Survey could mean:

Geography
Surveying, the technique and science of measuring positions and distances on Earth
Aerial survey, a method of collecting information using aerial photography
Cadastral survey, used to document land ownership, by the production of documents, diagrams, plats, and maps
Dominion Land Survey, the method used to divide most of Western Canada into one-square-mile sections for agricultural and other purposes
Public Land Survey System, a method used in the United States to survey and identify land parcels
Survey township, a square unit of land, six miles (~9.7 km) on a side, used by the U.S. Public Land Survey System

Statistics
Statistical survey, a collection of quantitative information about members of a population
Census, a collection of information about every member of a population
Sampling (statistics), collecting information on only a sample of a population
Opinion poll, an informal collection of opinions using sampling
Quantitative marketing research, the use of surveys to collect data for marketing purposes
Paid survey, statistical survey which rewards the participant, often used to collect information for marketing purposes
Questionnaire, a series of questions used to gather information
  Information Technology , a collection of surveys on IT

Earth Sciences
Geological survey, an investigation of the subsurface of the ground to create a geological map or model
Geophysical survey, the systematic collection of geophysical data for spatial studies
Soil survey, the mapping of the properties and varieties of soil in a given area
Archaeological field survey, the collection of information by archaeologists prior to excavation
Hydrographic survey, the gathering of information about navigable waters for the purposes of safe navigation of vessels
Cave survey, the three-dimensional mapping of underground caverns; the resulting map is also referred to as a survey

Astronomy
Astronomical survey, imaging or mapping regions of the sky
Durchmusterung, a German word for a systematic survey of objects or data, generally used in astronomy
Redshift survey, an astronomical survey of a section of the sky to calculate the distance of objects from Earth

Academia
Survey article, a scholarly publication to summarize an area of research

Organizations
The Institut Géographique National, a French state establishment which produces and maintains geographical information for France and its territories
The Survey of India, India's central agency in charge of mapping and surveying
The Zoological Survey of India studies the fauna of India
The British Geological Survey, a body which carries out geological survey and monitoring of the UK landmass
The Ordnance Survey, national mapping agency for Great Britain
The British Antarctic Survey, conducts scientific research in and around Antarctica for the United Kingdom
The United States Geological Survey, government scientific research agency which studies the landscape of the United States
The U.S. National Geodetic Survey, performs geographic surveys as part of the U.S. Department of Commerce

Survey


YLE Capital FM was a Finnish radio station owned by Yle. It broadcast foreign language programming 24 hours a day, in cooperation with major international broadcasters. Capital FM also aired Yle broadcasts about Finland in English and Russian, French and German. Capital FM could be listened to in Greater Helsinki (97.5 MHz), Tampere (88.3 MHz), Turku (96.7 MHz), Lahti (90.3 MHz) and Kuopio (88.1 MHz). In August 2005, the name of the station was changed into Yle Mondo. The FM frequencies outside Helsinki were unavailable for use by the Yle Mondo, but services continue in Helsinki. The channel is also available throughout Finland as one of the audio channels of the Yle Digital Television.

Capital FM had started in 1978 as a relay of Yle External Service (Yle Radio Finland) programming for the capital metroplex area. With the gradual expansion of foreign language output on YLE Radio Finland, the station was on the air almost 12 hours per day, but there were blank hours between segments. For some special occasions, a full-service schedule was produced, such as the tenth anniversary of the CSCE 1975 Summit arranged in 1985 and Summit between George Bush and Michail Gorbachov in September 1990.

During an international broadcasting meeting (hosted by the CBC) in Hamilton, Ontario, in the spring of 1990, the head of external broadcasting at Yle, Juhani Niinisto, had talked with various international broadcasters about the possibility of a launching a relay-based service. The response had been positive, but final corporate go ahead was not given in Finland until the summer of 1991.

The first programme lineup included the Voice of America in its light VOA Europe version, BBC World Service and Deutsche Welle in German. Radio France Internationale in French joined shortly. By the mid-1990s, the station had  added  ABC Radio Australia (via WRN, London), National Public Radio (US)  and the Spanish domestic news network RNE Todo Noticias in Spanish. For some two years, the station also carried the C-SPAN Weekly Radio Journal from the US.

Spanish was important as tens of thousands of Finnish nationals spent part of winters in Spain. It was also better to relay a domestic channel than the external broadcaster from that country. In the early 2000s, China Radio International in English, domestic services from Norway and Denmark, in Norwegian and Danish, South African Broadcasting Corporation SABC in English (via WRN) and the Vatican Radio in Italian  had been added. The Vatican Radio was taken  as efforts to get RAI in Italian had failed.

In 1998, the Yle international foreign language production was changed to be produced primarily for the Capital FM, with secondary use as an international service. That meant early morning production for the domestic prime time. With the closing of the Yle external service foreign language production in English, German and French in October 2002, the Yle News unit established within Yle News kept producing morning newscasts on the previous schedule.

In the mid-1990s, the service was expanded, part-time, to five other Finnish cities where additional Yle frequencies were available.

For several years, the Capital FM offered separate DAB versions on two DAB channels in Southern Finland, one of them was in English only, the other in non-English foreign languages. The service was closed with the end of DAB services in the mid-2000s.

External links
Helsinki Capital FM Official site
 www.ulkomaanmedia.net (A private history site of Finnish international radio, mainly in Finnish)

Yle radio stations
Radio stations established in 1978
Radio stations disestablished in 2006
Defunct radio stations
Defunct mass media in Finland

YLE Capital FM


A solar cooker is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook or pasteurize drink and other food materials. Many solar cookers currently in use are relatively inexpensive, low-tech devices, although some are as powerful or as expensive as traditional stoves, and advanced, large scale solar cookers can cook for hundreds of people. Because they use no fuel and cost nothing to operate, many nonprofit organizations are promoting their use worldwide in order to help reduce fuel costs and air pollution, and to help slow down deforestation and desertification.

History

In ancient times, the use of solar energy was believed to have existed in civilizations amidst the Greeks, Romans and the Chinese, though not for cooking.

The first academic description of the principles of a solar cooker is by the Swiss geologist, meteorologist, physicist, and Alpine explorer Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, in 1767. The principle of cooking meals by sunlight was largely developed in the French Foreign Legion, in the 1870s.

Working principles
 Concentrating sunlight: A mirrored surface with high specular reflection is used to concentrate light from the Sun into a small cooking area. Depending on the geometry of the surface, sunlight could be concentrated by several orders of magnitude producing temperatures high enough to melt salt and metal. Such high temperatures are not really required for most household solar cooking applications. Solar cooking products are typically designed to achieve temperatures of  (baking temperatures) to  (grilling/searing temperatures) on a sunny day.
 Converting light energy to heat energy: Solar cookers concentrate sunlight onto a receiver such as a cooking pan. The interaction between the light energy and the receiver material converts light to heat and this is called absorption. The conversion is maximized by using materials that absorb, conduct, and retain heat. Pots and pans used on solar cookers should be matte black in color to maximize absorption.
 Trapping heat energy: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air inside the cooker from the air outside the cooker. Simply using a glass lid on your pot enhances light absorption from the top of the pan and provides a greenhouse effect that improves heat retention and minimizes convection loss. This "glazing" transmits incoming visible sunlight but is opaque to escaping infrared thermal radiation. In resource constrained settings, a high-temperature plastic bag can serve a similar function, trapping air inside and making it possible to reach temperatures on cold and windy days similar to those possible on hot days.
Below is the basic science for solar panel cookers and solar box cookers. Another style of solar cooker is a parabolic solar cooker. They typically require more frequent reorientation to the Sun, but will cook more quickly at higher temperatures, and can fry foods. Evacuated tube solar cookers use a highly insulated double-wall glass tube for the cooking chamber, and do not require large reflectors

Operation

Different kinds of solar cookers use somewhat different methods of cooking, but most follow the same basic principles.

Food is prepared as if for an oven or stove top. However, because food cooks faster when it is in smaller pieces, food placed inside a solar cooker is usually cut into smaller pieces than it might otherwise be. For example, potatoes are usually cut into bite-sized pieces rather than roasted whole. For very simple cooking, such as melting butter or cheese, a lid may not be needed and the food may be placed on an uncovered tray or in a bowl. If several foods are to be cooked separately, then they are placed in different containers.

The container of food is placed inside the solar cooker, which may be elevated on a brick, rock, metal trivet, or other heat sink, and the solar cooker is placed in direct sunlight. Foods that cook quickly may be added to the solar cooker later. Rice for a mid-day meal might be started early in the morning, with vegetables, cheese, or soup added to the solar cooker in the middle of the morning. Depending on the size of the solar cooker and the number and quantity of cooked foods, a family may use one or more solar cookers.

A solar oven is turned towards the Sun and left until the food is cooked. Unlike cooking on a stove or over a fire, which may require more than an hour of constant supervision, food in a solar oven is generally not stirred or turned over, both because it is unnecessary and because opening the solar oven allows the trapped heat to escape and thereby slows the cooking process. If wanted, the solar oven may be checked every one to two hours, to turn the oven to face the Sun more precisely and to ensure that shadows from nearby buildings or plants have not blocked the sunlight. If the food is to be left unattended for many hours during the day, then the solar oven is often turned to face the point where the Sun will be when it appears highest in the sky, instead of towards its current position.

The cooking time depends primarily on the equipment being used, the amount of sunlight at the time, and the quantity of food that needs to be cooked. Air temperature, wind, and latitude also affect performance. Food cooks faster in the two hours before and after the local solar noon than it does in either the early morning or the late afternoon. Large quantities of food, and food in large pieces, take longer to cook. As a result, only general figures can be given for cooking time. With a small solar panel cooker, it might be possible to melt butter in 15 minutes, to bake cookies in 2 hours, and to cook rice for four people in 4 hours. With a high performing parabolic solar cooker, you may be able to grill a steak in minutes. However, depending on local conditions and the solar cooker type, these projects could take half as long, or twice as long.

