Murciélago (Spanish for "Bat") was a Navarra fighting bull, who gained fame after Lamborghini chose to name a sports car after him, to continue the passion for bullfighting Ferruccio Lamborghini, the company's founder, was famous for.

According to the PR-specialists, the bull survived 90 sword strokes in an 5 October 1879 fight against Rafael "El Lagartijo" Molina Sanchez, at the Coso de los califas bullring in Córdoba, Spain. Its name means bat in Spanish. It is said that Murciélago fought with such passion and spirit that the crowd called for his life to be spared, an honour which the torero bestowed. The bull, which came from the farm of Joaquin del Val de Navarra, was later presented as a gift to Don Antonio Miura. Together with his brother, Don Eduardo Miura, they brought Murciélago into the Miura line by siring him with 70 cows. Bulls from the Miura ranch, located near Seville, Spain, are known for being large and ferocious.

The story's validity has been criticised, with some saying that a bull who had been stabbed deeply two dozen times would never be able to survive and reproduce.

References

Bullfighting
Individual bulls in sport
Lamborghini

Murciélago


David Albertovich Frank-Kamenetskii (, August 3, 1910 – June 2, 1970) was a Soviet theoretical physicist and chemist, professor and doctor of physical, chemical and mathematical sciences. He developed the thermal explosion theory, worked on plasma physics problems and in astrophysics.

Life
David A. Frank-Kamenetskii was born on 1910, August 3 in Vilna (Russia; now Vilnius, Lithuania) in a Jewish family. His parents were Albert G. Frank-Kamenetskii (1873–1935) and Anna A. Frank-Kamenetskii (née Hannah A. Arons; 1883–1948). In 1917–1918, the family left Vilna, spent one year near Moscow and finally resided in Irkutsk (Eastern Siberia), where Albert G. Frank-Kamenetskii became the chair of the Chemistry Department in the newly organized Irkutsk State University. In 1931, Frank-Kamenetskii graduated from the Siberian Technological Institute (now Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia) in Metallurgy Engineering.

In 1932, he married Klavdia A. Kopytova and in the same year their daughter Tema was born.
From 1931 to 1934, Frank-Kamenetskii worked as a mining engineer in the Chita gold mines in Eastern Siberia and he was also teaching in a Chita engineering college.

In 1934, Frank-Kamenetskii wrote a letter to Professor Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov  in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg, Russia) about chemical thermodynamics. Impressed by the letter, Professor Semenov invited Frank-Kamenetskii to join the Institute of Chemical Physics as a graduate student. The Institute of Chemical Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences was organized by Professor Semenov in 1931, in Leningrad. From 1934 to 1941, Frank Kamenetskii lived in Leningrad and worked in the Institute of Chemical Physics. Here he met Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich, who became a close friend, and a fruitful collaboration began. He published several chemical papers in the topics of chain reactions, combustion theory and periodic chemical reactions.

In 1935, Frank-Kamenetskii divorced his first wife Klavdia and married Elena E. Fridman (1910–1992). Their first son was born two years later (Albert D. Frank-Kamentskii, 1937–1979). In 1938, Frank-Kamenetskii received his Candidate of Sciences (CSc) degree (PhD equivalent) in chemistry from the Institute of Chemical Physics.

After the Nazi Germany invasion at the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) in June, 1941, Frank-Kamenetskii and his family was evacuated to Kazan on the Volga River,  where the Institute of Chemical Physics was relocated. During the family relocation, the second son, Maxim (1941– ), was born in
Gorky. During years 1941 to 1944, he worked in Kazan on the problem of graphite conversion to diamond. In 1943, he received the Doktor Nauk degree (DSc equivalent) in physics and mathematics from the USSR Academy of Sciences.

In 1944–1946, Frank-Kamenetskii lived in Gorky (now Nizhny Novgorod, Russia) and headed the Department of Technical Chemistry of the Gorky State University (now Nizhny Novgorod State University).

In 1947–1948, Frank-Kamenetskii lived in Moscow and worked in the Institute of Chemical Physics. In 1947, he published his major work "Diffusion and Heat Transfer in Chemical Kinetics" in Russian. Between 1948 and 1956, Frank-Kamenetskii lived in Sarov and worked on the Soviet atomic bomb project
in the secret military research institute code-named "Arzamas-16" or the "Installation". (In 1993, the Sarov became a sister city to Los Alamos, New Mexico, US).

In 1952, his second daughter, Maria was born and in the same year he suffered a major heart attack. In 1956, Frank-Kamenetskii left the "Installation" for Moscow. Between 1956 and 1970, Frank-Kamenetskii was the head of a laboratory in the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy and organized and headed the Department of Plasma Physics at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. He was teaching plasma physics and published several major works in plasma physics and biophysics. Between 1960 and 1970, he was the editor of the major Russian popular science magazine, Priroda (Природа, in English: Nature). Frank-Kamenetskii died in Moscow on 2 June 1970 due to a heart failure.

Significant works

References

External links
 The life and works of David A. Frank-Kamenetskii

1910 births
1970 deaths
Tomsk Polytechnic University alumni
Theoretical physicists
Soviet physicists
Fluid dynamicists
Academic staff of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
Soviet chemists

David A. Frank-Kamenetskii


Egil Hjorth-Jenssen (18 April 1893 – 8 November 1969) was a Norwegian actor and theatre director, playwright, children's writer and translator.

Personal life
Hjorth-Jenssen was born in Fredrikshald as a son of editor Gunnar Olaves Jenssen (1843–1924) and  Anna Marie Cecilie Hjorth (1867–1929), and married Rachel Råby (1900–1958) in 1921.

Career
He made his stage debut in 1914 at Stavanger Teater, From 1916 to 1919 he worked at Trondhjems Teater, then Chat Noir from 1919 to 1921 and Trondhjems Teater from 1921 to 1925. He later played at several Oslo theatres (Centralteatret, Det Nye Teater, Søilen Teater, and Carl Johan Theater), including at Nationaltheatret from 1934 to 1937. He chaired the Norwegian Actors' Equity Association from 1932 to 1939, and served as theatre director of Den Nationale Scene in Bergen from 1939 to 1946. From 1948 to 1950 he was the artistic director of Det Gamle Teater.

Hjorth-Jenssen was also a screen actor in movies such as: Den glade enke i Trangvik (1927),  Bussen (1961), Musikanter (1967), De ukjentes marked (1968), and Brent jord (1969). He also wrote children's books—Fire fra middelskolen (1932) and Bilbandittene og de fire fra middelskolen (1933)—and two plays. He translated books to Norwegian such as The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huck Finn. He penned the fifty-year history of the Norwegian Actors' Equity Association in 1948, and became an honorary member in 1964. He died in November 1969 in Bærum.

References

External links

1893 births
1969 deaths
People from Halden
Norwegian male stage actors
Norwegian theatre directors
Norwegian male film actors
Norwegian male silent film actors
20th-century Norwegian male actors
Norwegian children's writers
20th-century Norwegian dramatists and playwrights
Norwegian male dramatists and playwrights

Egil Hjorth-Jenssen


RatDVD (originally stylized "ratDVD") is the name of a proprietary container format for digital video, developed by Peter Jensen and a group of Russian and Danish university students. The container format is a compressed archive format that holds all features of DVD-Video in a single file. Unlike other container formats like Matroska, it is designed to accurately mirror the exact feature set of standard video DVDs, facilitating round-tripping back to the DVD-Video format.

RatDVD files are created by a computer program of the same name.  The video portion of a RatDVD file is compressed with a proprietary video codec named "XEB", thus significantly reducing the overall size: a typical DVD (usually above 4 gigabytes) can be compressed to about 1 or 2 GB, with some loss in video quality due to recompression. The resulting RatDVD file can then be played directly on a computer (as long as the needed codec has been installed) with a DirectShow-compatible DVD player, or converted back into standard DVD format.

RatDVD program is freeware and works on Microsoft Windows. The last version is 0.78 and was released in 2005. The program does not support copy-protected DVDs.

References

Further reading

External links

Windows-only freeware

RatDVD


The Voluntary Militia for National Security (, MVSN), commonly called the Blackshirts (, CCNN, singular: ) or  (singular: ), was originally the paramilitary wing of the National Fascist Party, known as the Squadrismo, and after 1923 an all-volunteer militia of the Kingdom of Italy under Fascist rule, similar to the SA. Its members were distinguished by their black uniforms (modelled on those of the Arditi, Italy's elite troops of World War I) and their loyalty to Benito Mussolini, the Duce (leader) of Fascism, to whom they swore an oath. The founders of the paramilitary groups were nationalist intellectuals, former army officers and young landowners opposing peasants' and country labourers' unions. Their methods became harsher as Mussolini's power grew, and they used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents. In 1943, following the fall of the Fascist regime, the MVSN was integrated into the Royal Italian Army and disbanded.

History

The Blackshirts were established as the Squadrismo in 1919 and consisted of many disgruntled former soldiers. It was given the task of leading fights against their bitter enemies – the Socialists. They may have numbered 200,000 by the time of Mussolini's March on Rome from 27 to 29 October 1922. In 1922 the squadristi were reorganized into the milizia and formed numerous bandiere, and on 1 February 1923, the Blackshirts became the Voluntary Militia for National Security (Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale, or MVSN), which lasted until 8 September 1943 Armistice of Cassibile. The Italian Social Republic, located in the areas of northern Italy occupied by Germany, reformed the MVSN on 8 December 1943 into the National Republican Guard (Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana, or GNR).

Organization
Benito Mussolini was the leader, or Commandant–General and First Honorary Corporal, of the Blackshirts, but executive functions were carried out by the Chief of Staff, equivalent to an army general. The MVSN was formed in imitation of the ancient Roman army, as follows:

Basic organisation
The terms after the first are not words common to European armies (e.g., the Italian battaglione has cognates in many languages). Instead, they derive from the structure of the ancient Roman army.
 Zona (zone) = division
 Legione (legion) = regiment, each legion was a militia unit consisting of a small active cadre and a large reserve of civilian volunteers.
 Coorte (cohort) =  battalion
 Centuria (centuria) = company
 Manipolo (maniple) = platoon
 Squadra (squad) = squad

These units were also organised on the triangular principle as follows:
 3 squadre = 1 manipolo (maniple)
 3 manipoli = 1 centuria (centuria)
 3 centuriae = 1 coorte (cohort)
 3 coorti = 1 legione (legion)
 3 legioni = 1 divisioni (field division)
 3 or more legioni = 1 zona (zone – an administrative division)

Territorial organisation

The MVSN original organisation consisted of 15 zones controlling 133 legions (one per province) of three cohorts each and one Independent Group controlling 10 legions. In 1929 it was reorganized into four raggruppamenti, but later in October 1936, it was reorganized into 14 zones controlling only 133 legions with two cohorts each one of men 21 to 36 years old and the other of men up to 55 years old. There were also special units in Rome, on Ponza Island and the black-uniformed Moschettieri del Duce ("The Leader's Musketeers", Mussolini's Guard), the Albanian Fascist Militia (four legions) and Milizia Coloniale in Africa (seven legions).

