Charles Edward Lindblom (March 21, 1917 – January 30, 2018) was an American academic who studied economics at the University of Chicago and was Sterling Professor emeritus of political science and economics at Yale University. He served as president of the American Political Science Association and the Association for Comparative Economic Studies, as well as director of Yale's Institution for Social and Policy Studies.

Academic work
Lindblom was one of the early developers and advocates of the theory of incrementalism in policy and decision-making. That view (also called gradualism), takes a "baby-steps," "muddling through," or "Echternach theory" approach to decision-making processes. In it, policy change is, under most circumstances, evolutionary, rather than revolutionary. He came to that view through his extensive studies of welfare policies and trade unions throughout the industrialized world. Those views are set out in two articles separated by 20 years: "The Science Of 'Muddling Through'" (1959) and "Still Muddling, Not yet through" (1979), both of which were published in Public Administration Review.

Together with his friend, colleague, and fellow Yale Professor Robert A. Dahl, Lindblom was a champion of the polyarchy (or pluralistic) view of political elites and governance in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. According to that view, no single monolithic elite controls government and society but rather a series of specialized elites competing and bargaining with one another for control. It is this peaceful competition and compromise between elites in politics and the marketplace that drives free-market democracy and allows it to thrive.

However, Lindblom soon began to see the shortcomings of polyarchy with regard to democratic governance. When certain groups of elites gain crucial advantages, become too successful and begin to collude with one another instead of compete, polyarchy can easily turn into corporatism.

Lindblom died on January 30, 2018, at the age of 100.

Politics and Markets (1977)
In his best known work, Politics And Markets (1977), Lindblom notes the "privileged position of business in polyarchy". He also introduces the concept of "circularity", or "controlled volitions," in which "even in the democracies, masses are persuaded to ask from elites only what elites wish to give them." Thus, any real choices and competition are limited. Worse still, any development of alternative choices or even any serious discussion and consideration of them is effectively discouraged. An example is the political party system in the United States, which is almost completely dominated by two powerful parties, which often reduce complex issues and decisions to two simple choices. Related to that is the concurrent concentration of the mass communications media into an oligopoly, which effectively controls who gets to participate in the national dialogue and who suffers a censorship of silence.

Politics And Markets provoked a wide range of critical reactions that extended beyond the realms of academia. The Mobil Corporation took out a full page ad in The New York Times to denounce it. This helped the book achieve greater notoriety, which in turn helped it get onto The New York Times Best Seller list, a rarity for a scholarly work. His criticism of democratic capitalism and polyarchy and his seeming praise for the political economy of Tito's Yugoslavia, Lindblom was (perhaps predictably, labeled a "closet communist" and a "creeping socialist" by conservative critics in the west. Marxist and communist critics chided him for not going far enough. Originally, Dahl too disagreed with many of Lindblom's observations and conclusions, but in a later work How Democratic Is the American Constitution?, he also became critical of polyarchy in general and its U.S. form in particular.

Lindblom elaborated on his work in a 1982 Journal of Politics article. According to Lindblom, it is difficult for politicians to implement change when those changes adversely affect those who control capital, who also create the conditions that determine the success of society. Unlike other actors, who must proactively advocate for and against policies, the owners of capital can, by virtue of their importance for society, shape public policy decisions.

In The Market System: What It Is, How It Works, and What to Make of It (2001), Lindblom echoed and expanded upon many of his concerns raised in Politics And Markets. The most important of them is that the market system is the best mechanism yet devised for creating and fostering wealth and innovation, but it is not very efficient at assigning noneconomic values and distributing social or economic justice.

Select bibliography

 Lindblom, Charles E. (1959), The science of 'muddling through'. Public Administration Review, 19, pp. 79–88.
 Lindblom, Charles E.; Braybrooke, David (1963), A strategy of decision: policy evaluation as a social process. Free Press.
 Lindblom, Charles E. (1965), The intelligence of democracy, Free Press.
 Lindblom, Charles E.; Dahl, Robert A. (1976), Politics, economics, and welfare: planning and politico-economic systems resolved into basic social processes, with a new pref. by the authors. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
 Lindblom, Charles E. (1977), Politics and markets: the world's political-economic systems, New York: Basic.
 Lindblom, Charles E. (1979), Still muddling, not yet through "Public Administration Review", 39, pp. 517–526.
 Lindblom, Charles E.; Cohen, David K. (1979), Usable knowledge: social science and social problem solving Yale University Press
 Lindblom, Charles E. (1984), The policy-making process, 2nd edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
 Lindblom, Charles E. (1990), "Inquiry and change: the troubled attempt to understand and shape society", Yale University Press
 Lindblom, Charles E.; Woodhouse, Edward J. (1993), The policy-making process, 3rd. ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
 Lindblom, Charles E. (2001), The market system: what it is, how it works, and what to make of it, Yale University Press.
 Blockland, Hans; Rune Premfors, and Ross Zucker (2018), "In Memoriam: Charles Edward Lindblom, APSA President (1980–1981)" PS: Political Science & Politics (Vol. 51, No.2, April 2018).

References

External links

Yale Faculty Biography
Making Moral Sense of the Market: A Presbyterian minister's perspective on Lindblom
A concise but complete summary of Lindblom's The Policy Making Process
Text of: Still muddling through

1917 births
2018 deaths
American centenarians
American political scientists
American political philosophers
Yale Sterling Professors
21st-century American male writers
University of Chicago alumni
20th-century American male writers
Men centenarians

Charles E. Lindblom


Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond, 1st Duke of Lennox  (29 July 167227 May 1723), of Goodwood House near Chichester in Sussex, was the youngest of the seven illegitimate sons of King Charles II, and was that king's only son by his French-born mistress Louise de Kérouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth. He was appointed Hereditary Constable of Inverness Castle.

On his mother's side, he was descended from the Seigneurs of the Château de Kéroual, a castle built in the 16th century in Kerouat-Bihan, Guilers, Finistère, Brittany, France, as well as the House of Plœuc and Kergorlay noble family of Brittany.

Titles
Various titles became eligible for re-grant following the death in 1672 of King Charles II's childless 4th cousin (both being descended in the male line from John Stewart, 3rd Earl of Lennox, the paternal grandfather of Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, father of King James I of England) Charles Stewart, 3rd Duke of Richmond, 6th Duke of Lennox (1639–1672), KG, 12th Seigneur d'Aubigny in France, of Cobham Hall in Kent and of Richmond House in Whitehall, London.

This Anglicised branch of the Scottish family of "Stewart of Darnley" had been beloved aby King James I & VI, whose favourite had been the Franco-Scottish Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox, 1st Earl of Lennox (1542–1583), 7th Seigneur d'Aubigny, his father's first cousin (and great-grandfather of the last in the male line Charles Stewart, 3rd Duke of Richmond, 6th Duke of Lennox).

Thus, the Lennox and Richmond titles and the French Seigneurie d'Aubigny (effectively the lordship of the manor of the Château d'Aubigny in Aubigny-sur-Nère) held special significance for the Stuart monarchs. Moreover, the title Earl of Richmond had merged into the crown on the accession to the throne in 1485 of King Henry VII, formerly Earl of Richmond, and the Scottish title Earl of Lennox had merged into the crown of Great Britain, as King James I of England and VI of Scotland was effectively the 5th Earl of Lennox, being the heir of his paternal grandfather Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox.

On 9 August 1675, King Charles II's illegitimate son (by Louise de Kérouaille) who had been given the surname "Lennox", was created Duke of Richmond, Earl of March, and Baron Settrington in the Peerage of England; and on 9 September 1675, he was created Duke of Lennox, Earl of Darnley, and Baron Methuen of Torbolten in the Peerage of Scotland. He was invested as a Knight of the Garter on 18 April 1681. In 1684, at the request of King Charles II, the French King Louis XIV created Louise de Kérouaille "Duchesse d'Aubigny" in the Peerage of France, with remainder to her descendants.

As the 1st Duke predeceased his mother, he never held the French dukedom, which was however inherited by his son, the duchess's grandson. He was appointed Lord High Admiral of Scotland, under reservation of the commission granted to James, Duke of Albany and York (later James VII), as Lord High Admiral for life. The appointment was therefore only effective between 1701 and 1705, when Lennox resigned all of his Scottish lands and offices.

He was Master of a Lodge in Chichester in 1696, and so was one of the few known seventeenth-century freemasons. His son followed him into the Freemasons.

Marriage and issue
On 8 January 1692 he married Anne Brudenell (d. 9 December 1722), a daughter of Francis Brudenell, Lord Brudenell (d. 1698), eldest son and heir apparent of Robert Brudenell, 2nd Earl of Cardigan. By his wife he had issue one son and two daughters:
Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond, 2nd Duke of Lennox, 2nd Duc d'Aubigny (1701–1750), son and heir, known during his father's lifetime by the courtesy title of Earl of March;
Lady Louisa Lennox (Countess of Berkeley), who married James Berkeley, 3rd Earl of Berkeley;
Lady Anne Lennox (Countess of Albemarle), who married Willem van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle.

By his mistress Jacqueline de Mézières he had a daughter, Renée Lennox (1709–1774), mistress of her half-first-cousin Charles Beauclerk, 2nd Duke of St Albans, the son and heir of the sixth illegitimate son of King Charles II (by his mistress Nell Gwyn).

Patron of cricket
He was a patron of the game of cricket, then becoming a leading professional sport, and did much to develop it in Sussex. It is almost certain that he was involved with the earliest known "great match", which took place in the 1697 season and was the first to be reported by the press. The report was in the Foreign Post dated Wednesday, 7 July 1697:

"The middle of last week a great match at cricket was played in Sussex; there were eleven of a side, and they played for fifty guineas apiece".

The stakes on offer confirm the importance of the fixture and the fact that it was eleven-a-side suggests that two strong and well-balanced teams were assembled. No other details were given but the report provides evidence that cricket, in the form of "great matches" played for high stakes, was in vogue at the time. It was possibly an inter-county match: i.e., a Sussex XI versus a Kent XI or a Surrey XI. Richmond sponsored a team in the 1702 season against an Arundel side. His son Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond inherited his interest in cricket and became the patron of both Sussex county cricket teams and Slindon Cricket Club.

Death and burial
He died on 27 May 1723 and was buried on 7 June 1723 in the Richmond Chapel (Henry VII Chapel) of Westminster Abbey, which chapel had been built by King Henry VII, formerly Earl of Richmond. His body was reinterred on 16 August 1750 in the Lady Chapel of Chichester Cathedral in Sussex.

Legacy
Richmond County, New York (coextensive with Staten Island), and Richmond County, Virginia, were named after Charles Lennox, whilst other US counties called "Richmond" were named after later Dukes.

Through his daughter, Anne, he is an ancestor of Queen Camilla of the United Kingdom and through both Anne and his elder son of the late Diana, Princess of Wales.