It is difficult to burn food in a solar cooker. Food that has been cooked even an hour longer than necessary is usually indistinguishable from minimally cooked food. The exception to this rule is some green vegetables, which quickly change from a perfectly cooked bright green to olive drab, while still retaining the desirable texture.

For most foods, such as rice, the typical person would be unable to tell how it was cooked from looking at the final product. There are some differences, however: Bread and cakes brown on their tops instead of on the bottom. Compared to cooking over a fire, the food does not have a smoky flavor.

Box and panel designs

A box cooker has a transparent glass or plastic top, and it may have additional reflectors to concentrate sunlight into the box. The top can usually be removed to allow dark pots containing food to be placed inside. One or more reflectors of shiny metal or foil-lined material may be positioned to bounce extra light into the interior of the oven chamber. Cooking containers and the inside bottom of the cooker should be dark-colored or black. Inside walls should be reflective to reduce radiative heat loss and bounce the light towards the pots and the dark bottom, which is in contact with the pots. The box should have insulated sides. Thermal insulation for the solar box cooker must be able to withstand temperatures up to 150 °C (300 °F) without melting or out-gassing. Crumpled newspaper, wool, rags, dry grass, sheets of cardboard, etc. can be used to insulate the walls of the cooker. Metal pots and/or bottom trays can be darkened either with flat-black spray paint (one that is non-toxic when warmed), black tempera paint, or soot from a fire. The solar box cooker typically reaches a temperature of 150 °C (300 °F). This is not as hot as a standard oven, but still hot enough to cook food over a somewhat longer period of time.

Panel solar cookers are inexpensive solar cookers that use reflective panels to direct sunlight to a cooking pot enclosed in a clear plastic bag.

Solar Oven science experiments are regularly done as projects in high schools and colleges, such as the "Solar Oven Throwdown" at the University of Arizona. These projects prove that it is possible to both achieve high temperatures, as well as predict the high temperatures using mathematical models.

Parabolic reflector

Parabolic solar cookers concentrate sunlight to a single point. When this point is focused on the bottom of a pot, it can heat the pot quickly to very high temperatures which can often be comparable with the temperatures achieved in gas and charcoal grills. These types of solar cookers are widely used in several regions of the world, most notably in China and India where hundreds of thousands of families currently use parabolic solar cookers for preparing food and heating water. Some parabolic solar cooker projects in China abate between 1–4 tons of carbon dioxide per year and receive carbon credits through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Gold Standard.

Some parabolic solar cookers incorporate cutting-edge materials and designs which lead to solar energy efficiencies >90%. Others are large enough to feed thousands of people each day, such as the solar bowl at Auroville in India, which makes 2 meals per day for 1,000 people.

If a reflector is axially symmetrical and shaped so its cross-section is a parabola, it has the property of bringing parallel rays of light (such as sunlight) to a point focus. If the axis of symmetry is aimed at the Sun, any object that is located at the focus receives highly concentrated sunlight, and therefore becomes very hot. This is the basis for the use of this kind of reflector for solar cooking.

Paraboloidal reflectors

Paraboloids are compound curves, which are more difficult to make with simple equipment than single curves. Although paraboloidal solar cookers can cook as well as or better than a conventional stove, they are difficult to construct by hand. Frequently, these reflectors are made using many small segments that are all single curves which together approximate compound curves.

Although paraboloids are difficult to make from flat sheets of solid material, they can be made quite simply by rotating open-topped containers which hold liquids. The top surface of a liquid which is being rotated at constant speed around a vertical axis naturally takes the form of a paraboloid. Centrifugal force causes material to move outward from the axis of rotation until a deep enough depression is formed in the surface for the force to be balanced by the levelling effect of gravity. It turns out that the depression is an exact paraboloid. (See Liquid-mirror telescope.) If the material solidifies while it is rotating, the paraboloidal shape is maintained after the rotation stops, and can be used to make a reflector. This rotation technique is sometimes used to make paraboloidal mirrors for astronomical telescopes, and has also been used for solar cookers. Devices for constructing such paraboloids are known as rotating furnaces.

Paraboloidal reflectors generate high temperatures and cook quickly, but require frequent adjustment and supervision for safe operation. Several hundred thousand exist, mainly in China. They are especially useful for individual household and large-scale institutional cooking.

A Scheffler cooker (named after its inventor, Wolfgang Scheffler) uses a large ideally paraboloidal reflector which is rotated around an axis that is parallel with the Earth's using a mechanical mechanism, turning at 15 degrees per hour to compensate for the Earth's rotation. The axis passes through the reflector's centre of mass, allowing the reflector to be turned easily. The cooking vessel is located at the focus which is on the axis of rotation, so the mirror concentrates sunlight onto it all day. The mirror has to be occasionally tilted about a perpendicular axis to compensate for the seasonal variation in the Sun's declination. This perpendicular axis does not pass through the cooking vessel. Therefore, if the reflector were a rigid paraboloid, its focus would not remain stationary at the cooking vessel as the reflector tilts. To keep the focus stationary, the reflector's shape has to vary. It remains paraboloidal, but its focal length and other parameters change as it tilts. The Scheffler reflector is therefore flexible, and can be bent to adjust its shape. It is often made up of a large number of small plane sections, such as glass mirrors, joined by flexible plastic. A framework that supports the reflector includes a mechanism that can be used to tilt it and also bend it appropriately. The mirror is never exactly paraboloidal, but it is always close enough for cooking purposes.

Sometimes the rotating reflector is located outdoors and the reflected sunlight passes through an opening in a wall into an indoor kitchen, often a large communal one, where the cooking is done.

Paraboloidal reflectors with their centers of mass coincident with their focal points are useful. They can be easily turned to follow the Sun's motions in the sky, rotating about any axis that passes through the focus. Two perpendicular axes can be used, intersecting at the focus, to allow the paraboloid to follow both the Sun's daily motion and its seasonal one. The cooking pot stays stationary at the focus. If the paraboloidal reflector is axially symmetrical and is made of material of uniform thickness, its centre of mass coincides with its focus if the depth of the reflector, measured along its axis of symmetry from the vertex to the plane of the rim, is 1.8478 times its focal length. The radius of the rim of the reflector is 2.7187 times the focal length. The angular radius of the rim, as seen from the focal point, is 72.68 degrees.

Parabolic troughs
Parabolic troughs are used to concentrate sunlight for solar-energy purposes. Some solar cookers have been built that use them in the same way. Generally, the trough is aligned with its focal line horizontal and east–west. The food to be cooked is arranged along this line. The trough is pointed so its axis of symmetry aims at the Sun at noon. This requires the trough to be tilted up and down as the seasons progress. At the equinoxes, no movement of the trough is needed during the day to track the Sun. At other times of year, there is a period of several hours around noon each day when no tracking is needed. Usually, the cooker is used only during this period, so no automatic Sun tracking is incorporated into it. This simplicity makes the design attractive, compared with using a paraboloid. Also, being a single curve, the trough reflector is simpler to construct. However, it suffers from lower efficiency.

It is possible to use two parabolic troughs, curved in perpendicular directions, to bring sunlight to a point focus as does a paraboloidal reflector.The incoming light strikes one of the troughs, which sends it toward a line focus. The second trough intercepts the converging light and focuses it to a point.

Compared with a single paraboloid, using two partial troughs has important advantages. Each trough is a single curve, which can be made simply by bending a flat sheet of metal. Also, the light that reaches the targeted cooking pot is directed approximately downward, which reduces the danger of damage to the eyes of anyone nearby. On the other hand, there are disadvantages. More mirror material is needed, increasing the cost, and the light is reflected by two surfaces instead of one, which inevitably increases the amount that is lost.

The two troughs are held in a fixed orientation relative to each other by being both fixed to a frame. The whole assembly of frame and troughs has to be moved to track the sun as it moves in the sky. Commercially made cookers that use this method are available. In practical applications (like in car-headlights), concave mirrors are of parabolic shape.

Spherical reflectors

Spherical reflectors operate much like paraboloidal reflectors, such that the axis of symmetry is pointed towards the Sun so that sunlight is concentrated to a focus.  However, the focus of a spherical reflector will not be a point focus because it suffers from a phenomenon known as spherical aberration.  Some concentrating dishes (such as satellite dishes) that do not require a precise focus opt for a spherical curvature over a paraboloid. If the radius of the rim of spherical reflector is small compared with the radius of curvature of its surface (the radius of the sphere of which the reflector is a part), the reflector approximates a paraboloidal one with focal length equal to half of the radius of curvature.

Vacuum tube technology

Evacuated tube solar cookers are essentially vacuum sealed between two layers of glass. The vacuum allows the tube to act both as a "super" greenhouse and an insulator. The central cooking tube is made from borosilicate glass, which is resistant to thermal shock, and has a vacuum beneath the surface to insulate the interior. The inside of the tube is lined with copper, stainless steel, and aluminum nitrile to better absorb and conduct heat from the Sun's rays. Solar cooking tube systems use a reflector to enhance the thermal energy capturing. There are models of tube cooking system in India which has energy storage devices installed at the bottom of the tube to store heat for cooking or heating food during night.

These vacuum tube solar cookers can cook a meal in as little as 20 minutes.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
 High-performance parabolic solar cookers and vacuum tube cookers can attain temperatures above 290 °C (550 °F). They can be used to grill meats, stir-fry vegetables, make soup, bake bread, and boil water in minutes. Vacuum tube type cookers can heat up even in the clouds and freezing cold.
 Conventional solar box cookers attain temperatures up to 165 °C (325 °F). They can sterilize water or prepare most foods that can be made in a conventional oven or stove, including bread, vegetables and meat over a period of hours.
 Solar cookers use no fuel. This saves cost as well as reducing environmental damage caused by fuel use. Since 2.5 billion people cook on open fires using biomass fuels, solar cookers could have large economic and environmental benefits by reducing deforestation.
 When solar cookers are used outside, they do not contribute inside heat, potentially saving fuel costs for cooling as well. Any type of cooking may evaporate grease, oil and other material into the air, hence there may be less cleanup.
 The thermal efficiency of a typical coal furnace is 15%, where solar cookers boast a thermal efficiency of 65%.
Reduces your carbon footprint by cooking without the use of carbon based fuels or grid electricity from traditional sources.

