Shirley Valentine is a 1989 British romantic comedy-movie. It stars Pauline Collins. Tom Conti plays her lover. Bernard Hill plays her husband. Alison Steadman plays her friend.

It is about a Liverpool housewife whose family gives her too little attention. She travels to Greece and has an affair with a local man.

The screenplay is by Willy Russell. It is based on his 1986 one-character play of the same title.

This movie was released in August 1989 in the United States. The reviews for Shirley Valentine were mixed. The movie received several awards and was nominated for some Golden Globe and Academy Awards.

Main cast
 Pauline Collins as Shirley Valentine-Bradshaw
 Tom Conti as Costas Dimitriades
 Julia McKenzie as Gillian
 Alison Steadman as Jane
 Joanna Lumley as Marjorie Majors
 Sylvia Syms as Headmistress
 Bernard Hill as Joe Bradshaw
 George Costigan as Dougie
 Anna Keaveney as Jeanette
 Tracie Bennett as Millandra Bradshaw
 Ken Sharrock as Sydney
 Karen Craig as Thelma
 Gareth Jefferson as Brian
 Gillian Kearney as young Shirley
 Catharine Duncan as young Marjorie

Awards and nominations
 Academy Award for Best Actress (Pauline Collins, nominee)
 Academy Award for Best Original Song (nominee)
 BAFTA Award for Best Film (nominee)
 BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role (Pauline Collins, winner)
 BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay (nominee)
 Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy (nominee)
 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Pauline Collins, nominee)
 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song (nominee)
 British Comedy Award for Top Comedy Film (winner)
 Evening Standard British Film Award for Best Actress (Pauline Collins, winner)
 Evening Standard British Film Award for Best Adapted Screenplay (winner)
 Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media (nominee)

Other websites

1989 comedy-drama movies
1989 romantic comedy movies
1989 romantic drama movies
Adultery in movies
American comedy-drama movies
American romantic comedy movies
American romantic drama movies
British comedy-drama movies
British romantic comedy movies
British romantic drama movies
1980s English-language movies
Movies set in England
Movies set in Greece
Movies directed by Lewis Gilbert
Movies composed by Marvin Hamlisch
Paramount Pictures movies

Shirley Valentine (movie)


Samuel "Sammie" Henson (born January 1, 1971) is a World Champion wrestler, winning a gold medal in freestyle for the USA at the 1998 FILA Wrestling World Championships, held in Tehran, Iran. He was also a silver medalist at the 2000 Summer Olympics in the freestyle 54 kg category, losing to Abdullayev in the finals of that event, held in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.  At the age of 36, he competed at the 2006 FILA Wrestling World Championships held in Guangzhou, China, earning a bronze medal.  He was named USA Wrestling's Man of the Year in 1998.

He is formerly the head coach at West Virginia University. He was also head coach of the Sunkist Kids Wrestling Club. Henson was born in St. Louis, Missouri. In 2015, Henson was inducted into the National Wrestling Hall of Fame as a Distinguished Member.

High school career
Henson attended Francis Howell High School in St. Charles, Missouri.  There, he was coached by Roger Hodapp (1986–1987), and Judd Hofmann (1988–1989).  Henson and brothers Chuck and Kevin helped lead the Francis Howell Vikings to 4 Missouri State Team Championships in the 1980s. Henson was a member of the 1986 and 1987 State Championship teams.  Individually, he placed fourth in state as a freshman, and was a three time Missouri class 4A State Champion.  In 1989 he was named Missouri 4A High School Wrestler of the year, and was a First Team Asics High School All American.