Arms

Ancestry

Also see: House of Plœuc, Kergorlay family

References

Bibliography

Further reading
 Late Baron di Bauvso, Malta. 1 January 2000.
 The Adami Collection – collection of Parish records of Marriages, legacy and nobility, National Library of Malta, vol 10, pp 1838.

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17th-century English nobility
18th-century English people
English cricket in the 14th to 17th centuries
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Dukes of Aubigny
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Knights of the Garter
Lord High Chamberlains of Scotland
English people of French descent
Illegitimate children of Charles II of England
Charles
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Burials at Chichester Cathedral
Cricket patrons
17th-century Scottish peers
Peers of England created by Charles II
Peers of Scotland created by Charles II
Sons of kings

Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond


Lunokhod 1 was a lunar rover made by the Soviet Union. It was part of the Lunokhod programme. It was the first man made rover (vehicle) to land on another planet. It landed on the Moon on November 17, 1970. It drove around on the Moon for nearly a year, collecting information about the soil and landscape. The Lunokhod had only two speeds, 1 km/h or 2 km/h. It had four TV cameras and was controlled by a five person team on Earth.

It was lost for almost 40 years, but the space rocket which delivered the rover to the Moon was found in photos taken by the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Scientists were then able to follow the rover's tracks and found the rover about 10 km away.  They can now send laser beams to a reflector on the rover which will send them back to Earth. This will help them with measurements to find the exact centre of the Moon.

References

Soviet spacecraft
Moon
Planetary rovers
1970s in spaceflight

Lunokhod 1


Fanorama (also known as Fanorama Society and Fanorama Cabal) is a Rhode Island-based zine and zine-distro produced by journalist/activist REB (Richard E. Bump). According to their website it is the "grand-daddy of the queer zine scene".

First published in 1992, Fanorama emerged as part of the queercore movement, largely inspired by the zine J.D.s (edited by G.B. Jones and Bruce LaBruce), and the Toronto scene from which J.D.s came.  Initially a punk-edged collage of gay porn and commentary, REB soon added a strong, anti-assimilationist political voice to the mix, turning the zine into an artful version of the weekly "Queerbeat" column he contributed to Rhode Island's alternative arts newspaper, The NicePaper.   The Fanorama tag line at the time became, "For those who want a little smut with their politics, or a little politics with their smut."

Fanorama began to generate controversy, particularly as it addressed racism and sexism in the gay mainstream establishment; one detractor in the media called REB a "kiddie pornographer-turned-moral watchdog".  During this period, REB was instrumental in leading protests against a local gay bar over a management-led racist incident - a battle which would take center stage in the gay politics of Rhode Island for the better part of a year.  Despite what he began to call his "infamy," REB's popularity as a personality grew, and he was invited to emcee a mid-1990s Rhode Island Gay Pride celebration; though accepting the position, he would take its organizers to task in later years for the increasing commercialism of the event.

Over the course of its publication, Fanorama ran interviews and photo essays with such queer counter-culture heroes as comic book artist Robert Kirby, punk rockers Pansy Division, filmmaker and zine editor Scott Treleaven, and Tommy Ace of the controversial AIDS humor zine, Diseased Pariah News. It has been dubbed "the Grandaddy of Queerzines" by Factsheet 5.  After publishing an issue in which REB mourned his break-up with future Juha frontman Collin Clay,  Fanorama took a turn towards pagan spirituality, influenced greatly by his work with the Radical Faeries.

The latest incarnation of Fanorama was essentially as a prisoners' rights magazine influenced initially by the stories prisoners sent to its letters to the editor section. It still retains pornography and spiritual angles. The relationships REB developed with prisoners over time were also the impetus for Fanorama to become a publisher of prisoner-authored works.  This has led to its constituency expanding from its queer following to include an anarcho-punk/activist readership, particularly since having caught the attention of Maximum Rocknroll and Punk Planet, and more recently gaining the praises of headbanger favorite, Metal Maniacs.  REB told Punk Planet in 2005: "After doing my zine for over 12 years, after publishing and distributing countless inmate-produced publications, after corresponding with literally hundreds of prisoners, the only folks who ever made me feel 'unsafe' were folks in the free world."

The film division of Fanorama has included  REB's documentary Queer Rage (chronicling events leading up to and coming out of a riot at the RI State House) and art films Nocturne In E Flat, Jerk Off '94, Waltz of the Flowers, and 13 Boys.  Shot mostly on Super-8 film or video, they have been screened at queer indie film festivals across the United States and Canada.  In November 2013, he debuted a new film, Rituels Queer at the 26th NYC MIX Experimental Film Festival. In 2014, Rituels Queer was selected to screen at Queer City Cinema Inc. (based in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada) and at the 6th Entzaubert DIY Queer International Film Festival in Berlin. REB also facilitates workshops and is a speaker on the issues of zine making, queer rights, and prisoners' rights.  Excerpts from Fanorama have been published in the gay-oriented encyclopedia Out In All Directions (Warner Books), That's Revolting: Queer Strategies For Resisting Assimilation, edited by Matt Bernstein Sycamore (Suspect Thoughts), and Afterwords: Real Sex From Gay Men's Diaries.

In 2007, REB was part of a collective that opened The Akron Earthworm, an underground live music venue and art gallery in Akron, Ohio. In 2008, after The Earthworm closed, REB founded Hellville Records and released Medusa Complex's In Search of the Laconic Ideal cdep in 2008 and Mockingbird's S/T lp in 2011.

In October 2008, Fanorama was featured in a comprehensive retrospective of queer zines at The NY Art Book Fair held at Phillips de Pury & Company. In April 2017, Fanorama was featured in Kweerblam, curated by QZAP, at the Woodland Pattern Book Center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. REB also screened five of his experimental films at the show's closing night. He recently released the 25th. anniversary issue of Fanorama featuring original photography.

Zine'ography

Ambiguous Ambrosia by Paul Moore
The Ashes of Dahlia by Faith Phillips
Birdland by a Soledad State Prison collective
Chairman Of The Bored by a Folsom State Prison Anarchist Collective
Fanorama by REB
Flakes by Darren Hamby
Flowers From The Grave by Walter James
The Hated by William Wright
Left Back by Chadd Beverlin
Obscene Emission by Neil Edgar
One Woman's Story by Kebby Warner
Punk Pagan by Michael Killeen
Reflections by Frederick Fisher
Solitary Existence by Travis "SK8" Harramen
Thoughts Of My Liberation by Frederick Fisher
Unheard Silence by Devin Baker
Wiener Society by Neil Edgar

Notes

External links
 - official website.

Zines
Queercore
Advocacy groups in the United States
Fanzines
Radical Faeries
LGBT organizations in the United States

Fanorama


Jona Lendering (born 29 October 1964) is a Dutch historian and the author of books on antiquity, Dutch history and modern management. He has an MA in history from Leiden University and an MA in Mediterranean culture from the Amsterdam Free University, taught history at the Free University, and worked as an archivist employed by the Dutch government, before becoming one of the founders of the history school Livius Onderwijs.

Career and works
Born on 29 October 1964 in Beneden-Leeuwen, Gelderland, Lendering's biography of Alexander the Great (Alexander de Grote) attempted to make greater use than earlier scholars of Persian and Babylonian sources. For example, he argued from Babylonian astronomical diaries that Darius III of Persia was deserted by his troops when he faced Alexander at the Battle of Gaugamela, rather than personally leading the retreat as reported by Greek sources. His work, "Alexander de Grote. De ondergang van het Perzische rijk" was described by Bryn Mawr Classical Review contributor Jan P. Stronk from the University of Amsterdam, as "clear and compelling" and "manifestly written for the general public"-and although not sharing Lendering's love for psychological profiles, Lendering's work may be regarded as an incentive for serious scholars looking to expand their knowledge of new sources of ancient history.

In a passage cited by one commentator as characteristic of recent unsympathetic interpretations of Alexander, Lendering argued that Alexander's respectful treatment of Darius' family was not just an act of chivalry but also a claim to be the "new king". Quality Non-Fiction from Holland called Alexander de Grote "fascinating" and highlighted Lendering's attention to non-Western evidence. However, ancient historian Jan P. Stronk thought it clear from Lendering's book that these sources could at best illuminate specific details of Alexander's life.

Lendering's interest in using western sources in combination with eastern sources can also be discerned in his book on ancient Rome (Stad in marmer), in which he quoted hitherto neglected Talmudic sources, and especially in his book on the legacy of Babylon and the world of Islam to Medieval Europe, Vergeten erfenis.

In the Bryn Mawr Classical Review, Lendering's review of Kaveh Farrokh Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War was criticized as being "marred by a series of overt inaccuracies, misconceptions and mistakes with respect to the domain of ancient Iranian studies." Lendering was also described by the authors of the response as displaying "a consistent pattern of ignoring seminal works, journal publications, and research that contradict his points of view".

In 2010, Lendering and Arjen Bosman published De rand van het Rijk: de Romeinen en de Lage Landen.

Livius.org
Since 1996, Lendering has maintained Livius, a website containing numerous articles on ancient history. The site is divided into sections on specific regions – Anatolia, Persia, Greece, etc. – and an individual selection of topics is treated for each of these. The Mesopotamian section contains the recently discovered Babylonian Chronicles of the Hellenistic Period.

Livius Onderwijs
Livius Onderwijs is an association of teachers interested in ancient Mediterranean societies. ("Onderwijs" is Dutch for "education".) The association is based in Amsterdam and among other services offers a series of lectures there and elsewhere. It was founded in 2005 by Lendering and Marco Prins.

Awards
After the publication of Lendering's Spijkers op laag water, a book highly critical about the shortcomings of modern classicists, archaeologists, and historians, the research school of Dutch classicists and historians awarded him their annual "Oikos publieksprijs", recognizing Lendering's contributions to explaining Antiquity to a larger audience.

In 2011, he received the Nederlands Klassiek Verbond (Dutch Classical Association) award for his book De rand van het rijk (later translated into English and published as Edge of Empire).

In 2016 he was awarded the Theodor Award (named after Theodor Holman) "for his publications on the importance of the classical heritage and for his relentless struggle against the impoverishment of our culture".