Disadvantages
 Solar cookers are less useful in cloudy weather and near the poles, where the Sun appears low in the sky, so an alternative cooking source is still required in these conditions. Solar cooking advocates suggest three devices for an integrated cooking solution: a) a solar cooker; b) a fuel-efficient cookstove; c) an insulated storage container such as a basket filled with straw to store heated food. Very hot food may continue to cook for hours in a well-insulated container. With this three-part solution, fuel use is minimized while still providing hot meals at any hour, reliably.
 Some solar cookers, especially solar ovens, take longer to cook food than a conventional stove or oven. Using solar cookers may require food preparation to start hours before the meal. However, it requires less hands-on time during the cooking, so this is often considered a reasonable trade-off.
 Cooks may need to learn special cooking techniques to fry common foods, such as fried eggs or flatbreads like chapatis and tortillas. It may not be possible to safely or completely cook some thick foods, such as large roasts, loaves of bread, or pots of soup, particularly in small panel cookers; the cook may need to divide these into smaller portions before cooking.
 Some solar cooker designs are affected by strong winds, which can slow the cooking process, cool the food due to convective losses, and disturb the reflector. It may be necessary to anchor the reflector, such as with ring and weighted objects like bricks.

Projects

Cardboard, aluminium foil, and plastic bags for well over 10,000 solar cookers have been donated to the Iridimi refugee camp and Touloum refugee camps in Chad by the combined efforts of the Jewish World Watch, the Dutch foundation KoZon, and Solar Cookers International. The refugees construct the cookers themselves, using the donated supplies and locally purchased Arabic gum.  It has also significantly reduced the amount of time women spend tending open fires each day, with the results that they are healthier and they have more time to grow vegetables for their families and make handicrafts for export. By 2007, the Jewish World Watch had trained 4,500 women and had provided 10,000 solar cookers to refugees. The project has also reduced the number of foraging trips by as much as 70 percent, thus reducing the number of attacks.

See also

 Heliostat
 Kyoto box
 Liquid-mirror telescope
 List of stoves

 Solar Cookers International
 Solar still
 Solar updraft tower
 Solar water disinfection
 Solar water heating
 Concentrated solar power

References

External links

 The Solar Cooking Wiki

Cooking appliances
Solar thermal energy
Solar-powered devices
Renewable energy
Stoves
Ovens
Swiss inventions

ja:太陽炉

Solar cooker


Wotou or wowotou, also called Chinese cornbread, is a type of steamed bread made from cornmeal in Northern China.

Etymology
"Wotou" literally translates to "nest thing", since the wotou resembles a bird's nest with its hollow cone shape.

History
Wōtóu is in the shape of a hollow cone. It was a cheap food for poor people, but a legend grew on how it became a dish served in the Imperial Kitchens. The legend says that during Empress Dowager Cixi's flight to Xi'an from the Battle of Peking (1900) when the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China in the Boxer Rebellion, Cixi received a bunch of corn buns to satiate her hunger. After her return to Beijing, she ordered the Imperial cooks to make it again for her, and the chef used more refined ingredients to create the golden colored wotou bun, which became one of the Imperial dishes. The full name of the bun was the "Royal Wotou" 宮廷小窩頭 gōngtíng xiǎo wōtóu. It has been transformed into a popular food from its previous poor status.

A cake called wowotou was cooked in the same pot as a cabbage after being "slapped on the side", and it was made out of corn-meal and served during the late Qing at Peking University.

According to G. C. L. Howell in his article published in the China Journal of March 1934, The soy bean: A dietary revolution in China  March 1934, wotou was made out of millet flour at a ratio of 8 to soy flour at 3 or 2 in north China.

Wotou steamed bread would be heavy without soda, so it was lightened by adding some sodium bicarbonate according to the Chinese Economic Journal and Bulletin.

A "conical temple roof" is similar in appearance to the shape of the wotou.

The Chinese Journal of Physiology described an experiment using mixed flour to make the hollow cone shaped wotou steamed bread, with it consisting of 2 parts millet, 2 parts red kaoliang, and 1 part soybean.

It was known as wotou 窩頭, "maize-soybean flour bread." It was also known as wowotou 窩窩頭, "bean-millet bread".

See also

 Baozi
 Dampfnudel
 List of breads
 List of buns
 List of steamed foods
 Mandarin roll
 Mantı
 Mantou

References

External links

Chinese breads
Breads
Chinese cuisine
Buns
Beijing cuisine
Maize dishes
Steamed foods

Wotou


30 Battery (Rogers's Company) Royal Artillery is a unit of the British Army founded in 1759, and currently part of 16 Regiment Royal Artillery

Origins and early years
The company was raised on 1 January 1759 as Captain F.J. Buchanan's company, 2nd Battalion (there were only three at that time), Royal Artillery. The Battery was used to provide numerous attached personnel to other units, much as it does today, and, as such the Battery's history can be traced from many far-flung destinations across the globe. At its time of inception the country was embroiled in the Seven Years' War, which ran from 1756 to 1763. Wrangling with the French was by no means a new thing, but it was during this seven-year period that the Battery or elements of it saw action in two arenas, namely Menorca and then Gibraltar.

In 1756 both the military and the Government were deceived by the French into believing that an attack on England was imminent. The French amassed some 50,000 troops near the Channel ports and this was enough to force the English into deploying artillery in a coastal defence role. As it transpired this amassing of troops was more than likely a decoy for the force that was subsequently sent to the Mediterranean, which by comparison was virtually unguarded. The French objective was the smaller of the two significant Balearic Islands, Menorca. The in site garrison force at Fort St Phillip comprised 24 × 32-pounders, 50 × 18-pounders, 40 × 12-pounders, 36 × 8-pounders, and 10 × 6-pounders.

This was not an inconsiderable force to defend an island, but was overpowered in a matter of months and eventually surrendered. By the terms of the capitulation, the British Garrison was repatriated to Britain by way of Gibraltar, an indulgence granted by the French as a token of their respect for the brave defence. It also interesting to note that the soldiers were also rewarded by the Board of Ordnance, who granted them an extra half a days wage per day of the siege.

The company subsequently became involved with an attempt to regain control of Menorca over the following two years.

Between 1785 and 1791 the Battery was stationed at Gibraltar. Elements of the Battery are believed to have been stationed at Gibraltar before then and were therefore involved in the Great Siege by the Spanish and the French, which lasted nearly four years from 1779 to 1783. At this time there were only 25 officers and 460 NCOs and men to man 452 guns and mortars. In addition they were only getting limited supplies of food smuggled in from North Africa.

The Battery was rarely recorded in action as one cohesive unit, but with sections being seconded as operational commitments dictated and this trend was to continue. For example, in 1778, records show that five soldiers from 30 Battery served for the first seven months of the year aboard the bomb vessel  based in New York.

The Napoleonic Wars

In 1794, under General Sir Charles Grey, the Battery helped to capture Martinique and Guadeloupe, and detachments were also engaged in suppressing French inspired Negro riots in St Lucia, Grenada and St Vincent. By now the Battery had been engaged in almost back-to-back campaigns far removed from home and this had taken its toll. At the turn of the century the disease-decimated Battery returned home to the Royal Artillery Barracks at Woolwich to recuperate.

The next significant point in the history of the Battery is in 1806 when Captain Thomas Rogers took command. He led the Battery for an uninterrupted 19 years and it is in honour of his command at Waterloo that the Battery still carries his name. At the outset his powers of leadership were tested as the Battery sailed on 28 July 1809 for what was to be an ill-fated expedition to Walcheren. The force comprising 144 guns and mortars and 35 ships of the line was intended to relieve French pressure on the Austrian Alliance. Unfortunately, the expedition was struck by widespread sickness and was forced to turn sail for England.

Waterloo

The Battle of Waterloo is an important turning point in history as it marks the end of an era, the end of 23 years of long and hard fighting with the French, first in the Revolutionary Wars and then in the wars against Napoleon. But it is of great significance to the Battery because it is here that their prestigious honour title was won.

In 1815 the Battery mustered at Colchester and departed from Harwich aboard HMS Sargossa for the Low Countries and yet more clashes with the now familiar enemy, the French. Rogers's Company was equipped with six 9-pounder guns, then deployed to Belgium as part of 5th Division under the command of Sir Thomas Picton. On 16 June 1815 Rogers's Company was one of the two British artillery units engaged in the Battle of Quatre Bras. As soon as the British arrived on the field to support the Dutch-Belgian troops, Rogers's Company came into position on the left of Kempt's infantry brigade and was engaged in a furious artillery duel with numerous French guns well hidden in a wood some six hundred yards in front of their position.

Though suffering heavy losses in men and horses and threatened by a large body of cuirassiers, the Battery maintained its steady fire and later, by opportune salvos of case-shot, or grape, completely repulsed a column of enemy infantry that was attempting to attack the British left flank. The arrival of British reinforcements decided the battle and next day Rogers's Company withdrew to Waterloo.

At the opening of the battle on 18 June 1815, the Battery was in a position in front of the infantry of the 5th Division on the left of the Brussels Road and under direct orders from Wellington, were only to open fire on an enemy advance.