College career
Henson began his college wrestling career at the University of Missouri, in Columbia, Missouri.  He was coached at MU by Wes Roper.  He chose Missouri because it was close to home, and because he wanted to prove that he could win for his in-state school.  He proved the point by becoming a Big 8 champion, and an All-American in his freshman year, winning fifth place at the 1991 NCAA Wrestling Championships.  He achieved this despite being the seventh seed in the tournament.  Ironically, to win fifth place, he defeated second seeded Donnie Heckel, of Clemson University, (the school where he would eventually finish his college career) by a score of 13-2.  He then transferred to Clemson to wrestle under Coach Gil Sanchez.  He ended his college career as the most successful wrestler in Clemson history, going 71-0 over his last two seasons. He won back to back NCAA titles at 118 pounds in 1993 and 1994.  In 1994, he was also named ACC Wrestler of the Year. He then returned to the University of Missouri to finish his degree, graduating in 1995 with a degree in Park, Recreation and Tourism Management.  He was inducted into Clemson's Hall of Fame in 2000. Henson was one of Clemson's last wrestlers (the program was discontinued in 1995 due to Title IX) and named one of ACC's Top 100 athletes in a conference more known for basketball.

International career

US Open
Although primarily known for his freestyle wrestling, Henson also has Greco-Roman wrestling experience.  He won a gold medal in Greco-Roman at the 1990 US Open, and placed 4th in the event at the 1998 Open.  In freestyle at the US Open, Henson placed 4th in 1995, won silver medals in 1997 and 2004, and won the gold in 1998, 2000, and 2005.

Olympic Trials
Henson was an Olympic qualifier in 1988, won silver at the Olympic Trials in 1992 and 2004, and won the gold in the 2000 Olympic Trials held in Dallas, Texas.  He would go on to win the Silver in Sydney.

International Events

|-
| style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #f0f0f0" | EVENT
| style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #f0f0f0" | YEAR
| style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #f0f0f0" | LOCATION
| style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #f0f0f0" | MEDAL
|-
| Olympic Games
| 2000
| Sydney, Australia
| Silver
|-
| World Championship
| 1998
| Tehran, Iran
| Gold
|-
| World Championship
| 2006
| Guanzgoua, China
| Bronze
|-
| World Cup
| 1997
| Stillwater, Oklahoma
| Silver
|-
| World Cup
| 1999
| Spokane, Washington
| Silver
|-
| Goodwill Games
| 1998
| New York, New York
| Silver
|-
| Yarigan International
| 2000
| Siberia, Russia
| Gold
|-
| Yarigan International
| 2005
| Siberia, Russia
| Bronze
|-
| Cerro Pelado International
| 2000
| St. Spiritus, Cuba
| Silver
|-
| Cerro Pelado International
| 2003
| St. Spiritus, Cuba
| Gold
|-
| Cerro Pelado International
| 2005
| St. Spiritus, Cuba
| Gold
|-
| Medved International
| 2005
| Minsk, Russia
| Gold
|-
| Clansmen International
| 2001
| British Columbia, Canada
| Gold
|-
| Clansmen International
| 2003
| British Columbia, Canada
| Gold
|-
| Dave Schultz International
| 2003
| Colorado Springs, Colorado
| Gold
|-
| Yasar Dogu International
| 1997
| Ankara, Turkey
| Gold
|-
| Yasar Dogu International
| 1998
| Ankara, Turkey
| Gold
|-
| Yasar Dogu International
| 2001
| Ankara, Turkey
| Gold
|-
| Yasar Dogu International
| 2005
| Ankara, Turkey
| Silver
|-
| Poland International
| 2001
| Warsaw, Poland
| Gold
|-
| Kiev Grand Prix International
| 1998
| Kiev, Ukraine
| Bronze
|-
| Uzbekistan Cup
| 1997
| Tashkent, Uzbekistan
| Silver
|-
| Henri Delglane Challenge International
| 1996
| Nice, France
| Bronze
|-
| New York Athletic Club International
| 2000
| New York, New York
| Gold

Coaching career
Henson has worked at the University of Oklahoma, Penn State University, West Point, Cal Poly San Luis Obispo and the University of Nebraska as an assistant coach.  Henson helped coach Michael Lightner and Byron Tucker to NCAA titles at Oklahoma, and helped coach Nebraska's Paul Donahoe to an NCAA crown in 2007.  In just two years at Penn State, Henson helped Coach Troy Sunderland build up the Nittany Lions program from 35th to 6th nationally, with two top-five recruiting classes.  He was at the University of Missouri as the assistant head coach under Brian Smith and was the head coach of the Sunkist Kids Wrestling Club until 2014.  In May 2014, Henson was appointed head coach of the West Virginia Mountaineers.