The original organisation by Royal Decrees on 1 February 1923 and 4 August 1924 consisted of fifteen zones, as follows:

1st Zone (Piedmont), HQ Turin
 first Sabauda - Turin
 second Alpina - Turin
 third Subalpina - Cuneo
 fourth Marengo - Alessandria
 fifth Valle Scrivia - Tortona
 eleventh Monferrato - Casale
 twelfth Monte Bianco - Aosta
 twenty-eighth Randaccio - Vercelli
 twenty-ninth Alpina - Pallanza
 thirtieth Oddone - Novara
 thirty-seventh P. Prestinari - Turin
 thirty-eighth N. Alfieri - Asti
Second Zone (Lombardy) HQs Milan
Third Zone (Liguria) HQ Genoa
Fourth Zone (Venezia Tridentina) HQ Verona
Fifth Zone (Veneto) HQ Venice
Sixth Zone (Venezia Giulia) HQ Trieste
Seventh Zone (Emilia Romagna) HQ Bologna
Eighth Zone (Tuscany) HQ Florence
Ninth Zone (Umbria & Marche) HQ Perugia
Tenth Zone (Lazio) HQ Rome
Eleventh Zone (Abruzzo & Molise) HQ Pescara
Twelfth Zone (Campania) HQ Naples
Thirteenth Zone (Apulia) HQ Bari
Fourteenth Zone (Sicily) HQ Palermo
Fifteenth Zone (Sardinia) HQ Cagliari

Security militia
Special militias were also organised to provide security police and gendarmerie functions, these included:
 Forestry Militia
 Border Militia
 Highway Militia
 Port Militia
 Posts and Telegraph Militia
 Railway Militia
 University Militia
 Anti-aircraft and Coastal Artillery Militia, a combined command that controlled two militias:
 Anti-Aircraft Militia
 Coastal Artillery Militia

Standards
The standards of each of the units of the Blackshirts, except for the Moschettieri del Duce, which carried a small standard in black similar to those of the regular armed forces, were a modernized form of the standards (Vexillum) used by the old Roman army.

Ethiopian campaign

During the 1935–36 Second Italo-Ethiopian War against the Ethiopian Empire, seven CCNN Divisions were organized:
 1st CC.NN. Division "23 Marzo" (23rd March)
 2nd CC.NN. Division "28 Ottobre" (28th October)
 3rd CC.NN. Division "21 Aprile" (21st April)
 4th CC.NN. Division "3 Gennaio" (3rd January)
 5th CC.NN. Division "1 Febbraio" (1st February)
 6th CC.NN. Division "Tevere" (Tiber)
 7th CC.NN. Division "Cirene" (Cyrene)

The first six Divisions were sent to Ethiopia and participated in the war and in the Italian war crimes in Ethiopia. The seventh was deployed to Italian Libya but not fully equipped or trained before it was disbanded after the war had ended.

Division organisation

Organisation on 3 October 1935
 Divisional HQ
 3 x legions each with:
 legion HQ
 1 legionary machine gun company with 16 machine guns
 2 legionary infantry battalions, each with:
 1 machine gun company with 8 × 8 mm Breda machine guns and
 3 infantry companies each with 9 light machine guns and 3× 45 mm mortars
 1 pack-artillery battery with 4 × 65 mm L17 each.
 1 × artillery battalion (Army) with 3 batteries (65/17)
 1 × engineers company (mixed Army and Blackshirts)
 2 × replacements battalions (1 infantry, 1 mixed)
 1 × medical section
 1 × logistics section (food)
 1 × pack-mules unit (1600 mules)
 1 × mixed trucks unit (80 light trucks)

The Blackshirts Rifle Battalions had three rifle companies but no MMG company. The rifle companies had three platoons (three squads with one LMG each). Each Legion had an MMG company with four platoons of three weapons each (plus two spares). The Blackshirts replacement battalions were organised as the Blackshirts rifle battalions, but its platoons were overstrength (60 men each) and with only 1 × LMG in each platoon.

Organization on 10 June 1940
 Division Command
 2 Blackshirt legions - each
 3 battalions
 1 81 mm mortar company
 1 accompanying battery 65 mm/17 mtn guns
 1 machine gun battalion
 1 artillery regiment:
 2 artillery groups
 1 artillery group
 2 AA batteries 20mm
 1 mixed engineering battalion
 1 ambulance section sanita
 3 field hospitals (planned when available)
 1 supply section
 1 section mixed transport

Leadership

Spanish Civil War
Three CCNN Divisions were sent to participate in the Spanish Civil War as part of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie. The Blackshirt (Camicie Nere, or CCNN) Divisions contained regular soldiers and volunteer militia from the Fascist Party. The CCNN divisions were semi-motorised.
 1st CC.NN. Division "Dio lo Vuole" ("God Wills it")
 2nd CC.NN. Division "Fiamme Nere" ("Black Flames")
 3rd CC.NN. Division "Penne Nere" ("Black Feathers")

The 3rd CCNN Division was disbanded and consolidated with the 2nd CCNN Division in April 1937 after their defeat at Guadalajara. After the campaigns in Northern Spain ended in October 1937, the 2nd CCNN Division was consolidated with the 1st CCNN and renamed the XXIII de Marzo Division "Llamas Negras".

World War II

In 1940 the MVSN was able to muster 340,000 first-line combat troops, providing three divisions (1st, 2nd and 4th – all three of which were lost in the North African Campaign) and, later in 1942, a fourth ("M") and fifth division Africa were formed.

Mussolini also pushed through plans to raise 142 MVSN combat battalions of 650 men each to provide a Gruppo di Assalto to each army division. The Gruppi consisted of two cohorts (each of three centuriae of three manipoli of two squadre each) plus Gruppo Supporto company of two heavy machine gun manipoli (with three HMG each) and two 81 mm mortar manipoli (with three mortars each).

Later forty-one mobile groups were raised to become the third regiment in Italian Army divisions as it was determined through operational experience that the Italian Army's binary divisions were too small in both manpower and heavy equipment. These mobile groups suffered heavy casualties due to being undermanned, underequipped and under-trained.

In 1941, Mussolini decided to create twenty-two highly trained combat battalions called "M" Battalions. These battalions were given the designation M alongside their names in the Army OOB to indicate their status; that they had received specialist assault and combat training, or had proven themselves in combat and had received a battlefield promotion to this status. By the end of the Fascist regime, only eleven battalions had been fully formed.

The MVSN fought in every theatre Italy did.

Sixteen MVSN combat battalions served in Yugoslavia. Their numbers were: 3, 4, 8, 16, 29, 33, 54, 58, 61, 71, 81, 85, 115, 144, 162, 215. Six of the battalions which were distinguished in combat were designated M Battalions and those were the 8th, 16th, 29th, 71st, 81st, and 85th.

Appearance

The Blackshirts wore the same uniform as the Italian army with the addition of a black shirt and tie and a black fez. The uniform jacket had black flames with two ends on the collar in place of the insignia and the lictor bundles instead of the army's stars. There was an all-black dress uniform worn by some officers and the Moschettieri del Duce ("The Leader's Musketeers", Mussolini's Guard).

Ranks

Mussolini as  was made  () in 1935 and Adolf Hitler was made  () in 1937. All other ranks closely approximated those of the old Roman army as follows.

Legacy

Their ethos and sometimes their uniform were later copied by others who were influenced by Mussolini's fascism, some of which are listed below:

 Adolf Hitler, in Nazi Germany, issued brown shirts to the  (Stormtroopers), who  became coloquially known as  (Brown Shirts).

 Oswald Mosley, in the United Kingdom, issued black shirts to the British Union of Fascists, who also became known as the "Blackshirts")

 Asen Kantardzhiev (), in Bulgaria, issued red shirts to the Sieiuziet na ratnitsite za napredieka na bielgarshchinata (Union of Soldiers for the Advancement of the Bulgarian Spirit), better known as Ratniks.

 William Dudley Pelley was the leader of the Silver Legion of America  in the United States, who were known as Silver Shirts.

 Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco headed the  (Revolutionary Mexicanist Action) in Mexico, which was better known as Camisas Doradas, or Golden Shirts.

 Plínio Salgado lead the Brazilian Integralism movement, a paramilitary organization that issued green shirts to its members were known as the camisas verdes (Green Shirts).

 Eoin O'Duffy led the Army Comrades Association, known as the Blueshirts, in the Irish Free State.

"Blueshirts" can also refer to Canadian fascists belonging to the Canadian National Socialist Unity Party, the Chinese Blue Shirts Society and to the members of Falange Española, the most influential party within Franco's dictatorship in Spain. Additionally, both the paramilitary fascist Iron Guard members in Romania, the fascist Yugoslav Radical Union, and the successors to the Irish Blueshirts (the National Corporate Party, also founded by Eoin O'Duffy), wore green shirts.

After the Armistice of Cassibile was signed, the Blackshirts were dissolved; in the pro-fascist Italian Social Republic they were replaced by the National Republican Guard and the Black Brigades in the militia role, alongside the Republican Police Corps.

See also
 Squadrismo
 Italian Social Republic
 Black Brigades
 Black Legion, often nicknamed as the "Blackshirts" or simply "Blacks" – Croatia
 Black Shortsparody of the Blackshirts in the writings of P.G. Wodehouse
 Blackshirts – Albania
 Redshirts – Bulgaria
 Blueshirts – Canada
 Blue Shirts – China (Kuomintang)
 Brownshirts – Nazi Germany
 Blackshirts – Nazi Germany
 Gestapo – Nazi Germany
 Blueshirts – Ireland
 Greenshirts – Ireland
 Greenshirts – United Kingdom
 Greenshirts – Yugoslavia
 Greenshirts – Brazil
 Redshirts – Italy
 Redshirts – Mexico
 Goldshirts – Mexico
 Greyshirts – ethnically Dutch South Africans
 Greenshirts – Romania
 Blackshirts – United Kingdom
 Silvershirts – United States
 Blueshirts - Spain
 Portuguese Legion
 Yokusan Sonendan – Japan
 Tonton Macoute – Haiti

General
 Militia
 Paramilitary
 Political color
 Political uniform
 Integralismo

Notes

External links
 Axis History Factbook/Italy/Militia
 Comando Supremo

1919 establishments in Italy
1943 disestablishments in Italy
Clothing in politics
Military wings of fascist parties
Government paramilitary forces
Paramilitary organisations based in Italy
Fascist organizations

Blackshirts


The Bergen Section of Jersey City, New Jersey is the neighborhood on either side of Kennedy Boulevard between Saint Peter's College/ McGinley Square and Communipaw Avenue in the Bergen-Lafayette section of the city.  The name Bergen, used throughout Hudson County, is taken from the original Bergen, New Netherland settlement at Bergen Square.