Napoleon ordered the advance and the Battery directed its fire onto the advancing mass of French infantry. In spite of the tremendous losses, the enemy came on with great determination and Sir Thomas Picton stationed himself at the front next to the Battery to direct fire. Calmly the gunners waited with lighted portfires until the head of the French column appeared over the crest in front of the guns. At the word "fire" a tremendous salvo of grape shattered the enemy and before they could recover the British infantry charged them. A melee ensued which the gunners joined in, armed only with rammers, until the French resolve weakened and they gave way in confusion. So critical was the situation at this time that one of Rogers's guns was spiked by its Number 1 to prevent it being used by the enemy who seemed bound to capture it.

During the battle Sir Thomas Picton was killed close by the Battery. As soon as the French had been repulsed Rogers's Company moved to the right of the Brussels road to assist that portion of the hard pressed line and later changed position again farther to the right to assist Bolton's guns. Here the three remaining pieces – two being out of action through losses among the teams, assisted in the decisive stroke of the battle, the repulse of the Imperial Guard. As those veterans advanced steadily in a column over the crest of the hill they were met by a tempest of fire from Bolton's guns on the left and Rogers's guns on the right. Whole ranks were blown away by his murderous discharge and before they could deploy, the British infantry completed the rout by a charge, which drove them back in utter confusion. Immediately the British line advanced and the Battery struggled forward to support the movement across the sodden fields to La Belle Alliance where the pursuit was taken over by the Prussians under Generalfeldmarschall Blücher.

Following their efforts at the Battle of Waterloo the Battery returned home for a six-year tour on British soil, followed by garrison duty in the West Indies and Gibraltar.

The Crimea

When the company returned from abroad they were based in Ireland to help quell the Irish riots of 1849–53, in a dismounted infantry role. The following year saw the start of the Crimean War when an expedition of 24,000 English, 22,000 French and 8,000 Turkish troops landed north of Sevastopol in September 1854. The Battery, then 2nd Company of the 3rd Battalion RA and commanded by Captain A.C. Gleig left several months later once the siege of Sevastopol was underway.

The Battery left Woolwich and set sail from Greenhithe for Balaclava in May 1855. It was 203 officers and soldiers strong and there was nearly a horse per man – well this was true at the time of sailing but unfortunately five died en route. In fact the records from this period of the Battery's history holds more information about the welfare of the horses than of the fighting soldiers. Indeed, it is fair to say of the siege that the Battery lost more men to the ravages off cholera and other diseases than in action; there is no record of a soldier being lost in action at Sevastopol, yet there is accurate documentation of the number that were detained in hospital.

At Sevastopol the Battery distinguished itself, but like the rest of the expedition, it suffered gravely from disease and cold. British losses totalled 24,000 by the end of the campaign. The company was one of eight field batteries mobilised for the campaign and along with a siege train and troops from the Royal Horse Artillery, the original artillery contingent was complete under the command of Brigadier General Thomas Fox-Strangways. The Battery consisted of one captain, one second captain, three first lieutenants, one colour sergeant, five sergeants, five corporals, five bombardiers, 174 gunners/drivers (for the first time recorded as drivers) and two trumpeters. The artificers included a farrier, five shoeing-smiths, two collar makers and two wheelers.

The Battery that returned from the hardship of the Crimea in June 1856 was dishevelled and once again was fortunate to get a spell in England to carry out much needed regrouping and recuperation. The Battery was next called overseas in response to the Indian Mutiny where it was felt that the strength of the garrisons there should be bolstered. The rebellion was actually confined to a relatively small part of the sub-continent, namely the area of Delhi and the province of Uttar Pradesh, and part of the more central region of India. The capture of Delhi was the first priority and with great daring the officers in the Punjab rushed what troops they could to the city. Once in the area they seized a ridge of high land commanding the city and kept it under continual attack while reinforcements and a siege train was assembled and sent to join them. After four years of garrison and internal security duty in Bengal the Battery returned to England was again engaged in policing the Irish in the Riots of 1868–69. The Battery returned to India in 1871 where it was successively stationed in Bengal, Darjeeling, Calcutta and Rawalpindi, sailing home via Aden to England in 1884. Before the Battery had had a chance to lament the balmy Indian evenings that the English weather could not match it was again off to India, this time bound for Burma and operations against the Burmese rebels in a jungle warfare role. Once the situation in Burma was resolved the Battery returned once more to garrison duty, in Madras, Karachi and Fort Attock until 1904.

The First World War

The Battery served in Gibraltar from 1905 to 1926 and therefore took part in what many called the Forgotten War, while the world's attention was focused on the Western Front. In 1902 the Battery was known as 54 Company Royal Garrison Artillery, but by 1924 had amalgamated with 55 Company and renamed 8 Heavy Battery Royal Artillery. During the First World War the Battery frequently engaged German submarines and the Governor, Lieutenant General Sir Herbert Miles presented a pair of binoculars to the Rock Fishing Club. On the night of 31 December 1915 enemy submarines attacked the fortress; the South Mole Battery and Elbow Battery, manned by Rogers's Company, opened fire on the enemy and managed to drive them off. The Army Council wrote to congratulate the Battery on its actions:

"Relative to an engagement of hostile submarines on the night of 31 December 1915, I am commanded by the Army Council to say that they concur in the view expressed by you, that this occurrence reflects great credit on the vigilance and training of the Royal Garrison Artillery"

After 21 years based at Gibraltar the Battery returned England. Initially on return to England the Battery was involved in trials and firing at Fort Yaverland. Throughout the inter-war years the Battery fluctuated between coast defence in Ireland and coastal defence on mainland England. In 1938 the evacuation of the Queenstown Harbour defences took place and a ceremonial parade was held to hand over to the Irish Army. Because 19th Heavy Battery was being made up to war strength many NCOs and men were taken from the Battery and 1 and 8 Heavy Batteries were reduced to cadre strength and amalgamated to form 8 Heavy Battery RA.

The Second World War

In September 1939 the Battery became 2nd Coast Defence Training Battery RA as part of 2nd Heavy Regiment in the Royal Citadel, Plymouth. This Regiment was formed on the evacuation of the North and South Irish coast defences in July 1938. 1 and 8 Heavy Batteries were re-formed and became 1st and 2nd Coast Training Batteries. They received recruits from the RA Depot and trained them as Coast Defence gunners.

The Post War years

In August 1946 the battery was stationed at Llandudno under the title 8th (Rogers's Company) Coast Battery RA. They were involved in training on the  dual purpose gun in preparation for the Coast Artillery Gunnery course, firing at both sea and air targets. In 1947 the Battery was renumbered 30 (Rogers's Company) Coast Battery and 2 Coast Training Regiment was renamed 16 Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment RA. The camp was subsequently renamed Waterloo Camp after the Battery's most significant action. The Regiment, and 30 Battery with it, moved to Bulford Camp in 1950, on to Osnabrück in 1952 equipped with 40 mm Bofors guns, then back to Bulford four years later.

Cyprus 1956–57

In 1956 the Battery took part in the Suez operation. After pausing to train in Malta, it deployed to Tymbou Airfield, Cyprus, to provide air defence cover to the airfield from which the French parachute operation against Port Said was mounted. The Battery dug in around the airfield and undertook the energy-sapping task of being continuously at two hours readiness. In December 1956 the battery exchanged its air defence task for an internal security role that saw them move all over the Island including Dhekelia, Larnaka and Episkopi, carrying out vehicle checkpoints, OPs and other garrison duties.

Confrontation with Indonesia, 1962–66

Between Cyprus and the next operational deployment to Malaysia, the Battery bounced between Bulford, Shorncliffe and Krefeld in Germany. After what sounds like a fairly indulgent 10-day Battery skiing trip to Winterberg, they deployed to Malaysia to provide low-level air defence of Kuching Airfield in the confrontation with Indonesia. This was an exciting time for the Battery as they also conducted mobile fighting patrols, all this thousands of miles from home and in a jungle environment. In addition, the Battery provided two FOOs and two mortar detachments in support of the infantry. The Battery was then quartered at Nee Soon in Singapore from where they conducted a firing camp at China Rock, where A Sub gained the nickname, Shiney Alpha after some exceptionally good shooting. R&R was also on the agenda and families were ferried out to a remote island for a big barbecue. The Battery was then posted back to Borneo in its operational role, but this was very short lived as the campaign came to a swift end and it found itself posted once again to the middle of nowhere, this time Barton Stacey in Hampshire.

Northern Ireland

There was nothing glamorous about Rogers's deployment to Hollywood Barracks, Belfast, in 1970 once again on internal security duties, this time in Ireland. Adaptable as ever, the Battery requisitioned a tin hut and a club-house for accommodation. Initially the Battery had deployed to cover the marching season, but this was soon extended to a full four-month tour. The early part of the tour was active for all the Battery in terms of riot control, but the latter half of the tour was more sedate with the soldiers helping families recover from the terrible flooding that hit south Belfast. In September the Battery was redeployed to take responsibility for Andersonstown as part of the Whiterock AOR (area of operational responsibility). Two years later the Battery was posted back to Ireland, again in a dismounted role, but this time to Derry to protect the docks and commercial centre of the city. The first major incident that they had to deal with was a car bomb: the car was parked up at Boating Club Lane but the bombers gave a different location in their warning which the Battery duly cleared. The incident passed fortunately without injury to anybody but it anybody but it set the tone for the disturbances that took place over Christmas that year culminating in the Strand bombing.

The Battery went back to Derry again in 1976, this time to the Bogside AOR. This was to prove to be quite an eventful tour of duty. First blood came on 29 June when  of explosives were found during an afternoon search. An unidentified Republican separatist laid explosives, but was himself killed in an accidental detonation. This was then followed by the Rossville incident on 6 July when a routine patrol made contact. Gunner Ferguson was hit in the thigh and therefore the remainder of the patrol returned fire. The other part of the multiple patrol ran into the block of flats where the shots had come from, where they identified the firing point and found an ArmaLite rifle and full magazine. In the follow-up operation two men were arrested and handed over to the Royal Ulster Constabulary. Sgt. Lovelace was Mentioned in Dispatches for his role in the incident. During the remainder of the tour the Battery uncovered more explosives and weapons.

