On November 22, 1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States, was assassinated while riding in a presidential motorcade through Dealey Plaza in Dallas, Texas. Kennedy was in the vehicle with his wife, Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, and Connally's wife, Nellie, when he was fatally shot from the nearby Texas School Book Depository by former U.S. Marine Lee Harvey Oswald. The motorcade rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where Kennedy was pronounced dead about 30 minutes after the shooting; Connally was also wounded in the attack but recovered. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the presidency upon Kennedy's death.

After the assassination, Oswald returned home to retrieve a pistol; he shot lone Dallas policeman J. D. Tippit shortly afterwards. Around 70 minutes after Kennedy and Connally were shot, Oswald was apprehended by the Dallas Police Department and charged under Texas state law with the murders of Kennedy and Tippit. At 11:21 a.m. on November 24, 1963, as live television cameras covered Oswald's being moved through the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters, he was fatally shot by Dallas nightclub operator Jack Ruby. Like Kennedy, Oswald was taken to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where he soon died. Ruby was convicted of Oswald's murder, though the decision was overturned on appeal, and Ruby died in prison in 1967 while awaiting a new trial.

After a 10-month investigation, the Warren Commission concluded that Oswald assassinated Kennedy, that Oswald acted entirely alone, and that Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald. Four years later, New Orleans DA Jim Garrison brought the only trial for Kennedy's murder, against businessman Clay Shaw; Shaw was acquitted. Subsequent federal investigations—such as the Rockefeller Commission and Church Committee—agreed with the Warren Commission's general findings. In its 1979 report, the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) concluded that Kennedy was likely "assassinated as a result of a conspiracy". The HSCA did not identify possible conspirators, but concluded that there was "a high probability that two gunmen fired at [the] President". The HSCA's conclusions were largely based on a police Dictabelt recording later debunked by the U.S. Justice Department.

Kennedy's assassination is still the subject of widespread debate and has spawned many conspiracy theories and alternative scenarios; polls have found that a majority of Americans believe there was a conspiracy. The assassination left a profound impact and was the first of four major assassinations during the 1960s in the United States, coming two years before the assassination of Malcolm X in 1965, and five years before the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Kennedy's brother Robert in 1968. Kennedy was the fourth U.S. president to be assassinated and is the most recent to have died in office.

Background

Kennedy

In 1960, John F. Kennedy—then a U.S. senator from Massachusetts—was elected the 35th president of the United States alongside Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. Kennedy's tenure saw the height of the Cold War, and much of his foreign policy was dedicated to countering the Soviet Union and communism. As president, he authorized operations to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba; these culminated in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961, during which he declined to directly involve American troops. The following year, Kennedy de-escalated the Cuban Missile Crisis, regarded as the closest that humanity has come to nuclear holocaust.

In 1963, Kennedy decided to travel to Texas to smooth over frictions in the state's Democratic Party between liberal U.S. Senator Ralph Yarborough and conservative Governor John Connally. The visit was first agreed upon by Kennedy, Johnson, and Connally during a meeting in El Paso in June. The motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced soon thereafter. Kennedy also viewed the Texas trip as an informal launch of his 1964 reelection campaign.

Oswald

Lee Harvey Oswald (born 1939) was a former U.S. Marine who had served in Japan and the Philippines and had espoused communism since reading Karl Marx at the age of 14.  After accidentally shooting his elbow with an unauthorized handgun and fighting an officer, Oswald was court-martialed twice and demoted. In September 1959, he received a dependency discharge after claiming his mother was disabled. A 19-year-old Oswald sailed on a freighter from New Orleans to France and then traveled to Finland, where he was issued a Soviet visa.

Oswald defected to the Soviet Union, and in January 1960 he was sent to work at a factory in Minsk, Belarus. In 1961, he met and married Marina Prusakova, with whom he had a child. In 1962, he returned to the United States with a repatriation loan from the U.S. Embassy. He settled in the Dallas/Fort Worth area, where he socialized with Russian émigrés—notably George de Mohrenschildt. In March 1963, a bullet narrowly missed General Edwin Walker at his Dallas residence; witnesses observed two conspicuous men. Relying on Marina's testimony, a note left by Oswald, and ballistic evidence, the Warren Commission attributed this assassination attempt to Oswald.

In April 1963, Oswald returned to his birthplace, New Orleans, and established an independent chapter of the pro-Castro Fair Play for Cuba Committee, of which he was the sole member. While passing out pro-Castro literature alongside unknown compatriots, Oswald was arrested after scuffling with anti-Castro Cuban exiles. In late September 1963, Oswald traveled to Mexico City, where, according to the Warren Commission, he visited the Soviet and Cuban embassies. The Mexico City trip is contentious; an internal House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) report claimed that the embassy visitor was an Oswald impostor.
On October 3, Oswald returned to Dallas and found work at the Texas School Book Depository on Dealey Plaza. During the workweek he lived separately from Marina at a Dallas rooming house. On the morning of the assassination, he carried a long package (which he told coworkers contained curtain rods) into the Depository; the Warren Commission concluded that this package contained Oswald's disassembled rifle.

November 22

Kennedy's arrival in Dallas and route to Dealey Plaza

On November 22, Air Force One arrived at Dallas Love Field at 11:40 a.m. President Kennedy and the First Lady boarded a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible limousine to travel to a luncheon at the Dallas Market Center. Other occupants of this vehiclethe second in the motorcade—were Secret Service Agent Bill Greer, who drove; Special Agent Roy Kellerman in the front passenger seat; and Governor Connally and his wife Nellie, who sat just forward of the Kennedys. Four Dallas police motorcycle officers accompanied the Kennedy limousine. Vice President Johnson, his wife Lady Bird, and Senator Yarborough rode in another convertible.

The motorcade's meandering 10-mile route through Dallas was designed to give Kennedy maximum exposure to crowds by passing through a suburban section of Dallas, and Main Street in Downtown Dallas, before turning right on Houston Street. After another block, the motorcade was to turn left onto Elm Street, pass through Dealey Plaza, and travel a short segment of the Stemmons Freeway to the Trade Mart. The planned route had been reported in newspapers several days in advance. Despite concerns about hostile protestorsKennedy's UN Ambassador Adlai Stevenson had been spat on in Dallas in 1961Kennedy was greeted warmly by enthusiastic crowds.

Shooting

Kennedy's limousine entered Dealey Plaza at 12:30 p.m. CST. Nellie Connally turned and commented to Kennedy, who was sitting behind her, "Mr. President, they can't make you believe now that there are not some in Dallas who love and appreciate you, can they?" Kennedy's reply"No, they sure can't"were his last words.

From Houston Street, the limousine made the planned left turn onto Elm, passing the Texas School Book Depository. As it continued down Elm Street, multiple shots were fired: about 80% of the witnesses recalled hearing three shots. The Warren Commission concluded that three shots were fired and noted that most witnesses recalled that the second and third shots were bunched together. Shortly after Kennedy began waving, some witnesses heard the first gunshot, but few in the crowd or motorcade reacted, many interpreting the sound as a firecracker or backfire.

Within one second of each other, Governor Connally and Mrs. Kennedy turned abruptly from their left to their right. Connally—an experienced hunter—immediately recognized the sound as that of a rifle and turned his head and torso rightward, noting nothing unusual behind him. He testified that he could not see Kennedy, so he started to turn forward again (turning from his right to his left), and that when his head was facing about 20 degrees left of center, he was struck in his upper right back by a shot he did not hear, then shouted, "My God. They're going to kill us all!"

According to the Warren Commission and the HSCA, Kennedy was waving to the crowds on his right when a shot entered his upper back and exited his throat just beneath his larynx. He raised his elbows and clenched his fists in front of his face and neck, then leaned forward and leftward. Mrs. Kennedy, facing him, put her arms around him. Although a serious wound, it likely would have been survivable.

According to the Warren Commission's single-bullet theory—derided as the "magic bullet theory" by conspiracy theorists—Governor Connally was injured by the same bullet that exited Kennedy's neck. The bullet created an oval-shaped entry wound near his right shoulder, struck and destroyed several inches of Connally's right fifth rib, and exited his chest just below his right nipple, puncturing and collapsing his lung. That same bullet then entered his arm just above his right wrist and shattered his right radius bone. The bullet exited just below the wrist at the inner side of his right palm and finally lodged in his left thigh.

As the limousine passed the grassy knoll, Kennedy was struck a second time, by a fatal shot to the head. The Warren Commission made no finding as to whether this was the second or third bullet fired, and concluded—as did the HSCA—that the second shot to strike Kennedy entered the rear of his head. It then passed in fragments through his skull, creating a large, "roughly ovular"  hole on the rear, right side of the head, and spraying blood and fragments. His brain and blood spatter landed as far as the following Secret Service car and the motorcycle officers.

Secret Service Agent Clint Hill was riding on the running board of the car immediately behind Kennedy's limousine. Hill testified to the Warren Commission that he heard one shot, jumped onto the street, and ran forward to board the limousine and protect Kennedy. Hill stated that he heard the fatal headshot as he reached the Lincoln, "approximately five seconds" after the first shot that he heard. After the headshot, Mrs. Kennedy began climbing onto the limousine's trunk, but she later had no recollection of doing so. Hill believed she may have been reaching for a piece of Kennedy's skull. He jumped onto the limousine's bumper, and he clung to the car as it exited Dealey Plaza and sped to Parkland Memorial Hospital. After Mrs. Kennedy crawled back into her seat, both Governor and Mrs. Connally heard her repeatedly saying: "They have killed my husband. I have his brains in my hand."

Bystander James Tague received a minor wound to the cheek—either from bullet or concrete curb fragments—while standing by the triple underpass. Nine months later, the FBI removed the curb, and spectrographic analysis revealed metallic residue consistent with the lead core in Oswald's ammunition. Tague testified before the Warren Commission and initially stated that he was wounded by either the second or third shot of the three shots that he remembered hearing. When the commission counsel pressed him to be more specific, Tague testified that he was wounded by the second shot.