While there was discussion of building a county long road as early as the 1870s, the Boulevard was officially opened in 1896. In the early automobile age it became part of the route of the Lincoln Highway and one of the busiest roads in the state. Bergen Avenue is a major north-south thoroughfare in the city running south from Journal Square along the ridge of the diminishing Hudson Palisades known as Bergen Hill. Monticello Avenue, which takes its name from mid 19th "suburban" development, is a shopping district lined with many turn-of-the-century buildings with storefronts being brought back into use.  As its name suggests West Bergen overlaps this neighborhood.

The section retains much of the character that at one time made it the premiere 20th century residential district of the city.
A variety of architectural styles can be found along the Boulevard, Bergen Avenue, and sidestreets including 19th-century rowhouses, Victorian and Edwardian mansions. Many of the multi-family buildings are pre-war, built during the period of expansive growth in the 1920s and 1930s, sometimes Art Deco style. including The Hague, residence of one of the city's best-known mayor, Frank Hague. Among the many landmarks in the area are the Fairmount Apartments, Temple Beth-El, and the former Jersey City YMCA. Lincoln the Mystic, a statue of a seated Abraham Lincoln by James Earle Fraser is situated at the entrance to the park which bears the president's name. and is one of the Hudson County's largest public green spaces.

Historic district

In 1997, the New Jersey State Historic Preservation Office listed part of the neighborhood the West Bergen Historic District on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places.
 In 2011, The New Jersey Historic Trust" Garden State Historic Preservation Trust Fund provided the city with a $50,000 grant to conduct studies to determine if the area qualifies as a federal historic district. It  describes it as architecturally significant with a diverse collection of mostly residential building built between 1880s and 1930s. There are approximately 300 to 400 contributing property, some of which are large homes not found in the city's other historic districts, which are located Downtown. In 2014 The Jersey City Landmarks Conservancy proposed an area which is larger than the state-designated one called the West Bergen-East Lincoln Park Historic District.
Approval was required by the city, and the ordinance was passed in June 2015.

Transportation

Monticello Avenue:
NJT 87 south bound to Greenville and northbound to Journal Square and Hudson Place (Hoboken)
Bergen Avenue
Bergen Avenue local southbound to Greenville and northbound to Journal Square
Kennedy Boulevard
NJT 10 southbound to Greenville/Bayonne and northbound to Journal Square
NJT 119 southbound to Bayonne and northbound to Journal Square with continuing service to Jersey City Heights and Port Authority Bus Terminal
West Side Avenue
 NJT 80 southbound to Greenville/Bayonne and northbound to Journal Square and Exchange Place.
West Side Avenue local southbound to Droyer's Point and Hudson Mall and north bound to Journal Square.
Crosstown service along West Side Avenue and Montgomery Street to McGinley Square and Exchange Place

References

Neighborhoods in Jersey City, New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Hudson County, New Jersey

Bergen Section, Jersey City


A hydrogen purifier is a device to purify hydrogen if hydrogen production is done from hydrocarbon sources, the ultra-high purified hydrogen is needed for applications like proton exchange membrane fuel cells.

Palladium membrane hydrogen purifiers
The palladium membrane is typically a metallic tube of a palladium and silver alloy material possessing the unique property of allowing only monatomic hydrogen to pass through its crystal lattice when it is heated above 300°C.

Dense thin-metal membrane purifier
Dense thin-metal membrane purifiers are compact, relatively inexpensive and simple to use.

Pressure swing adsorption
Pressure swing adsorption is used for the removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) as the final step in the large-scale commercial synthesis of hydrogen. It can also remove methane, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, moisture and in some cases, argon, from hydrogen.

Catalytic recombination or deoxygenation purifier
Catalytic recombination or deoxygenation is used to remove oxygen (O2) impurities. The process is also known as a 'deoxo' process. The oxygen reacts with the hydrogen to form water vapor, which can then be removed by a dryer if necessary. The catalysts that are used are based on platinum group metals (PGM). A typical system could handle up to 3% O2 in H2 in the feed, and reduce the O2 content to less than 1ppm.

Electrochemical purifier
The electrochemical purifier works similar to a fuel cell, a voltage is applied to the membrane and the resulting electric current pulls hydrogen through the membrane. A well designed system can simultaneously compress the hydrogen.

Applications
Hydrogen purifiers are used in metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy reactors for LED production.

See also
 Gas separation
 Hydrogen pinch
 Membrane gas separation
 Membrane reactor

References

External links
3 industrial hydrogen purifier systems
Power and Energy, Inc.
Setting a new benchmark for hydrogen delivery

Hydrogen technologies
Chemical equipment
Industrial gases
Gas technologies

Hydrogen purifier


On 22 November 2003, shortly after takeoff from Baghdad, Iraq, an Airbus A300B2-200F cargo plane, registered OO-DLL and owned by the Belgian division of European Air Transport (doing business as DHL Express), was struck on the left wing by a surface-to-air missile while on a scheduled flight to Muharraq, Bahrain. Severe wing damage resulted in a fire and complete loss of hydraulic flight control systems. Because outboard left wing fuel tank 1A was full at takeoff, no fuel-air vapour explosion occurred. Liquid jet fuel dropped away as 1A disintegrated. Inboard fuel tank 1 was pierced and leaking.

Returning to Baghdad, the three-man crew made an injury-free landing of the seriously damaged A300, using differential engine thrust as the only pilot input. This was despite major damage to a wing, total loss of hydraulic control, a faster-than-safe landing speed, and a ground path that veered off the runway surface and onto unprepared ground.

Paris Match reporter Claudine Vernier-Palliez accompanied a disbanded Fedayeen unit on their strike mission against the EAT aircraft.

Sara Daniel, a French weekly newsmagazine journalist, claimed receipt, from an unknown source, of a video that showed Iraqi insurgents (belonging to IAI), faces concealed, firing a missile at the EAT A300. Daniel was researching a feature about Iraqi resistance groups, but she denied any specific knowledge of the people who carried out the attack, despite being present at the moment of attack.

Aircraft

The aircraft involved was a 24-year old Airbus A300B4-203F. It first flew on 18 October 1979 and was delivered to Malaysia Airlines as a passenger aircraft registered 9M-MHB on 28 December 1979. The aircraft was sold to Carnival Air Lines registered N225KW in June 1995. The plane was converted into cargo configuration in March 1999, and was delivered to the Belgian division of European Air Transport, under whom it operated as DHL, on 22 September 2000.

Background
The aircraft took off from Baghdad International Airport en route to Bahrain International Airport at 06:30 UTC with an experienced crew of three - two Belgians, 38-year-old Captain Éric Gennotte and 29-year-old First Officer Steeve Michielsen, and a Scotsman, 54-year-old flight engineer Mario Rofail. The captain had 3,300 total flight hours, more than half of them logged in the A300. The first officer had 1,275 hours of flight experience and the flight engineer had 13,400 hours of flight experience.

Moments following the strike

To reduce exposure to ground attack, the aircraft was executing a rapid climbout. Around  altitude, a 9K34 Strela-3 (SA-14 Gremlin) surface-to-air missile struck the rear of the left wing between the engine and the wing tip. The warhead damaged trailing-edge surfaces of the wing structure and caused a fire. All three hydraulic systems lost pressure, and flight controls were disabled. The aircraft pitched rapidly up and down in a roller-coaster phugoid, oscillating between a nose-up and a nose-down position.

As in the case of the 1989 United Airlines Flight 232 disaster in the United States, Captain Genotte could only use thrust to modify pitch, speed, and altitude and vary throttles asymmetrically to control yaw and turn the aircraft. Flight engineer Mario Rofail executed a gravity drop to extend the landing gear, a procedure normally accomplished with hydraulic power. Early deployment of the gear was critical to a safe outcome because increased drag helped reduce speed and stabilize the aircraft.

In about 10 minutes of experimentation, the crew learned to manage turns, climbs, and descents. After a meandering trajectory, they executed a right turn and initiated a descent path to Baghdad International Airport.

Final approach and emergency landing

Because of left wing damage and fuel loss, Rofail had to monitor the engine closely; if fuel flow was lost from the left side, he would have to feed fuel from a right tank to maintain thrust. Survival was dependent on accurate power control of each jet engine.

Genotte and Michielsen set up for a final approach to runway 33R. The aircraft drifted to the right of the intended course, so Genotte chose the shorter 33L runway. Visibility was excellent and the pilots managed a controlled descent. They knew, counterintuitively, that they could not reduce the throttles before touchdown without risking the nose or a wing smashing into the ground.

Around  above ground, turbulence upset the aircraft balance and the right wing dipped. With thrust adjustments, the roll was controlled, but the aircraft touched down off the runway centerline. Rofail immediately deployed full reverse thrust, but the aircraft veered off the paved runway. The aircraft ran through rough, soft ground, throwing up a plume of sand and dragging a razor-wire barrier, and halted after about .

Awards and aftermath

The Honourable Company of Air Pilots jointly honoured all three crewmembers with its Hugh Gordon-Burge Memorial Award. This is awarded to flight crew whose actions contributed outstandingly to saving their aircraft or passengers, or made a significant contribution to future air safety. The annual award is made only if a nomination is considered to be of significant merit.

The Flight Safety Foundation's FSF Professionalism Award in Flight Safety was presented to the crewmembers for their "extraordinary piloting skills in flying their aircraft to a safe landing after a missile strike following takeoff from Baghdad, Iraq".

In May 2006, Captain Éric Genotte, together with Armand Jacob, an Airbus experimental test pilot, gave a presentation to the Toulouse branch of the Royal Aeronautical Society titled "Landing an A300 Successfully Without Flight Controls".

In addition to severe wing and undercarriage damage, both jet engines suffered ruinous abuse by ingesting debris. In November 2004, the aircraft was repaired and re-registered as N1452, then put up for sale, but remained unsold. The N1452 registration expired in 2018. The aging aircraft did not fly again and has since been scrapped.

In popular culture
The incident was featured in "Attack over Baghdad", a season-three (2005) episode of the Canadian TV series Mayday (called Air Emergency and Air Disasters in the U.S. and Air Crash Investigation in the UK and elsewhere around the world).

See also

 Japan Airlines Flight 123
 United Airlines Flight 232
 Civil Aircraft Missile Protection System
 Flight Guard
 Flight with disabled controls
 List of airliner crashes involving loss of control

Further reading
 Aviation Week and Space Technology, 8 December 2003

References

External links

 Agence France-Presse article about the incident
 ParisMatch article by Claudine Vernier-Palliez, who accompanied the Fedayeen commando unit that attacked the plane.
 Paper by Jacques Rosay
 Australian Government Civil Aviation Safety Authority
 Australian Society of Air Safety Investigators

Baghdad EAT
Accidents and incidents involving the Airbus A300
Aviation accidents and incidents in Iraq
Baghdad DHL shootdown incident
Baghdad DHL shootdown incident
DHL
21st-century aircraft shootdown incidents
November 2003 events in Asia
2003 disasters in Iraq

2003 Baghdad DHL attempted shootdown incident


Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are fully or partly halogenated hydrocarbons that contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), chlorine (Cl), and fluorine (F), produced as volatile derivatives of methane, ethane, and propane.