Selected works
 Bedrieglijk echt. Oude papyri, moderne controverses (2020; "Falsely Genuine: Ancient Papyrus, Modern Debate"), Utrecht: Omniboek,
 Xerxes in Griekenland. De mythische oorlog tussen Oost en West (2019; "Xerxes in Greece: The Mythical War between East and West"), Utrecht: Omniboek,
 Wahibre-em-achet en andere Grieken. Landverhuizers in de Oudheid (2019; "Wahibre-em-achet and Other Greeks: Migrants in Antiquity"), Utrecht: Omniboek,
 Het visioen van Constantijn (2018; "The vision of Constantine"), with Vincent Hunink, Utrecht: Omniboek,
 (with Arjan Bosman) De Rand van het Rijk. De Romeinen en de Lage Landen (2010; "Edge of the Empire. The Romans and the Low Countries");
 Spijkers op laag water. Vijftig misverstanden over de Oudheid (2009; "Fifty Common Errors About Antiquity");
 Vergeten erfenis. Oosterse wortels van de westerse cultuur (2009; "Lost Legacy: Eastern Roots of Western Civilization");
 Oorlogsmist. Veldslagen en propaganda in de Oudheid (2006; "Fog of War: Ancient Battles and Battle Narratives");
 Polderdenken. De wortels van de Nederlandse overlegcultuur (2005; "The Roots of the Dutch Consensus Culture");
 Alexander de Grote. De ondergang van het Perzische rijk, (2004, "Alexander the Great: The Demise of the Persian Empire");
 Stad in marmer. Gids voor het antieke Rome aan de hand van tijdgenoten (2002; "The Marble City: Literary Travel Guide of Ancient Rome");
 Archeologie van de futurologie (2000; "A History of Futurology");
 De randen van de aarde. De Romeinen tussen Schelde en Eems (2000; "The Edges of the Earth: The Romans in the Low Countries");
 Een interim-manager in het Romeinse Rijk. Plinius in Bithynië (1999; "An Interim-Manager in the Roman Empire: Pliny in Bithynia")

Lendering is a regular contributor to Ancient Warfare magazine; his books have been translated into Turkish.

References

External links

 , a website on ancient history written and maintained since 1996 by Jona Lendering

1964 births
20th-century Dutch historians
21st-century Dutch historians
Dutch classical scholars
Historians of antiquity
Leiden University alumni
Living people
People from West Maas en Waal
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam alumni

Jona Lendering


Catalina Edwards (born October 26, 1976, in Viña del Mar) is a Chilean journalist. She is currently a news anchor on Ahora Noticias and a panelist on Mucho Gusto, both television shows on the Mega channel.

Her comments on air about the Chilean pension system caused controversy on July 25, 2016.

Biography
She is the daughter of Juan Miguel Edwards Ross and María Verónica Delpino Allú. She is the older of four siblings, and the only daughter.

She studied at Villa Maria Academy, a Catholic school for girls in Santiago, Chile. She studied journalism at the University of the Andes.

She worked for seven years at Canal 13.

In 2007, she was the radio host of Vitamina on Radio Horizonte alongside Sergia Paz and Mauricio Contreras.

Personal life
She is married to Juan Pablo Tisné and has one son. She revealed in a magazine that at age 30 she was diagnosed with premature menopause.

References

External links

Living people
Chilean journalists
1976 births
Edwards family

Catalina Edwards


Wudangquan () is a class of Chinese martial arts. In contemporary China, Chinese martial arts styles are generally classified into two major groups: Wudang (Wutang), named after the Wudang Mountains; and Shaolin, named after the Shaolin Monastery. Whereas Shaolin includes many martial art styles, Wudangquan includes only a few arts that use the focused mind to control the body. This typically encompasses tai chi, xingyiquan and baguazhang, but must also include bajiquan and Wudang Sword.  Although the name Wudang simply distinguishes the skills, theories and applications of the internal arts from those of the Shaolin styles, it misleadingly suggests these arts originated at the Wudang Mountains. The name Wudang comes from a popular Chinese legend that incorrectly purports the genesis of tai chi and Wudang Sword by an immortal, Taoist hermit named Zhang Sanfeng who lived in the monasteries of Wudang Mountain. Wudang quan is often used synonymously with Neijia, but strictly speaking Neijia is a broader term that also encompasses, for example, Aikido and Qigong, which are not Wudang quan.

History

Qing China
The term neijia and the distinction between internal and external martial arts first appears in Huang Zongxi's 1669 Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan.
Stanley Henning proposes that the Epitaphs identification of the internal martial arts with the Taoism indigenous to China and of the external martial arts with the foreign Buddhism of Shaolin—and the Manchu Qing dynasty to which Huang Zongxi was opposed—was an act of political defiance rather than one of technical classification.

In 1676 Huang Zongxi's son, Huang Baijia, who learned martial arts from Wang Zhengnan, compiled the earliest extant manual of internal martial arts, the Neijia quanfa.

In the late 1800s, Dong Haichuan began teaching baguazhang to a very select group of individuals. The highly-notable xingyiquan stylist Liu De Kuan was among those who learned this special art from Dong. Liu was a very friendly martial artist who had also learned tai chi from Yang Luchan. Liu's friendly nature and experience with the three "internal" martial arts created an easy forum for discussion and knowledge-sharing between practitioners of these arts. In 1894, an alliance was created with Cheng Tinghua representing baguazhang while Li Cunyi and Liu Weixiang represented xingyiquan; and although Liu De Kuan practiced all three arts, he represented tai chi. The alliance grouped the three arts under the umbrella of "Neijia," and swore brotherhood among its associates and practitioners.
Cheng Ting Hua was shot and killed by German soldiers during the Boxer Rebellion (1900), which likely strengthened the alliance.

Republic of China

Around 1912, the third-generation bagua zhang master Fu Chen Sung was traveling throughout Northern China to meet and learn from the best martial artists when he met the Wudang Sword grandmaster Song Weiyi in Liaoning Province; Fu learned Sung's Wudang Sword and fighting forms: Lightning Palm and Rocket Fist. Fu joined General Li Jinglin's army in 1920.  General Li Jinglin had also met Song Weiyi in the early 1900s while garrisoned in Liaoning Province, and had also learned Song's Wudang Sword techniques.

In 1925, General Zhang Zhijiang began to propagate his belief that martial arts should be used to improve the health of the Chinese people. He suggested the creation of a Central Martial Arts Academy (Central Guoshu Institute), and was named Director. General Li Jinglin, retired from his military career, was named Vice-Chairman to the Academy. General Li's kung fu advisor was the famous bajiquan master Li Shuwen.

In 1928, the Kuomintang generals Zhang Zijiang, Fung Zu Ziang and Li Jinglin organized two national martial arts tournaments in Beijing and Nanjing; they did so to screen the best martial artists in order to begin populating the Central Martial Arts Academy. The generals separated the participants of the tournament into Shaolin and Wudang. Wudang participants were recognized as having "internal" skills. These participants were generally practitioners of tai chi, xingyiquan and baguazhang. All other participants competed under the classification of Shaolin. Thus, Wudangquan came to encompass tai chi, baguazhang, xingyiquan; bajiquan after Li Shuwen; and Wudang Sword after Song Weiyi and Li Jinglin. Fu Zhensong won the fighting competition in Beijing, and was named head baguazhang instructor of all China. Circumspectively, this seems to be the historical point when the name Wudang became the prevalent term for the internal martial arts across China.

The two major lineages of Wudangquan were passed down from Li Jinglin to Fu Zhensong and Yang Guishan.

Fu-style Wudangquan
Fu Zhensong worked the rest of his life to develop Fu-style Wudangquan. The system included exercises, empty hand and weapons sets in tai chi, baguazhang, xingyiquan—and Fu Zhensong's well-documented, signature forms: liangyiquan, Dragon Palm baguazhang and Dragon Palm bagua push hands (most of which he created in the 1940s); the famous but extremely rare Wudang Sword techniques were embodied in Fu's progression of Taiji Sword, to Seven Star Sword, to Bagua Cyclone Broadsword, and finally, Flying Dragon Bagua Sword forms. In his lifetime, Fu had many notable students, including General Sun Pao Gung and Lin Chao Zhen. Fu's oldest son, Fu Yonghui, became Fu's prodigal son. Yonghui grew up among many of the greatest martial artists in the Golden Era of Martial Arts in China. Yonghui learned well from his father and the other great masters. He practiced hard, and began developing Fu-style Wudangquan even more. Yonghui had two top students: his son, (Victor) Fu Shenglong, and Bow Sim Mark (the mother and teacher of Donnie Yen).

Wudang Danpai
According to T'ai Chi Magazine, volume 29, no. 3, Wudang Dan Pai claims direct descent of Zhang Sanfeng. Starting in the Ming Dynasty with Zhang Songxi, Wudang Danpai has been passed down for 13 generations. Its 9th generation lineage holder was Song Weiyi, who was the first non-Taoist to hold the lineage. Song passed the lineage to Li Jinglin (for the 10th). Li passed the lineage to Yang Guishang (for the 11th), who passed it on to Qian Timing (for the 12th).

The 12th generation headmaster and Gatekeeper of Wudang Danpai in China was Ma Jie, who learned his techniques from Daoist master Xuan Dan, Wudang Sword master Meng Xiaofeng, and xingyiquan and baguazhang master Han Muxia. Ma Jie's closed door disciples, Chang Wuna and Lu Meihui (who are also disciples of Qian Timing) are the current masters and gatekeepers of the 13th generation.

At the time Li Jinglin held the lineage, Li and his contingent were learning baguazhang from Fu Zhensong; xingyiquan from Sun Lutang; tai chi from Yang Chengfu; bajiquan from Li Shuwen; and the Wudang Sword techniques had come from Song Weiyi.

Techniques include: Wudang Sword (6 sections 132 movements), Wudang qigong tai chi, Wudang neigong tai chi, Wudang Two-Man Sword Dueling Forms, Wudang Flying Sword, xingyiquan, baguazhang, Dian Xue Point Striking, Taiji Push Hands, Wudang Sword Sparring, Taoist Nei Dan Gong, and other meditation practices. The push hands features a combination of Chinese Wrestling and joint locking.

The system is known for its emphasis on practical applications, and its fighting and healing abilities, with many of its masters entering full contact competitions or becoming traditional healers. Equal emphasis is placed on internal training and external strength.

Wudang Taiyi Boxing
According to T'ai Chi Magazine, volume 30, no. 1, Yang Qunli claims Jin Zitao started learning Wudang Taiyi Wuxing Boxing from Li Heling at Wudang Mountain in 1929. The article connotes that from the time of Li's death until the early 1980s, Jin Zitao was the only person alive who had knowledge of the secret martial arts of Wudang Mountain. In 1980, Jin Zitao demonstrated Wudang Taiyi Wuxing Boxing to the National Wushu Viewing and Emulating and Communicating Congress in Taiyuan City, Shanxi Province. Before that, it had "never been shown before."

The article cites Jin's association with "The Institute of Wudang Boxing" and the "Journal of Wudang."

According to Kung Fu Tai Chi Magazine, Zhong Yunlong went to Wudang Mountain in 1984, and studied under the 13th generation masters, Guo Gaoyi and Wang Kuangde. Zhong became the 14th generation lineage holder of the Wudang Sanfeng Sect. The article cites their association with the 'Wudang Taoist Association."

There does not seem to be any connection between Jin Zitao and the Wudang Sanfeng Sect except for the fact that they both use the term "Taiyi" as the name of a form. Both lineages claim to be direct descendants of Zhang Sanfeng, and claim they learned Wudang martial arts at Wudang Mountain in the 20th century.