Aftermath in Dealey Plaza

As the motorcade left Dealey Plaza, some witnesses sought cover, and others joined  police officers to run up the grassy knoll in search of a shooter. No shooter was found behind the knoll's picket fence. Among the 178 witnesses who testified to the Warren Commission, 78 were unsure of the shots' origin, 49 believed they came from the Depository, and 21 thought they came from the grassy knoll. No witness ever reported seeing anyone—with or without a gun—immediately behind the knoll's picket fence at the time of the shooting.

Lee Bowers was in a two-story railroad switch tower  behind the grassy knoll's picket fence; he was watching the motorcade and had an unobstructed view of the only route by which any shooter could flee the grassy knoll; he saw no one leaving the scene. Bowers testified to the Warren Commission that "one or two" men were between him and the fence during the assassination: one was a familiar parking lot attendant and the other wore a uniform like a county courthouse custodian. He testified seeing "some commotion" on the grassy knoll at the time of the assassination: "something out of the ordinary, a sort of milling around, but something occurred in this particular spot which was out of the ordinary, which attracted my eye for some reason which I could not identify".

At 12:36 p.m., teenager Amos Euins approached Dallas police Sergeant D.V. Harkness to report having seen a "colored man ... leaning out of the window [with] a rifle" on the sixth floor of the Depository during the assassination; in response, Harkness radioed that he was sealing off the Depository. Witness Howard Brennan then approached a police inspector to report seeing a shooter—a white man in khaki clothing—in the same window. Police broadcast Brennan's description of the man at 12:45 pm. Brennan testified that, after the second shot, "This man... was aiming for his last shot ... and maybe paused for another second as though to assure himself that he had hit his mark." Witness James R. Worrell Jr. also reported seeing a gun barrel emerge from a sixth floor Depository window. Bonnie Ray Williams, who was on the fifth floor of the Depository, stated that the rifle's report was so loud and near that ceiling plaster fell onto his head.

Oswald's flight, killing of J. D. Tippit, and arrest

When searching the sixth floor of the Depository, two deputies found an Italian Carcano M91/38 bolt-action rifle. Oswald had purchased the used rifle the previous March under the alias "A. Hidell" and had it delivered to his Dallas P.O. box. The FBI found Oswald's partial palm print on the barrel, and fibers on the rifle were consistent with those of Oswald's shirt. A bullet found on Governor Connally's hospital gurney and two fragments found in the limousine were ballistically matched to the Carcano.

Oswald left the Depository and traveled by bus to his boarding house, where he retrieved a jacket and revolver. At 1:12 p.m., police officer J. D. Tippit spotted Oswald walking in the residential neighborhood of Oak Cliff and called him to his patrol car. After an exchange of words, Tippit exited his vehicle; Oswald then shot Tippit three times in the chest. As Tippit lay on the ground, Oswald fired a final shot into Tippit's right temple. Oswald then calmly walked away before running as witnesses emerged.

As Dallas police officers conducted a roll call of Depository employees, Oswald's supervisor Roy Truly realized that Oswald was absent and notified the police. Based on a false identification of Oswald, Dallas police raided a library in Oak Cliff before realizing their mistake. At 1:36 p.m., the police were called after a conspicuous Oswald, tired from running, was seen sneaking into the Texas Theatre without paying. With the film War Is Hell still playing, Dallas policemen arrested Oswald after a brief struggle in which Oswald drew his empty gun. He denied shooting anyone and claimed he was being made a "patsy" because he had lived in the Soviet Union.

Kennedy declared dead; Johnson sworn in

At 12:38 p.m., Kennedy arrived in the emergency room of Parkland Memorial Hospital. Although Kennedy was still breathing after the shooting, his personal physician, George Burkley, immediately saw that survival was impossible. After Parkland surgeons  performed futile cardiac massage, Kennedy was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m., 30 minutes after the shooting. CBS host Walter Cronkite broke the news on live television.

The Secret Service was concerned about the possibility of a larger plot and urged Johnson to leave Dallas and return to the White House, but Johnson refused to do so without any proof of Kennedy's death. Johnson returned to Air Force One around 1:30p.m., and shortly thereafter, he received telephone calls from advisors McGeorge Bundy and Walter Jenkins advising him to depart for Washington, D.C. immediately. He replied that he would not leave Dallas without Jacqueline Kennedy and that she would not leave without Kennedy's body. According to Esquire, Johnson did "not want to be remembered as an abandoner of beautiful widows".

At the time of Kennedy's assassination, the murder of a president was not under federal jurisdiction. Accordingly, Dallas County medical examiner Earl Rose insisted that Texas law required him to perform an autopsy. A heated exchange between Kennedy's aides and Dallas officials nearly erupted into a fistfight before the Texans yielded and allowed Kennedy's body to be transported to Air Force One. At 2:38 p.m., with Jacqueline Kennedy at his side, Johnson was administered the oath of office by federal judge Sarah Tilghman Hughes aboard Air Force One shortly before departing for Washington with Kennedy's coffin.

Immediate aftermath

Autopsy

President Kennedy's autopsy was performed at Bethesda Naval Hospital in Maryland on the night of November 22. Jacqueline Kennedy had selected a naval hospital as the postmortem site as President Kennedy had been a naval officer during World War II. The autopsy was conducted by two physicians: naval commanders James Humes and J. Thornton Boswell; Humes led the procedure. Under pressure from the Kennedy family and White House staffers to expedite the procedure, the physicians conducted a "rushed" and incomplete autopsy. Kennedy's personal physician, Rear Admiral George Burkley, signed a death certificate on November 23 and recorded that the cause of death was a gunshot wound to the skull.

Three years after the autopsy, Kennedy's brain—which had been removed and preserved for later analysis—was found to be missing from the National Archives. Conspiracy theorists often claim that the brain may have shown that the headshot entered from the front. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the president's brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, destroyed the brain to hide the extent of the president's chronic illnesses and consequent medication. Some autopsy X-rays and photographs have also been lost.

Most historians regard the autopsy as the "most botched" segment of the government's investigation. The HSCA forensic pathology panel concluded that the autopsy had "extensive failings", including failure to take sufficient photographs, failure to determine the exact exit or entry point of the head bullet, not dissecting the back and neck, and neglecting to determine the angles of gunshot injuries relative to body axis. The panel further concluded that the two doctors were not qualified to have conducted a forensic autopsy. Panel member Milton Helpern—Chief Medical Examiner for New York City—said that selecting Humes (who had only taken a single course on forensic pathology) to lead the autopsy was "like sending a seven-year-old boy who has taken three lessons on the violin over to the New York Philharmonic and expecting him to perform a Tchaikovsky symphony".

Funeral

Following the autopsy, Kennedy lay in repose in the East Room of the White House for 24 hours. President Johnson issued Presidential Proclamation 3561, declaring November 25 to be a national day of mourning, and that only essential emergency workers be at their posts. The coffin was then carried on a horse-drawn caisson to the Capitol to lie in state. Hundreds of thousands of mourners lined up to view the guarded casket, with a quarter million passing through the rotunda during the 18 hours of lying in state. Even in the Soviet Union—according to a memo by FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover—news of the assassination "was greeted by great shock and consternation and church bells were tolled in the memory of President Kennedy".

Kennedy's funeral service was held on November 25, at St. Matthew's Cathedral, with the Requiem Mass led by Cardinal Richard Cushing. About 1,200 guests, including representatives from over 90 countries, attended. Although there was no formal eulogy, Auxiliary Bishop Philip M. Hannan read excerpts from Kennedy's speeches and writings. After the service, Kennedy was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. An eternal flame was lit at his burial site in 1967.

Killing of Oswald

On Sunday, November 24, at 11:21 a.m., as Oswald was being escorted to a car in the basement of Dallas Police headquarters for the transfer from the city jail to the county jail, he was shot by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby. The shooting was broadcast live on television. Robert H. Jackson of the Dallas Times Herald photographed the shooting, for which he was awarded the 1964 Pulitzer Prize for Photography.

Drifting in and out of consciousness, Oswald was taken by ambulance to Parkland Memorial Hospital; he was treated by the same surgeons who had tried to save Kennedy. The bullet had entered his lower left chest but had not exited; major heart blood vessels such as the aorta and inferior vena cava were severed, and the spleen, kidney, and liver were hit. Despite surgical intervention and defibrillation, Oswald died at 1:07 p.m.

Arrested immediately after the shooting, Ruby testified to the Warren Commission that he had been distraught by Kennedy's death and that killing Oswald would spare "Mrs. Kennedy the discomfiture of coming back to trial". He also stated he shot Oswald on the spur of the moment when the opportunity presented itself, without considering any reason for doing so. Initially, Ruby wished to defend himself in his trial until his lawyer Melvin Belli dissuaded him: Belli argued that Ruby had an episode of psychomotor epilepsy and was thus not responsible. Ruby was convicted, but the decision was overturned on appeal. While awaiting retrial in 1967, Ruby died of a pulmonary embolism, secondary to cancer. Like Oswald and Kennedy, Ruby was declared dead at Parkland Hospital.

Films and photographs of the assassination

Standing on the pergola wall some  from the road, tailor Abraham Zapruder recorded Kennedy's killing on 26 seconds of silent 8 mm film — known as the Zapruder film. Frame 313 captures the exact moment at which Kennedy's head explodes. Life magazine published frame enlargements from the Zapruder film shortly after the assassination. The footage itself was first publicly shown at the 1969 trial of Clay Shaw, and on television in 1975 by Geraldo Rivera. In 1999, an arbitration panel ordered the federal government to pay $615,384 per second of film to Zapruder's heirs, valuing the complete film at $16 million (equivalent to $ in 2022).

