multiple works of art with the bindu is what truly tied him to his Indian roots and culture. This art created a sense of pride for his culture. The bindu is now widely regarded as a trademark for Raza and he said in 2010 that "It's the centre of my life".

Raza abandoned the expressionistic landscape for a geometric abstraction and the "Bindu". Raza perceived the Bindu as the center of creation and existence progressing towards forms and color as well as energy, sound, space and time.

His work took another leap in 2000, when he began to express his increasingly deepened insights and thoughts on Indian spiritual, and created works around the Kundalini, Nagas, and the Mahabharat.

Public contributions
For the promotion of art among Indian youth, he established the Raza Foundation in India which gives the Annual Raza Foundation Award to young artists in India.
The Raza Foundation in France, based in the artist village of Gorbio, runs the Estate of Sayed Haider Raza.

Later years and death
In 2011, a few years after the death of his wife, S.H. Raza decided to move back from France to New Delhi, where he continued to work several hours a day up until his death on 22 July 2016, at the age of 94, in New Delhi. His last wish being laid to rest in his hometown Mandla beside his father's grave was fulfilled. He was buried in Mandla city's kabristan.

Awards
 1946: Silver Medal, Bombay Art Society, Mumbai
 1948: Gold Medal, Bombay Art Society, Mumbai
 1956: Prix de la critique, Paris
 1981: Padma Shri; the Government of India
 1984: Fellowship of the Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi
 1992–1993: Kalidas Samman, Government of Madhya Pradesh
 2004: Lalit Kala Ratna Puraskar, Lalit Kala Academy, New Delhi
 2007: Padma Bhushan; the Government of India
 2013: Padma Vibhushan; the Government of India
 2013: one of the greatest living global Indian legends ... NDTV INDIA
 2014: D. Litt (Honoris Causa), Indira Kala Sangit Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh, Chhattisgarh
 2015: Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur (the Legion of Honour); Republic of France
 2015: D. Litt (Honoris Causa), Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh

Solo exhibitions
 2016; Nirantar, Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata
 2015: Galerie Lara Vincy, Paris, "Raza: Paintings"
 2015: Akar Prakar, Kolkata, "Aarambh – Raza at 93"
 2015: Art Musings, Mumbai, "Aarambh @ 93: Solo Show of SH Raza"
 2014: Grosvenor Vadehra, London, "SH Raza – Pyaas"
 2014: Sovereign FZE, Dubai, "Raza: Paysage, Select Works 1950s – 1970s"
 2014: Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, "SH Raza - Parikrama – Around Gandhi"
 2013: Akar Prakar, Kolkata, "Shabd- bindu – A show of recent works by SH Raza & poetry by Ashok Vajpeyi"
 2013: Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Antardhwani"
 2012: ICIA, The Art Trust, Mumbai, "SH Raza – Solo Show"
 2012: Art Musings, Mumbai, "SH Raza: Vistaar"
 2012: Grosvenor Gallery, London, "Bindu Vistaar"
 2011: Vadehra Art Gallery & Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi, "SH Raza, Punaraagman"
 2010: Flora Jansem Gallery, Raza Ceramiques, Paris
 2010: Galerie Patrice Trigano, Paris, "Sayed Haider Raza, Œuvres 1950-2001"
 2010: Akar Prakar Art Gallery, Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Jaipur, Delhi, INDIA in 2010
 2010: Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Recent Works – SH Raza"
 2008: Art Alive Art Gallery, Delhi, India in 2008
 Exhibition Magnificent Seven at Art Alive Gallery
 2007: Ayran Art Gallery, Mumbai, New Delhi, Hong Kong, "SH Raza - Celebrating 85 Years of living Legend"
 2007: RL Fine ARTS, New York, "SH Raza: Master of Colors – Selected Works"
 2007: The Arts Trust at the ICIA, Mumbai, "SH Raza- Solo Show"
 2007: National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi, "Swati – S.H. Raza"
 2006: TAO Art Gallery, Mumbai, "Rang Ras – S.H. Raza"
 2006: RL Fine Arts, New York, SH Raza: Selected Works
 2006: Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Raza"
 2006: Hong Kong, Aryan Art Gallery, "Raza: Metamorphosis"
 2005: Aryan Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Raza – Recent Works"
 2005: Saffronart & Berkeley Square Gallery, London & New York, "SH Raza: Summer 2005"
 2004: Art Musings, Mumbai, "SH Raza"
 2003: Berlin, The Fine Art Resource, "SH Raza: Paintings from 1996 to 2003"
 2001: Delhi Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Mindscapes: The Sacred Search: a select collection of works from 1951- 2002 by Raza"
 1999: Gallery 54, New York, "Raza"
 1997: Roopankar Museum of Fine Arts, Bharat Bhavan, Bhopal
 1997: Jehangir Art Gallery Mumbai
 1997: National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi.
 1997: Vadhera Art Gallery & Chemould Gallery, Bhopal, Mumbai & New Delhi, "Raza: Avartan 1991-1996"
 1994: The Art Rental Corporate, Group Michael Ferrier, Échirolles, Grenoble
 1992: Jehangir Nicholson Museum, National Centre for Performing Arts, Mumbai
 1992: Courses Arts Lalouvesc, France
 1991: Gallery Eterso, Cannes, "Bindu ou la quête de l'essentiel", 28 June – 17 August
 1991: Palais de Carnolès, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Menton, "Raza: Rétrospective 1952-1991"
 1991: Chemould Gallery, Bombay, "Raza Anthology 1980-1990"
 1988: Chemould Gallery, Bombay; Koloritten Galleri, Stavanger, Norway
 1987: The Head of the artist, Grenoble
 1985: Galerie Pierre Parat, Paris
 1984: Chemould Gallery, Bombay
 1982: Gallery Loeb, Bern, Switzerland; Gallery JY Noblet, Grenoble
 1980: Galleriet, Oslo
 1976: Mumbai, Gallery Chemould at the Jehangir Art Gallery, Raza, 26 February – 1 March 1976.
 1975: Sanremo, Galleria Matuzia, Raza, 4 – 31 October 1975.
 1969: Paris, Galerie Lara Vincy, Raza: Peintures Recentes, 27 November 1969 – 5 January 1970.
 1968: Bombay, Gallery Chemould, Raza, 15 – 27 April 1968.
 1968: Toronto, Gallery Dresdnere, Raza – Recent Oil Paintings, 25 October – 9 November 1968.
 1968: Cologne, Dom Galerie, Sayed Haider Raza, 26 March – 4 May 1968.
 1967: Paris, Galerie Lara Vincy, 1967.
 1966: Düsseldorf, Tecta Galerie, Raza – Paris: 25 Oil Paintings from 1962- 1966, 6 October – 10 November 1966.
 1963 Cologne, Dom Galerie, Raza, June – July 1963.
 1964: Paris, Galerie Lara Vincy, Raza: Peintures récentes, 18 November 1964 – 10 January 1965.
 1962: Galerie Dresdnere, Montreal
 1962:  Galerie Lara Vincy, Paris, Raza, 15 July 1962.
 1961: Paris, Galerie Lara Vincy, Raza, 19 April- 18 May 1961.
 1960: Montreal, Galerie Dresdnere, Autumn 1960.
 1959: Montreal, Galerie Dresdnere, Raza: Peintures et Gouaches, 5th – 19th MAY 1959.
 1958: Galerie Lara Vincy, Paris, "Raza - Prix de la Critique 1956. Peintures et gouaches" (April–May)
 1956: Galerie Saint-Placide, Paris, "Raza"
 1950: Charles Petrat's Institute of foreign Languages, Mumbai (September)
 1950: The IFL International Centre, Bombay, "SH Raza: Farewell Exhibition of Paintings" (September)
 1948: Exhibition Hall, New Delhi, "Raza: 100 paintings of Kashmir", organised by Rudolf Von Leyden, (September)
 1947: Bombay Art Society, "Raza's Watercolour Landscapes", (November)
 1946: First solo exhibition at the Bombay Art Society Salon