Currently, a contingent of Taoist martial art masters claiming lineage to Zhong Yunlong practice and teach Wudang martial arts at Wudang Mountain, which was named a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1994. These Taoists practice what they call Wudang Wushu or Wudang Gongfu, and worship Zhang Sanfeng as a deity. The website shows a curriculum of tai chi, xingyiquan, baguazhang, qigong, meditation, and liangyi (taiyi wuxingquan), and claims baguazhang originated there. These masters and the Fu Family are the only two schools that teach a martial art form called Liangyi.

Xuanwu Pai
The Wudang Xuanwu Pai was officially formed in 1989 as an association of various Daoists in the Wudang mountains who have Xuanwu as their patron deity and claim lineage from the temples founded by the Yongle Emperor in the Ming dynasty. Arts taught include tai chi, xingyiquan, taiyi, and baguazhang. Prominent teachers include You Xuande (14th generation lineage holder and current Grandmaster), Yuan Limin (15th generation), and Tang Lilong (15th generation). Xuanwu Pai teachings have been spread outside China by teachers such as Ismet Himmet (You Lihan) and Lucia Ring-Watkins (Yuan Weirong).

Sanfeng Pai
This lineage was transmitted to master Zhong Yunlong through the 13th generation leader, Wang Guangde (1947-2001), who became the head of Wudang mountain after religious practice was legalized in 1979. Master Wang had studied under Longmen Pai master Li Chengyu (1885-2003) and Xiao Yaowan (1911-1997), the 12th generation head of Wudang Sanfeng Pai, from whom master Wang received the lineage.

Since the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, China began to open up to the world. Subsequently, there was a slow trickle of Daoists returning to Wudang.  Most importantly, Guo Gaoyi (1900-1996) and Zhu Chengde (1898-1990), both Longmen Pai masters returned in 1980. In 1981, Zhong Yunlong came to Wudang to study internal martial arts and became a disciple of masters Wang Guangde, Guo Gaoyi and Zhu Chengde, studying Sanfeng Pai and Longmen Pai practices under them.  In 1985, master Wang, then the head of the Wudang Daoist Association put out a call for Taoists scattered by the cultural revolution to return to Wudang.  Simultaneously, he sent master Zhong Yunlong all around China with letters of introduction with the goal of assisting Taoist masters to pass on their teachings to his disciple.  Through his travels and training, master Zhong amassed a huge body of knowledge ranging from Daoist martial arts to inner alchemy and healing practices.  After four years of traveling he came back to Wudang in 1989 and together with master Wang Guangde, founded the Daoist Association Martial Arts Academy at Purple Cloud Temple, with master Guo Gaoyi serving as the head martial arts instructor and master Zhu Chengde as the head qigong master.

Grandmaster Zhong Yunlong, who represents the 14th generation of Wudang Sanfeng Pai, had his first disciples in the early 90's. The most renowned were master Yuang Xiugang and master Zhong Xuechao, who at the same time were his very first students, who represent the first 15th generation masters of Wudang Sanfeng Pai lineage holders.

Since then, master Yuan Xiugang has been the first to open discipleship ceremonies to non-Chinese students, under the recommendation of his master Zhong Yunlong, to continue the spread of these ancestral arts to the rest of the world. The main disciples that are following the spreading of this teachings in the western world are master Zi Xiao (Alex Mieza) , Zi He (Jeff Reid) and Zi Gen (Jake Pinnick), representing the first western disciples of the 16th generation of Wudang Sanfeng Pai.

See also

 Qi
 Dantian
 Neidan
 Tao Te Ching
 Jian
 Temple of the Five Immortals
 Taoist schools

References

Sources
"The Wu Dang Sword" Black Belt Magazine (March 1990)"
Pa Kwa Chang Journal (volume 1, #3; volume 2, #6; volume 5, #2; and volume 6, #6)
Fu Style Dragon Form Eight Trigrams Palms by Fu Wing Fay and Lai Zonghong (translated by Joseph Crandall); Copyright, 1998, Smiling Tiger Martial Arts

Neijia
Chinese martial arts

Wudangquan


The  was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . It was formed 10 July 1945 in Benxi as a triangular division. It was a part of the 8 simultaneously created divisions batch comprising 134th,  135th, 136th, 137th, 138th, 139th, 148th and 149th divisions. The nucleus for the formation were the 2nd (Suifenhe) (or 3rd), 4th (Hulin) border guards groups, 46th transport guards group and 77th Independent Mixed Brigade.

Action
The 136th division formation was complete 31 July 1945, although the divisional numerical strength was only 60% of the required rifles, machine guns and cannons. To substitute for a lack of rifles, hand spears were issued. Also, divisional medical, chemical and biological warfare units were authorized but not formed. Finally, 136th division had a shortage of anti-tank explosive charges.

At the start of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria 9 August 1945 the division was improving fortifications at Benxi. Immediately orders to move were received, and majority of troops gathered in Shenyang. Also, Airborne (assault) battalion was sent to Wensheng District while two battalions of the 372nd infantry regiment were sent to Liaoyang.

Also, with the start of the invasion, the Aritomi Airborne (assault) battalion in Xinmin, Liaoning was assigned to 136th division. Also, 10 August 1945, the Mizunima detachment formerly belonging to 108th division was received and also ordered to Shenyang. 13 August 1945, the divisional fortifications plans were approved and 371st infantry regiment was sent back to Benxi to implement it.

The division was partially disarmed 19 August 1945, leaving about 15% of weapons for security duties. 20 August 1945, the division commander (Atsushi Nakayama) together with many other Japanese generals was kidnapped by the Red Army in Shenyang, resulting in his forced disappearance. The entire division was taken prisoner by Soviet Union forces 10 September 1945, and sent to labour camps.

Majority of the men of the 136th division were taken prisoner to the Soviet Union in September 1945 - February 1946 period and then were housed in several labour camps, in Siberia and Moscow.

See also
 List of Japanese Infantry Divisions

Notes and references
This article incorporates material from Japanese Wikipedia page 第136師団 (日本軍), accessed 8 July 2016
 Madej, W. Victor, Japanese Armed Forces Order of Battle, 1937–1945 [2 vols], Allentown, PA: 1981.

Japanese World War II divisions
Infantry divisions of Japan
Military units and formations established in 1945
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
1945 establishments in Japan
1945 disestablishments in Japan

136th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)


The River Torridge is a river in northern Devon, England. The River Torridge rises near Meddon. The course of the river makes a long loop through Devon farming country where its tributaries the Lew and Okement join before it meets the Taw at Appledore and then flows into the Bristol Channel. The Torridge local government district is named after the river.

Torridge
Torridge

River Torridge


Rogue Trooper is a science fiction strip in the British comic magazine 2000 AD, created by Gerry Finley-Day and Dave Gibbons in 1981. It portrays the adventures of a "Genetic Infantryman" named Rogue and three uploaded minds mounted on his equipment who search for the Traitor General.

The series was rebooted in 1989 in the story "The War Machine", featuring a new version of the character called Friday. This version of the character last appeared in 1996. The original character returned in 1999 and all stories since then have featured the original Rogue. The character has also featured in a number of 2000 AD crossovers.

Publication history
Gibbons left the strip early on to be replaced by a succession of artists and writers who have taken the strip in several different directions over the years. Artists to have drawn the character include Brett Ewins, Cam Kennedy and Colin Wilson. This quest continued from 1981 until 1985, when the G.I. had his final confrontation with the traitor general and, after a brief further run set on the Planet Horst, Finley-Day ceased writing the strip. Simon Geller took over, reinventing the character as an intergalactic hitman attempting to end the war by assassinating key figures, but this new direction was dropped in 1989. John Smith wrote a 'flashback' story, "Cinnabar", set in Rogue's deserter days, before original series artist Dave Gibbons returned to write a much more radical revamp of the character.

In "The War Machine", Gibbons and artist Will Simpson created a different war, set on a different planet, starring a different Genetic Infantryman, this time called Friday. The bio-chips were dropped, and Gibbons concentrated on the politics and economics of war and the sinister nature of the genetic engineering involved. A new ongoing series featuring Friday followed, written by American writer Michael Fleisher. In Fleisher's final story, "Scavenger of Souls", the bio-chips are reintroduced via an alien 'soul collector'.

Fleischer was replaced with Steve White, who made the military aspect of the strip more up-to-date and tried to reconcile the two versions of the character. He also reintroduced Venus Bluegenes (Helm's treacherous girlfriend from an earlier story who gained a more prominent role during the Simon Geller run) who had her own short spin-off run. His run on the character was the 2000 AD debut of artist Henry Flint.

The character was rested after White's last story in 1996. In 1997 a related character, blue-skinned ambulance pilot Tor Cyan was introduced in the story Mercy Heights.

In 2002 the original Rogue was reintroduced, again in flashback to his days hunting the traitor general, written by Gordon Rennie. Artists have included Staz Johnson, Dylan Teague, Mike Collins, Simon Coleby and PJ Holden. In 2004 Rennie stated that he had intended to revamp the character yet again, but had been blocked by 2000 AD editorial. He also hints that any return to the Rogue Trooper universe will concentrate on supporting cast and not include the Rogue character. This can be seen in the new series The 86ers.

Plot synopsis
The story is initially set on the planet Nu-Earth, where a war of attrition between two factions, the Norts and Southers, is being fought. The Norts are a fascist society, whom the Traitor General was briefly allied with, while the Southers are democratic.

There are similarities and occasional references to past Earth conflicts including the American Civil War and both World Wars, with the Norts resembling Germany, and the Southers the Allied forces. During the conflict, the use of chemical and biological weapons have poisoned the planet's atmosphere and oceans. As a result, what remains of the population of the planet, including the troops of both sides, live in enclosed domed military bases and habitats. They wear protective suits, helmets and respiration gear when outside their domes. These suits are known as "chemsuits". Any damage to the helmet or chemsuit is usually fatal to the wearer.

In an attempt to bring an end to the stalemate, the Southern High Command have created the GI, or "Genetic Infantryman". The GI is a soldier genetically engineered to be immune to the poisonous atmosphere of Nu-Earth, and therefore be able to fight without chemsuits. The Southern High Command deploy the entire GI Regiment in a mass spaceborne capsule drop over an area known as "The Quartz Zone", which resembles one of the Earth's Poles because the surface has an icy, glacier-like nature. The assault was intended to be a surprise attack, but because a traitor within the Southern High Command has passed details of it to the Norts, they are expecting the attack. The Norts employ elite infantry known as the Kashan and Kashar Legions to repulse the assault, and the entire GI Regiment - apart from Rogue - are wiped out. This event is referred to as "The Quartz Zone Massacre".  Rogue, the only surviving G.I., goes AWOL in order to track down the traitor. Along the way he thwarts numerous Nort schemes, discovers and inadvertently destroys the only portion of Nu-Earth not contaminated by chemical weapons, and is betrayed by every female character he encounters.