Zapruder was one of at least 32 people in Dealey Plaza known to have made film or still photographs at or around the time of the shooting. Most notably among the photographers, Mary Moorman took several photos of Kennedy with her Polaroid, including one of Kennedy less than one-sixth of a second after the headshot.

As well as Zapruder, Charles Bronson, Marie Muchmore, and Orville Nix filmed the assassination, although at farther distances than Zapruder. Of the three, only Nix—who filmed the assassination from the opposite side of Elm Street from Zapruder, capturing the grassy knoll—actually recorded the fatal shot. In 1966, Nix claimed that, after he gave the film to the FBI, the duplicate that they returned had frames "missing" or "ruined". Although lower-quality duplicates exist, the original film has been missing since 1978. Previously unknown footage filmed by George Jefferies was released in 2007. Recorded a few blocks before the shooting, the film captures Kennedy's bunched suit jacket, explaining the discrepancies between the location of the bullet hole in Kennedy's back and his jacket.

Some films and photographs captured an unidentified woman apparently filming the assassination; researchers have nicknamed her the Babushka Lady due to the shawl around her head. In 1978, Gordon Arnold came forward and claimed that he had filmed the assassination from the grassy knoll and that a police officer had confiscated his film. Arnold is not visible in any photographs taken of the area, which Vincent Bugliosi—author of Reclaiming History—called "conclusive photographic proof that Arnold's story was fabricated".

Official investigations

Dallas Police

At the Dallas Police headquarters, officers interrogated Oswald about the shootings of Kennedy and Tippit; these intermittent interviews lasted for approximately 12 hours between 2:30 p.m. on November 22 and 11 a.m. on November 24. Throughout, Oswald denied any involvement and resorted to statements that were found to be false.

Captain J. W. Fritz of the Homicide and Robbery Bureau did most of the questioning and kept only rudimentary notes. Days later, Fritz wrote a report of the interrogation from notes he made afterwards. There were no stenographic or tape recordings. Representatives of other law enforcement agencies were also present, including the FBI and the Secret Service, and occasionally participated in the questioning. Several of the FBI agents who were present wrote contemporaneous reports of the interrogation.

On the evening of November 22, Dallas Police performed paraffin tests on Oswald's hands and right cheek in an effort to establish whether or not he had recently fired a weapon. The results were positive for the hands and negative for the right cheek. Such tests were unreliable, and the Warren Commission did not rely on these results.

The Dallas police forced Oswald to host a press conference after midnight on November 23, and, early in the investigation, made many leaks to the media. Their conduct angered Johnson, who instructed the FBI to tell them to "stop talking about the assassination". Dallas Police, after the FBI expressed concerns that someone might try to kill Oswald, assured federal authorities that they would provide him adequate protection.

FBI investigation

The FBI immediately launched an investigation into the assassination, relying on a federal statute that forbade assaulting a federal officer. Within 24 hours of the killing, FBI Director Hoover sent President Johnson a preliminary report finding that Oswald was the sole culprit. After Ruby killed Oswald, Johnson decided that the Texan authorities were incompetent and instructed the FBI to conduct a complete investigation.

On December 9, 1963, the Warren Commission received the FBI's report of its investigation which concluded that three bullets had been firedthe first striking Kennedy in the upper back; the second striking Connally; and the third striking Kennedy in the head, killing him. The FBI continued to serve as the main investigative arm of the Warren Commission in the field. A total of 169 FBI agents worked on the case, conducting over 25,000 interviews and writing over 2,300 reports.

The thoroughness of the FBI's investigation is contested. Bugliosi applauded its quality and cites conspiracy theorist Harrison Edward Livingstone's praise of the FBI's commitment to following all leads. In its 1979 report, the HSCA found that the FBI's investigation of pro- and anti-Castro Cubans, and any connections to Oswald or Ruby, was insufficient. The HSCA also noted that Hoover "seemed determined [to make the case against Oswald as the lone assassin] within 24 hours of the assassination".

Warren Commission

On November 29, President Johnson established by executive order "The President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy" and selected Chief Justice Earl Warren of the U.S. Supreme Court to chair the investigation, commonly known as the Warren Commission. Its 888-page final report was presented to Johnson on September 24, 1964, and made public three days later. It concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald had acted alone in killing Kennedy and wounding Connally, and that Jack Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald. It made no conclusions as to Oswald's motive, but noted his Marxism, anti-authoritarianism, violent tendencies, failure to form personal relationships, and his desire to be significant in history.

Upon examining the Zapruder film, commission staffers realized that the FBI's gunshot theory was impossible. The reaction times of Kennedy and Connally were too close to have been caused by two bullets from Oswald: the reaction interval was less than the 2.3 seconds that it took to reload. This was one of the commission's most crucial findings: that a single shot caused the non-fatal wounds of Kennedy and Connally, known as the "single-bullet theory". In May 1964, staffer Arlen Specter replicated the single bullet's trajectory via a reenactment in Dealey Plaza: the bullet's path was exactly consistent with Kennedy and Connally's wounds.

Out of the eight commission members, three—Representative Hale Boggs and Senators John Cooper and Richard Russell—found the theory "improbable"; their qualms were not mentioned in the final report. Conspiracy theorists labelled this theory the "magic bullet theory", partly due to the bullet's intact and purportedly pristine state. However, the HSCA's Michael Baden noted that the bullet, despite its lack of fragmentation, was fundamentally deformed. In 2023, Secret Service Agent Paul Landis—who had stood on the running board of Kennedy's car—told The New York Times that he retrieved the "magic bullet" from immediately behind Kennedy's seat upon arrival at Parkland, and that he placed it on Kennedy's stretcher. Landis believes that the bullet dislodged from a shallow wound in Kennedy's back.

As well as the Warren Report's 27 published volumes, the commission created hundreds of thousands of pages of investigative reports and documents. Relman Morin stated that "Never in history was a crime probed as intensely"; Bugliosi concluded that the commission's basic findings have "held up remarkably well". According to Gerald Posner, the Warren report is "universally derided" by the American public. Walter Cronkite noted that, "Although the Warren Commission had full power to conduct its own independent investigation, it permitted the FBI and the CIA to investigate themselves – and so cast a permanent shadow on the answers." According to a 2014 report by CIA Chief Historian David Robarge, then-CIA director John A. McCone was involved in a "benign cover-up" by withholding information from the commission.

Trial of Clay Shaw

On March 22, 1967, New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison arrested and charged New Orleans businessman Clay Shaw with conspiring to assassinate President Kennedy, with the help of Oswald, David Ferrie, and others. A respected businessman who had helped renovate and preserve the French Quarter, Shaw was described as "the unlikeliest villain since Oscar Wilde". Both Shaw and the neurotic, avidly anti-Castro Ferrie were members of New Orleans' gay community. Ferrie died, possibly by suicide, four days after news of the investigation broke. On The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in 1968, Garrison first publicly alleged that Shaw and Ferrie had been part of a larger CIA scheme to kill Kennedy and frame Oswald. In the 34-day trial conducted in 1969, Garrison played the Zapruder film and argued that the backwards motion of Kennedy's head after the fatal shot was indicative of a shooter in front on the grassy knoll.

After a brief deliberation, the jury found Shaw not guilty. Mark Lane interviewed the jurors after the trial and stated that some believed that Shaw likely was involved in a conspiracy but that there was insufficient evidence to convict. Lane's claims have been disputed by playwright James Kirkwood—a personal friend of Clay Shaw—who said that he met several jurors who denied ever speaking to Lane. Kirkwood also questioned Lane's claim that the jury believed that there was a conspiracy: jury foreman Sidney Hebert told Kirkwood, "I didn't think too much of the Warren Report either until the trial. Now I think a lot more of it than I did before."

According to academic E. Jerald Ogg, the Shaw trial is now widely regarded as a "travesty of justice"; Kirkwood likened the trial to a Spanish Inquisition hearing. Other observers have characterized the proceedings as relying on homophobia. It remains the only trial to be brought for the Kennedy assassination. In 1979, former CIA director Richard Helms testified that Shaw had been a part-time contact of the Domestic Contact Service of the CIA, through which Shaw volunteered information from his travels abroad, mostly to Latin America. However, according to Max Holland, some 150,000 Americans were contacts. In 1993, the PBS  program Frontline obtained a 1955 group photograph that featured Ferrie and Oswald together at a 1955 cookout for the Civil Air Patrol: Ferrie had denied ever knowing Oswald.

Ramsey Clark Panel

Excluding Chief Justice Warren, the members of Warren Commission did not view the photographs or X-rays taken during Kennedy's autopsy. According to Warren, this was to avoid having to publicly release the explicit material to "sensation mongers". Due to persistent speculation, in February 1968, Attorney General Ramsey Clark convened a panel of four medical experts to examine the photographs and X-rays from the Kennedy autopsy. Their findings concurred with the Warren Commission: Kennedy was struck by two bullets, both from behind.

Rockefeller Commission

In 1975, President Gerald Ford—who had been a member of the Warren Commission a decade prior—established the United States President's Commission on CIA Activities within the United States, better known as the Rockefeller Commission after its chairman, Vice President Nelson Rockefeller. The commission received a mandate to determine if any domestic activities by the CIA were unlawful and to make appropriate recommendations: accordingly, it also re-examined the Kennedy assassination.

After five months of investigation, the Rockefeller Commission submitted its report to President Ford. The report reviewed the medical evidence and agreed that Kennedy had been killed by two shots from behind. Refuting Garrison's claims that the backwards motion of Kennedy's head seen on the Zapruder film was indicative of a grassy knoll shooter, the commission found that "such a motion would be caused by a violent straightening and stiffening of the entire body as a result of a seizure-like neuromuscular reaction to major damage inflicted to nerve centers in the brain". The later HSCA also suggested that the "propulsive effect resulting from brain matter" ejected from the exit wound may have been responsible. Pathologist Vincent Di Maio testified before the HSCA that the notion of a "transfer of momentum" from a grassy knoll bullet was unfounded and something from "Arnold Schwarzenegger pictures".