The most common example is dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12). R-12 is also commonly called Freon and was used as a refrigerant. Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosol applications), gaseous fire suppression systems, and solvents. As a result of CFCs contributing to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere, the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol, and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) including R-410A,R-134a and R-1234yf.

Structure, properties and production

As in simpler alkanes, carbon in the CFCs bond with tetrahedral symmetry. Because the fluorine and chlorine atoms differ greatly in size and effective charge from hydrogen and from each other, the methane-derived CFCs deviate from perfect tetrahedral symmetry.

The physical properties of CFCs and HCFCs are tunable by changes in the number and identity of the halogen atoms. In general, they are volatile but less so than their parent alkanes. The decreased volatility is attributed to the molecular polarity induced by the halides, which induces intermolecular interactions. Thus, methane boils at −161 °C whereas the fluoromethanes boil between −51.7 (CF2H2) and −128 °C (CF4). The CFCs have still higher boiling points because the chloride is even more polarizable than fluoride. Because of their polarity, the CFCs are useful solvents, and their boiling points make them suitable as refrigerants. The CFCs are far less flammable than methane, in part because they contain fewer C-H bonds and in part because, in the case of the chlorides and bromides, the released halides quench the free radicals that sustain flames.

The densities of CFCs are higher than their corresponding alkanes. In general, the density of these compounds correlates with the number of chlorides.

CFCs and HCFCs are usually produced by halogen exchange starting from chlorinated methanes and ethanes. Illustrative is the synthesis of chlorodifluoromethane from chloroform:
HCCl3 + 2 HF → HCF2Cl + 2 HCl
Brominated derivatives are generated by free-radical reactions of hydrochlorofluorocarbons, replacing C-H bonds with C-Br bonds. The production of the anesthetic 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane ("halothane") is illustrative:
CF3CH2Cl + Br2 → CF3CHBrCl + HBr

Applications
CFCs and HCFCs are used in various applications because of their low toxicity, reactivity and flammability. Every permutation of fluorine, chlorine and hydrogen based on methane and ethane has been examined and most have been commercialized. Furthermore, many examples are known for higher numbers of carbon as well as related compounds containing bromine. Uses include refrigerants, blowing agents, aerosol propellants in medicinal applications, and degreasing solvents.

Billions of kilograms of chlorodifluoromethane are produced annually as a precursor to tetrafluoroethylene, the monomer that is converted into Teflon.

Classes of compounds, nomenclature
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): when derived from methane and ethane these compounds have the formulae CClmF4−m and C2ClmF6−m, where m is nonzero.
Hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): when derived from methane and ethane these compounds have the formula CClmFnH4−m−n and C2ClxFyH6−x−y, where m, n, x, and y are nonzero.
 and bromofluorocarbons have formulae similar to the CFCs and HCFCs but also include bromine.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): when derived from methane, ethane, propane, and butane, these compounds have the respective formulae CFmH4−m, C2FmH6−m, C3FmH8−m, and C4FmH10−m, where m is nonzero.

Numbering system

A special numbering system is to be used for fluorinated alkanes, prefixed with Freon-, R-, CFC- and HCFC-, where the rightmost value indicates the number of fluorine atoms, the next value to the left is the number of hydrogen atoms plus 1, and the next value to the left is the number of carbon atoms less one (zeroes are not stated), and the remaining atoms are chlorine.

Freon-12, for example, indicates a methane derivative (only two numbers) containing two fluorine atoms (the second 2) and no hydrogen (1-1=0). It is therefore CCl2F2.

Another equation that can be applied to get the correct molecular formula of the CFC/R/Freon class compounds is to take the numbering and add 90 to it. The resulting value will give the number of carbons as the first numeral, the second numeral gives the number of hydrogen atoms, and the third numeral gives the number of fluorine atoms. The rest of the unaccounted carbon bonds are occupied by chlorine atoms. The value of this equation is always a three figure number. An easy example is that of CFC-12, which gives: 90+12=102 -> 1 carbon, 0 hydrogens, 2 fluorine atoms, and hence 2 chlorine atoms resulting in CCl2F2. The main advantage of this method of deducing the molecular composition in comparison with the method described in the paragraph above is that it gives the number of carbon atoms of the molecule.

Freons containing bromine are signified by four numbers. Isomers, which are common for ethane and propane derivatives, are indicated by letters following the numbers:

Reactions
The reaction of the CFCs which is responsible for the depletion of ozone, is the photo-induced scission of a C-Cl bond:
CCl3F → CCl2F. + Cl.
The chlorine atom, written often as Cl., behaves very differently from the chlorine molecule (Cl2). The radical Cl. is long-lived in the upper atmosphere, where it catalyzes the conversion of ozone into O2. Ozone absorbs UV-B radiation, so its depletion allows more of this high energy radiation to reach the Earth's surface. Bromine atoms are even more efficient catalysts; hence brominated CFCs are also regulated.

Impact as greenhouse gases

CFCs were phased out via the Montreal Protocol due to their part in ozone depletion.

The atmospheric impacts of CFCs are not limited to their role as ozone-depleting chemicals. Infrared absorption bands prevent heat at that wavelength from escaping earth's atmosphere. CFCs have their strongest absorption bands from C-F and C-Cl bonds in the spectral region of 7.8–15.3 µm—referred to as the "atmospheric window" due to the relative transparency of the atmosphere within this region.

The strength of CFC absorption bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere at wavelengths where CFCs (indeed all covalent fluorine compounds) absorb radiation creates a "super" greenhouse effect from CFCs and other unreactive fluorine-containing gases such as perfluorocarbons, HFCs, HCFCs, bromofluorocarbons, SF6, and NF3. This "atmospheric window" absorption is intensified by the low concentration of each individual CFC. Because CO2 is close to saturation with high concentrations and few infrared absorption bands, the radiation budget and hence the greenhouse effect has low sensitivity to changes in CO2 concentration; the increase in temperature is roughly logarithmic. Conversely, the low concentration of CFCs allow their effects to increase linearly with mass, so that chlorofluorocarbons are greenhouse gases with a much higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO2.

Groups are actively disposing of legacy CFCs to reduce their impact on the atmosphere.

According to NASA in 2018, the hole in the ozone layer has begun to recover as a result of CFC bans. However, research released in 2019 reports an alarming increase in CFCs, pointing to unregulated use in China.

History
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) was used in fire extinguishers and glass "anti-fire grenades" from the late nineteenth century until around the end of World War II. Experimentation with chloroalkanes for fire suppression on military aircraft began at least as early as the 1920s. Freon is a trade name for a group of CFCs which are used primarily as refrigerants, but also have uses in fire-fighting and as propellants in aerosol cans.They can also be used as a blowing agent for foaming and packaging material. Bromomethane is widely used as a fumigant. Dichloromethane is a versatile industrial solvent.

The Belgian scientist Frédéric Swarts pioneered the synthesis of CFCs in the 1890s. He developed an effective exchange agent to replace chloride in carbon tetrachloride with fluoride to synthesize CFC-11 (CCl3F) and CFC-12 (CCl2F2).

In the late 1920s, Thomas Midgley Jr. improved the process of synthesis and led the effort to use CFC as a refrigerant to replace ammonia (NH3), chloromethane (CH3Cl), and sulfur dioxide (SO2), which are toxic but were in common use. In searching for a new refrigerant, requirements for the compound were: low boiling point, low toxicity, and to be generally non-reactive. In a demonstration for the American Chemical Society, Midgley flamboyantly demonstrated all these properties by inhaling a breath of the gas and using it to blow out a candle in 1930.

Commercial development and use

During World War II, various chloroalkanes were in standard use in military aircraft, although these early halons suffered from excessive toxicity. Nevertheless, after the war they slowly became more common in civil aviation as well. In the 1960s, fluoroalkanes and bromofluoroalkanes became available and were quickly recognized as being highly effective fire-fighting materials. Much early research with Halon 1301 was conducted under the auspices of the US Armed Forces, while Halon 1211 was, initially, mainly developed in the UK. By the late 1960s they were standard in many applications where water and dry-powder extinguishers posed a threat of damage to the protected property, including computer rooms, telecommunications switches, laboratories, museums and art collections. Beginning with warships, in the 1970s, bromofluoroalkanes also progressively came to be associated with rapid knockdown of severe fires in confined spaces with minimal risk to personnel.

By the early 1980s, bromofluoroalkanes were in common use on aircraft, ships, and large vehicles as well as in computer facilities and galleries. However, concern was beginning to be expressed about the impact of chloroalkanes and bromoalkanes on the ozone layer. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer did not cover bromofluoroalkanes as it was thought, at the time, that emergency discharge of extinguishing systems was too small in volume to produce a significant impact, and too important to human safety for restriction.

Regulation
Since the late 1970s, the use of CFCs has been heavily regulated because of their destructive effects on the ozone layer. After the development of his electron capture detector, James Lovelock was the first to detect the widespread presence of CFCs in the air, finding a mole fraction of 60 ppt of CFC-11 over Ireland. In a self-funded research expedition ending in 1973, Lovelock went on to measure CFC-11 in both the Arctic and Antarctic, finding the presence of the gas in each of 50 air samples collected, and concluding that CFCs are not hazardous to the environment. The experiment did however provide the first useful data on the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The damage caused by CFCs was discovered by Sherry Rowland and Mario Molina who, after hearing a lecture on the subject of Lovelock's work, embarked on research resulting in the first publication suggesting the connection in 1974. It turns out that one of CFCs' most attractive features—their low reactivity—is key to their most destructive effects. CFCs' lack of reactivity gives them a lifespan that can exceed 100 years, giving them time to diffuse into the upper stratosphere. Once in the stratosphere, the sun's ultraviolet radiation is strong enough to cause the homolytic cleavage of the C-Cl bond. In 1976, under the Toxic Substances Control Act, the EPA banned commercial manufacturing and use of CFCs and aerosol propellants. This was later superseded in the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act to address stratospheric ozone depletion.

By 1987, in response to a dramatic seasonal depletion of the ozone layer over Antarctica, diplomats in Montreal forged a treaty, the Montreal Protocol, which called for drastic reductions in the production of CFCs. On 2 March 1989, 12 European Community nations agreed to ban the production of all CFCs by the end of the century. In 1990, diplomats met in London and voted to significantly strengthen the Montreal Protocol by calling for a complete elimination of CFCs by 2000. By 2010, CFCs should have been completely eliminated from developing countries as well.