A later storyline – "MilliCom Memories" – shows how the GIs progress through their training, and that rather than a name each GI has a letter suffixed by their age.  Rogue is "R", Gunnar "G", Helm "H" and Bagman "B".  Two other troopers "D" and "N" are referenced in the storyline. During their training each GI is given a nickname - Gunnar is so named because of his marksmanship ability. Millicom Memories showed there were other prototype GIs before the development of Rogue's class, some of which were killed during his training.  Much earlier prototype GIs, created by genetically modifying existing humans featured in the story "First of the Few" in the 1984 2000 AD annual.  All except one were killed within 24 hours of deployment on Nu Earth.  The final proto-GI died of old age shortly after being discovered by Rogue, saying he had been on Nu Earth "...years and years and years, dog-chip."

In a multi-part story titled "The Marauders", Rogue encounters a group of deserters from both Nort and Southern sides, who operate as scavengers from a hidden base and attack both Nort and Southers in order to obtain food, ammunition and supplies. Unknown to Rogue, the commander of The Marauders is the Traitor General. Due to an accident the General was severely burned and is now unrecognisable. The General later reveals himself to Rogue, then captures and tortures him. Rogue eventually escapes, and with the help of one of the Marauders (a Souther pilot known as 'Player'), defeats the Marauders that pursue him. The Traitor General escapes, destroying the Marauder base as he does so.

In "All Hell on the Dix-I Front" a massive Nort assault forces the Southerners to retreat from a vast area of Nu-Earth, similar to the Ardennes assault of World War II. During this, other Elite units of the Nort military are introduced, such as the Sun Legion, a Regiment of solar glider troops, and the Scum Marines, an amphibious assault force. "Sister Sledge", a military nurse accompanied Rogue during the Dix-I campaign.  She is secretly an enemy agent known as a "filth columnist" and dies in the final episode of the series when Bagman causes her to fall from a boat into the heavily polluted and toxic "Scum Sea".

"Fort Neuro" introduced a defensive line that has been cut off from both Southers and Norts since the beginning of the war.  The Fort has been split into separate sectors by the same clouds, meaning each sector operates independently of each other, without any contact or cohesion. The soldiers within each sector are suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder so the French sector – known as "Franks" – wear Napoleonic era uniforms, and hold grand balls that were popular in that period. Other sectors display similar erratic behaviour, with the English troops – known as "Lime-ees" – dressing as holiday camp redcoats and behaving as though they are on a perpetual holiday, while the "Rom" garrison fashion themselves as 1950's Teddy Boys - or "Romeos".

Rogue is immune to all known toxins, diseases, and acids with three known exceptions:
 A new plant is discovered after permafrost is melted in an arctic zone, which renders him unconscious.
 In the flashback story "Cinnabar" a retrovirus is engineered specifically to target his immune system, making him susceptible to all other Nu-Earth hazards, ultimately forcing him to wear a chem-suit.
 On Horst, Rogue is bitten by one of the Dragoid creatures causing him to pass out. As Bagman points out, Rogue was engineered to be resistant to conditions on Nu Earth, not those unique to Horst. However, the toxin quickly wears off, and in fact has a beneficial effect on Rogue.

In a lighter moment during the Fort Neuro series, Rogue is shown to have difficulty breathing when in a staff car full of officers from the "Rom" sector, who in anticipation of a good night out with the neighbouring "Scan" sector, have applied too much aftershave.

The Biochips are infected by a latent malady unknowingly contracted whilst passing through the Neverglades area of Nu Earth. The unnamed condition renders them susceptible to "Enzyme E dysfunction", which causes their newly re-gened bodies to disintegrate, leaving only their bio-chips.

Historical influences

Many elements of the Rogue back-story were inspired by World War II, The Vietnam War, the American Civil War and the Cold War. Norts (Northerner Unionists) fought against generally less-well equipped Southers (Southern Confederates), and several battles were referenced, such as the First Battle of Bull Run, which was retold as the "Battle of Mek-Bull Run". The Norts appear totalitarian in nature. While their uniforms have Nazi connotations their dialect and names are mostly quasi-Slavic, as if they represented a futuristic version of the Soviet Bloc, although there is some usage of German names as well, for example General Vagner, Admiral Torpitz (a play on the German admiral Tirpitz). Their conduct and methods of waging war are also more barbaric than those of the comparatively civilised Southers. Although as the series develops the Southers are also shown committing comparably immoral acts as well. "Genetic Infantryman" is a direct homage to the supposed "Government Issue" tag that American troops were nicknamed after.

Bibliography
The Rogue Trooper has appeared frequently in comics and other media.

Stories in regular issues
The original run, mostly written by Gerry Finley-Day, was:
 "Rogue Trooper" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #228, 1981)
 "Nu Paree" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #229, 1981)
 "Glass Zone" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #230, 1981)
 "Doomsday Valley" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #231, 1981)
 "Terror of the Decapitators" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #232, 1981)
 "Raiders" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #234, 1981)
 "Scum Sea" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #235, 1981)
 "Ascent To Buzzard-Three" (with art by Colin Wilson, in 2000 AD #236-238, 1981)
 "The Rookies" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #239-240, 1981)
 "Blue Moon" (with art by Colin Wilson, in 2000 AD #241, 1981)
 "Poison" (with art by Mike Dorey, in 2000 AD #242-243, 1981)
 "Fear of the Machine" (with art by Colin Wilson, in 2000 AD #246-248, 1982)
 "The Dreamweavers" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD #249-250, 1982)
 "The Buzzard" (with art by Colin Wilson, in 2000 AD #251-253, 1982)
 "The Petrified Forest" (with art by Mike Dorey, in 2000 AD #254-257, 1982)
 "War of Nerves" (with art by Colin Wilson, in 2000 AD #258, 1982)
 "Bagman Blues" (with art by Brett Ewins and Eric Bradbury, in 2000 AD #260-262, 1982)
 "The Body Looters" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #265, 1982)
 "All Hell on the Dix-I Front" (with art by Colin Wilson, Cam Kennedy and Brett Ewins, in 2000 AD #266-277, 1982)
 "Assassination Run" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #278-279)
 "Hats Off to Helm" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #280-281)
 "Marauders" (with art by Colin Wilson and Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #282-289)
 "Fort Neuro" (with art by Brett Ewins and Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #290-310, 1982–1983)
 "Major Magnam" (with art by Brett Ewins, in 2000 AD #311-315, 1983)
 "Bigfoot" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #316, 1983)
 "Bio-Wire" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #317, 1983)
 "Milli-Com Memories" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #318-322, 1983)
 "Vid-Vultures" (with art by Brett Ewins, in 2000 AD #323-326, 1983)
 "Eye of the Traitor" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #327-332, 1983)
 "Frisco Phog" (with art by Boluda, in 2000 AD #333-334, 1983)
 "From Hell to Eternity" (with art by Brett Ewins, in 2000 AD #335-340, 1983)
 "Mega-Minefield" (with art by Boluda, in 2000 AD #341-342, 1983)
 "Gasbah" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #343-347, 1983)
 "Timeslip" (with art by Boluda, in 2000 AD #348-349, 1983)
 "Colonel Kovert" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #350-355, 1984)
 "You Only Die Twice" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #358-364, #366-368, 1984)
 "Message From Milli-Com" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #369-377, 1984)
 "Just Routine" (with art by Trevor Goring, in 2000 AD #378, 1984)
 "Blind Terror" (with art by Steve Dillon, in 2000 AD #379-380, 1984)
 "Death Valley" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #381-383, 1984)
 "M For Murder" (script by Steve McManus, (credited as "Rogan") with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #384-386, 1984)
 "To the Ends of Nu Earth" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #387-392, 1984)
 "Re-Gene" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #401-406, 1985)
 "The Return of Rogue Trooper" (with art by José Ortiz, in 2000 AD #410-419, 1985)
 "Antigen of Horst" (with art by José Ortiz, in 2000 AD #422-426, #428-432, 1985)
 "Return to Milli-Com" (with art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD #444-449, 1985)

Subsequently, Rogue Trooper appeared in stories by three other writers:
 "The Hitman" (written by Simon Geller and Steve MacManus, with art by Steve Dillon, in 2000 AD #495-499, 1986)
 "Hit One" (written by Simon Geller, with art by Steve Dillon, in 2000 AD #520-531, 1987)
 "Hit Two" (written by Simon Geller, with art by Steve Dillon, in 2000 AD #568-572, 1988)
 "Hit Three – The Violent Majority" (written by Simon Geller, with art by Steve Dillon, in 2000 AD #574-575, 1988)
 "Through the Eyes of a Gun" (script and art by Steve Dillon, in 2000 AD #589, 1988)
 "Hit Four – The New Moral Army" (written by Simon Geller, with art by Steve Dillon, in 2000 AD #598-600, #602-603, 1988)
The Hitman storyline concluded in the 2000 AD Winter Special 1989 (see below).

There was then a story set before the Hitman series:
 "Cinnabar" (written by John Smith, with pencils by Steve Dillon and inks by Kev Walker, in 2000 AD #624-630 and 633–635, 1989)

Stories in specials and annuals

 "Milli-Way Sixty-Six!" (written by Gerry Finley-Day, art by Eric Bradbury, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 1982)
 "Pray for War" (written by Alan Moore, art by Brett Ewins, in 2000 AD Annual 1983, 1982)
 "The Droidonators" (written by Gerry Finley-Day, art by Boluda, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 1983)
 "First of the Few" (written by Alan Moore, art by Jesus Redondo, in 2000 AD Annual 1984, 1983)
 "Portrait of a Rebel!" (written by Simon Gellar, art by Brett Ewins, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 1984)
 "The War of Words" (written by Ian Rogan, art by Robin Smith, in 2000 AD Annual 1985, 1984)
 "On the Rogue Again" (text story, writer unknown, illustrated by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 1985)
 untitled story (written by Simon Gellar, art by Cam Kennedy, in 2000 AD Annual 1986, 1985)
 "Killothon" (written by Pat Mills, art by Mike Collins and Mark Farmer, in Diceman 3, 1986)
 "The Fanatics" (written by Peter Milligan, art by José Ortiz, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 1986)
 "Nort by Nortwest" (written by Peter Milligan, art by José Ortiz, in 2000AD Annual 1987, 1986)
 "Space Zombies" (written by Pat Mills, art by Mike Collins, in Diceman 5, 1986)
 "The Hit: Conclusion" (written by Steve Dillon, with art by Chris Weston, in 2000 AD Winter Special, 1989)

After the Friday reboot
(For the full series of stories featuring Friday, see Friday (2000 AD)#Bibliography.)