The Rockefeller Commission also sought to determine whether CIA operatives—particularly E. Howard Hunt and Frank Sturgis—were present in Dealey Plaza during the assassination, and whether these two men were among the "three tramps" pictured shortly after assassination. The commission found no evidence for these claims. It also inquired into purported connections between the CIA and Oswald and Ruby, for which it found no evidence and concluded was "farfetched speculation". They concluded that there was "no credible evidence of CIA involvement".

Church Committee

In 1976, following the Watergate scandal and the revelation of CIA misconduct by Seymour Hersh (the CIA's so-called "Family Jewels"), the U.S. Senate launched the United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities—better known as the Church Committee after its chairman, Senator Frank Church. The committee was to investigate all improper and unlawful actions by the CIA and FBI, both foreign and domestic. Due to persisting theories, the Church Committee organized a subcommittee (staffed by Senators Richard Schweiker and Gary Hart) to examine CIA and FBI conduct pertaining to the assassination.

In its final report, the Church Committee concluded that there was no evidence of a CIA- or FBI-led conspiracy. They found that the original investigation into the assassination was "deficient" and criticized the FBI and CIA for withholding information from the Warren Commission. In particular, it noted that knowledge of the CIA's many failed attempts to assassinate Castro may have significantly affected the course of the investigation. Moreover, the Church Committee revealed that the CIA had conspired with the Mafia in these plots against Castro. These revelations led to further public scrutiny of the assassination.

United States House Select Committee on Assassinations

As a result of increasing public and congressional skepticism of the Warren Commission's findings and the transparency of government agencies, in 1976 the House Select Committee on Assassinations was created to investigate the assassinations of Kennedy and that of Martin Luther King, Jr.

The HSCA conducted its inquiry until 1978 and issued its final report the following year, concluding that Kennedy was likely assassinated as a result of a conspiracy. They concluded that there was a "high probability" that a fourth shot was fired from the grassy knoll, but they stated that this shot missed Kennedy. Concerning the conclusions of "probable conspiracy", four of the twelve committee members wrote dissenting opinions.

The HSCA also concluded that previous investigations into Oswald's responsibility were "thorough and reliable" but did not adequately investigate the possibility of a conspiracy, and that federal agencies performed with "varying degrees of competency". Specifically, the FBI and CIA were found to be deficient in sharing information with other agencies and the Warren Commission. Instead of furnishing all relevant information, the FBI and CIA only responded to specific requests and were still occasionally inadequate. Furthermore, the Secret Service did not properly analyze information it possessed prior to the assassination and was inadequately prepared to protect Kennedy.

The chief reason for the conclusion of "probable conspiracy" was, according to the report's dissent, the subsequently discredited acoustic analysis of a police channel Dictabelt recording. In accordance with the recommendations of the HSCA, the Dictabelt recording and acoustic evidence of a second assassin was subsequently reexamined. In light of investigative reports from the FBI's Technical Services Division and a specially appointed National Academy of Sciences Committee determining that "reliable acoustic data do not support a conclusion that there was a second gunman", the Justice Department concluded "that no persuasive evidence can be identified to support the theory of a conspiracy" in the Kennedy assassination.

JFK Act and Assassination Records Review Board

In 1991, Oliver Stone's film JFK renewed interest in the assassination and particularly in the still-classified files relating to the killing. In response, Congress passed the JFK Records Act, which called for the National Archives to collect and release all assassination-related documents within 25 years. The act also mandated the creation of an independent office, the Assassination Records Review Board, to review the submitted records for completeness and continued secrecy. From 1994 until 1998, the Assassination Records Review Board gathered and unsealed about 60,000 documents comprising over 4 million pages.

A 1998 staff report for the Assassinations Records Review Board contended that brain photographs in the Kennedy records may not be of Kennedy's brain, reportedly showing much less damage than Kennedy sustained. Dr. Boswell refuted these allegations. The board also found that, conflicting with the photographic images showing no such defect, several witnesses (at both Parkland hospital and the autopsy) remembered a large wound in the back of Kennedy's head. The board, and board member Jeremy Gunn, stressed the problems with witness testimony, urging people to weigh all of the evidence, with due concern for human error, rather than take single statements as "proof" for one theory or another.

All remaining assassination-related records  were scheduled to be released by October 2017, with the exception of documents certified for continued postponement by succeeding presidents due to "identifiable harm... to the military, defense, intelligence operations, law enforcement, or conduct of foreign relations... of such gravity that it outweighs the public interest in disclosure." President Donald Trump said in October 2017 that he would not block the release of documents, but in April 2018—the deadline he set to release all JFK records—Trump blocked the release of some records until October 2021. President Joe Biden, citing the COVID-19 pandemic, delayed the release further, before releasing 13,173 unredacted documents in 2022. A second group of files were unsealed in June 2023, at which point 99 percent of documents had been made public.

Conspiracy theories

The Kennedy assassination has been described as "the mother of all conspiracies".
Polls have found that a majority of Americans believe that there was a conspiracy; some 1,000 to 2,000 books—mostly pro-conspiracy—have been written about the killing. Across different theories, Oswald's role varies from co-conspirator to entirely innocent. Common culprits include the FBI, the CIA, the U.S. military, the Mafia, the military-industrial complex, Vice President Johnson, Castro, the KGB, or some combination thereof. Bugliosi estimated that a total of 42 groups, 82 assassins, and 214 people had been accused in various assassination theories.

Conspiracy theorists often argue that there were multiple shooters—a "triangulation of crossfire"—and that the fatal shot was fired from the grassy knoll and struck Kennedy in the front of the head. Individuals present in Dealey Plaza have been the subject of much speculation, including the three tramps, the umbrella man, and the purported Badge Man. Conspiracy theorists argue that the autopsy and official investigations were flawed or, at worst, complicit, and that witnesses to the Kennedy assassination met mysterious and suspicious deaths.

Conspiracy theories have been espoused by notable figures, such as L. Fletcher Prouty, Chief of Special Operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff under Kennedy, who believed that elements of the U.S. military and intelligence communities had conspired to assassinate the president. Governor Connally also rejected the single-bullet theory, and President Johnson reportedly expressed doubt regarding the Warren Commission's conclusions prior to his death. According to Robert F. Kennedy Jr., his father believed that the Warren Report was a "shoddy piece of craftsmanship" and that John F. Kennedy had been killed by a conspiracy, possibly involving Cuban exiles and the CIA. Communist rulers like Castro and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev believed that Kennedy had been killed by right-wing Americans. Former CIA director R. James Woolsey has argued that Oswald killed Kennedy as part of a Soviet conspiracy.

Legacy

Political impact and memorialization

On November 27—five days after the assassination—President Johnson delivered his "Let Us Continue" speech to Congress. Effectively an inaugural address, Johnson called for the realization of Kennedy's policies, particularly on civil rights; this effort soon materialized as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Confusion surrounding Johnson's succession led to the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S Constitution, which was adopted in 1967 and affirmed that the vice president became president upon the president's death.

On November 29, President Johnson issued Executive Order 11129, renaming Florida's Cape Canaveral—a name borne since at least 1530—to Cape Kennedy. NASA's Launch Operations Center, located on the cape, was also renamed as the Kennedy Space Center. The federal government honored Kennedy in other ways, such as replacing the Benjamin Franklin half dollar with the Kennedy half dollar, and renaming Washington, D.C.'s long-planned National Culture Center as the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. New York City's airport was also renamed as the John F. Kennedy International Airport.

Kennedy's assassination also resulted in an overhaul of the Secret Service and its procedures. Open limousines were eliminated, staffing was significantly increased, and specialized teams like counter-sniper units were established. The agency's budget has also increased, from $5.5 million in 1963 (equivalent to $ million in 2013) to over $1.6 billion by the 50th anniversary in 2013.

Cultural impact and depictions

John F. Kennedy's assassination was the first of four major assassinations during the 1960s, coming two years before the assassination of Malcolm X in 1965, and five years before the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy in 1968. For the public, Kennedy's assassination mythologized him into a heroic figure. Although scholars typically regard Kennedy as a good but not great president, public opinion polls consistently find him the most popular post-WWII president.

Kennedy's murder left a lasting impression on many. As with the attack on Pearl Harbor of December 7, 1941, and, much later, the September 11 attacks in 2001, asking "Where were you when you heard about President Kennedy's assassination?" became a common topic of discussion. Journalist Dan Rather opined that the Kennedy assassination will be discussed "a hundred years from now, a thousand years from now, in somewhat the same way as people discuss the Iliad. Different people read Homer's description of the war and come to different conclusions, and so it shall be for Kennedy's death."

Along with Oliver Stone's JFK, the assassination has been portrayed in several films: the pro-conspiracy, Dalton Trumbo-written Executive Action (1973) was the first feature film to depict the assassination. Besides explicit portrayals, some critics have argued that the Zapruder film—which itself has been featured in many films and television episodes—advanced cinéma vérité or inspired more graphic depictions of violence in American cinema. Many works of literature have also explored the killing, such as Don DeLillo's 1988 novel Libra in which Oswald is a CIA agent, James Ellroy's 1995 work American Tabloid, and Stephen King's 2011 time travel novel 11/22/63. The assassination has also been featured in several musical compositions, such as Igor Stravinsky's 1964 piece Elegy for J.F.K. and Phil Ochs' 1966 song "Crucifixion", which reportedly brought Robert Kennedy to tears. Other songs include "Abraham, Martin and John" (1968) and Bob Dylan's "Murder Most Foul" (2020).