Because the only CFCs available to countries adhering to the treaty is from recycling, their prices have increased considerably. A worldwide end to production should also terminate the smuggling of this material. However, there are current CFC smuggling issues, as recognized by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) in a 2006 report titled "Illegal Trade in Ozone Depleting Substances". UNEP estimates that between 16,000–38,000 tonnes of CFCs passed through the black market in the mid-1990s. The report estimated between 7,000 and 14,000 tonnes of CFCs are smuggled annually into developing countries. Asian countries are those with the most smuggling; as of 2007, China, India and South Korea were found to account for around 70% of global CFC production, South Korea later to ban CFC production in 2010. Possible reasons for continued CFC smuggling were also examined: the report noted that many banned CFC producing products have long lifespans and continue to operate. The cost of replacing the equipment of these items is sometimes cheaper than outfitting them with a more ozone-friendly appliance. Additionally, CFC smuggling is not considered a significant issue, so the perceived penalties for smuggling are low. In 2018 public attention was drawn to the issue, that at an unknown place in east Asia an estimated amount of 13,000 metric tons annually of CFCs have been produced since about 2012 in violation of the protocol. While the eventual phaseout of CFCs is likely, efforts are being taken to stem these current non-compliance problems.

By the time of the Montreal Protocol, it was realised that deliberate and accidental discharges during system tests and maintenance accounted for substantially larger volumes than emergency discharges, and consequently halons were brought into the treaty, albeit with many exceptions.

Regulatory gap
While the production and consumption of CFCs are regulated under the Montreal Protocol, emissions from existing banks of CFCs are not regulated under the agreement. In 2002, there were an estimated 5,791 kilotons of CFCs in existing products such as refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol cans and others. Approximately one-third of these CFCs are projected to be emitted over the next decade if action is not taken, posing a threat to both the ozone layer and the climate. A proportion of these CFCs can be safely captured and destroyed by means of high temperature, controlled incineration which destroys the CFC molecule.

Regulation and DuPont
In 1978 the United States banned the use of CFCs such as Freon in aerosol cans, the beginning of a long series of regulatory actions against their use. The critical DuPont manufacturing patent for Freon ("Process for Fluorinating Halohydrocarbons", U.S. Patent #3258500) was set to expire in 1979. In conjunction with other industrial peers DuPont formed a lobbying group, the "Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy", to combat regulations of ozone-depleting compounds. In 1986 DuPont, with new patents in hand, reversed its previous stance and publicly condemned CFCs. DuPont representatives appeared before the Montreal Protocol urging that CFCs be banned worldwide and stated that their new HCFCs would meet the worldwide demand for refrigerants.

Phasing-out of CFCs
Use of certain chloroalkanes as solvents for large scale application, such as dry cleaning, have been phased out, for example, by the IPPC directive on greenhouse gases in 1994 and by the volatile organic compounds (VOC) directive of the EU in 1997. Permitted chlorofluoroalkane uses are medicinal only.

Bromofluoroalkanes have been largely phased out and the possession of equipment for their use is prohibited in some countries like the Netherlands and Belgium, from 1 January 2004, based on the Montreal Protocol and guidelines of the European Union.

Production of new stocks ceased in most (probably all) countries in 1994. However many countries still require aircraft to be fitted with halon fire suppression systems because no safe and completely satisfactory alternative has been discovered for this application. There are also a few other, highly specialized uses. These programs recycle halon through "halon banks" coordinated by the Halon Recycling Corporation to ensure that discharge to the atmosphere occurs only in a genuine emergency and to conserve remaining stocks.

The interim replacements for CFCs are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which deplete stratospheric ozone, but to a much lesser extent than CFCs. Ultimately, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) will replace HCFCs. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0. DuPont began producing hydrofluorocarbons as alternatives to Freon in the 1980s. These included Suva refrigerants and Dymel propellants. Natural refrigerants are climate friendly solutions that are enjoying increasing support from large companies and governments interested in reducing global warming emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning.

Phasing-out of HFCs and HCFCs
Hydrofluorocarbons are included in the Kyoto Protocol and are regulated under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol due to their very high Global Warming Potential and the recognition of halocarbon contributions to climate change.

On September 21, 2007, approximately 200 countries agreed to accelerate the elimination of hydrochlorofluorocarbons entirely by 2020 in a United Nations-sponsored Montreal summit. Developing nations were given until 2030. Many nations, such as the United States and China, who had previously resisted such efforts, agreed with the accelerated phase out schedule. India successfully phased out HCFCs by 2020.

Properly collecting, controlling, and destroying CFCs and HCFCs
While new production of these refrigerants has been banned, large volumes still exist in older systems and pose an immediate threat to our environment. Preventing the release of these harmful refrigerants has been ranked as one of the single most effective actions we can take to mitigate catastrophic climate change.

Development of alternatives for CFCs
Work on alternatives for chlorofluorocarbons in refrigerants began in the late 1970s after the first warnings of damage to stratospheric ozone were published.

The hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are less stable in the lower atmosphere, enabling them to break down before reaching the ozone layer. Nevertheless, a significant fraction of the HCFCs do break down in the stratosphere and they have contributed to more chlorine buildup there than originally predicted. Later alternatives lacking the chlorine, the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have an even shorter lifetimes in the lower atmosphere. One of these compounds, HFC-134a, were used in place of CFC-12 in automobile air conditioners. Hydrocarbon refrigerants (a propane/isobutane blend) were also used extensively in mobile air conditioning systems in Australia, the US and many other countries, as they had excellent thermodynamic properties and performed particularly well in high ambient temperatures. 1,1-Dichloro-1-fluoroethane (HCFC-141b) has replaced HFC-134a, due to its low ODP and GWP values. And according to the Montreal Protocol, HCFC-141b is supposed to be phased out completely and replaced with zero ODP substances such as cyclopentane, HFOs, and HFC-345a before January 2020.

Among the natural refrigerants (along with ammonia and carbon dioxide), hydrocarbons have negligible environmental impacts and are also used worldwide in domestic and commercial refrigeration applications, and are becoming available in new split system air conditioners.
Various other solvents and methods have replaced the use of CFCs in laboratory analytics.

In Metered-dose inhalers (MDI), a non-ozone effecting substitute was developed as a propellant, known as "hydrofluoroalkane."

Development of Hydrofluoroolefins as alternatives to CFCs and HCFCs

The development of Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) as replacements for Hydrochlorofluorocarbons and Hydrofluorocarbons began after the Kigali amendment to the Montreal Protocol in 2016, which called for the phase out of high global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants and to replace them with other refrigerants with a lower GWP, closer to that of carbon dioxide.  HFOs have an ozone depletion potential of 0.0, compared to the 1.0 of principal CFC-11, and a low GWP which make them environmentally safer alternatives to CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs.

Hydrofluoroolefins serve as functional replacements for applications where high GWP hydrofluorocarbons were once used. In April of 2022, the EPA signed a pre-published final rule  Listing of HFO-1234yf under the Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) Program for Motor Vehicle Air Conditioning in Nonroad Vehicles and Servicing Fittings for Small Refrigerant Cans. This ruling allows HFO-1234yf to take over in applications where ozone depleting CFCs such as R-12, and high GWP HFCs such as R-134a were once used. The phaseout and replacement of CFCs and HFCs in the automotive industry will ultimately reduce the release of these gases to atmosphere and intern have a positive contribution to the mitigation climate change.

Tracer of ocean circulation
Because the time history of CFC concentrations in the atmosphere is relatively well known, they have provided an important constraint on ocean circulation. CFCs dissolve in seawater at the ocean surface and are subsequently transported into the ocean interior. Because CFCs are inert, their concentration in the ocean interior reflects simply the convolution of their atmospheric time evolution and ocean circulation and mixing.

CFC and SF6 tracer-derived age of ocean water
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are anthropogenic compounds that have been released into the atmosphere since the 1930s in various applications such as in air-conditioning, refrigeration, blowing agents in foams, insulations and packing materials, propellants in aerosol cans, and as solvents.  The entry of CFCs into the ocean makes them extremely useful as transient tracers to estimate rates and pathways of ocean circulation and mixing processes. However, due to production restrictions of CFCs in the 1980s, atmospheric concentrations of CFC-11 and CFC-12 has stopped increasing, and the CFC-11 to CFC-12 ratio in the atmosphere have been steadily decreasing, making water dating of water masses more problematic. Incidentally, production and release of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) have rapidly increased in the atmosphere since the 1970s. Similar to CFCs, SF6 is also an inert gas and is not affected by oceanic chemical or biological activities. Thus, using CFCs in concert with SF6 as a tracer resolves the water dating issues due to decreased CFC concentrations.

Using CFCs or SF6 as a tracer of ocean circulation allows for the derivation of rates for ocean processes due to the time-dependent source function. The elapsed time since a subsurface water mass was last in contact with the atmosphere is the tracer-derived age. Estimates of age can be derived based on the partial pressure of an individual compound and the ratio of the partial pressure of CFCs to each other (or SF6).

Partial pressure and ratio dating techniques
The age of a water parcel can be estimated by the CFC partial pressure (pCFC) age or SF6 partial pressure (pSF6) age. The pCFC age of a water sample is defined as:

where [CFC] is the measured CFC concentration (pmol kg−1) and F is the solubility of CFC gas in seawater as a function of temperature and salinity. The CFC partial pressure is expressed in units of 10–12 atmospheres or parts-per-trillion (ppt). The solubility measurements of CFC-11 and CFC-12 have been previously measured by Warner and Weiss Additionally, the solubility measurement of CFC-113 was measured by Bu and Warner and SF6 by Wanninkhof et al. and Bullister et al.  Theses authors mentioned above have expressed the solubility (F) at a total pressure of 1 atm as:

where F = solubility expressed in either mol l−1 or mol kg−1 atm−1,
T = absolute temperature,
S = salinity in parts per thousand (ppt),
a1, a2, a3, b1, b2, and b3 are constants to be determined from the least squares fit to the solubility measurements. This equation is derived from the integrated Van 't Hoff equation and the logarithmic Setchenow salinity dependence.

It can be noted that the solubility of CFCs increase with decreasing temperature at approximately 1% per degree Celsius.

Once the partial pressure of the CFC (or SF6) is derived, it is then compared to the atmospheric time histories for CFC-11, CFC-12, or SF6 in which the pCFC directly corresponds to the year with the same.  The difference between the corresponding date and the collection date of the seawater sample is the average age for the water parcel. The age of a parcel of water can also be calculated using the ratio of two CFC partial pressures or the ratio of the SF6 partial pressure to a CFC partial pressure.