Between 1977 and 1979 the Battery undertook some other unusual and interesting activities, among them manning the Green Goddess fire engines in Sheffield during the fireman's strike, training in the infantry role in Cyprus and carrying out public duties at the Tower of London including the Ceremony of the Keys. The Battery also said farewell to the L40/70 Bofors at a Farewell to the Bofors Parade and, most significantly, the Battery took over the new Rapier Field Standard A (FSA) air defence missile system and went up to the Hebrides on its first live firing camp. Today this technology seems old hat, with only an optical system and no thermal imaging. The Battery, still with 16 Air Defence Regiment, moved between Rapier Barracks, Kirton in Lindsey, Lincolnshire and Napier Barracks, Dortmund.

Following another tour in Ireland in 1980 which had begun with a find of a weapons cache in the gardens of a convent, the Battery resumed its air defence role in January 1981 and took part in a ground-breaking exercise called "Mallet Blow": the Battery was incorporated into an RAF bombing exercise to improve the realism for the pilots and navigators. This allowed the new Rapier weapon system to be tested in its tracking capability in a realistic environment. Operators and pilots alike duly praised the system. Not long after this, in March 1983, members of the Battery deployed to San Carlos Water in the Falklands. A number of problems with the Rapier system became apparent in the operational environment.

The FSA towed Rapier system was eventually replaced with the tracked Rapier system in 1993 and 30 Battery converted to the new system, the Mark 1B Final, which had optical and thermal imagery capability. In 1995, as part of the redeployment of the Army following the end of the Cold War, the Battery moved to Woolwich, where it received the highly capable Rapier FSC, 30 Battery being the first to convert. The battery travelled up to the Hebrides to fire the equipment live on an annual basis, regularly winning the best recce group and best command post awards. In 2000 the Battery shipped its equipment to Falklands to live fire in a very realistic war environment.

In 2002 the Battery prepared for another trip to Cyprus, as part of the UN Force guarding the Green Line between the hostile Greek and Turkish communities.

See also
List of Royal Artillery batteries

References

Royal Artillery batteries
Military units and formations established in 1759
British military units and formations of the Napoleonic Wars
Military units and formations of the British Army in World War I
Military units and formations of the British Army in World War II


Amirah Kassem (born January 8, 1987) is an American-born baker, author, designer and media personality. She is best known as the owner and founder of FLOUR SHOP and a judge on the Disney+ food-art series Foodtastic. Her kitchen, table, home and clothing products are sold worldwide.

Amirah specializes in sculpting custom cakes without the use of fondant and is also known for her "Explosion Cake."  Her Cara the Unicorn Explosion Cake was featured as Instagram's most memorable trend of 2017. She is also the best-selling author of The Power of Sprinkles: A Cake Book and children's titles The Magical Land of Birthdays series and board-book Bake a Rainbow Cake!

Early life and education

Amirah grew up in Chihuahua, Mexico where she learned to bake from her mother and grandmother. She moved back to her birthplace of El Paso, Texas at the age of 9 with her parents. Later on, she attended the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising in LA.

Career

Flour Shop

In 2012 Amirah Kassem left the fashion industry to set up a high-concept bakery, Flour Shop. This is known for unusually-shaped cakes in the shapes of cheeseburgers, pizzas, buckets of popcorn and the well-known 'Explosion Cake'. The company specializes in creating baked goods without the use of fondant icing.

Flour Shop opened their Flagship Store in SoHo New York in November 2017 and in Beverly Hills, California in August 2020. Her clients have included Kim Kardashian, Katy Perry and Beyonce, as well as brands likes Vans, Louis Vuitton, and Alice + Olivia.

Amirah has headlined food festivals like BottleRock, Food and Wine Festival, New York City Wine and Food Festival and Catskills Festival.

Television
Amirah will be starring as a judge in the upcoming Disney+ food-art series Foodtastic. The show is set to air later in 2021 and is hosted by Keke Palmer. She has also frequently been featured as a guest judge on many food shows including: Sugar Rush, Cupcake Championship, Nailed It! Mexico, Beat Bobby Flay, Cake My Day and Top Elf.

Books
Amirah has released a cookbook, two children's fiction books, a board book and a calendar. Her cake book, The Power of Sprinkles, reached #1 on Amazon in Celebrity & TV Show Cookbooks and Cake Baking Books and peaked at #57 in Books on the Amazon Best Sellers Rank.

Her middle grade series, The Magical Land of Birthdays, follows a ten-year-old Amirah as she receives a magical cookbook. Amirah is transported to the Magical Land of Birthdays, where she meets three of her birthday buddies from different corners of the world—kids who share her exact birthday and are also about to turn 11. Amirah also coined the term "b-buds" (short for birthday buddies) for this series, which refers to anyone that shares the same birthday.

Press
Amirah and her products have been featured on the cover of Bon Appétit, Refinery29, Food & Wine, and other publications.  She has also made many guest appearances on television, including TODAY, The Tonight Show starring Jimmy Fallon, Late Night with Seth Meyers. The Rachael Ray Show, The Drew Barrymore Show and Home & Family.

Art

Amirah Kassem works frequently on collaborations with photographer Henry Hargreaves. Their work includes "Burning Calories" photo series, which is in a gallery in Venice, Italy as of November 2013. Kassem and Hargreaves also collaborated on a photo series in celebration of the Wu Tang Clan's 20th anniversary for the Wu Tang Brand.

Amirah's work has also been featured in the Whitney Museum and Brooklyn Museum. In 2015, When the Brooklyn Museum celebrated Takashi Murakami, Amirah used 10,000 gumballs to create her own art installation, reinterpreting the Murakami flower.

Design

In 2019, Amirah designed and launched a world-wide kitchen, table and food collection with Williams-Sonoma. Her line of FLOUR SHOP kitchen and table wares was called "playful and chic" as well as a "refined rainbow" by Elle Decor.

In late 2019, Amirah also designed and launched a home collection with Pottery Barn brands, mostly focusing on Pottery Barn Kids. The FLOUR SHOP collection was sold world-wide and included decor, bedding and tabletop items.

In 2020, Amirah designed and launched a Vans limited edition fashion line in both footwear and clothing. The FLOUR SHOP collection spans kids, women and men departments in footwear, clothing and accessories.

Fashion

Amirah Kassem began her career in fashion while attending FIDM. She started out working for 7 For All Mankind and Fred Segal. Eventually Kassem moved her way into high fashion through experiences at Interview Magazine and Karl Templer. She then moved to NYC, where she worked alongside Johan Lindeberg in the launch of BLKDNM.

Personal life
Kassem currently resides in Los Angeles with her husband and business partner, Ross "The Boss" Harrow. They have a baby girl named Coco.

External links
 Flour Shop

References

Confectioners
Living people
Businesspeople from New York City
American bakers
1987 births

Amirah Kassem


The PTV-N-2 Gorgon IV was a subsonic ramjet-powered missile developed by the Glenn L. Martin Company for the United States Navy. Originally intended as an air-to-surface weapon, it materialized as a propulsion test vehicle, and between 1947 and 1950 was used for test purposes and, as the KDM Plover, as a target drone.

Design and development
Development of the Gorgon IV began in May 1945, when the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics contracted with the Glenn L. Martin Company, as part of Project Gorgon, to develop an air-to-surface missile, powered by a ramjet engine and using active radar homing for guidance. The end of World War II saw a reduction in need for such a weapon, however the contract was continued in 1946 as a propulsion test vehicle, originally designated KUM-1, then PTV-2 before finally being redesignated PTV-N-2.

The PTV-N-2 was of fairly conventional design, with mildly-swept wings and a conventional empennage; roll control was through spoilerons. The Marquardt XRJ30 ramjet engine was mounted below the aft fuselage, and  the vehicle was fitted with drag brakes to prevent exceeding the engine's design limits.

Flight control was through a combination of a preset course via autopilot and radio command guidance; the vehicle was equipped with radio telemetry to transmit data. Following the end of each test flight, the vehicle would deploy a parachute for recovery in the ocean; the vehicles were said to be in such good condition that it would be possible to re-fly them after cleaning them of salt water residue.

Operational history
Nineteen PTV-N-2s were produced, with flight tests beginning in July 1947; in November, the program having adopted Northrop F2T night-fighters as launch aircraft, the Gorgon IV first achieved high-speed flight, reaching approximately Mach 0.85; it was the first ramjet-powered winged aircraft to successfully fly in the United States, and it was claimed that the missile's speed was deliberately restricted to keep it below the speed of sound. A flight time of 11 minutes 15 seconds, a record at the time for ramjets, was achieved on the second flight test.

The test program continued through December 1949, originally at the Naval Air Missile Test Center test range at Point Mugu, California; testing was later moved to the Naval Aviation Ordnance Test Station in Chincoteague, Virginia in order to be closer to Martin's factory. The Navy began a refit of  to test the feasibility of launching Gorgon IVs from an at-sea platform, however the project was cancelled before completion. Despite this the program was considered to be "very successful" by the Navy. Following the end of the program, the remaining PTV-N-2s were assigned as target drones, given the designation KDM-1 Plover. The Gorgon IV airframe was also used as the basis of the ASM-N-5 Gorgon V chemical weapons dispenser.

Surviving aircraft

A recovered Gorgon IV was donated by the U.S. Navy to the National Air and Space Museum in 1966; it is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links

Air-to-surface missiles of the United States
Target drones of the United States
Ramjet-powered aircraft
Single-engined jet aircraft
High-wing aircraft
1940s United States special-purpose aircraft
Martin aircraft
Military equipment introduced from 1945 to 1949
Aircraft first flown in 1947

PTV-N-2 Gorgon IV


Bachelor of Laws (; LL.B.) is an undergraduate law degree in the United Kingdom, Europe and most common law jurisdictions.  It is awarded by universities in Europe, Australia, the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong S.A.R., Macau S.A.R., Malaysia, Bangladesh, India, Japan, Pakistan, Uganda, Kenya, Ghana, New Zealand, Nigeria, Singapore, South Africa, Botswana, Israel, Brazil, Tanzania, Zambia, and other jurisdictions.