Artifacts, museums, and locations today

In 1993, the National Park Service designated Dealey Plaza, the surrounding buildings, the overpass, and a portion of the adjacent railyard as a National Historic Landmark District. The Depository and its Sixth Floor Museum, operated by the city of Dallas, draw over 325,000 visitors annually.

The Boeing 707 that served as Air Force One at the time of the assassination is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force; Kennedy's limousine is at the Henry Ford Museum. The Lincoln Catafalque, on which Kennedy's coffin rested in the Capitol, is exhibited at the Capitol Visitor Center. Jacqueline's pink suit, autopsy X-rays, and President Kennedy's blood-stained clothing are in the National Archives, with access controlled by the Kennedy family. Other items in the Archives include Parkland Hospital trauma room equipment; Oswald's rifle, diary, and revolver; bullet fragments; and the limousine's windshield. The Texas State Archives preserve Connally's bullet-punctured clothes; the gun Ruby used to kill Oswald came into the possession of Ruby's brother Earl, and was sold in 1991 for $220,000 (equivalent to $ in 2022).

At the direction of Robert F. Kennedy, some items were destroyed. The casket in which Kennedy's body was transported from Dallas to Washington was dropped into the sea, because "its public display would be extremely offensive and contrary to public policy".

Notes

Citations

Works cited

Books

Government and institutional documents and reports

Warren Commission documents, exhibits, and testimonies

Journal articles

Magazines

News publications and websites

External links

 The Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza
 The President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection – National Archives and Records Administration
 JFK Assassination:A look back at the death of President John F. Kennedy 50 years ago – CBS News

 "Weisberg Collection on the JFK Assassination" – Internet Archive
 LIFE Magazine Nov. 25, 1966

1963 in American politics
1963 in Texas
Kennedy, John F.
1960s in Dallas
Assassinations
Deaths by firearm in Texas
Deaths by person in Texas
Kennedy, John F.
Filmed deaths in the United States
Murder in Dallas
November 1963 events in the United States
Political violence
Political violence in the United States

Assassination of John F. Kennedy


The Greifensteine is a rock tower in the Ore Mountains, Germany, between the towns of Geyer, Ehrenfriedersdorf and Jahnsbach. The highest of the seven granite rocks reaches 731 m. Another six rock towers were demolished by quarrying, which ended in 1923.

Geology
Geologically, the Greifensteine is the top of a pluton. During the Variscan orogeny, magma intruded along structural zones, but cooled and solidified before reaching the Earth surface. When the Erzgebirge block raised, the resulting granite formation raised with it. The surrounding softer material eroded and the harder granite remained, creating the tors of the rock formation. The deposition of ores associated with the intrusion gave the area its name (Ore Mountains).

Mineral finds

Due to the productiveness of its ore deposits, the Greifensteine are also a well-known site of many different minerals and their varieties. As of 2014, a total of around 50 minerals and 10 varieties have been discovered here, including inter alia the well-known minerals andalusite, beryl, gypsum, haematite, muscovite, sphalerite, pyrite, topaz, wavellite and zircon, as well as various garnets, tourmalines, (dravite, elbaite, schorl) and wolframites. There are also rare minerals such as childrenite and natrodufrénite, as well as the radioactive minerals autunite and torbernite.

The Greifensteine is also a type locality for the following minerals: fluorapatite, greifensteinite, lacroixite and roscherite.

History
The first indications of a settlement on the Greifensteine are from around 1180, and in 1349 the von Waldenburg family are seignory to the "Grifenstein" castle. The castle is documented in 1372 as "Slosz Cryfenstein". The castle was destroyed in the 14th century by fire, and was rebuilt afterwards. It was abandoned in the 15th century, the area was used as a quarry and all traces of the former castle are removed. Of the originally 13 rock towers, six have been demolished and used for their granite over the years. This activity was stopped in 1928, and the area has become a nature reserve.

Tourism
Today, the Greifensteine is a nature reserve and a popular tourist attraction. The areal has a restaurant, a small museum and an outdoor theater that uses the rock towers as a dramatic backdrop. Stairs lead up to the tallest rock, which offers a nice view of the surrounding Ore Mountains. There are several rock climbing paths. In the surrounding area are the Greifenbachstauweiher and the Röhrgraben.

Stülpner-Höhle
Karl Stülpner (1762–1842), a local renegade and folk hero (the Robin Hood of the Ore Mountains) had a hiding place in one of the numerous caverns of the Greifensteine area. This Stülpner-Höhle (engl.: Stülpner's cavern) can still be visited today.

References

Rock formations of Saxony
Mountains of the Ore Mountains
Ehrenfriedersdorf
Geological type localities

Greifensteine


Appendicitis is the inflammation of a person's appendix. The appendix is a pouch at the start of the large intestine. Symptoms usually include a sharp pain in the lower right abdomen. Also, nausea, vomiting, and decreased appetite are common. However, about 40% of people do not have these typical symptoms. If the appendix ruptures (splits) the result is painful peritonitis, and sepsis. Therefore immediate treatment in hospital is needed for appendicitis. Usually the infected appendix is taken out.

The function of the appendix in apes is the digestion of vegetable matter such as leaves. Humans do not digest leaves, but we inherited some of the apes' vegetarian apparatus. Our appendix is much smaller than that of present-day apes, and for some reason our immune system does not serve it well. An infection there is not eliminated as it might be elsewhere in the body.

The causes of appendicitis include blocking in the appendix, or bacterial infections. If it is not treated, it may lead to peritonitis and shock. Most serious appendicitis happens to younger children and elder adults. Appendicitis is common between the ages of ten and fourteen for males, and fifteen and nineteen for females. The most usual treatment is an appendectomy which means removing the appendix. Sometimes, it gets better without surgery. Some people think that eating vegetables will help, but no chances should be taken. Seek medical advice if in doubt.

Reginald Fitz first described acute appendicitis in 1886. It is one of the leading causes worldwide of "pain in the abdomen", a term used in medicine and surgery to cover a wide range of causes.

References

Inflammation
Medical emergencies

Appendicitis


Patricia [ puh-trish-uh, -tree-shuh ] is a female given name of Latin origin. It comes from the Latin word patrician, meaning noble. The male version of this name is Patrick. The name Patricia can be shortened to Patty, Patsy or Trisha. Patricia was the second most popular female name in the United States, according to 1990 Census. There are many celebrities with the name, including Patricia Arquette, Patricia Clarkson and Patricia Heaton. As Patty, the name is being used on Atlantic tropical cyclones. In the Pacific, a hurricane with the name became the most intense on record in the Western Hemisphere. This is a unique name (not in the top 1000 newborn names in the US in 2021).

People

 Patricia Heaton, American actress

References

Given names

Patricia


Ngô Thị Chính (or Chánh) (1792 – 1843) was an imperial consort of Emperor Minh Mạng of the Nguyễn Dynasty in Vietnamese History.

Biography
Ngô Thị Chính was born in Đăng Xương, Huế, daughter of Attorney General Ngô Văn Sở and lady Nguyễn Thị Đích. She also had 2 younger brother named Thắng and Thọ.

Lady Chính married Minh Mạng while he was still as Crown Prince. In 1820, Minh Mạng crowned, lady Chính was granted the title Cung tần (Imperial maid), as well as other concubines of him. Because at that time, lady Hồ Thị Hoa had died after giving birth to Miên Tông (Thiệu Trị later), lady Chính was the primary wife of Minh Mạng, leader of the harem.

Not long after that, she was granted Tam giai Hiền tần (Third-rank of Royal Concubine Hiền tần). The First and Second-rank was emptied, so Hiền tần still kept the highest rank in the harem. In 1836, she was elevated to Nhất giai Hiền phi (First-rank of Royal Concubine Hiền phi).

Although more than 40, Hiền Phi still gave birth to a son, proving that she was still loved by the emperor despite her age.

In 1843, Hiền Phi died at 52 years old and was buried at Hương Thủy, Huế. Emperor Thiệu Trị granted the posthumous name for Hiền phi, was Tuệ Khiết.

Children
Hiền phi Ngô Thị Chính gave birth to 9 children for Minh Mạng:

 Prince Nguyễn Phúc Chính (August 26, 1807 – 1808), the second prince, died prematurely.
 Second-rank Prince of Vĩnh Tường, Nguyễn Phúc Miên Hoành (July 12, 1811 – November 23, 1835), the 5th prince.
 Princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Tông (July 17, 1812 – April 3, 1824), the eldest princess, died young.
 Princess of An Phú, Nguyễn Phúc Khuê Gia (August 12, 1813 – April 28, 1865), 2nd princess.
 Princess of Lộc Thành, Nguyễn Phúc Uyển Diễm (1815 – August 29, 1836), 3rd princess.
 Second-rank Prince of Vĩnh Tường, Nguyễn Phúc Miên Áo (January 4, 1817 – February 1, 1865), 6th prince.
 Second-rank Duke of Hòa, Nguyễn Phúc Miên Quân (August 31, 1828 – August 17, 1863), the 40th prince.
 Princess Nguyễn Phúc Thụy Thục (1829 – June 12, 1835), 32nd princess, died young.
 Third-rank Duke of Quảng Hóa, Nguyễn Phúc Miên Uyển (February 12, 1833 – November 30, 1893), 60th prince.

1792 births
1843 deaths
Vietnamese people

Ngô Thị Chính


Latin poetry is the poetry of Ancient Rome. They started by adapting Greek models. The verse comedies of Plautus are the earliest surviving examples of Latin literature. They were probably composed around 205–184 BC.

There was a play written by a Greek slave, Livius Andronicus, at Rome in 240 BC. Livius translated Greek comedy for Roman audiences. He used metres that were those of Greek drama, but modified to the needs of Latin.