Safety
According to their material safety data sheets, CFCs and HCFCs are colorless, volatile, non-toxic liquids and gases with a faintly sweet ethereal odor. Overexposure at concentrations of 11% or more may cause dizziness, loss of concentration, central nervous system depression or cardiac arrhythmia. Vapors displace air and can cause asphyxiation in confined spaces. Dermal absorption of chlorofluorocarbons is possible, but low. Where the pulmonary uptake of inhaled chlorofluorocarbons occurs quickly with peak blood concentrations occurring in as little as 15 seconds with steady concentrations evening out after 20 minutes. Absorption of orally ingested chlorofluorocarbons is 35-48 times lower compared to inhalation.
 Although non-flammable, their combustion products include hydrofluoric acid and related species.
Normal occupational exposure is rated at 0.07% and does not pose any serious health risks.

References

External links

 Gas conversion table
 Nomenclature FAQ
 Numbering scheme for Ozone-Depleting Substances and their substitutes
 Class I Ozone-Depleting Substances
 Class II Ozone-Depleting Substances (HCFCs)
 CFC illegal trade
 History of halon-use by the US Navy
 Ozone Loss: The Chemical Culprits
 Process using pyrolysis in an ultra high temperature plasma arc, for the elimination of CFCs
  Environmental Investigation Agency: Reports etc. on illegal trade and solutions
  Environmental Investigation Agency in the USA: Reports etc. on illegal trade and solutions
 Freon in car A/C
  Phasing out halons in extinguishers

Aerosol propellants
DuPont
Firefighting
Greenhouse gases
Halogenated solvents
Halomethanes
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Ozone depletion
Refrigerants
Belgian inventions
Environmental controversies
Pollution
Air pollution

Chlorofluorocarbon


Gasr Al-Hājj (Arabic: قصر الحاج) is a huge fortified granary of circular shape built in the 7th century AH/13th century AD by Abdallah Abu Jatla (Arabic:عبدالله أبوجطلة). It is located in Libya on the Tripoli-'Aziziya-Al Jawf route in Libya about 130 km from Tripoli. It was built to serve as granary for families from the surrounding area in return for quarter of their crops, which, it is said, the owner had endowed as a waqf for teaching Qur'an and Islamic related subjects to the people of the area. The building originally comprised 114 chambers, which could be the number of the subscribing families during the time of construction. It is also speculated that the number 114 was used symbolically to reflect the number of Sura in the Qur'an, a view widely accepted by villagers in the region nowadays. The number of chambers as of now, is 119, as result of splitting 10 chambers due to inheritance disputes. Other changes include the addition of 29 cellars.

References
 https://web.archive.org/web/20110723012310/http://alsoog.net/vb/archive/index.php/t-1241.html

External links
 Photos

Architecture in Libya
Berber architecture
Tourism in Libya
Agricultural buildings in Libya
Ksars
Fortifications in Libya
Jabal al Gharbi District

Gasr Al-Hajj


Cornish surnames are surnames used by Cornish people and often derived from the Cornish language such as Jago, Trelawney or Enys. Others have strong roots in the region and many in the UK with names such as Eddy, Stark or Rowe are likely to have Cornish origins. Such surnames for the common people emerged in the Middle Ages, although the nobility probably had surnames much earlier on. Not until the later Middle Ages did it become necessary for a common man to have a surname. Most surnames were fully established throughout Cornwall by the end of the 15th century. Today Cornish surnames can be found throughout the world as part of the Cornish diaspora.

Due to the linguistic similarity of Cornish, Welsh and Breton, some surnames can derive from any of the three regions.

Patronymics
The most common surnames in Cornwall are derived from patronymics, the father's first name being taken either without alteration, for example 'John', or with the addition of genitive '-s' or, typically Cornish, '-o', e.g. 'Bennetto' or '-y' as in 'Pawley'.

Cornish surnames deriving from the Cornish language

Placenames
The phrase Tre, Pol and Pen is used to describe people from, or places in, Cornwall, the United Kingdom. Carew has By Tre, Pol and Pen / You shall know the Cornishmen; however, Camden records the rhyme as By Tre, Ros, Pol, Lan, Caer and Pen / You may know the most Cornishmen.

Tre – a settlement or homestead
Ros(e) – heath, moor
Pol – a pond, lake or well
Lan – a religious enclosure
Car – either from karn "tor" or ker "hill-fort"
Pen(n), Pedn – a hill or headland

Many Cornish surnames and place names still retain these words as prefixes, such as the names Trelawny or Trevithick and the towns of Polperro, Polkerris and of course Penzance. "Carbines" derives from karn byghan "little tor".

Caution should be exercised with the derivation of "Car-" surnames as there seems also to be fusion with names containing the word ker "hill-fort", as in "Carvosso" ker fosow "walled hill-fort", a placename found in Ludgvan. There is also karrek "rocky". "Rosdew" is ros du "black moor" and "Ros(e)warne" from ros (g)wern "alder heath" or perhaps "heath by an alder-marsh". "Landry" means lan dre "enclosure of farmhouse or church-house".

Other examples of place-names used as surnames:
Gwavas" gwavos "winter residence or bothy"- an area near Penzance and also the surname of a well-known Cornish family (William Gwavas)
Hammett: "summer bothy"; from Old Cornish hav bot (, ). In East Cornwall, -m- was the Anglo-Saxon representation of the Cornish nasal -v-. Place-names: Hammett, Hammett Down in the parish of Quethiock; Great Hammett, Little Hammett in the parish of St Neot, Cornwall.
Tremethyk: tre medhyk "doctor's residence or farm"
Trenowden: Tre Renowden "Renowden's farm"; Renowden is the Cornish form of Renaud or Reginald
Trengrouse: Tre an Grows, "farm at the cross"
Penprase: Penn Pras "head of the meadow or common pasture"
Penrose: Penn Ros(e) "head of the moor"
Solomon: St Colomb Man From St Columb
Nan(s)- surnames- there are many Nan(s)- surnames in Cornwall, "nan(s)" meaning valley- for example Nankervis from "nans" and "kervys", meaning "valley of the deer/stag" and Nankivell/Nancekivell "nans" "Cyfel", "the valley of Cyfel" (Cyfel being a personal name) or perhaps from the Old Welsh/Cornish word "ceffyl" a "horse". Nanskeval is located on the parish boundaries of St Mawgan in Pydar and St Columb Major.

Trades
As in many other parts of Europe, names were used to describe the occupation of the head of the family; "Angove" ( "the Smith"), for example, being the equivalent to the Irish Gowan, Scottish Gow, Breton "Le Goff", "Legoff", "Legoffic", English "Smith", German "Schmidt"  Polish "Kowalski" and Italian "Ferrero". Other examples of names derived from trades include "Dyer" ( "thatcher") and "Helyer" ( "hunter"), both of which can be found in English too, i.e. "Thatcher" and "Hunter" respectively, while Dyer itself is also English for someone who dyes clothing.

Other examples:
Marrak:  "horseman, cavalier, knight"
Gloyn(e):  "charcoal", perhaps from the ancient profession of a charcoal burner
Southcott:  "South Sheep Cot", derived by the family's legacy of sheep farming in Cornwall

Animals

Some surnames were derived from animals which may indicate that the bearer of some of these surnames may have made a living from hunting, examples include Bligh "wolf" () and Coon "hounds" ().

Gwinnel: possibly from  "swallow"; it also refers to a weaver's shuttle

Festivals

At least one known Cornish surname derives from the name of a festival, namely
"Pascoe" from "Easter".

Personal characteristics or nicknames

Another category of surnames is derived from personal characteristics or nicknames/hypocoristics. e.g. "Coad" (Cor.coth=old), "Couch" (Cor.cough=red) and "Tallack" (Cor.talek=wide-browed).

Other examples:
Teague te(k)g- from Cornish "fair" or "beautiful"
Gwyn(n)- from Cornish "gwy(d)n"  "white"

The surname Cornish

The surname "Cornish" with variants "Cornysshe", "Cornyshe", "Cornysh", "Cornishe", "Cornisshe", and "Cornis"- standardised as "Cornish"- is to be found throughout Great Britain and Ireland. This name seems to originate from a time when ordinary people were still not using surnames in the modern way. A native Cornishman who had left Cornwall for another part of Britain or Ireland was given the name "Cornish", i.e. the Cornishman. In "A Dictionary of British Surnames", P.H. Reaney (1976), the following entries and dates are to be found:
Cornish, Cornes, Badekoc Korneys (1296)
John Corneys (1327)
Henry Cornysh (1375)

The first recorded instance is in the National Dictionary in 1547. It is likely that the Adam Corneys recorded in 1300 is identical to Adam Le Cornwalais recorded in 1275. Other related names to Cornish that designate a Cornish origin include "Cornwall", "Cornwell", "Cornick", "Curnow", "Cornu", "Kernew", "Kernow" etc. (although Cornick may have other origins as well). In previous centuries these names may have alternated along with "Cornwallis" and "Le Cornwalais".

"Welsh" names

Especially in West Cornwall, many names typically associated with Welsh are also found. In the Cornish language, ultimately a language linked to Welsh and Breton, the prefix 'map' may have been used, as in Welsh, to indicate the relationship of father to son, this later becoming "ap" (as in NW Breton area, Leon dialect, Breton WP) and then finally the "p" alone being prefixed to the name, e.g. (m)ap Richard becoming "Pri(t)chard". Another feature of these patronymics was the diminutive suffix  "-kin"  being added the father's first name e.g. "Tonkin", which may derive from either Anthony or Thomas.

Prowse/Prouse from "map" "ros" meaning "son of the heath"
Prynne "map" "Ryn", "son of Rynne"

Surnames found at high frequencies in both Wales and Cornwall include:
Davies
Williams
Evans
Jones
Morgan

Anglicised names and folk etymology

Owing to the gradual language shift in Cornwall from the native Cornish language to English, approximately until the mid-18th century, some Cornish language surnames underwent change through folk etymology. The Cornish meaning of the name was no longer understood and so it was changed into a similar-sounding English word, not necessarily anything to do with the original meaning in Cornish. The same process has been noted in Cornish placenames too. One example of this process regarding surnames is the surname "Kneebone" which actually derives from the Cornish "Carn Ebwen" or the "tomb", "carn" of "Ebwen". The change must have occurred at a point when the original "k" at the beginning of the English word was still pronounced and thus suggests an early period in which it was anglicised.

Non-Cornish language surnames typically associated with Cornwall
There are also many names typically found in Cornwall that may have a completely non-Cornish language origin, excluding those names taken from English, yet a strong association with the area. These names reflect the historical connections between Cornwall and Brittany and also the Norman occupation of Cornwall. The Normans themselves employed Bretons in the administration of Cornwall and thus "imported" Breton names in Cornwall are not unusual.

Arundell – the name of an aristocratic family in Cornwall.
Arscott – possibly from Breton "harscoet" meaning "iron shield"
Briton, Brittan etc. – from "Breton", a name given to a Breton resident in Cornwall
Ferris – Of Scots origin, commonly found in the Restormel and Carrick areas.
Grylls – Of English origin, an important family in south-east Cornwall in the seventeenth century
Orchard
Kendall - Of Norman English origin, an established gentry family occupying the manors of Pelyn and Treworgy who have resided in Cornwall since the fourteenth century.
 Rowe – of Norman origin, the name became popular in the region following large-scale Norman settlement. Remains a common surname in Cornwall to this day.
 Tangye – of Breton origin.