In the United States, the Bachelor of Laws was the primary law degree until the 1960s, when it was phased out in favour of the Juris Doctor. Canada followed suit in the early 21st century.

History
The first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, which were also schools of law. The first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age. While it was common for students of law to visit and study at schools in other countries, such was not the case with England because of the English rejection of Roman law (except for certain jurisdictions such as the Admiralty Court). Although the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge did teach canon law until the English Reformation, its importance was always superior to civil law in those institutions.

"LL.B." stands for  in Latin. The "LL." of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural  ("of laws"). Creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter (e.g., "pp." for "pages").

The bachelor's degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented with the Bachelor of Arts degree at Oxford and Cambridge. The "arts" designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. In continental Europe, the bachelor's degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford and Cambridge.

The teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. Professional training for practising common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation. However, because of the lack of standardisation of study and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently of importance for the education of lawyers in the English speaking world.

In England in 1292, when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialised in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.

Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729. William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the programme for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were philosophical and theoretical in nature. Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.

The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. Therefore, in 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to the legal education provided in the United States. Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, the LL.B. became the uniform degree for lawyers in common law countries.

Structure of LL.B. programmes
Historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is much less common among common law countries, who now study the English-derived common law system. Countries where the legal system is "mixed" (that is, where a mixture of the common law and the civil law form the foundations of the legal system), such as Scotland, Louisiana, South Africa and Quebec, continue the study of civil law. However, a few institutions in common law countries continue to offer alternatives to strictly English common law: for example Cardiff University's Department of Canon (Ecclesiastical) Law, or combined programmes in common and French civil law (pertinent to Canada's pluralist legal system) at McGill University and University of Ottawa.

Upon completion of the LL.B. degree (or its equivalent), graduates are generally qualified to apply for membership of the bar or law society. The membership eligibility bestowed may be subject to completion of professional exams. A student may have to gain a further qualification at postgraduate level, for example a traineeship and the Legal Practice Course or Bar Vocational Course in England and Wales or the Postgraduate Certificate in Laws in Hong Kong.

Common law programs
In most common law countries (with the exceptions of all Canadian provinces except Quebec, and the U.S.), the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school.

England
The LL.B. is an undergraduate course. In England and Wales it is also possible to study a programme for conversion to the legal profession following completion of a previous undergraduate degree unrelated to law, which entitles graduates to take the vocational courses for entry into the legal profession.

Scotland
Although Scotland has a mixed legal system, with both civil and common law influences, the undergraduate LL.B is the primary route into the legal profession. The Scots Law LL.B. is generally taken as a four-year honours course, similar to other university degrees in Scotland. Students wishing to satisfy the Law Society of Scotland requirements to become a solicitor must also complete the postgraduate Diploma in Professional Legal Practice at an approved university.

Australia
A qualifying law degree for the purposes of admission as a lawyer in Australia is either the undergraduate LL.B. program at accredited universities, or the graduate J.D. (Juris Doctor). Every recognised qualification of each state admission board is reciprocally recognised by all other states. However, prior to degrees, there existed an alternative to a degree to become a lawyer in Australia, which was either the Barrister's Admission Board, or the Solicitor's Admission Board, whose examinations rendered one eligible to be admitted respectively. The successor of these boards that still operates the alternative is the Legal Profession Admission Board, which issues the distinct Diploma in Law, equivalent to either an LL.B. or a J.D. Law degrees typically last 4 years for undergraduate admission or 3 years for university graduates.

Of the thirty-eight law schools, thirteen of those universities have also started offering the Juris Doctor as a graduate-entry degree.

Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, obtaining an LL.B. degree is a prerequisite for practising as an advocate in a court of law. Both LL.B. and LL.B. (Hons.) degrees are offered at public and private universities. Only seven public universities offer LL.B. (Hons.) degree. Some private universities also offer four-year LL.B. (Hons.) degrees and one-year LL.M. courses. The National University of Bangladesh also offers a two-year LL.B. degree to graduates of subjects other than law. The University of Rajshahi is the first institute in South Asia to offer a bachelor's degree in law, originally offering the B. Jur. (Bachelor of Jurisprudence) beginning in 1970. Later on, the program was replaced with an LL. B (Hons.) program.

Canada

Canada has two legal systems. The Province of Quebec uses a civil law system. At the federal level, as well as in every province or territory except Quebec, a system of common law is used. Because of this, there are two types of Canadian law degrees generally in use.

Common law
The programme of study for common law has traditionally been an undergraduate LL.B. degree, which has now been re-designated as a J.D. at nearly all Canadian common law schools. Entrants to the J.D. programme generally hold an undergraduate degree before registration in the law programme and a significant number hold a graduate-level degree as well. However, admission may be granted to applicants with two years of undergraduate studies towards a degree. Unlike the United States, the J.D. is considered a bachelor's degree-level qualification, albeit a "second-entry" one. The common law programme is three years in length. Upon graduation, one holds a Bachelor of Laws or Juris Doctor degree. To practise law, the graduate must obtain a licence from the Law Society of the province where they wish to practise law, which requires a year of articling.

Civil law
The civil law programme in Canada is three years in length. The programme of study for the first degree in Quebec civil law (called LL.B., B.C.L. or LL.L.) is a first-entry degree programme. Like other first-entry university programmes in Quebec, it requires a college diploma for entry. Law schools that offer civil law B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L. degrees include McGill University, Université de Montréal, Université du Québec à Montréal, Université de Sherbrooke, Université Laval and the University of Ottawa.

Bijuridical
Because of Canada's dual system of laws, some law schools offer joint or dual degrees in common law and civil law: McGill University, Université de Montréal, Université de Sherbrooke and the University of Ottawa. The law degree offered by McGill University is a mandatory joint common law LL.B. and Quebec civil law B.C.L. degree. The programme is four years in length. Admission to that programme is a first-entry programme in the case of Quebec students while it is a second-entry programme in the case of students from other provinces (since two years of university studies is required). The University of Ottawa offers a civil law degree (LL.L.) on its own.

A number of Canadian law schools allow holders of baccalaureate degrees in Quebec civil law to earn the LL.B. in common law in two or three semesters. Similarly, the University of Ottawa offers, offers a one-year LL.L. programme in Quebec civil law for holders of an LL.B. or J.D. degree in common law from a Canadian law school.

Additionally, some Canadian universities with common law law schools have an arrangement with a Canadian university with a Quebec civil law law school enabling students to obtain the home school's law degree in three years and the exchange school's law degree in the fourth year.

Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, three universities, including The University of Hong Kong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, and City University of Hong Kong, provide legal studies with both LL.B. degree or J.D. degree. The LL.B. is 4 years in length, while J.D. is 2 years. Students who have an LL.B. or J.D degree, whether conferred by local universities or the accredited universities overseas, are eligible to apply for admission to PCLL, the legal qualification programme in Hong Kong.

India

In India, legal education is traditionally offered as a three-year graduate degree conferring the title of Bachelor of Laws, requiring prospective students to have a bachelor's degree in any subject from a recognised institution.

However, specialised universities of law known as National Law Universities solely devoted to legal education offer an undergraduate five-year law course for students that have completed Class XII from a recognised board of education in India. The five-year law course leads to an integrated honours degree combining the LL.B. degree with another bachelor's degree, such as a Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Business Administration, Bachelor of Commerce and Bachelor of Social Work. In these programs, students are taught subjects associated with the additional non-law bachelor's degree during the first two years, in addition to standard legal subjects such as torts, contracts and constitutional law, such as social sciences for the Bachelor of Arts and a combination of physical, life and applied sciences for the Bachelor of Science. In the latter three years of all these programmes, legal subjects dominate the curriculum.

The first national law school was the National Law School of India University. This was followed by others, including the Nalsar University of Law and West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences. Today, many Indian universities offer five-year integrated BA LL.B. programmes similar to that of the national law schools of India, while others continue to offer a traditional three-year programme. Both integrated and traditional types of three-year law degrees are recognised by the Bar Council of India for to qualify for enrolment to the Bar. One needs to have a full-time law degree to practice as a lawyer in India. Distance or online education options are not available to become a practising lawyer in India.

Malaysia

Malaysia inherited a common law system from the British colonial period. However, unlike the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, Malaysia adopted the fused legal profession with legal practitioners acting both as solicitors and in a way "barristers". Hence all are lawyers eligible and can be admitted to the High Court as a legal professional is entitled to be bestowed with the title "Advocate & Solicitor". This applies to both lawyers practising in the Peninsular Malaysia (Malaya) and the States of Sabah & Sarawak.

Under the Legal Profession Act 1976, a person is deemed to be a qualified person to be admitted as an Advocate & Solicitor if they completed and passed the course of Bar Vocational Course in UK & Wales from any Inns of Court, passed the Certificate in Legal Practice or completed a 4-year LL.B. (Honours) course from an accredited Malaysian university.

New Zealand
An LL.B. is required to practise law in New Zealand. An LL.B. typically takes four years to complete, although it is often completed concurrently with another degree, such as a Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) or Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), with the combined completion time usually being five years. Most New Zealand universities allow graduates of other degrees to complete an LL.B. in three years. Six New Zealand universities offer the LL.B. degree.

Pakistan
Pakistan is a common law country and to become a lawyer in Pakistan, one needs an LL.B. from a Pakistani or a foreign university from common law country recognised by the Pakistan Bar Council. Lawyers in Pakistan are called advocates. An advocate has to be member of one of the provincial Bar Councils, i.e., Punjab Bar Council, Sindh Bar Council, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Bar Council, Balochistan Bar Council or the Islamabad Bar Council.