See also
List of Pennsylvania State University Olympians

References

 Canoe Canada: USA's Samuel Henson, in red, battles with Azerbaijan's Namig Abdullayev during their 54 kg freestyle wrestling finals at the XXVII Summer Games in Sydney, Saturday, Sept. 30, 2000. Abdullayev won the gold. (Photo)
 Sports Illustrated: Two Russians claim gold to salvage pride
 Cal Poly Website

External links

1971 births
Living people
American male sport wrestlers
Army Black Knights wrestling coaches
Clemson Tigers wrestlers
Missouri Tigers wrestlers
Oklahoma Sooners wrestling coaches
Nebraska Cornhuskers wrestling coaches
Penn State Nittany Lions wrestling coaches
West Virginia Mountaineers wrestling coaches
Competitors at the 1998 Goodwill Games
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in wrestling
World Wrestling Championships medalists
Wrestlers at the 2000 Summer Olympics

Sammie Henson


Drybrush is a painting technique in which a paint brush that is relatively dry, but still holds paint, is used to create a drawing or painting. Load is applied to a dry support such as paper or primed canvas. The resulting brush strokes have a characteristic scratchy and textured look that lacks the smooth appearance that washes or blended paint commonly have. This technique can be used to achieve a blurred or soft appearance.

The technique of drybrush painting can be achieved with both water-based and oil-based media. With water-based media such as inks, acrylic paints, tempera paints or watercolor paints, the brush is usually dry or squeezed dry of all water. The brush is loaded with paint that is highly viscous or thick and then applied to a dry support. With other water-based media, the brush is loaded with paint then squeezed dry. When using oil-based media,such as oil paint, similar techniques are used, although instead of water, the brush is used dry or any oil or solvent is removed. Because oil paint has a longer drying time than water-based media, brushing over or blending drybrush strokes is often avoided to preserve the distinctive look of the drybrush painting technique.

The technique is often used in model painting to apply highlights to miniatures.

Oil-based drybrushing can also be scrubbed onto paper, canvas or absorbent gesso with stiff bristle brushes to impart smooth airbrushed or pastel-style effects. Next is that drybrush is sometimes mixed with other painting techniques

Coming from the dry brush technique, an autonomous painting technique developed in a comparatively short time:

For painting with the dry brush a small amount of oil is used. The color is diluted with a few drops of linseed oil or solvents.  From this mixture very little color is added to the brush. In the next step the brush with the color on it is spread out very well on a color palette and the oil is secreted. The brush must be dry at the end of this step.

Linseed oil, when used with oil paint for dry brushing, will yellow if it becomes too warm, such as being left in a car in the summer sun.  Sewing machine oil and diesel oil work just as well and do not yellow.

Now a very thin layer of color is applied to a watercolor paper. By reworking with an eraser at this point it is possible to incorporate different lighting effects and details.

Images painted with a dry brush are characterized by the specific transitions of light and shadow and gossamer tones. A work done in black and white appears similar to a coal or fine pencil drawing.

Tutorials and technique
 Nadja Sasch: Der trockene Pinsel. Edition Michael Fischer, Ingling 2012, .

See also
 Art movement
 Creativity techniques
 List of art media
 List of artistic media
 List of art movements
 List of art techniques

References

External links

 How to create a range of dry brush strokes with watercolor

Painting techniques
Artistic techniques

Drybrush


Adelite is a rare mineral. It is a calcium, magnesium, arsenate with chemical formula CaMgAsO4OH. Adelite was named from the Greek word for indistinct.

It can be blueish-gray, green, gray, yellow, or light green in color. It is made of crystals. Adelite is not radioactive. It is scratched easily with apatite.

The mineral was first described in 1891 in Värmland, Sweden. It can be found in Flipistad, Sweden.

References

Minerals

Adelite


John Nixon (10 May 1815 – 3 June 1899) was an English mining engineer and colliery proprietor and an influential figure in the development of the South Wales coalfield and export business.