Famous persons with Cornish surnames
Not all people who consider themselves Cornish have a necessarily Cornish surname nor do all Cornish surname bearers necessarily identify themselves as Cornish.

Hector Bolitho
Kristin Chenoweth
Keith Chegwin
Kenneth Kendall
Samuel Langhorne Clemens aka Mark Twain
John Denzel
John Pascoe Fawkner
Guy Penrose Gibson
Kirk Hammett
Dashiell Hammett
Sue Menhenick
Cam Nancarrow

Jack Nance
John Nance Garner
Richard Nancekivell
John Pasco
Francis Polkinghorne Pascoe
Beverly Penberthy
Edward William Wynne Pendarves
David Penhaligon
Charles Penrose
Sir Roger Penrose
Rick Rescorla

Mike Teague
Sir Jonathan Trelawny, 3rd Baronet
Arthur Tremayne
Henry Trengrouse
Marcus Trescothick
John Trevaskis
Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet
Richard Trevithick
Colin Trevorrow
John Courtenay Trewin

See also

Baragwanath
Bolitho
Chenoweth
:Category:Cornwall-related biographical lists
English surnames
Hypocoristic
List of people from Cornwall
Nankivell (surname)
Nickname
Normans
Pascoe
Patronymics
Welsh surnames

References

Specialist bibliography
 Charnock, Richard Stephen: Patronymica Cornu-Britannica: Or, The Etymology of Cornish Surnames. London: Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer 1870,
Gover, J. E. B., The Place Names of Cornwall (1948)
Jackson, Kenneth, Language and History in Early Britain, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press (1953)
Padel, O. J., Cornish Place-Name Elements, Nottingham: English Place-name Society (1985)
Reaney, P. H., A Dictionary of British Surnames, (2nd ed. 1976), London: Routledge.
White, George Pawley, A Handbook of Cornish Surnames, Camborne: Chy'nelyn, Tregenna La., (1972)

External links
cornwallfhs.com
ukga.org
cornish-surnames.org.uk
ozemail.com.au
rootsweb.ancestry.com
The meaning behind Welsh names
General History of surnames, including Welsh
Collection of Welsh Surnames (along with Male and Female first names)
Welsh patronymic naming system
Late Sixteenth Century Welsh Names
What's in a name?
Article on the relevance of surnames in genealogy (PDF File)
Welsh-Border Surnames from 'ab Edmond'

Cornish
Surname
Cornish
Cornish
Surname

Cornish surnames


George Harold Sisler Jr. (August 1, 1917 – December 31, 2006) was an American professional baseball player and executive. The son of Hall of Fame first baseman and two-time .400 hitter George Sisler and the brother of two Major League Baseball players, Dick and Dave, George Jr. was a long- time executive in minor-league baseball, especially in the Triple-A International League (IL); at his death, the IL calculated that Sisler had been associated with that league for 52 of its 124 years of existence. He also served in the majors as chief assistant to St. Louis Cardinals vice president and de facto general manager William Walsingham Jr. during the late 1940s and early 1950s.

A three-sport star at Colgate University, Sisler had a brief playing career in minor-league baseball. Baseball Reference lists him as having played from 1939–1941 in the lowest levels of the minors in the organizations of St. Louis' two MLB teams of the era, the Browns and the Cardinals. After World War II, he focused on his front-office career. In the minors, he was the general manager of the Columbus Red Birds of the Triple-A American Association in 1953 and 1954 before taking over in 1955 as front-office boss of the Cardinals' other top-level affiliate, the Rochester Red Wings of the International League. Sisler spent 11 seasons, through 1965, in the Rochester post, navigating transitions when the Cardinals sold the team to a community organization and, then, in 1961, when the Red Wings ended their 33-year relationship with St. Louis and affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles.

In 1966, Sisler was elected president of the International circuit itself, serving another 11 seasons through 1976. Then, he accepted a new challenge when he returned to Columbus to take the executive reins of the Clippers when that franchise (now in the International League) moved to Ohio's capital from Charleston, West Virginia. He spent 13 seasons (1977–1989) as the Clippers' general manager, with the team winning International League championships in 1979, 1980, 1981 and 1987 and Western Division titles in 1979, 1980, 1981, 1983 and 1984. Sisler then retired to a consulting role, working with the IL office through his formal retirement in 1999 at age 82.

Four times Sisler was selected the International League's Executive of the Year, and in 1989 he was presented with the King of Baseball award given by Minor League Baseball.

Sisler died from Alzheimer's disease in Worthington, Ohio, at age 89. The year after his 2006 death, he was one of the first two new inductees to the resurrected International League Hall of Fame, which had had no new members since 1963.

References

External links

St. Louis Post-Dispatch obituary "sisler"

1917 births
2006 deaths
Albany Cardinals players
American people of German descent
Beaver Falls Bees players
Colgate Raiders baseball players
Colgate University alumni
Minor league baseball executives
St. Louis Cardinals executives
Youngstown Browns players
Baseball players from St. Louis
Baseball players from Columbus, Ohio

George Sisler Jr.


Alphonse-Arthur Miville Déchêne (April 17, 1848 – May 1, 1902) was a Canadian lumber merchant and political figure in Quebec. He represented L'Islet in the House of Commons of Canada as a Liberal member from 1896 to 1901 and sat for De la Durantaye division in the Senate of Canada from 1901 to 1902.

He was born in L'Islet, Canada East, the son of Alfred Miville, dit Dechêne, and was educated at the Collège Sainte-Anne. In 1891, he married Aurore Ouillet. He served as mayor of Saint-Pamphile. Déchêne died in office at the age of 54.

His son Joseph Bruno Aimé Miville Déchêne also served in the House of Commons. His brother François-Gilbert Miville Dechêne represented L'Islet in the Legislative Assembly of Quebec.

References

1848 births
1902 deaths
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Canadian senators from Quebec
Liberal Party of Canada senators
Mayors of places in Quebec
French Quebecers

Alphonse-Arthur Miville Déchêne


Joseph John Farmer VC (15 May 1854 – 30 June 1930) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Early life
He attended school in King's Cross, and thereafter was apprenticed to the building trade. However, at the age of 13 years he went to sea with the Mercantile Marine serving aboard English and American ships. In 1875, he was shipwrecked off the Isle of Wight, and again a year later in a hurricane off Hong Kong. He left the sea in 1878, and on returning home he fell ill with smallpox.

Whilst still under medical care he saved the life of a delirious patient who tried to jump out of a window. When he had recovered from his illness, he took an appointment as a night porter to look after demented patients. Another similar appointment followed, and after having his interest in medical matters further awakened he joined the Army Hospital Corps on 27 February 1879. Following a course in anatomy and ambulance work he left for the Cape of Good Hope.

When the South African War broke out he served in a Field Hospital. He then served in the relief column sent to the beleaguered garrisons of Potchefstroom and Lydenburg, and saw action at Laing's Nek and again at Majuba Hill.

Details
Farmer was first utilised treating the wounded from the Battle of Ulundi during the Anglo-Zulu War. He was 26 years old, and a provisional lance-corporal in the Army Hospital Corps (later Royal Army Medical Corps), British Army during the First Boer War when the following deed took place on 27 February 1881, at Majuba Hill in South Africa for which he was awarded the VC:

Further information
He later achieved the rank of corporal. He was forced to leave the army due to his wounds and joined the Corps of Commissionaires and then became a house-painter.

The medal
His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Army Medical Services Museum in Aldershot, England.

References

Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999)
The Register of the Victoria Cross (This England, 1997)
Victoria Crosses of the Anglo-Boer War (Ian Uys, 2000)

External links

Location of grave and VC medal (Brompton Cemetery)
Lance Corporal J.J. Farmer

British recipients of the Victoria Cross
First Boer War recipients of the Victoria Cross
Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers
1854 births
1930 deaths
Burials at Brompton Cemetery
People from Clerkenwell
British military personnel of the First Boer War
British Army personnel of the Anglo-Zulu War
19th-century English people
20th-century British people
British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross

Joseph John Farmer


Kuditipudi Sriramakrishnaiah (కుడితిపూడి శ్రీరామకృష్ణయ్య)  (3 March 1926 in Betapudi, Guntur district – 20 March 2002) was an irrigation engineer who was actively associated in most of the irrigation projects of Andhra Pradesh for 34 years before retirement from the state government service in the year 1983.

Services
In recognition of his capabilities, he was later appointed as "Officer on special duty " during the period 1984 to 1990, for executing the Telugu Ganga project. He also served as 'Adviser on irrigation projects' to government of Andhra Pradesh (1989), environmental appraisal committee member (1990 – 92) of Government of India,  'Krishna,  Godavari and Penna delta's drainage board' chairman (1995 – 97) and state planning commission member (1997 – till his death). During the 1990s, he devoted most of the time in advising his peers and educating the people on the irrigation and drinking water projects.
During the 1970s, he actively participated in the activities of Krishna and   Godavari river water disputes tribunals representing the state of Andhra Pradesh.   He authored many essays in both Telugu and English and the following books in English
The story of Penna basin
Drought – Rayalaseema
Exploitation of ground water in Rayalaseema
Comprehensive master plan for drainage in coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh,
Utilization of Godavari water by lift
Irrigation in ancient India.

Recognition
In recognition of his services, he was honored with 'National hydrology award' in 1987 by National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee and 'Honorary Doctorate' in 1989 by Sri Venkateswara University. After his death, the Penna Ahobilam balancing reservoir was renamed in his honor as 'Dr. K. Sriramakrishnaiah Penna Ahobilam balancing reservoir'. Statues of him have been placed  Anantapur city and on the banks of Brahmamgari Mattham reservoir in Kadapa district.

Memorial Trust
The Dr. K. Sriramakrishnaiah Memorial Service Trust (డా.కె.శ్రీరామకృష్ణయ్య స్మారక సేవా సమితి - DKSSSS) was formed in the year 2002. The DKSSSS conducts educational and awareness enhancement programs every year and publishes many Telugu books on irrigation topics. His birthday (3 March) is celebrated every year as Irrigation Day in Andhra Pradesh.

See also
 Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal
 Bharat Ratna. Vishveshwaraiah
 Dr. K.L. Rao
 Sir Arthur Cotton
 Engineer's Day

References

 Jala bharatam (collection of essays) [జలభారతం (వ్యాస సంపుటి)] by DKSSSS President Sri Cherukuri Veeraiah in the year 2009.