Rogue also appeared in crossovers with the new "Friday" series (leading up to the deaths of Rogue and Bagman in #949), all written by Steve White:
 "Blue on Blue" (with art by Henry Flint, in 2000 AD #928-931, 1995)
 "Mind Bombs" (with art by Edmund Perryman/Nick Abadzis, in 2000 AD #937-939, 1995)
 "Ascent" (with art by Steve Tappin, in 2000 AD #946-949, 1995)

After the new series finished, the original series returned in a story set after Rogue's death, written by John Tomlinson:
 "Remembrance Day" (with art by Dave Gibbons, in 2000 AD Prog 2000, 1999)

The original Rogue later returned in stories set before his death, all written by Gordon Rennie:
 "What Lies Beneath" (with pencils by Staz Johnson and inks by David Roach, in 2000 AD #1301-1304, 2002)
 "Weapons of War" (with art by Dylan Teague, in 2000 AD #1305, 2002)
 "Overkill" (with Simon Coleby, in 2000 AD #1306-1307, 2002)
 "Lions" (with Staz Johnson (1308) and Mike Collins (1309), in 2000 AD #1308-1309, 2002)
 "A Visit to the Boneyard" (with pencils by Mike Collins and inks by David Roach, in 2000 AD #1310-1311, 2002)
 "Requiem" (with Simon Coleby, in 2000 AD #1312, 2002)
 "Angels" (with Simon Coleby, in 2000 AD Prog 2003, 2002)
 "Ghouls" (with pencils by Staz Johnson (episodes 1–4) and Mike Collins (ep. 5–6), and inks by David Roach (ep. 3–6), in 2000 AD #1344-1349, 2003)
 "Realpolitik" (with PJ Holden, in 2000 AD #1380-1385, 2004)
 "Condor Six Down" (with Simon Coleby, in 2000 AD #1462-1464, 2005)
 "New Model Army" (with Steve Pugh (art) & Ian Edginton (script)2000 AD #1477-1479, 2006)

Gerry Finley-Day returned to the character after 25 years away, for the end of year special in 2010:
 "Dead Ringer" (with Staz Johnson, in 2000 AD Prog 2011, 2010)

In a short series of one-off stories called What If...? featuring alternative takes on popular 2000 AD characters, Rogue Trooper returned in a story written by Andy Diggle:
 "What If... Gunnar Survived the Quartz Zone Massacre?" (with Colin Wilson, in 2000 AD #1771, 2012)

The series appeared in one-off stories in annual special issues from 2014:
 "Dregs of War" (written by Guy Adams, art by Darren Douglas, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 2014)
 "The Feast" (written by Guy Adams, art by Lee Carter, in 2000 AD Winter Special 2014)
 "Death of a Demon" (written by Guy Adams, art by Darren Douglas, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 2015)
 "Shore Leave" (written by Guy Adams, art by Jimmy Broxton, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 2016)

The character returned to the regular issues of the comic in 2016:
 "Ghosts of Nu-Earth" (written by Gordon Rennie, art by Richard Elson, in 2000 AD #2000, 2016)
 "A Soldier's Duty" (written by James Robinson, art by Leonardo Manco, in 2000 AD #2050, 2017)
 "The Thousand Days" (written by Alex de Campi, art by Sam Beck & Eva de la Cruz, in 2000 AD Sci-Fi Special 2018)
 "Secret of the Keep" (written by Cavan Scott, art by Nick Roche, in 2000 AD #2130, 2019)
 "Savage Swamp" (written by Cavan Scott, art by Nick Roche & Abigail Bulmer, in 2000 AD #2170, 2020)
 "Brothers" (written by Kek-W, art by Warwick Fraser-Coombe, in 2000 AD #2312, 2022)
 "Blighty Valley" (written by Garth Ennis, art by Patrick Goddard, in 2000 AD #2326–2339, 2023)

Spin-offs and reboots

The 86ers
The 86ers was created by writer Gordon Rennie and drawn by artists Karl Richardson and PJ Holden. The story stars G.I. pilot Rafella "Rafe" Blue and her robot Gabe.

Venus Bluegenes
Venus Bluegenes appeared both in Rogue Trooper and in her own eponymous strip, with stories written by authors including Grant Morrison, Steve White and Dan Abnett.

Tor Cyan
Tor Cyan appeared both in Mercy Heights and in his own eponymous strip, in a series written by John Tomlinson.

Jaegir
Jaegir is a recurring series in 2000 AD, focusing on Kapitan-Inspector Atalia Jaegir, who serves in the Nordland State Security Police. Her role is to hunt down escaped war criminals.

Hunted
Gordon Rennie and artist PJ Holden produced Hunted, a nine-part story told from the point of view of the Traitor General, in 2016. It began in 2000AD progs 2001 to 2009. It features a young Atalia Jaegir and a monstrous early specimen of the G.I. project.

IDW Publishing reboot

On 20 July 2013, American company IDW Publishing announced that after the success of its adaptation of Judge Dredd from 2000 AD it would now champion Rogue Trooper with recoloured old issues as well as completely new stories. "Following the success of Judge Dredd, IDW and Rebellion/2000 AD expand their thriving relationship with the addition of Rogue Trooper to their publishing slate! IDW will launch an all-new Rogue Trooper series in 2014, and also offer newly colored re-presentations of past Rogue Trooper comics, too." On 13 November 2013 it was announced that the new series would be written by British fantasy writer Brian Ruckley and drawn by Alberto Ponticelli. Brian Ruckley acquired the position "by writing a pitch document that people apparently liked." He described his first challenge as scriptwriter as "I can now say from personal experience that writing comics is not straightforward or effortless!"

The new Rogue Trooper features a re-designed helmet, rifle and backpack which serve as the three main supporting characters in the stories. The first episode was originally set to ship at the end of February 2014, but the first issue was actually released on 5 March 2014. Due to lower-than-expected sales, the decision was made to put the series "on hold". The final issue of the new Rogue Trooper series was issue 4, published on 21 May 2014. All four issues were collected as a trade paperback and released on 17 September 2014 under the title Rogue Trooper: Last Man Standing.

IDW also published Rogue Trooper Classics, a series of recoloured stories from 2000 AD, in order. It was originally intended to consist of 12 issues (with issue 1 being published on 14 May 2014), but like the new Rogue title, it was cut short, with only 8 issues to be produced in total – again, a result of lower-than-expected sales.

Other media
A range of Rogue Trooper material has been produced:

Novels
There are three novels based on Rogue Trooper:

 Crucible (Gordon Rennie, October 2004 )
 Blood Relative (James Swallow, March 2005 )
 The Quartz Massacre (Rebecca Levene, March 2006 )

Boardgames

The Rogue Trooper Boardgame was released in 1987 by Games Workshop.

EN Publishing released the Rogue Trooper tabletop roleplaying game in 2020.

Video games
A number of Rogue Trooper computer games have been released in 1986 and 1990. An isometric shooter by Piranha Software for the Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum was released in 1986. The game consists of killing Norts while searching Nu-Earth for 8 vid-tapes containing evidence of the Traitor General's involvement in the Quartz Zone Massacre. On finding all 8 tapes, Rogue has to return to the Souther base of Milli-Com to prove the General's treachery and the extenuating circumstances of his going AWOL. During the game, as well as the vid-tapes, players could also pick up medi-kits to regain health and ammo boxes to feed Gunnar. A platform game incorporating first-person vehicle levels for the Amiga and Atari ST by Krisalis Software came out in 1990.

After Rebellion bought 2000 AD they released a Rogue Trooper video game in 2006, with a Wii version out in 2009.

In 2009 Rogue Trooper featured a guest role in the game "LittleBigPlanet" for PS3. It came in the form of content which could be bought in the PlayStation Store.

In 2017 Rogue Trooper Redux was released to the current generation PC, PS4, XB1 and Nintendo Switch, developed by Rebellion and TickTock Games.

Film
Grant Morrison has said they will be writing a Rogue Trooper screenplay for Sam Worthington's production company Full Clip Production. On 16 July 2018, Duncan Jones revealed that he will direct the movie, without Full Clip Production.

In 2018, a not-for-profit short fan film directed by Adam Kirley, produced by Joby Stephens, and starring stuntman Damien Walters was released, with its premiere at the International London Sci Fi film festival.

In November 2018, Rebellion Developments announced they were setting up a studio for a film and TV series based on 2000 AD characters with Rogue Trooper as one of their projects.

References

External links
 Rogue Trooper at Barney
 Rogue Trooper at the International Catalogue of Superheroes

 Rogue Trooper - 1st Episode (BBC)
 Eidos Rogue Trooper game website
 NTSC-uk's Rogue Trooper Review
 Tales of the GI online strip
 Short non-profit fan-made Rogue Trooper film
 About making that film

Clone characters in comics
Fictional genetically engineered characters
Fictional military personnel in comics
Fictional war veterans
Comics by Dave Gibbons
Comics set on fictional planets
2000 AD comic strips
War comics
Comics adapted into video games

Rogue Trooper


Revco Discount Drug Stores (known simply as Revco or Revco, D.S.), once based in Twinsburg, Ohio, was a major drug store chain operating through the Ohio Valley, the Mid-Atlantic states, and the Southeastern United States. The chain's stock was traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol RXR. Revco was sold to CVS Pharmacy for $2.8 billion (~$ in ) in February 1997. When it was sold, the chain had over 2,500 stores.

History
Revco, originally known as Registered Vitamin Company, was founded in 1956 in Detroit, Michigan, by Sidney Dworkin and Bernie Shulman. Dworkin led Revco until 1986 as CEO, and then he served as chairman until 1987.

Up to 1983, Revco grew tremendously; the chain had over 2,200 stores and over $2.2 billion (~$ in ) in sales. The chain then began to stumble. In 1983, its vitamins were blamed for the deaths of a number of premature infants. In order to prevent a hostile takeover and increase short-term profitability, Dworkin then led the chain into a deal that would seal its fate many years later. Under his leadership, Revco purchased a company called Odd Lot Trading Co., a closeout retailer based in New Jersey. Revco's management lost its focus on the drug store portion of its business due to problems with Odd Lot Trading Co., and earnings tumbled. The chain also began to merchandise items such as televisions, furniture, and other non-core items, and the heavy investment proved to be a failure.

Bankruptcy

In 1986, Revco was the target of a leveraged buyout. Part of the buyout deal was to reduce costs by closing stores and by reducing inventory to repay debts. This left the company with a shortfall of cash, and suppliers stopped shipping inventory, causing the chain to lose customers. This eventually caused the chain to file for bankruptcy in 1988. Revco was bailed out of bankruptcy by investor Sam Zell, in part to fend off separate takeover attempts by both Eckerd and Rite Aid. In 1990, 221 Midwest Revco stores were purchased by Reliable Drug, based in Cleveland, Ohio.  The Michigan stores purchased by Reliable were sold almost immediately to Perry Drugs.  Revco emerged from bankruptcy, as an independent company, in 1992.

Emergence from bankruptcy
Revco's turnaround from bankruptcy was and is often still considered the "model" of a business recovering from bankruptcy. The chain closed many underperforming stores (including selling all stores west of the Mississippi River to the son of the then-current Rite Aid CEO), reduced costs, introduced computerized point-of-sale systems, and introduced a new store design to help increase sales. The chain shrank from about 2,200 stores to about 1,500 stores during this period.