Life
He was born at Barlow, Gateshead, the only son of a tenant farmer of that village. He was educated at the village school and at Dr. Bruce's academy at Newcastle-on-Tyne, famous as the training-place of many great engineers. Leaving school at the age of fourteen, Nixon was set to farmwork for a time, and shortly after was apprenticed to Joseph Gray of Garesfield, the Marquis of Bute's chief mining engineer. On the expiry of his indentures he became for two years overman at the Garesfield colliery. At the end of this time, in 1839, he undertook a survey of the underground workings of the Dowlais Company in South Wales. Some years later he accepted the appointment of mining engineer to an English company working a coal and iron field at Languin near Nantes. He perceived, however, that the enterprise was destined to fail, and did not hesitate to inform his employers of his opinion. After labouring for some time to carry on a hopeless concern he returned to England.

During his first visit to Wales, Nixon had been impressed by the natural advantages of Welsh coal for use in furnaces. On his return from France he found that it was beginning to be used by the Thames steamers. He perceived that there was a great opening for it on the Loire, where coal was already imported by sea. At the time, however, he was unable to obtain a supply with which to commence a trade. Lucy Thomas of the Graig colliery at Merthyr, who supplied the Thames steamers, was disinclined to extend her operations, and Nixon was compelled to return to the north of England. However, business again taking him to South Wales, he chartered a small vessel, took a cargo of hundreds of tons of coal to Nantes, and distributed it gratuitously among the sugar refineries, which had been using Newcastle coal.

Its merits were quickly perceived; the French government definitely adopted it, including using it exclusively for the French Navy, and a demand was created among the manufactories and on the Loire. Returning to Wales he made arrangements for sinking a mine at Werfa to secure an adequate supply. After being on the point of failure from lack of capital he obtained assistance and achieved success, with the Navigation Colliery in Mountain Ash being completed in 1860, becoming the first true deep pit in South Wales.

Continuing his operations in association with other enterprising men of the neighbourhood, he acquired and made many collieries in South Wales. By 1896, Nixon's Navigation Coal Co. Ltd. employed 1558 men, and in 1897 the output of the Nixon group was 1,250,000 tons a year.
Nixon succeeded, after a long struggle, in inducing the railway companies of Great Britain to adopt Welsh coal for consumption in their locomotives.
He had great difficulty also in persuading the Great Western Railway to patronise the coal traffic, which came to form so large a part of their freight business.

Much of Nixon's success was due to his improvements in the art of mining. He introduced the 'long wall' system of working in place of the wasteful 'pillar and stall' system, and invented the machine known as 'Billy Fairplay' for measuring accurately the proportion between large coal and small, which came into universal use. He also made improvements in ventilating and in winding machinery. He was one of the original movers in establishing the sliding-scale system, and one of the founders of the Monmouthshire and South Wales Coalowners' Association. He was for fifteen years chairman of the earlier South Wales Coal Association, and for many years represented Wales in the Mining Association of Great Britain. Nixon materially contributed to the growth of Cardiff by inducing leading persons in South Wales to petition the trustees of the Marquis of Bute in 1853 for increased dock accommodation, and by persuading the trustees, in spite of the objections of their engineer, Sir John Rennie, to increase the depth of the East Dock.

He died in London, on 3 June 1899 at 117 Westbourne Terrace, Hyde Park, and was buried on 8 June in the Mountain Ash cemetery, Aberdare valley.

References

Attribution

Sources
James Edmund Vincent, John Nixon, Pioneer of the Steam Coal Trade in South Wales (London, 1900).

1815 births
1899 deaths
British mining engineers
British businesspeople
People from Gateshead
Engineers from Tyne and Wear
19th-century British businesspeople

John Nixon (mining engineer)


Chuang Tse and the First Emperor (Chuang Tse e il Primo Imperatore) is a novel by Italian writer Anna Russo. Published in 2010, the story questions the reader's view of reality.

Plot
The story begins 2,222 years ago.