The Bachelor of Laws obtained from universities in Pakistan consists of a 5-year B.A.-LL.B. qualification. This rule was laid down by the Pakistan Bar Council in 2016 requiring 5 years of education to obtain a Bachelor of Laws qualification. This change in the legal education rules led to the abolishing of 3 year LL.B. programs being offered by universities in Pakistan. This rule however does not affect the recognition of LL.B. degrees of less than 5 years obtained from foreign universities recognised by the Pakistan Bar Council for the purposes of enrolling as an advocate in Pakistan.

Singapore
In Singapore, the LL.B. is an undergraduate degree that is conferred by the National University of Singapore (NUS), the Singapore Management University (SMU) or the Singapore University of Social Sciences. Graduate J.D. courses are also available at all three law schools . To be called to the Singapore Bar, graduates are minimally required to possess an LL.B or J.D. from a recognised university.

South Africa

In South Africa the LL.B. is offered both at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. As of 1996 it is the universal and only legal qualification for legal practice, superseding the existing B.Juris. and B.Proc. degrees. The undergraduate programme, offered since 1998, requires four years of study. At the postgraduate level, the programme generally requires three years. Several South African universities offer B.A. and B.Com. degrees with a major in "Law"; graduates may then undertake a two-year postgraduate-programme. Some universities also offer a one-year programme for holders of the B.Proc. degree.

The curriculum is typically structured around preliminary, core and advanced courses, and most universities also offer elective coursework. The preliminary courses acquaint the students with both the background and the foundations of the South African legal system, and with legal thinking and analysis in general. The core subjects are those regularly required for legal practice.
The advanced courses (usually) comprise further study in these core subjects, deepening and / or broadening the student's knowledge as appropriate. The electives – often comprising these advanced courses, amongst others – allow students to specialise in a particular area of law, to an extent, by choosing from a range of optional courses. Some universities also require that students complete an experience based course ("Practical Legal Studies" / "Law clinic"); a credit comprising independent research exclusively is often offered as an elective, and at some universities is a degree requirement.

Depending on university, the curriculum will comprise legal subjects exclusively, or may include humanities subjects so as to prepare graduates with a "broad-based" legal education. Some undergraduate programmes do not offer any optional coursework. Credits in English and Afrikaans are also often included. Along with Latin, these were, but are no longer, "subjects compelled by statute", and were typically entrance requirements for the LL.B., having been studied as undergraduate modules. Similarly, Roman Law was previously a preliminary course, whereas, in both the post- and undergraduate degree, it is now offered as an elective.

The structure of the undergraduate programme is under review. The issues noted are: graduates of these programmes are seen to be less prepared for the profession as compared to those pursuing the graduate LLB; only 20% of entrants complete the programme within four years; only about 50% of graduates here enter the legal profession at all. Further, there are those who question the academic standard of the new degree. Some universities have now discontinued the programme; in other cases undergraduate students are required to initially register as Arts, Commerce or Science students – with first year law subjects – and, in the second year of study, only those meeting specified criteria may choose to pursue the four-year LLB.

Alternative titles and formats

Irish B.C.L. and LL.B.
The four universities under the National University of Ireland umbrella, award the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L.). Four Irish universities and two Northern Irish universities award an LL.B. NUIG offer the LL.B. as a 1-year postgraduate course for holders of the B.Corp. (Bachelor of Corporate Law) or B.A. Law degrees.

Some English and Welsh universities award an LL.B. in Irish law.

In the nineteenth century, the University of London conferred degrees of LL.B. on clerical and lay students at St. Patrick's College, Carlow from 1840 onwards.

The King's Inns Barrister-at-Law degree B.L. is a postgraduate degree and is required to practice as a barrister in Ireland.

Zimbabwe B.L. and LL.B.
At the University of Zimbabwe, the first degree in common law was the Bachelor of Laws (B.L.), which was equivalent to the LL.B. in other common law jurisdictions. It was followed by a one-year programme at the university (analogous to post-LL.B. vocational programmes in other common law jurisdictions) at the end of which a second degree, the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), was awarded. The curriculum has since been changed and now only one four-year honours LL.B degree is awarded.

Variations on the LL.B.
Some universities in the United Kingdom and New Zealand offer variations, which generally take four years to complete and include a wider range of topics as well as some degree of specialisation or the study of multiple jurisdictions, such as the LL.B. Law with French Law and Language offered by the University of East Anglia.

Various universities in the United Kingdom and Australia will allow a degree that combines study with a non-law discipline. For example, some universities in the United Kingdom offer a combined study of law and history leading to a B.A. degree that is accepted by the Law Society and Inns of Court as equivalent to an LL.B.

The University of London External Programme in Laws (LL.B.) has been awarding its law degree via distance learning since 1858.

At the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the principal law degree remains the B.A., in either Jurisprudence or Law, which is equivalent to an LL.B. in other universities. Traditionally, the LL.B. at Cambridge, as well as the Bachelor of Civil Law at Oxford, were postgraduate degrees for specialising in law. The University of Cambridge, recently, replaced their LL.B. title with that of the LL.M, which Oxford retains the B.C.L. as a master's level course, equivalent to the LL.M.

Some universities in the UK including Bournemouth University have a four-year LL.B. course, which consists of a 40-week industrial work placement. Staffordshire University also offers a two-year full-time LL.B. course.

LL.B. programs in syaria and common law have been introduced by some universities in Pakistan and Malaysia.

United States
The United States no longer offers the LL.B., though some universities have introduced bachelor's degrees in legal studies, featuring curricula that include courses in constitutional law, tort law, and criminal law. These degrees may provide an accelerated pathway into the J.D. program, allowing students to complete both degrees in six instead of seven years.

While the LL.B. was conferred until 1971 at Yale University, since that time, all universities in the United States have awarded the professional doctorate J.D., which then became the generally standardised degree in most states as the compulsory prerequisite to sit for the bar exam prior to practice of law. Many law schools converted their basic law degree programmes from LL.B. to J.D. in the 1960s, and permitted prior LL.B. graduates to retroactively receive the new doctorate degrees by returning their LL.B. in exchange for a J.D. degree. Yale graduates who received LL.B. degrees prior to 1971 were similarly permitted to change their degree to a J.D., though many did not take the option, choosing to retain their LL.B. degrees.

Before the program was phased out, notable recipients of the LL.B. include former U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford; former U.S. Supreme Court Justices Earl Warren, Anthony Kennedy, William Rehnquist, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Thurgood Marshall and Stephen Breyer; former FBI director J. Edgar Hoover; American judge and jurist Richard Allen Posner; as well as the first female commissioner of the Federal Communications Commission, Frieda B. Hennock.

Eligibility of foreign graduates in the U.S.
For the most part, foreign law graduates seeking admission to the bar in the United States will find their law degree does not itself fulfill the core admission requirements of most states, thereby not allowing them to take the bar exam. The major exception to this is New York, where those foreign graduates who have fulfilled the educational requirements to practice law in another common law country through study at an approved educational institution, similar in both duration and content to the equivalent teaching at an approved U.S. law school, are permitted to sit for the bar exam. Additionally, both New York and Massachusetts permit Canadian LL.B. holders to take the bar exam. The requirements of each of the states vary, and in some states sufficient years of practice in one's home country may allow for those otherwise excluded to sit for the bar exam.

Most states require completion of a law degree from a law school accredited by the American Bar Association. As a result, some American law schools offer one-year LL.M. programmes for foreign attorneys, which qualify foreign lawyers for admission to some state bars.

European LL.B. programs
European Union law permits European Union citizens with LL.B. degrees from one EU Member State, who practise law and have been qualified lawyers in their jurisdiction for three or more years, to practise also in every other member state. The actual procedure to receive the respective national licence is regulated by the member state and therefore differs from country to country, and temporary restrictions may in certain cases exist, but every EU member has to apply the relevant EU Directives to its own national law.

As a consequence of the Bologna Process, recently many universities of applied sciences and a few traditional universities in Germany have introduced LL.B. programmes, replacing the  degree. The LL.B. is a three or four-year full-time law degree. As opposed to courses of study leading to the State Examination—the master's-level professional law degree in Germany—most LL.B. degree programmes concentrate on private law and may feature a component of education in business administration. Graduates of LL.B. courses can continue LL.M. studies and in some cases sit for the first State Examination after one or more years of additional law studies in order to qualify for practising law in Germany.

In Malta, the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree, offered by the University of Malta, is an undergraduate degree that of itself is not sufficient for admission into any of the legal professions. Likewise, in Italy a five-year course in law (Laurea magistrale in giurisprudenza a ciclo unico) is offered by law schools. The Italian Diploma in Law, equivalent to the LL.B., does not directly qualify one for a career in any legal profession, as graduates are required to undergo a traineeship for 18 months to sit for the Italian bar or take the exam as public notary. Alternatively, this requirement can be met by undertaking two further year of studies (Diploma di specializzazione per le professioni legali - equivalent of a 2-year M.A.).

In Spain, there is no comparable degree to the LL.B. Law studies in Spain last for four years in total, culminating in the "Grado en Derecho". Prior to that, the sole degree of "Licenciatura en Derecho" allowed graduates of law direct access to the legal profession without further training and masters. Currently, holders of a Spanish law degree must attend a specific LL.M. in Legal practice course (similar to the former British LPC) to gain admission to the Spanish bar.

In Denmark, universities now offer three-year LL.B. programmes, although this is not sufficient to practice law. Students wishing to practice law should continue with a Masters in Law programme, leading to the cand.jur degree. Alternatively, students may choose to use the LL.B. as a basis for other courses within the social sciences or humanities.

See also
 Admission to the bar
 Admission to the bar in the United States
 Call to the bar
 Doctor of Juridical Science
 Doctor of Law
 Juris Doctor
 Legal education
 Lists of law schools
 Master of Laws

Sources

References

Laws, Bachelor of
Law degrees

Bachelor of Laws


The 2018 lower Puna eruption, which began May 3, 2018 is an ongoing volcanic event on the island of Hawaii on Kīlauea while at the time day, faced a 6.9 earthquake. It caused outbreaks of lava fountains up to  high, lava flows and volcanic gas in the Leilani Estates on the island of Hawaii.