His successors, Plautus and Terence, continued this process. The traditional metre of Greek epic poetry, the dactylic hexameter, was introduced into Latin literature by Ennius (239–169 BC). Ennius provided a model for the later 'classical' poets such as Virgil and Ovid. Horace (who was a contemporary of Virgil) wrote verses in dactylic hexameter. They were  in a conversational style, as if writing a letter. Virgil's hexameters are regarded as "the supreme metrical system of Latin literature".

References

Poetry
Classical Roman literature

Latin poetry


Klebsiella oxytoca is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is closely related to K. pneumoniae, from which it is distinguished by being indole-positive; it also has slightly different growth characteristics in that it is able to grow on melezitose, but not 3-hydroxybutyrate. It was first described in 1886 when it was isolated from sour milk and named Bacillus oxytocus perniciosus (from Greek oxus 'sour' + -tokos 'producing').

Klebsiella oxytoca is characterized by negative methyl red, positive VP, positive citrate, urea and TSI gas production, is AA, and negative for TSI sulfide, DNAse, growth on sulfide-indole motility medium and the phenylalanine deaminase test.

It is a diazotroph, able to colonise plant hosts and fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form which the plant can use. Association of K. oxytoca with the barley rhizosphere during an entire vegetative period has been demonstrated. The bacteria adhere strongly to root hairs, and less strongly to the surface of the zone of elongation and root cap mucilage.

Like other enterobacteria, it is capable of acquiring antibiotic resistance, and isolates have been shown to produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamases as well as carbapenemases.

Industrial uses
Klebsiella oxytoca has shown promise in industrial ethanol fuel production, and is referenced as being used to produce hydrogen in patents filed by Nanologix, Inc.

Clinical significance and epidemiology
Infections can result in colitis and sepsis.

Outbreaks of antibiotic-resistant Klebsiella oxytoca have occurred in multiple hospitals and ICUs throughout the world, and handwashing stations have been identified as a potentially important environmental reservoir.

Ecology
Houseflies (Musca domestica) have a mutualistic relationship with the bacterium K. oxytoca. This bacterium can live on the surface of the housefly eggs and has a deterrent effect on the fungi growing in manure, thus benefiting the fly larvae which are competing with the fungi for nutrients.

References

External links

Type strain of Klebsiella oxytoca at BacDive –  the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase

Enterobacteriaceae
Bacteria described in 1886

Klebsiella oxytoca


"Le Monocle de Mon Oncle" is a poem from Wallace Stevens's first book of poetry, Harmonium. It was first published in 1918.

Quoted at the right is the eighth canto. (The whole poem
can be found elsewhere.) Canto I includes the line "I wish that I might
be a thinking stone."

Harold Bloom regaled his students with an
off-beat interpretation of Canto II's line, "Shall I uncrumple this
much-crumpled thing?", as alluding to an inactive sexual relationship to Elsie ("you", the Other).

Canto IV includes the verse,
This luscious and impeccable fruit of life
Falls, it appears, of its own weight to earth.
When you were Eve, its acrid juice was sweet,
Untasted, in its heavenly, orchard
air.
Canto XI includes the verse,
 If sex were all, then every trembling hand
Could make us squeak, like dolls, the wished-for words.
And in canto XII the poem concludes with the verse,
Like a rose rabbi, later, I pursued,
And still pursue, the origin and course
Of love, but until now I never knew
That fluttering things have so distinct a shade.
Holly Stevens quotes a letter of her father in which he writes, "I had
in mind simply a man fairly well along in life, looking back and
talking in a more or less personal way about life." This is widely regarded as reticence about the poem's
commentary on his domestic life, or, as Helen Vendler phrases it, the
poem is "about Stevens' failed marriage",
"about [his] middle age and romantic disillusion". She defends herself against the accusation of biographical
reduction, which elsewhere she directs against Joan Richardson's psychobiography of
Stevens, as follows.   It has been objected that a criticism
suggesting that poems spring from life is reductive, that is to say
that "Le Monocle de Mon Oncle" is about Stevens' failed marriage is
somehow injurious to the poem. It seems to me normal to begin with the
life-occasion as we deduce it from the poem; it is only an error when
one ends there. To tether Stevens' poems to human feeling is at least
to remove him from the "world of ghosts" where he is so often located,
and to insist that he is a poet of more than epistemological questions
alone.
Vendler and Richardson disagree about how to understand Stevens' distinction between the "true subject" of a poem and "the poetry of the subject". For Richardson it corresponds to the difference between the infantile kernel of a Stevens poem and the surface of his words' appearance. For Vendler the true subject is an experience and the poetry of the subject is a rendering of it. Richardson is led from her conception of the subject—"the fears and uncertainties of the boy who still crouched inside him"—to diagnose the surface of the poem as reflecting "the American dissociation of sensibility that began with the first Puritans giving the rhetorical lie to the truth of their experience." Vendler thinks this is even worse than simply "ending there" in biography, for it leads away from the poetry of the subject, which in her view requires understanding the special role of syntax that allows Stevens to achieve his poetic effects. ("Stevens's words are almost always deflected from their common denotation, and his syntax serves to delay and to disarticulate....What an image was to Pound, a syllable was to Stevens.")

See also "Two Figures in Dense Violet Night".

Notes

References

 Buttel, Robert. The Making of Harmonium. 1967: Princeton University Press.
 Richardson, Joan. Wallace Stevens: The Early Years 1879-1923. 1986: William Morrow
 Stevens, Holly. The Letters of Wallace Stevens. 1966: University of California Press.
 Vendler, Helen. "The Hunting of Wallace Stevens". New York Review of Books Volume 33 Number 18 (Nov 20, 1986)
 Vendler, Helen. Words Chosen Out Of Desire. 1984: University of Tennessee Press.

1918 poems
American poems
Poetry by Wallace Stevens

Le Monocle de Mon Oncle


"Skins Fire" is a feature-length episode of E4 television series Skins. It aired in two parts in 2013 as part of a specially-commissioned seventh season marking the end of the programme. The first six series of Skins aired from 2007 to 2012, a teen drama focusing on the lives of three separate casts of Bristolian teenagers. While previous stories in the series were teen dramas, "Skins Fire" like other stories in the seventh season revisits characters from the show's first two casts, now facing young adulthood.

"Skins Fire" focuses on Kaya Scodelario's Effy Stonem, who appeared in the first four series of the show. In the story, former party girl Effy is a receptionist and later a stock trader for a London hedge fund who becomes embroiled in an insider trading scandal. Effy lives with Naomi Campbell (Lily Loveless), who is now her best friend. An ambitious idealist in the show's third and fourth series, Naomi in the present day finds herself drifting through life without a steady income when she is diagnosed with cancer.

Synopsis

Part 1
Effy - now aged 21, is working a dead-end job as a receptionist for a leading London hedge fund and lives in a flat with Naomi Campbell, who has become a slacker, while Emily is currently in New York on a lucrative internship. Her life is relatively dull, and her only relief comes in the form of cigarette breaks with her friends, Jane (Amy Wren), her colleague, and Dominic (Craig Roberts), a stock market researcher who works for a different part of the industry, and who has a crush on her. Her home life is no better, as Naomi, who is bored with no job and no Emily, has taken to inviting her stoner friends round for parties, with no regard to Effy's high workload. Although Effy is clearly annoyed by this, she is nevertheless very fond of Naomi, and continues to put up with her. She also occasionally allows her to share her bed when she has a fight with Emily on Skype. Unbeknownst to Effy, Naomi has been suffering from abdominal pains for some time, although when Effy notices, she brushes it off.

Whilst on the train home from work, Effy spots a mistake in the figures of one of the company reports she has been asked to print, and mentions it to her superior, Victoria (Lara Pulver). Victoria, a stock trader who is in a relationship with the head of the company, Jake (Kayvan Novak), pretends to ignore her, and then takes credit for the discovery at the next board meeting. Enraged, Effy decides she will need to upstage Victoria if she is to move up the company ladder, so she approaches Dominic and asks him to teach her the skills of the trade. After a couple of sessions with him, she deliberately fails to inform one of Victoria's investors of a delay in their meeting, holds the meeting herself, and manages to clinch the deal. Victoria is angered, but Jake is impressed by her initiative and skills in the trade, and offers her a job on the trade floor. Months later, Victoria has left the company after a falling out with Jake, but Effy is struggling to keep up, due to her lack of experience or real knowledge of the industry. Wanting another big breakthrough, Effy approaches Dominic again and, by playing on his attraction to her, convinces him to illegally give her some useful financial information about a deal that is about to fall through, with which she makes her company over a million pounds. Jake continues to be impressed by her, and the two begin to develop a relationship. Naomi, meanwhile, has decided to make her dreams of being a stand-up comedian a reality, and has managed to get a slot on an open-night gig at one of her favourite comedy bars, which Effy attends. The gig is a disaster, when Naomi's weak material falls flat, and she is unable to properly deal with some homophobic hecklers. Secretly, Naomi decides to go to the doctor about her abdominal pains and is devastated by the results. Later that night, Effy is awoken by the sound of Naomi blaring loud music on the balcony, and Naomi angrily reveals that she has been diagnosed with cancer.