Contravening any historical fact, Zhen Li, King of Qin, having unified the six states in which the kingdom was divided into, undertook the title of Qin Shi Huang, or rather the first august emperor, reviving with him the very beginning of time.
To delete any historical fact that would have illegitimated his power and following his trusted Minister Shi Lu's recommendations, had ordered that any text so far written be destroyed and to obtain the largest possible number of hard labor prisoners for the construction of the Great Wall, the terracotta army, and his three hundred and sixty-five room palace, extended sentences which would have punished not only the responsible but its entire family, as well.
It was because of a book and the extension of the penalties that Chuang Tse's family was deported. Chuang Tse was saved thanks to his foresighted mother who had not registered him at birth, making him unknown to the civil service.
Eleven years had past from that day. Chuang Tse had grown up as did his longing for revenge.

In the meantime, the first emperor had attained an immeasurable power and proved to be a cruel and despotic tyrant. He had thousands of enemies which he had to watch from and despite all the propitiatory rites, the stars had predicted for him a terrible defeat and a reign of only eleven years. Yet the emperor was not aware that the time of that most terrible enemy had arrived.

References

2010 Italian novels

Chuang Tse and the First Emperor


Brandon Sanderson (born December 19, 1975) is an American fantasy and science fiction writer. He is best known for the Cosmere universe, where most of his fantasy books are set; and for finishing Robert Jordan's fantasy series The Wheel of Time.

Sanderson was raised in Lincoln, Nebraska. He studied at Brigham Young University, where he received degrees in English literature and creative writing. In 2008, Sanderson started a podcast with author Dan Wells and cartoonist Howard Tayler called Writing Excuses with topics about creating and producing genre writing and webcomics.

In 2016, the American media company DMG Entertainment bought the movie rights to Sanderson's entire Cosmere universe.

Life and career
Brandon Sanderson was born on December 19, 1975, in Lincoln, Nebraska. As a teenager, he loved reading high fantasy novels and tried writing his own stories. After graduating from high school in 1994, he enrolled at Brigham Young University (BYU) as a biochemistry major. He took a two-year leave of absence from 1995 to 1997 to work as a missionary for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and was assigned to serve in South Korea.

After completing his missionary work, Sanderson returned to BYU and changed his major to English literature. While an undergraduate, Sanderson took a job as a night desk clerk at a local hotel in Provo, Utah, because it allowed him to write while working. After earning a B.A. in English, Sanderson entered BYU's creative writing graduate program and received an M.F.A. degree in 2005. During his graduate work at BYU, Sanderson was on the staff of Leading Edge, a semi-professional speculative fiction magazine published by the university.

Sanderson wrote regularly throughout his undergraduate and graduate studies, and by 2003 he had written twelve novels, all unpublished. While in the middle of a graduate program at BYU, Tor Books editor Moshe Feder contacted him to say that he wanted to get one of his books. Sanderson had sent the manuscript of his sixth novel, Elantris, a year and a half earlier. Elantris was published by Tor Books on April 21, 2005, to generally positive reviews. This was followed in 2006 by Mistborn: The Final Empire, the first book in his Mistborn fantasy trilogy.

In 2006, Sanderson married Emily Bushman. She was also an English major and teacher. She became his business manager. They have three children and live in American Fork, Utah.

References

Writers from Nebraska
1975 births
Living people
People from Lincoln, Nebraska
American science fiction writers

Brandon Sanderson


"The Broken Code" is the fourth episode of the ninth season of the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother, and the 188th episode overall.

Plot
51 hours before the wedding, Barney confronts Ted over his meeting with Robin and holding her hand. Ted explains he was comforting Robin as a friend.

Lily has improved her Marshpillow to incorporate a video screen with Marshall communicating through video chat while he is en route to Farhampton. Robin wishes Lily had put more time in planning her bachelorette party where only Patrice showed up. Lily was too busy planning the move to Rome, but later reveals that Robin does not have any girlfriends. Robin admits she has trouble connecting with other women, and Lily decides Robin needs to have at least one other female friend while she is away in Rome. Lily has Robin try to befriend women at the hotel bar, and eventually hits it off with someone who shares her love for ice hockey. Lily is jealous and drives her away, and two decide they'll be fine as long as they have each other.