As of May 6, 2018, the eruption has caused in the destruction of 26 houses. This volcanic event is the 62nd episode of the ongoing east rift zone eruption that began in January 1983.

On May 3, 2018, after a 5.0 earthquake earlier in the day, steaming ground cracks opened in Leilani Estate and began to spew lava, causing evacuations of the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens areas. The next day, May 4, the first two homes were reported destroyed in Leilani Estates from three erupting vents.

The Civil Defense Agency reported extreme levels of sulphur dioxide gas in the area, and Talmadge Magno, the Civil Defense Administrator for Hawaii County, stated that power lines had melted off the poles due to heat.

By May 25, 2018, over 20 fissures had erupted lava in or near the Leilani Estates and Lanipuna Gardens subdivisions, resulting in the destruction of at least 82 structures in lower Puna. The eruption forced the evacuation of about two thousand residents.

The fissures had sent lava rivers that on May 19 buried part of Hawaii Route 137 and began flowing into the ocean. On May 29 the approach of lava forced closure of Hawaii Route 132.

By July 12, over  of land had been covered by lava flows. About  of new land has been created in the ocean. The official number of houses destroyed by the ongoing eruption reached 700 on July 9. The eruption was said to have stopped near August 15, 2018.

References

Other websites

2018 disasters in the United States
2018 in Hawaii
May 2018 events
June 2018 events
July 2018 events
August 2018 events

2018 lower Puna eruption


WASH-740 was a report published by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC) in 1957. This report, called "Theoretical Possibilities and Consequences of Major Accidents in Large Nuclear Power Plants" (also known as "The Brookhaven Report"), estimated maximum possible damage from a meltdown with no containment building at a large nuclear reactor.

The conclusions of this study estimated the possible effects of a "maximum credible accident" for nuclear reactors then envisioned as being 3400 deaths, 43,000 injuries and property damage of $7 billion ($57bn adjusted for inflation in 2012 since 1957).  The estimate of probability was one in a hundred thousand to one in a billion per reactor-year.  When WASH-740 was revised in 1964-65 to account for the larger reactors then being designed, the new figures indicated that there could be as many as 45,000 deaths, 100,000 injuries, and $17 billion in property damage ($125bn adjusted for inflation since 1964).

However, the assumptions underlying the results were unrealistic (including the worst meteorological conditions, no containment building, and that half the reactor core is released into the atmosphere as micrometre-sized pellets without any examination of how this might occur).  These were due to conservatism (estimating the maximum possible damage) and the need to use atomic bomb fallout data, which had been collected from tests (computers in 1955 being greatly insufficient to do the calculations).

As knowledge, models and computers improved the conclusions of this report were replaced by those of first WASH-1400 (1975, The Rasmussen Report), then CRAC-II (1982), and most recently NUREG-1150 (1991).  Now all of these studies are considered obsolete (see the disclaimer to NUREG-1150), and are being replaced by the State-of-the-Art Reactor Consequence Analyses (SOARCA) study.

See also
Nuclear safety in the U.S.
Nuclear power
Nuclear power plant
Nuclear accidents in the United States
WASH-1400

External links
Serious Accidents (in Nuclear Power Plants)
Nuclear Power Pro/Con
History of WASH-740
Reactor Safety: 1953-1978
The 1957 WASH-740 report

Nuclear safety and security
United States Atomic Energy Commission

WASH-740


Kosmo! (short for Cosmopolitan; Malay: Kosmopolitan) is a Malay-language compact format newspaper tabloid in Malaysia owned by the Utusan Group, which also owns Kosmo! Sunday paper Kosmo! Ahad, Utusan Malaysia, and Mingguan Malaysia.  It is available in Malaysia at most newsstands.

History
Kosmo! was launched on 30 August 2004 by Prime Minister Dato' Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. All the sections in this newspaper use an exclamation mark (!). Unlike its rival newspaper, Harian Metro, whose readership and daily circulations increased over the years, Kosmo! has a much lower readership and decreased daily circulations.

Formerly, Kosmo! was sold in Malaysia at a price of 80 cents daily excluding Sundays, when it was sold at RM 1.00 under a different name, that is Kosmo Ahad. However, by April 2007, Kosmo! priced at RM1.00 per day, while on Sundays it is sold at RM1.20. As of July 2016, it is priced at RM1.00 for both Kosmo! and Kosmo Ahad.

Despite initial reports in mid-August 2019 that the Utusan Group would be shutting down its newspaper operations including Kosmo!, Utusan Malaysia, and their respective Sunday edition, the company retracted its decision after receiving a RM1.6 million cash injection from the United Malays National Organisation.  However, the Utusan Group announced that they will be raising Kosmo! Ahad price from RM1.00 to RM1.50 and shifting to a new business model.

Despite attempts to salvage Kosmo! and its sister newspapers, the Utusan Group executive chairman Datuk Abd Aziz Sheikh Fadzir announced that the company's newspapers would cease publication on 10 October 2019 due to poor cash flow, mounting debts and declining sales. Staff were given a few hours to clear their belongings from the Utusan Group headquarters. The four Utusan newspapers are expected to resume publication on 1 November 2019 under a new management. Aurora Mulia, a company linked to business tycoon Syed Mokhtar Al-Bukhary, had reportedly acquired 70 percent of Utusan's wholly owned subsidiary Dilof Sdn Bhd. However, only some of the 862 redundant employees would be rehired.

In January 2020, it was reported that Kosmo!, along with its sister newspaper, Utusan Malaysia is set to be revived soon, as some sources in the industry confirming that newspaper's new management has recruiting staff to start working in February.

Kosmo!, together with Utusan is expected to be relaunched in July 2020. According to their website, an animated teaser, which written in Malay showed: "Nantikan Julai ini. Dibawakan oleh Media Mulia Sdn Bhd." ("Awaiting this July. Brought to you by Media Mulia Sdn Bhd,"). It is understood that the new headquarters of the publication will be based at the New Straits Times Press main office at Jalan Riong, Bangsar. On 6 July, the newspaper's relaunch is expected to take place on 20 July.

See also
Other Malay-language newspapers in Malaysia:
Berita Harian
Harian Metro
Utusan Malaysia
Utusan Borneo, a newspaper publication for the state of Sabah and Sarawak
Sinar Harian

References

External links
 Utusan Group Official Site
 Official newspaper's website
 The Prime Minister's Speech at the Launching Ceremony of Kosmo!

2004 establishments in Malaysia
Newspapers published in Malaysia
Malay-language newspapers
Newspapers established in 2004

Kosmo!


Karen Levine (born 1955) is a Canadian radio producer and writer. Her radio documentaries have won two Peabody Awards.

She has worked for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) for over thirty years, working on shows such as The Sunday Edition, As It Happens, Morningside and This Morning. She now lives in Toronto.

Her radio documentary for CBC Hana's Suitcase won a gold medal at the New York International Radio Festival. In 2002, she published a book based on that documentary Hana's Suitcase: A True Story. An international best-seller, the book received the Sydney Taylor Book Award for older readers, the Canadian Library Association Book of the Year for Children Award, the Flora Stieglitz Straus Award and the Isaac Frischwasser Memorial Award in Children's Literature. It appeared on the short lists for the Norma Fleck Award and the Governor General's Award for English-language children's literature. The book was adapted into a play by Emil Sher and a 2009 documentary film, Inside Hana's Suitcase, by Larry Weinstein.

Levine was producer for the CBC radio documentaries Lost Innocence: The Children of World War II and A Murder in the Neighbourhood which received Peabody Awards in 1989 and 2001 respectively.

References

External links

1955 births
Living people
Canadian radio producers
Canadian women non-fiction writers
Writers from Ottawa
Canadian women children's writers
Canadian radio writers
Women radio writers
Women radio producers

Karen Levine


Abdelhamid Mehri (April 1926 – 30 January 2012) was an Algerian resistance fighter, soldier and politician.

Born into a destitute family in Constantine, Algeria, Abdelhamid Mehri joined the Algerian People's Party (PPA) at an early age. He studied in Tunisia, and developed contacts with the nationalist Neo Destour party. In Algeria, he became a prominent member of the PPA's successor organization Mouvement pour le Triomphe des Libertés Démocratiques (MTLD), and continued into the Front de libération nationale (FLN), a guerrilla movement fighting for independence from French colonial rule. He was elected member of the GPRA, the FLN's exile government, as minister for Maghreb affairs in 1958; in 1961, he became minister of social and cultural affairs. After Algeria's independence in 1962, he briefly left politics, but gradually gained influence after the 1965 military coup d'état by col. Houari Boumédiène. In 1979, soon after Boumédiène's death, he was made member of the FLN's central committee and slowly rose in the ranks under president Chadli Bendjedid. After the 1988 October riots in Algeria, he succeeded hardliner Mohamed Cherif Messaâdia as FLN secretary-general.

After the subsequent change to a multiparty system, and the 1992 military coup, he brought the FLN into the opposition, and supported the Sant'Egidio platform urging national reconciliation with the Islamist current and the FIS as a solution for the Algerian Civil War, in a clear challenge to the éradicateur military elite that influenced Algerian politics behind the scenes. Soon after, he was gradually ousted from the party's central committee, which thereafter returned to supporting the security establishment. He died, aged 85, in Algiers.

References

1926 births
2012 deaths
People from Constantine, Algeria
Algerian People's Party politicians
Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties politicians
National Liberation Front (Algeria) politicians
Culture ministers of Algeria
Chaoui people
Ambassadors of Algeria to Morocco
Algerian expatriates in Morocco
Algerian diplomats
21st-century Algerian people

Abdelhamid Mehri