Part 2
A few months later, Naomi is finding greater success as a stand-up comedian, even using her cancer as part of her routine. Effy and Jake are now in a relationship, and frequently attend Naomi's gigs. Emily has managed to get time off from her internship, and has flown over from New York to visit them, although Naomi is resistant to telling her the truth. Things are getting difficult at the Hedge Fund, however, and Jake, upon learning that Effy had help in her previous breakthrough, suggests she find help from the same source. However, things take a turn for the worse when Naomi's doctor informs her that her radiotherapy hasn't worked, and that she will have to start chemotherapy at once. Needing her breakthrough for her sake and Naomi's, Effy goes back to Dominic and asks him for help. Dominic angrily declares his undying love for her and demands that she leave him alone. He nevertheless provides her with another crucial piece of information, and, with Jake's help, they are able to make millions. A couple of months after that, Effy moves a considerably weaker Naomi to her new, lavishly furnished flat in Canary Wharf, although Naomi sadly states that she preferred her old flat. Soon after, though, Effy receives a call from the Financial Services Authority (which was replaced by the Financial Conduct Authority shortly after filming began), who have come up with evidence that her successful portfolios were the result of insider dealing, meaning she could face charges of market abuse. Effy is urged by Jake to deny everything. That night, Effy returns to the flat to find that Naomi has been vomiting incessantly all day, and is suffering with a horrific fever. Shocked by the state she is in, Effy quickly calls Dominic, who rushes over to help. The next day, while Dominic takes Naomi to the hospital, Effy goes to the FSA for her scheduled meeting, where she discovers that the FSA agent investigating her is Victoria. With Effy refusing to co-operate, Victoria decides to call in Dominic. Worried, Effy meets up with him at the hospital and tells him that the FSA are about to investigate him, but he is enraged that she is so preoccupied with her own life when her friend is alone in her hospital room, and storms off. Effy discovers that Naomi has disappeared from her room, and after a quick search, finds that she has gone up to the snowy roof to smoke a cigarette. A crying Naomi explains that her cancer has become terminal, and that she will now have to break her promise never to hurt Emily again. That night, Dominic turns up at her flat, angrily berating Effy for using him and for the way she has behaved, and announcing that the FSA has confiscated his laptop. Effy kisses him, and the two begin to initiate sex. However, Dominic sees that she is not genuinely willing and realises that she is just using sex as a means of pacifying him. Mortified, he leaves, never to return.

The next day, Effy goes into the office, and is confronted with the company's legal adviser. Jake places the blame for the insider dealing squarely with Effy, and suspends her from the company, to her devastation. After Effy finally tells Emily the truth, she flies over from New York at once, and angrily berates her for her lack of support for Naomi, telling her that she doesn't want her to visit Naomi that night. Deciding to do the right thing, Effy meets with Victoria, who sympathetically tells her that she knew Jake would just ditch Effy when it suited him, and convinces her to give a statement confessing to the market abuse charges and stating Jake's complicity, which will reduce her prison sentence significantly. Before going through with it, Effy drops by the hospital, and urges Emily to forgive Naomi for not telling her sooner. Emily enters the bedroom, and tearfully embraces her girlfriend, and Naomi gives Effy a smile over Emily's shoulder, knowing that she will die peacefully with her beloved Emily at her side. Effy then proceeds to the FSA's offices and signs her statement. Effy then leaves the FSA offices and is taken into custody. Her trademark wry smile crosses her face as the episode ends.

Reception

"Skins Fire" received mixed reviews, with Caroline Preece from Den of Geek noting that the two-parter became progressively more bleak as it went on. Writing of the first part, Adrian Michaels of The Daily Telegraph stated: "The fact that all the plot progression was extremely predictable, and that only the characters of Effy and her flatmate Naomi (Lily Loveless) were more than, er, skin-deep, would surely have sunk most drama. But happily it did not. Skins was a triumph of slick over substance."

References

Skins (British TV series) episodes
2013 British television episodes

Skins Fire


The Contarelli Chapel or Cappella Contarelli is located within the church of San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome. It is famous for housing three paintings on the theme of Saint Matthew the Evangelist by the Baroque master Caravaggio. The paintings were Caravaggio's first major public commission and one that cemented his reputation as a master artist. The chapel commemorates the French cardinal Matthieu Cointerel.

History
The chapel owes its existence to an endowment left by the French cardinal, Matthieu Cointerel (Contarelli in Italian), who died in 1585. He left instructions for the decoration of the chapel, the first one to the left of the apse, which he had purchased within San Luigi dei Francesi ("Saint Louis of the French"), the church of the French community in Rome in 1565. The cardinal was rich and he had already paid for part of the construction of the church facade. He put a large sum towards the high altar and specified that his chapel be decorated with scenes from the life of his name-saint, Matthew the Evangelist.

Cointerel's executor, Virglio Cresenzi, commissioned a Flemish sculptor, Jacques Cobaert, to make a marble statue of Matthew and an angel for the altar. Giuseppe Cesari, then one of the foremost artists in Rome, was contracted to fresco the two side walls and the vault. The details were clearly set out in the contract—Cobaert's altarpiece would show Matthew sitting in a chair, about to write the Gospel, with an angel standing and "appearing to reason or in other suitable pose." Cesari's side walls would show, on the right, Saint Matthew in his counting house (Matthew was a tax collector before becoming an apostle of Christ), suitably dressed, rising "to go to Our Lord, who, passing by with his disciples in the street, calls him...". And on the left, Matthew at the moment of his martyrdom, celebrating Mass at the altar, with "a crowd of men and women, young and old and children...some appalled and others pitying...".

Artworks

Cesari finished the vault by 1593, but then became occupied with papal commissions; Cobaert produced a statue that was rejected, in part because it represented the Apostle without the traditional angel. This statue was later bought by the Archconfraternity of the Santissima Trinita` dei Pellegrini and placed in the chapel dedicated to their patron. In 1597, the money for the project was transferred to the Fabbrica di San Pietro, which administered the Church's buildings, yet producing no result. In 1599, preparations began for a Jubilee. "France...is not yet sufficiently cleansed from the thorns and weeds of heresy and corruption," the Pope had told his French bishops. The new French king, Henry IV, had recently converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, but much remained to be done. Conversion was to be the Pope's theme with regard to France. Alarmed by the fact that Rome would be overrun with French pilgrims, the prefect in charge of the Fabricca, and of the money, Cardinal Francesco Maria Del Monte, suggested that his own personal painter, Caravaggio, should be contracted to paint oils on canvas for the two side walls where Cesari would not put his murals.

The contract with Caravaggio was signed on 23 July 1599. Despite disagreements over the composition of the second painting, Caravaggio's The Calling of Saint Matthew and The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew were installed by July 1600. When Cobaert delivered his statues, the churchmen rejected them, and then commissioned Caravaggio to do another painting for the altarpiece, still following the Cardinal's original instructions. The third and final work, The Inspiration of Saint Matthew, was in place by 1602.

Caravaggio's solution to decorating a typically gloomy Roman church interior has been deemed noteworthy. Visitors to the Contarelli Chapel today are confronted with paintings that use the gloom for effect. Caravaggio also considered the lighting in the chapel, as each of the two side paintings are lit by a beam coming from the only source of natural light. The decorative cycle began with the painting on the left side of the chapel, invisible to the viewer when first entering the church. It is a large panel of the Calling of St. Matthew, one of Caravaggio's most well-known works. On the right of the composition, Jesus and St. Peter look directly at a seated Matthew, and Jesus points at Matthew, "Calling". His hand references the receiving hand of Adam in the Creation of Adam panel on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Matthew and his companions, in contrast, are wearing robes concurrent with Caravaggio's time.

On the right side of the wall is the Martyrdom of St. Matthew, depicting the scene in which Matthew meets his end. In contrast to the relatively sedate Calling, this work is defined by action. At the center of the chapel is The Inspiration of Saint Matthew, a scene in which an angel dictates to St. Matthew the gospel. Although the three paintings by Caravaggio are today the star attraction of the chapel, the frescos by Cesari, who is considered by academics to have been overshadowed by Caravaggio, have been increasingly appreciated for their Mannerist style. The Cesari fresco was finished in c. 1593, at which point Caravaggio was working for Cesari.

References

Sources
John Gash, Caravaggio, 2003
Helen Langdon, Caravaggio: A Life, 1998
Peter Robb, M, 1998

External links

Capella Contarelli
Web Gallery of Art
Web Museum- Caravaggio

Caravaggio
Rome R. VIII Sant'Eustachio
Roman Catholic chapels in Rome

Contarelli Chapel


Aegium or Aigion (), or Aegeium or Aigeion (Αἴγειον), was a town and polis (city-state) of ancient Achaea, and one of the twelve Achaean cities. It was situated upon the coast west of the river Selinus, 30 stadia from Rhypae, and 40 stadia from Helice.

The city stood between two promontories in the corner of a bay, which formed the best harbour in Achaea next to that of Patrae. It is said to have been formed out of a union of seven or eight villages. It was already mentioned in the Homeric Catalogue of Ships in the Iliad. When the neighbouring city of Helice sank into the sea following an earthquake in 373 BCE, Aegium annexed its territory and became the chief city of the Achaean League. When the League dissolved later in the same century, however, Aegium came for some time under Macedonian rule.

Eventually, the Achaean League was refounded by the cities of Dyme and Patras in 280 BC, and the citizens of Aegium, taking courage to expel the Macedonian garrison, joined in 275 BC. From this time on Aegium served as the capital of the Achaean League. It was the meeting place for the assembly of the Achaeans and retained this distinction until Philopoemen carried a law that the meeting might be held in any of the towns of the confederacy. Even under the Roman Empire the Achaeans were allowed to keep up the form of their periodical meetings at Aegium, just as the Amphictyons were permitted to meet at Thermopylae and Delphi.

The meetings were held in a grove near the sea, called Homagyrium or Homarium, sacred to Zeus Homagyrius or Homarius (Ὁμαγύριον, Ὁμάριον); a temple was also there called Homarium. Close to this grove was a temple of Demeter Panchaea. The words Homagyrium, 'assembly', and Homarium, 'union', refer to those meetings, though in later times they were explained as indicating the spot where Agamemnon assembled the Grecian chieftains before the Trojan War. There were several other temples and public buildings at Aegium, of which an account is given by Pausanias.

Aegium had several Olympic winners including Xenophon, Ladas (stadion race), Athenodorus (Αθηνόδωρος) (stadion race), Straton (Στράτων) (pancration and wrestling).

Its site is located near the modern city of Aigio.