Selected Biennales
 1956: Venice Biennale, Italy.
 1957: Biennale 57, Pavillon de Marsan, Paris, France.
 1958: Bienal de São Paulo, Brazil.
 1958: Biennale, Brussels, Belgium.
 1958: Biennale of Young Contemporary Painters, Bruges, Belgium.
 1958: Venice Biennale, Italy.
 1961: Biennale of Tokyo, Japan.
 1962: Salon Comparaisons, Paris, France.
 1963: Biennale du Maroc, Rabat, Morocco.
 1964: Biennale de Menton, France.
 1966: Biennale de Menton, France.
 1966: Salon Comparaisons, Paris.
 1968: Biennale de Menton, France.
 1972: Biennale de Menton, France.
 1976: Biennale de Menton, France.
 1978: Biennale de Menton, France.
 1986: Bienal de la Habana, Havana, Cuba

Further reading
 S.H Raza, by Soufiane Bensabra, Les Éditions de la Différence, Paris, 2020
 "Yet Again: Nine New Essays on Raza", by Ashok Vajpeyi, Mapin Publishing Pvt, Ahmedabad, India, 2015.
 "SH Raza: The Journey of a Master", published by Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, 2014.
 "Understanding Raza: Many Ways of Looking at a Master", Ashok Vajpeyi (ed.), Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, 2013.
 "My Dear: Letters Between Sayed Haider Raza & Krishen Khanna", Ashok Vajpeyi, The Raza Correspondence, Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, 2013.
 "SH Raza: Vistaar", by Ranjit Hoskote, Ashok Vajpeyi, Yashodhara Dalmia and Avni Doshi, Afterimage Publishing, Mumbai, 2012.
 "Mandalas", by Olivier Germain-Thomas, Art Alive Gallery, 2009 (originally published in French by Éditions Albin Michel, Paris, 2004)
 Raza by Alain Bonfand, Les Éditions de la Différence, Paris, 2008. (French and English Edition. Lithographs Estampes - Éditions de La Différence edited by Éditions de la Différence, Paris)
 A Life in Art: S.H. Raza, by Ashok Vajpeyi, Art Alive Masters Series Books, New Delhi, 2007
 Raza: A Life in Art, by Ashok Vajpeyi, 2007, Art Alive Gallery, New Delhi. .
 Passion....Life and Art of Raza, by Sayed Haider Raza, Ashok Vajpeyi (Ed.). 2005, Rajkamal Books. .
 "Atma Ka Taap", by Rajkamal Prakashan, S.H. Raza et Ashok Vajpeyi, New Delhi, 2004.
 "Raza. An Introduction to his Painting", by Michel Imbert, Rainbow Publishers, Noida, 2003.
 "Raza: Text-Interview-Poetry, Ravi Kumar" by ashok Vajpeyi, New Delhi, 2002.
 Bindu: Space and time in Raza's vision, by Geeti Sen. Media Transasia, 1997. .
 Jacques Lassaigne, "Raza", in Cimaise, n°79, Paris, January–February–March 1967

References

External links

The Raza Foundation
Documentary produced by NDTV
Interview with Sansad TV (in Hindi)

1922 births
2016 deaths
Indian male painters
Indian Muslims
Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art alumni
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Fellows of the Lalit Kala Akademi
People from Mandla
People from Damoh
École des Beaux-Arts alumni
Indian expatriates in France
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in arts
20th-century Indian painters
21st-century Indian painters
Indian watercolourists
Indian Expressionist painters
Painters from Madhya Pradesh
20th-century Indian male artists
21st-century Indian male artists

S. H. Raza