The hallmark of the new store designs was the arrangement of the store aisles, which was developed and introduced as the company was emerging from bankruptcy. Half the store had aisles that ran from the front of the store to the back in straight rows. Seasonal merchandise, food, greeting cards, baby supplies, hardware and office supplies were in this half of the store. The other half of the store, the health and beauty sections, had their aisles slanted so customers could see down the aisles as they walked from the front doors to the pharmacy, which was in the back of the store. A very wide main aisle led from the front door to the pharmacy, and this aisle separated the slanted aisles from the "straight aisles". While many drug stores in the U.S. have variations of this design today, it was a departure at the time from the usual all front-to-back, straight aisles. In Revco's free standing stores, the slanted aisles had an open ceiling above them; the other aisles had a drop ceiling over them. In these stores today, which are now CVS stores, the open ceiling and drop ceiling are still in place (though all the aisles are now aligned in a traditional manner).

The new stores also were decorated in soft blues and greys, had track lighting, and low hanging lights over the greeting cards, all which gave the store a "soft" appearance. Revco introduced strict rules about having no handwritten signs or merchandise displays sitting directly on the floor, which it thought gave the stores a cleaner look. All front-end employees had to wear a navy blue smock.

After emerging from bankruptcy, the chain grew tremendously again, increasing its store count to over 2,500 stores. Part of this growth came from the purchase of over 800 Hook's/SupeRx drug stores in 1994 in the Mid-Atlantic region and Midwest, and Birmingham, Alabama, based Big B Drugs in the southeast, which was its last purchase, made in 1996.

Sale of the company
In order to help Zell recover his investment in the company, the company's management was under pressure to sell the company. In 1996, Revco entered into an agreement with Rite Aid to be bought out. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) announced that it would sue to stop the buyout, saying that Rite Aid would become a monopoly in many markets because Rite Aid and Revco had many overlapping stores, and Rite Aid withdrew its bid for the company.

In February 1997, CVS Pharmacy entered into an agreement to acquire Revco, but the FTC moved to block the acquisition under the Clayton Act on the ground that it would substantially reduce competition in two markets: the state of Virginia and the Binghamton, New York metropolitan statistical area. In response, CVS and Revco agreed that 114 of Revco's Virginia stores and six of its Binghamton-area stores would be divested. The companies entered into a consent order with the agency, under which it was agreed that the Virginia-area stores would be divested to Eckerd Corporation and the Binghamton stores would be divested to Medicine Shoppe, Inc. As part of executing the divestiture to Eckerd, the FTC alleged that CVS removed important computers and pharmacy files from the divested stores, and that CVS denied Eckerd access to Revco's computerized patient profile data, providing the data only on microfiche, which would require Eckerd to manually re-enter the data, impairing Eckerd's ability to compete. CVS was fined $600,000 for the violation. Apart from the FTC penalty, CVS paid a $1.58 million fine to the Virginia Board of Pharmacy for violating state regulations governing the transfer of patient prescription records.

CEOs
 Sidney Dworkin (1961–1986)
 William Edwards (1986–1987)
 Boake Sells (1987–1992)
 D. Dwayne Hoven (1992–1997, last CEO)

Promotions and discount programs
Revco was well known for the slogan "You need all the Revco you can get!" and its "A Friend for Life" slogan and senior citizen's discount program, called "Senior Shoppers" (in which customers over 65 received 10% off their purchase every Wednesday). Revco also had a discount program for customers with disabilities (called "Helping Hands") and for baby supplies (called "Baby Bunch").

At the time, it was highly unusual for a chain of Revco's size to offer such discount programs, and the chain was extremely popular with customers because of these programs. Revco may have been well ahead of its time, as its discount programs resembled today's loyalty card programs used by grocery stores and CVS. Revco had customers fill out an information card with their contact information and gave them a card to identify their participation in the discount program (though Revco did not track purchases as many loyalty card programs do today).

Revco used gymnast Mary Lou Retton as an advertising spokesperson in the 1990s, who often began commercials by saying, "And another thing..." and would end them by saying, "...and now you know. Revco."

Rite Aid now offers a similar discount program to "Senior Shoppers", called "Living More". This may be because Rite-Aid's James P. Mastrian, who is the Executive Vice President of Marketing, held the same position at Revco from 1994 to 1997.

Twins Days, a festival honoring the twin brothers who founded the city of Twinsburg, was the brainchild of Charles R. DeHaven, then Revco's Assistant Vice President of Public Relations. DeHaven planned a number of promotional events in 1976 to commemorate the nation's bicentennial. From the small gathering of 37 sets of twins that first year, the festival now attracts thousands from all over the world and makes national headlines every summer.

Prescription Access Link
Revco was one of the first drug store chains in the country to have a centralized pharmacy computer system, which it called Prescription Access Link (PAL). This system allowed each Revco access to any other Revco's prescription information. It highly advertised this system to customers, which allowed a customer to go any Revco to have their prescription refilled without the stores having to call each other on the phone. While this type of system is the norm in drug stores today, it was revolutionary when Revco used it. PAL was introduced to Revco stores during its emergence from bankruptcy.

In popular culture

The Revco Marathon
Revco founded and sponsored a marathon in Cleveland, which was often referred to among runners as "The Revco" (its full name was "The Revco Cleveland Marathon and 10K"). The first race took place in 1976, when jogging/running first became a national fitness craze. Famous Olympic athlete Jesse Owens fired the starting gun at the first race, which started at Western Reserve Academy in Hudson, Ohio, wound its way up Rt. 91 north through Twinsburg and Solon, and eventually ended in Cleveland. This particularly grueling course was changed in later years to begin and end at Cleveland State University. Many famous runners participated over the years, as "The Revco" became an Olympic qualifying event. After CVS bought Revco, the race became known as the "CVS Marathon and 10K" before CVS dropped its sponsorship in the early 2000s. The race was sponsored by Rite Aid until 2021, when Union Home Mortgage became the primary sponsor.

References
Revco, D.S.

Footnotes

Retail companies established in 1956
Defunct pharmacies of the United States
Companies based in Ohio
Private equity portfolio companies
Retail companies disestablished in 1997
Defunct companies based in Ohio
CVS Health
Health care companies based in Ohio
1956 establishments in Michigan
1997 disestablishments in Ohio
Summit County, Ohio
American companies established in 1956
American companies disestablished in 1997

Revco


A test pilot is an aircraft pilot with additional training to fly and evaluate experimental, newly produced and modified aircraft with specific maneuvers, known as flight test techniques.

History
Test flying as a systematic activity started during the First World War, at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) in the United Kingdom.
An "Experimental Flight" was formed at the Central Flying School.
During the 1920s, test flying was further developed by the RAE in the UK, and by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in the United States. In the 1950s, NACA was transformed into the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA. During these years, as work was done into aircraft stability and handling qualities, test flying evolved towards a more qualitative scientific profession. In the 1950s, test pilots were being killed at the rate of about one a week, but the risks have shrunk to a fraction of that because of the maturation of aircraft technology, better ground-testing and simulation of aircraft performance, fly-by-wire technology and, lately, the use of unmanned aerial vehicles to test experimental aircraft features. Still, piloting experimental aircraft remains more dangerous than most other types of flying.

At the insistence of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the first American astronauts, the Mercury Seven, were all military test pilots, as were some of the later astronauts.

The world's oldest test pilot  school is what is now called the Empire Test Pilots' School (motto "Learn to Test – Test to Learn"), at RAF Boscombe Down in the UK. There are a number of similar establishments over the world. In America, the United States Air Force Test Pilot School is located at Edwards Air Force Base, the United States Naval Test Pilot School is located at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland and EPNER (Ecole du Personnel Navigant d'Essai et de Reception – "School for flight test and acceptance personnel"), the French test pilot school, is located in Istres, France. There are only two civilian schools; the International Test Pilots School in London, Ontario, and the National Test Pilot School, a not-for-profit educational institute is in Mojave, California. In Russia, there is a Russian aviation industry Fedotov Test Pilot School (founded 1947) located in Zhukovsky within the Gromov Flight Research Institute.

Qualifications
Understand a test plan
Stick to a test plan by flying a plane in a highly specific way
Carefully document the results of each test
Have an excellent feel for the aircraft and sense exactly how it is behaving oddly if it is doing so
Solve problems quickly if anything goes wrong with the aircraft during a test
Cope with many different things going wrong at once
Effectively communicate flight test observations to engineers and relate engineering results to the pilot community, thus bridging the gap between those who design and build aircraft with those who employ the aircraft to accomplish a mission
Have an excellent knowledge of aeronautical engineering to understand how and why planes are tested.
Be above-average pilots with excellent analytical skills and the ability to fly accurately while they follow a flight plan.

Test pilots can be experimental and engineering test pilots (investigating the characteristics of new types of aircraft during development) or production test pilots (the more mundane role of confirming the characteristics of new aircraft as they come off the production line). Many test pilots would perform both roles during their careers.  Modern test pilots often receive formal training from highly-selective military test pilot schools, but other test pilots receive training and experience from civilian institutions and/or manufacturers' test pilot development programs (see list of test pilot schools).

Notable test pilots (partial list)

Milburn Apt, first U.S. Air Force test pilot to fly faster than Mach 3
Eric "Winkle" Brown, flew more aircraft types than any other pilot
Scott Crossfield, chief test pilot at North American Engineering
David P. Davies, chief test pilot for the UK Civil Aviation Authority
Tony LeVier, chief engineering test pilot at Lockheed Corporation
Chuck Yeager, first pilot to break the sound barrier in level flight
Fernando Alonso, former Head of Airbus Flight Test
Hanna Reitsch, WWII German aviator and test pilot
'Mutt' Summers, first to fly the Supermarine Spitfire
Alex Henshaw, WWII British test pilot, air racer and author
Aleksandr Fedotov, first Soviet pilot to reach Mach 3
Vladimir Ilyushin, first Soviet pilot to fly the Su-27
Viktor Pugachev, first public performer of the Cobra maneuver
Anatoly Kvochur, Soviet/Russian test pilot publicly known for aerobatics in Su-27 and MiG-29
André Turcat, French test pilot and first to fly the Concorde
Brian Trubshaw, first British pilot to fly the Concorde
Svetlana Savitskaya, Soviet/Russian test pilot, cosmonaut and politician
Toktar Aubakirov, Soviet test pilot first Kazakh in space
Geoffrey de Havilland, first to fly the Mosquito
Pavel Vlasov, Soviet/Russian test pilot publicly known for aerobatics in thrust-vectoring MiG-29OVT

See also
 List of aerospace flight test centres
 The Right Stuff by Tom Wolfe

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Hallion, Richard P.Test Pilots: Frontiersmen of Flight. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press, 1988.
 Warsitz, Lutz: THE FIRST JET PILOT – The Story of German Test Pilot Erich Warsitz, Pen and Sword Books Ltd., England, 2009,

External links
The Society of Experimental Test Pilots
Society of Flight Test Engineers
Wilson, George C. Flying the edge : the making of Navy test pilots. Naval Institute Press, 1992. -
Memorial website for test pilots who died in flying accidents in the UK
Flight list of display and test pilots at 1957 Farnborough air show
The Scott Crossfield Foundation
website on Erich Warsitz (world's first jet pilot)

Occupations in aviation

Test pilot


Caroline Link (born 2 June 1964) is a German TV and film director and screenwriter.