See also
 List of ancient Greek cities

References

Populated places in ancient Achaea
Former populated places in Greece
Locations in the Iliad
Achaean city-states
Achaean League

Aegium


New York Hot Tracks was a syndicated music television series which aired from 1983 to 1989 and achieved the number one music variety show spot in the United States. Hot Tracks was executive produced and syndicated by M.K. Thomas & Company of Chicago in association with WABC-TV, New York. The 44-minute weekly series was distributed to more than 110 markets across the country.  The show debuted on July 22, 1983, a full week before NBC's Friday Night Videos. The original host was WKTU disc jockey Carlos DeJesus, who introduced the videos from various locations in and around New York City, usually dance nightclubs.

Many in the music world would venture to New York, and when they did, Hot Tracks was a popular place to visit. Many music stars actually co-hosted the show when they were in New York. The list included Tina Turner, Madonna, Beastie Boys, Run-DMC, Anita Baker, David Bowie, Aretha Franklin, and Janet Jackson. This attracted the attention of many national sponsors who supported the show. The executive producers were Michelle K. Thomas, CEO of the M. K. Thomas & Company, along with Brooke Johnson, V.P. of Programming at WABC-TV. The show was released weekly by David Novarro and Vincent Rubino.

From 1986 to 1989, Hot Tracks was hosted by Debbi Morgan and Darnell Williams, who concurrently portrayed Angie and Jesse Hubbard on the ABC soap opera All My Children. During this period, the show led as number one in all significant ratings categories according to the A.C. Nielsen Company, November, 1987.

The third and final host of Hot Tracks was Gene Anthony Ray, from the motion picture Fame and the television series it spawned.

Ultimately, the program was canceled late in 1989 by its syndicator, M. K. Thomas & Company of Chicago, after having grown from airing in New York only to more than 110 television stations around the United States and off-shore. Program masters are current property of KHEMETCOM Entertainment & Omnimercial Media, which purchased assets of the M.K. Thomas & Company in 1997.

External links
 Yahoo! TV listing

Dance television shows
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
1983 American television series debuts
1989 American television series endings
1980s American music television series
Film distributors of the United States

New York Hot Tracks


Slow Flowers is a movement promoting the support and purchase of American-grown flowers in the United States. Similar to the Slow Food movement—aimed at preserving local, sustainable food and traditional cooking—Slow Flowers encourages consumers to support their local economy and consciously purchase cut flowers grown locally, seasonally and ethically in the United States, instead of purchasing flowers imported from other countries or flowers grown using chemicals and pesticides. The philosophy behind slow flowers is part of the wider slow movement. The Slow Flowers Community was founded by author and writer Debra Prinzing in 2014 after she authored a book titled Slow Flowers, in which the term "slow flowers movement" was coined, and the movement has since spread internationally.

The Slow Flowers Movement
The inspiration behind the philosophy of Slow Flowers can be traced back to author Amy Stewart's book Flower Confidential: The Good, the Bad and the Beautiful (2007), which provides an in-depth look into the floral industry. Among its revelations, the book sheds light on the genetic engineering and breeding of flowers, the exploitation of workers, pollution and the importation of cheap flowers in the flower industry.

In the U.S., consumers spend on average between $7 billion and $8 billion on cut flowers annually. Of those flowers, imported cut flowers account for 80 percent, with an estimated 5.6 billion stems sold annually imported from countries including Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Netherlands, Dominican Republic, Malaysia, Thailand, Peru, Guatemala, Chile, India, Italy, Kenya, South Africa, Israel, Spain, Japan, Canada, Ethiopia, Australia, Nicaragua, New Zealand, Taiwan, Vietnam, Argentina, Brazil, Zimbabwe and France. In the U.S., cut flowers largely come from the west coast in California where blooms like daffodils, orchids and mums are grown. American-grown flowers used to account for 64 percent of the flowers sold domestically, according to data from 1991. However since then, and shortly after the introduction of the Andean Trade Promotion and Drug Eradication Act, the number of domestically-grown flowers sold in the U.S. has been on the decline, with 50 percent of North American flower farms no longer in business due to the competing, cheaper prices of flowers grown in South America.

In terms of cost, flowers grown in the U.S. often cost more to produce which means they can be more expensive compared to imported flowers. Imported products are also not generally required to meet the same environmental and labor standards as crops and products grown domestically, which also influences pricing. Additionally, country of origin labeling laws are not enforced, so the origin as well as ethical and environmental footprint of flowers are largely unknown. However, it has been stated that stiffer regulations are now in place in Colombia and Ecuador's industries with bans on certain chemicals and minimum wage requirements. In both the U.S. and South America, there are certification programs like Veriflora, Florverde, Bloom Check, Certified Naturally Grown and Salmon Safe that growers can participate in that focus on improving environmental standards, meaning blooms grown with these certifications are grown under stricter guidelines with less chemicals and harmful pesticides, and some of these programs also focus on worker standards.

The Slow Flowers movement has been part of the effort to establish a philosophy of employing sustainable practices, supporting the local economy and reducing chemical use through the purchase of domestically and ethically grown flowers that is being adopted by florists, flower farmers and consumers. To garner additional support for the movement and flowers grown and sold domestically in the U.S., and to help address the lack of knowledge around origins of flowers and the no-labeling requirement for flowers in the U.S., the Certified American Grown label has since been placed on the sleeves of blooms sold in grocery stores including Trader Joe's, Whole Foods and Safeway. Labels such as "fair trade", "organic" and "sustainable" are also placed on bouquets sold in grocery stores and through online retailers.

In the last decade, the number of flower farms selling cut flowers domestically increased almost 20 percent between 2007 and 2012 from 5,085 to 5,903, according to the USDA.  Farm shares or community supported agriculture (CSAs) are also featuring fresh flowers as part of their annual subscription services, offering large to small bouquets that are collected weekly or bi-weekly alongside farm-grown fruits and vegetables. Additionally, the U.S. has seen the development of the Congressional Cut Flower Caucus, which has helped leverage additional support in raising awareness about supporting American flower farmers and floral products.

Slow Flowers Community
At its core, Slow Flowers was established to promote the conscious purchase of buying and selling locally and sustainably grown flowers in the United States. The Slow Flowers Community has 600 members. Members of the Slow Flowers community are predominantly small-scale growers, producers and designers who are working to transform the flower industry by leveraging the field-to-vase or locally grown flowers philosophy.

References

External links

Organizations established in 2014
Horticultural organizations based in the United States

Slow Flowers


Euler–Bernoulli beam theory (also known as engineer's beam theory or classical beam theory) is a simple method to calculate bending of beams when a load is applied. This applies to  small deflections (how far something moves) of a beam without considering effects of shear deformations. Therefore, it can be considered a special case of the Timoshenko beam theory. It was first introduced around 1750. It gained popularity during the development of the Eiffel Tower and the Ferris wheel in the late 19th century. After that, it was used in many engineering fields including mechanical engineering and civil engineering. Although other advanced methods have been developed, the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory is still widely used because of its simplicity.

History

Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli were the first to put together the theory in 1750.
At the time, science and engineering were viewed differently than today. Mathematical theories such as the Euler-Bernoulli Beam theory were not trusted for practical engineering use. Bridges and buildings continued to be designed using the same methods until the late 19th century. This is when the Eiffel Tower and Ferris wheel showed the validity of the theory on a larger scale.

Static beam equation

The Euler–Bernoulli equation describes the relationship between the beam's deflection and the applied load is as shown below:

Where  describes the deflection  of the beam in the  direction at some position .  is a distributed load, in other words a force per unit length (analogous to pressure being a force per area); it may be a function of , , or other variables.

References

Elasticity (physics)
Equations
Engineering

Euler-Bernoulli Beam Theory


The name Leah [ lee-uh ] has biblical roots, and means wild cow in Hebrew. Leah is a timeless and exquisite moniker that has been in vogue for centuries, boasting a compelling past and profound significance. This name, derived from Hebrew roots, translates to "weary" or "tired," and has a prominent place in biblical literature, making it a beloved choice among Jewish lineages for countless generations. This name was ranked #46 on the US Popular Names in 2021.

In Genesis, the first book of the Bible, Leah is the older sister of Rachel. Leah marries Jacob and becomes the mother of six sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah (Biblical personage), Issachar, Zebulun, and a daughter, Dinah.

People

 Leah Chase, American chef (1923-2019)
 Leah Bracknell, British actress and yoga instructor (1964-2019)
 Leah LaBelle, American singer (1986–2018)
 Leah Pipes, American actress

References

Leah


Audri Mukhopadhyay (born 1974) is a Canadian diplomat and economist. He was the Consul General of Canada in Ho Chi Minh City,  Vietnam, serving as head of mission at the Consulate General of Canada in Ho Chi Minh City. He has been featured in a number of Vietnamese publications promoting Canada-Vietnam bilateral ties, and In 2010, he was named one of Progress magazine's "People we love."
He also filmed a television series for Ho Chi Minh City Television that began airing in Fall 2010. The series is part of an English language teaching programme aiming to promote Canadian culture in Vietnam. Promoting education linkages was a large part of his work in Vietnam.

Mukhopadhyay joined the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade in 2005. From 2002 to 2003, he was the Canadian government's representative to ICANN. He has also worked as a consultant at McKinsey & Company and as an economist with the Canadian Department of Finance.

Mukhopadhyay is a Canadian of Indian descent. He was born in Providence, Rhode Island (USA), and grew up in Halifax (former city), Nova Scotia.  He studied economics at Dalhousie University in Canada, then as a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University, where he earned an MBA and an MPhil in economics.

He is affiliated with Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C., where he is a Global Fellow at the Canada Institute.

References

Living people
Canadian diplomats
Canadian people of Indian descent
Canadian people of Bengali descent
Canadian Hindus
People from Providence, Rhode Island
Dalhousie University alumni
Canadian Rhodes Scholars
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
1974 births

Audri Mukhopadhyay