Telugu people
Indian irrigation engineers
People from Guntur district
2002 deaths
1926 births
Engineers from Andhra Pradesh
20th-century Indian engineers

K. Sriramakrishnaiah


Lieutenant-Colonel James Farquharson Macleod (c. September 25, 1836 – September 5, 1894), born in Drynoch, Isle of Skye, Scotland, was a militia officer, lawyer, North-West Mounted Police officer, magistrate, judge, and politician in Alberta. He served as the second full Commissioner of the North-West Mounted Police, from July 22, 1876, to October 31, 1880. Fort Macleod and Macleod Trail, a major Calgary, Alberta thoroughfare, are named after him.

In 1887, Macleod was appointed to the Supreme Court of the Northwest Territories, which then included what is now known as Alberta and Saskatchewan. He held this position until his death in 1894. He is buried in Union Cemetery in Calgary.

Education

Macleod immigrated with his family from Scotland in 1845, when his father purchased a farm at Richmond Hill, Ontario. Macleod attended Upper Canada College in Toronto, Ontario and then Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario. He graduated in 1854 from Queen's with a B.A. in classics and philosophy and then enrolled in 1856 at Osgoode Hall to attend law school. He graduated with an LL.B. in 1860 and articled with the law office of Alexander Campbell. It was also sometime around this time that he joined the Orange Order, L.O.L. 141, as was common of Canadian Ulster-Scots at the time.

Before law school during the summer of 1856, against the wishes of his parents, Macleod joined the Volunteer Militia Field Battery of Kingston as a lieutenant and his enthusiasm was such that his brother-in-law William Augustus Baldwin persuaded Governor General Sir Edmund Walker Head to offer Macleod a commission in the British army. His father insisted that the offer be refused.

Military service

From 1860 to 1870 Macleod practiced law in Bowmanville, Ontario, but during that time he retained an interest in the militia. He transferred in 1862 to the Bowmanville Volunteer Militia Rifle Company and was promoted to captain in 1863 and major in 1866 when the Bowmanville company became part of the newly formed 45th West Durham Battalion of Infantry. Active service during the Trent Affair in 1861 and the Fenian Raids of 1866 confirmed his interest in the military.

In 1870, he obtained a commission as brigade major with the Wolseley expedition which was sent to quell the Red River Rebellion. After returning from the Red River in 1871, Macleod was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and became the commanding officer of the 45th West Durham Battalion.

North-West Mounted Police

Macleod served as Commissioner of the NWMP from 1876 to 1880.

Northwest Territories Legislature

Macleod was appointed the Legislative Assembly of Northwest Territories on October 7, 1876, to serve as one of the first three members on the permanent Northwest Territories Council.

He served as a regular appointed member until 1881, when he was appointed as a Stipendiary Magistrate. He served as such until the 1st Northwest Territories general election.

He was reappointed to the Assembly as one of three Legal Advisors, a non-voting at-large position created to help the assembly make the transition. The position was abolished when the legislature was dissolved in 1891, ending 15 years of service with the legislature.

Personal life
On July 28, 1876, Macleod married pioneer Mary Isabella Drever, who he first met in Spring 1871. They settled in Fort Macleod and had four daughters and one son.

References

Mounted Policemen of Calgary's Cemeteries: James Macleod Retrieved: March 16, 2010

1836 births
1894 deaths
People from the Isle of Skye
People of the Fenian raids
Royal Canadian Mounted Police commissioners
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories
Upper Canada College alumni
Judges in the Northwest Territories
Scottish emigrants to Canada
Canadian Militia officers
Canadian magistrates

James Macleod


Kalaupapa National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park located in Kalaupapa, Hawaii, on the island of Molokai. Coterminous with the boundaries of Kalawao County and primarily on Kalaupapa peninsula, it was established by Congress in 1980 to expand upon the earlier National Historic Landmark site of the Kalaupapa Leper Settlement. It is administered by the National Park Service. Its goal is to preserve the cultural and physical settings of the two leper colonies on the island of Molokai, which operated from 1866 to 1969 and had a total of 8500 residents over the decades.

More than 7300 people live on the remainder of the island, which was a site of cattle ranching and pineapple production for decades. Much of these lands were purchased and controlled by the owners and developers of Molokai Ranch. This part of the island is also a tourist destination.

History of Kalaupapa peninsula
Archeological evidence has revealed human habitation by indigenous peoples for more than 900 years before European contact. The peninsula has house sites, cultivated taro fields and irrigation systems, stone walls, and temples (heiau), all constructed by ancient residents. "Historical accounts from the early to mid-1800s speak of populations of 1,000 to 2,700 people living on the peninsula, in the valleys, and in the villages" but by 1853, there were only about 140 people remaining after epidemics of Eurasian diseases.

History of the Kalaupapa leprosy settlements (1865 – present)
In 1865 the Kingdom legislature passed a law to try to prevent transmission of leprosy, now known as Hansen's disease after the scientist who discovered the bacterium. The disease had been introduced to the islands about 1830 by foreign workers. At the time it was incurable. Sugar planters had brought pressure on the government as they were worried about the labor supply.

The government arranged for Native Hawaiian inhabitants to be removed from the Kalaupapa to prepare for its development as an isolation settlement for persons with severe leprosy. This cut off the island people's cultural ties and associations with the āina (land), which had been established for centuries.

Bringing patients to the isolation settlements, first at Kalawao and then at Kalaupapa, led to broader dislocations across Hawaiian society. In the long term many families were affected and some divided when a member contracted leprosy. The governments of the Kingdom, and subsequently, the Territory and State of Hawaii tried to control leprosy (also known as Hansen's disease), a much feared illness, by relocating patients with severe symptoms to the isolated peninsula. Other patients were treated in quarantine at facilities on the main islands; but families were still broken up in the process.

The first settlement was started on the windward side at Kalawao, followed by one at Kalaupapa. In 1890 a total of 1100 persons with leprosy were living here, the peak of resident population. In those years, they generally had to leave family behind on other islands. The effects of both the broken connections with the āina and of family members "lost" to Kalaupapa are still felt in Hawaii today.

The settlements were administered by the Board of Health, with local financial control held by Rudolph Meyer, a German immigrant who worked for the Molokaʻi Ranch and lived on the island. Local supervision for decades was by superintendents of Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian ancestry, some appointed from among the patients or family members with persons with leprosy.

Belgian missionary priests from the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary were among those who cared for persons with leprosy on Molokai. The most well-known was Belgian-born Father Damien, who served there from 1873 to his death in 1889. For his charity he was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church as a saint in 2009, the 10th person recognized in what is now the United States. Among other missionaries and caregivers, was Mother Marianne Cope, a nun and administrator of St. Joseph's Hospital in Syracuse, New York. As the General Minister of the Sisters of St. Francis of Syracuse, she brought six sisters with her to the islands to aid in the care of persons with leprosy and develop the medical facilities. Mother Marianne and sisters of her community developed hospitals, homes and schools on the islands of Oʻahu and Maui from 1883 to 1888, at which time they traveled to Kalaupapa where she lived and worked there until her death in 1918. In 2012 she was canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church. Also serving in the colony was Brother Joseph Dutton, who went to Molokaʻi in 1886 to aid the dying Father Damien.

The Congregation of the Sacred Hearts continued to have brothers who devoted their lives to work on Molokaʻi and assist the residents. From the late 20th century, recent figures included Henri Systermans and Fr. Joseph Hendricks, whose death in November 2008 marked the end of this 140-year-old tradition.  Since St. Marianne arrived in 1888, sixty-five Sisters of St. Francis have maintained a continuous presence in the settlement. There are two Sisters currently residing at the Bishop Home, established by Mother Marianne in 1888 as the Charles R. Bishop Home for Unprotected Leper Girls and Women to care for those she deemed the most vulnerable of the population.

Hansen's disease, found in 1873 to be caused by a bacterium, has been curable since the 1940s with the use of modern antibiotics. There are no active cases of Hansen's disease among residents of the Kalaupapa settlement or on the island of Molokai. After the management of the settlement was turned over to the National Park Service, residents of the former colony were allowed to stay if they chose to do so. They and their descendant families who wish to continue to live in the neighborhood of housing maintained on the peninsula.

Representation in popular culture
 After being given a high award by the Kingdom of Hawaii, Belgian missionary-priest Father Damien attracted considerable publicity to the leper colony in the late 19th century; his story was recounted in popular culture and literature.
 Robert Louis Stevenson, who suffered from tuberculosis, then also incurable, visited the Molokai leper colony after Father Damien's death in 1889. He was moved by Damien's care for patients and described the settlement as a "prison fortified by nature." 2000-foot-high mountains cut off the settlement from the rest of the island. He published a 6,000-word open letter praising Father Damien's work. Robert Louis Stevenson was inspired by Mother Marianne and the girls of the Bishop Home. He taught the girls croquet, sent a piano as a gift and wrote a poem to Mother Marianne and sisters. Both a letter about the girls and the poem are published in "The Life of Robert Louis Stevenson" by Graham Balfour.
 Jack London visited in 1908 and wrote the short stories, "Lepers of Molokai" and "Koolau the Leper" in response.
 James Michener's 1959 novel Hawaii describes life in the colony in the difficult early times.
 The 1999 movie Molokai, featuring Peter O'Toole and Kris Kristofferson, features the life of Father Damien and his work among persons with leprosy.
 Alan Brennert's 2003 novel Molokaʻi recounts some of the history of the Kalaupapa leprosy settlement through the eyes of fictional character, Rachel Kalama, exiled there at age 8
 Location for a Hawaii Five-0 investigation into a murder in the episode Kai Paʻani Nui (Season 7, Episode 15).

Park description
Kalaupapa National Historical Park, established in 1980, preserves the physical settings of the historic Hansen's disease settlements of Kalawao and Kalaupapa. The community of Kalaupapa, on the leeward side of Kalaupapa Peninsula, is still home for a few elderly surviving former Hansen's disease patients. Some were disfigured by the disease before being cured and wanted to continue refuge here. They have shared their memories and experiences of their ordeals and of life on the island.

Surviving structures at Kalawao, on the windward side of the peninsula, are the Protestant church of Siloama, established in 1866, and Saint Philomena Catholic Church, which is associated with the work of St. Father Damien.

References

External links

 Kalaupapa National Historical Park, National Park Service
 "Hawaii leprosy settlement faces sainthood dilemma"
 Access to the park by mule
 Photos, history and visitor details

National Historical Parks of the United States
Parks in Hawaii
Geography of Kalawao County, Hawaii
Leper colonies
Leprosy in Hawaii
National Historic Landmarks in Hawaii
Protected areas of Molokai
Populated places established in 1866
1866 establishments in Hawaii
Protected areas established in 1980
1980 establishments in Hawaii
National Park Service areas in Hawaii
Historic American Engineering Record in Hawaii
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Hawaii
Medical and health organizations based in Hawaii
National Register of Historic Places in Kalawao County, Hawaii
Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in Hawaii
Hawaii Register of Historic Places

Kalaupapa National Historical Park