She is best known for directing critically acclaimed Beyond Silence, which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best International Feature Film, and for directing Nowhere in Africa, which won an Academy Award for Best International Feature Film and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award.

Life and work

Caroline Link is the daughter of Jürgen and Ilse Link. From 1986 to 1990 she studied at the University of Television and Film Munich (HFF), and then worked as an assistant director and script writer.

Link's early work includes the short film Bunte Blumen, from 1988.  She was a co-director on the documentary film Das Glück zum Anfassen (1989).  For Bavaria Film, she wrote two screenplays to the detective series Der Fahnder (The Investigators).

Caroline Link grew up in a small town outside of Frankfurt, Germany in 1968. Despite her family giving her a strong moral compass, they were a "non intellectual and non artistic family." Link first became interested in pursuing filmmaking after being a nanny in America, when she came back to Germany she was working on set as an extra and engaged with a camera man. She thought it would be an interesting profession, she recognized that being a camera women was going to be hard but after studying what they did on set as an extra she was able to get herself an internship in the film industry. Link enjoyed working in the film industry but wanted the ability to create and express her politics.

Link's first feature film, Jenseits der Stille (Beyond Silence, 1996) was nominated for the Academy Award as Best Foreign Language Film, and attracted attention for its portrayal of a family with deaf parents.  Her second feature film was Annaluise and Anton (1999), based on a novel by Erich Kästner.  Her third feature film, Nirgendwo in Afrika (Nowhere in Africa, 2001), adapted by Link from the autobiographical novel by Stefanie Zweig and shot on location in Kenya, received the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film as well winning the German Film Award (Deutscher Filmpreis) in five categories, including Best Fiction Film.

Beyond Silence
Beyond Silence was Link's first break through, was nominated for the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film and brought her global recognition. Beyond Silence illustrates the struggles of the main character Lara, a child of deaf adults (CODA), among communicating with her deaf parents Martin and Kai. Link uses the theme of silence in her story as an allegory for censorship, generational trauma and oppression in the heart of Germany society. " This isn't really a movie about deafness, Beyond Silence. It's about deafness on the surface, of course, but the emotional substance is about communication in a family. I always try to speak about a universal emotion that most viewers will know and understand. So with Beyond Silence, I knew I wanted to make a movie about a father and a daughter – a daughter who loves her father very much but who feels drawn to a completely different world. This I knew from my own life, and this is what I wanted to write about before I knew I'd make a movie about a deaf family."

"Women tend to worry a lot about their perception. We want to be nice people. But it's not always possible to be calm, sweet and understanding when you are in a leading position or if you really try to get something that you need for your creative idea. I had to learn, that it is ok for a woman to WANT something, to be the boss and to sometimes even be aggressive".

Personal life
Link lives with her partner, the film director Dominik Graf, and their daughter, who was born in 2002.

Filmography

Films

TV

Awards and nominations

Further reading

References

External links

1964 births
Film people from Hesse
People from Bad Nauheim
Living people
University of Television and Film Munich alumni
German women film directors
Directors of Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
Best Director German Film Award winners
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

Caroline Link


Bad Timing is a 1980 British psychological drama film directed by Nicolas Roeg and starring Art Garfunkel, Theresa Russell, Harvey Keitel and Denholm Elliott. The plot focuses on an American woman and a psychology professor living in Vienna, and, largely told through nonlinear flashbacks, examines the details of their turbulent relationship as uncovered by a detective investigating her apparent suicide attempt.

The film was controversial upon its release, being branded "a sick film made by sick people for sick people" by its own distributor, the Rank Organisation, and was given an X rating in the United States. It went unreleased on home video in the United States until 2005 when The Criterion Collection released their DVD edition.

Plot
In Cold War Vienna, Milena Flaherty, a young American woman in her 20s, is rushed to the emergency room after apparently overdosing in a suicide attempt. With her is Alex Linden, an American psychoanalyst who lives in the city working as a university teacher. While doctors and nurses fight to save Milena's life, an investigator, Netusil, begins investigating the incident. Through fragmented flashbacks, the narrative depicts the story of Alex and Milena's romance.

After meeting her at a party, Alex is enchanted by Milena, a sophisticated but free-spirited military brat. The two begin a whirlwind affair, but shortly into the relationship, Milena is revealed to suffer from severe depression and is married to a much older man, Stefan, whom she occasionally visits across the border in Bratislava. Though Alex initially enjoys Milena's free-spirited lifestyle, he soon becomes embittered by it, as it includes impulsive promiscuity and heavy drinking. Alex begins stalking Milena, and eventually confronts her about her marriage to Stefan. She insists that the marriage is simply platonic, and that she and Stefan are no longer in love. Despite this, Alex begins researching into Stefan's past, and inquires with local government agencies about how Milena can proceed with a divorce, which she refuses.

Alex's jealousy of Milena only continues to grow, and he begins to resent her. After one argument, Milena forcefully impels Alex to have sex with her to sate him, and is disgusted with herself after. In one incident, when the couple vacation in Morocco, their vehicle breaks down, and they hitch a ride from two Moroccan men. Alex is left in the bed of the truck, while Milena sits between the two men, flirting with them during the drive, which Alex keenly observes. Upon arriving in Ouarzazate, Alex suggests that he and Milena return to the United States where he can take a teaching position in New York City, but she insists that they live "in the moment."

Milena begins to question her and Alex's romance when she finds evidence that he has been treating her as a case study. Later, Alex confronts her about a photograph in her apartment that he has obsessed over, which shows her at a lake with another man. She tells him the photo is of her and her brother, taken in California years prior, but Alex does not believe her. The following morning, Alex confronts a drunken Milena outside her apartment, telling her he cannot bear the thought of her with another man. When she defiantly renounces him, he slaps her. Later, Milena invites him back to her apartment, only to taunt him in kabuki makeup, mockingly presenting herself as the "new Milena." When he storms out, Milena screams at him from her window, hurling objects at him onto the street below. The following night, Milena leaves Alex a drunken voice message suggesting she wants to die.

In the present, as doctors attempt to revive the dying Melina, Netusil pieces together the chain of events, culminating in an interview with Alex, who presents himself simply as Milena's friend. Uncovering timeline inconsistencies in Alex's story, Netusil determines what actually occurred: Alex, after finding Milena overdosing on poison in her apartment, looked on as she slowly collapsed, and subsequently raped her once she lost consciousness. Though Netusil has physical evidence suggesting Milena was raped, he is unable to elicit a confession from Alex. Stefan arrives, and reveals Milena has survived the overdose following a life-saving tracheotomy. Alex departs without repercussion, but, before he leaves, Stefan comments that he must love Milena more than his own dignity.

Some time later, in New York, Alex sees Milena passing by in front of the Waldorf-Astoria hotel as he enters a taxi. He calls out to her, and she briefly turns toward him, revealing her tracheotomy scar, before impassively walking away.

Cast

Production
The film was one of the series of movies greenlit by Tony Williams at the Rank Organisation, who were increasing their production output. Rank made eight films over two years, being mostly conservative choices such as the 1978 film The Thirty-Nine Steps, the third adaptation of the 1915 novel. Bad Timing was the most unusual of the slate of films. While Art Garfunkel was making the film, his girlfriend, Laurie Bird, committed suicide in New York.

Release
Bad Timing was first shown at the Berlin International Film Festival in February 1980, and premiered in London on 10 April 1980.

The film was later shown at the Toronto International Film Festival on 12 September 1980, and was screened in New York City on 22 September, with a theatrical release in the United States on 25 October 1980.

Critical reaction
The film received mixed reviews. Some found it brilliant; others, tasteless. At the UK premiere, film critic David Robinson in The Times praised Nicolas Roeg as "a director of panache and individuality, and with an ability to fascinate and compel the attention," and wrote about the unusual editing and the carefully staged scenes: "In other hands all this might only be deception and distraction, but through these fragmented elements Roeg and his ingenious writer Yale Udoff creates a perfectly coherent and intriguing central narrative and relationship." Its UK distributor, Rank, were appalled by what they saw; one executive called it "a sick film made by sick people for sick people". In response, they removed the Rank logo from all UK prints of the film. John Coleman in the New Statesman gave it a very bad review: "[it has] an overall style which plays merry hell with chronology".

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has a score of 46% based on reviews from 13 critics, with an average rating of seven out of ten.

The film received the Toronto Festival of Festivals's highest honour, the People's Choice Award, in 1980, as well as the London Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director.

Legacy
The film's title was used by musician Jim O'Rourke for his album Bad Timing, the first in a trilogy of albums which O'Rourke named after films Nicolas Roeg had made during the nineteen-eighties – the other two being Eureka (O'Rourke's 1999 album, title taken from Eureka, Roeg's 1983 film) and Insignificance (O'Rourke's 2001 album, title taken from Insignificance, Roeg's 1985 film). The film Bad Timing was also a partial inspiration for The Glove's 1983 album Blue Sunshine, a side project of The Cure's Robert Smith and Siouxsie and the Banshees' Steven Severin. According to Smith, the song "Piggy in the Mirror" from The Cure's 1984 album The Top was also inspired by the film. The film is also mentioned in the lyrics of "Return", a song from The Cure's 1996 album Wild Mood Swings.

The film received only a limited release in the US, showing for a brief period in theaters. Due to the notoriety and poor box office results, the film was not initially released on home video in the United States. However, the television rights were acquired by the Los Angeles-based pay cable network Z Channel and aired in heavy rotation, allowing the film to obtain cult status in the 1980s. Fragments of the film were featured in the documentary Z Channel: Magnificent Obsession, which for years was the only way for Americans to see the film.

On 20 September 2005, the film was released on DVD by the Criterion Collection. This was the first time that it had received an official home video release in the United States.

References

Sources

External links

 Bad Timing and Dreaming My Dreams with You an essay by Glenn Kenny at the Criterion Collection
 Bad Timing at BehaveNet Movies

1980 films
American nonlinear narrative films
American psychological drama films
American erotic thriller films
American neo-noir films
American mystery thriller films
British erotic thriller films
British nonlinear narrative films
British psychological drama films
British mystery thriller films
1980s psychological drama films
1980s mystery thriller films
1980s erotic thriller films
Films about stalking
Films about rape
Films directed by Nicolas Roeg
Films set in Vienna
Films shot in London
Films shot in Vienna
Films shot in New York City
Films shot in Morocco
Films produced by Jeremy Thomas
British neo-noir films
1980 drama films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films
1980s British films
Toronto International Film Festival People's Choice Award winners

Bad Timing