Ted plans a poker game for Barney and handwriting the table cards for the reception in calligraphy, Barney informs Ted he accidentally forgot the cards, which Ted agrees to remake.  Barney asks Ted to move from his current room to the basement to make room for a relative, and to house the cages for doves to be used at the wedding. When delivering the cards to Barney, Ted realizes Barney is mad at him for holding hands with Robin. Barney has chosen Billy Zabka to be the best man, who has already started the poker game. Barney claims Ted's actions go against the Bro Code, which Ted disagrees. Unable to decide who is correct, the two ask Marshall via video chat to weigh in. Marshall asks the two to recreate the events, with Ted asked to hold Barney's hand and offer comfort, and see if it feels weird or not. Ted admits he still sometimes has feelings for Robin, but promises Barney he won't do anything to get between them and that he will try to let those feelings go. Barney forgives Ted and during a poker game, Barney reinstates him as the best man.

Critical reception
Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B− rating. She stated that the episode leaves "nothing fancy or inspired" and gave the writers some challenges in flexibility with the character pairings. Entertainment Weeklys Sandra Gonzalez said Ted and Barney's scenes may be closure for Ted, as far as his feelings for Robin are concerned. Bill Kuchman of Popculturology gave the episode poor marks, saying that the idea of Barney using the Bro Code against Ted shows that "HIMYM has forgotten a key moment in its history," ignoring the events of 'The Goat'. Max Nicholson of IGN gave the episode a 7.0/10 rating saying it "made some interesting headway with Ted and Barney, but quickly wore thin with Lily and Robin." Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said the episode showed the original cast in their usual ways, noting Milioti's absence.

References

External links

How I Met Your Mother (season 9) episodes
2013 American television episodes

The Broken Code


The greater fairy armadillo (Calyptophractus retusus), also known as Burmeister's armadillo or the Chacoan fairy armadillo, is a species of armadillo in the family Chlamyphoridae. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland and subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland. It is threatened by habitat loss and persecution. It is the only species in the genus Calyptophractus.

Description
The greater fairy armadillo is a small species, growing to a length of from  with a tail about  long and weighing up to a kilogram (2.2 lb). Like other armadillos it has bands of armour on its dorsal (upper) surface but, in common with the pink fairy armadillo Chlamyphorus truncatus but unlike most other armadillos, these bands are fused to its pelvis and spine. They are soft in texture and are linked together with skin which gives flexibility to the body. They come to an abrupt end at the rear of the body. The ventral surface is clad in dense, woolly hair and there are some sparse hairs on the dorsal surface as well. The forefeet are scoop-shaped and have curved claws, and the hind feet have sharp claws for burrowing.

Distribution and habitat
The greater fairy armadillo is native to the Gran Chaco region of northern Argentina, central and south-eastern Bolivia and western Paraguay. It inhabits dry grassy areas and is found only in places with light sandy soils in which it can burrow.

Behaviour
The behaviour of the greater fairy armadillo has been little studied. It is an expert tunneller and spends most of its time in the shallow burrows that it excavates and is seldom seen above ground during the day. If disturbed, it can bury itself rapidly, and may block the entrance to its burrow with its hindermost plates. It has an omnivorous diet and feeds on worms, insect larvae, insects, snails, roots and seeds.

The breeding habits of this species are largely unknown. After mating has taken place, the fertilised egg may remain in the uterus for several months before implantation takes place. The egg may then divide and up to four embryos may develop from a single fertilised egg. The gestation period is probably about four months as in other species of armadillo. The young are precocial and can move about within a few hours of birth. Their body armour does not harden until they are a few weeks old and they are weaned about the same time. They become sexually mature at between six months and one year.

Status
At one time the greater fairy armadillo was listed by the IUCN as "Near Threatened" because of the loss of its habitat but in 2010, its status was changed to "Data Deficient" on the grounds that the animal was insufficiently known for it to be properly evaluated. Its distribution is quite patchy and in some areas of the Guarani people, it is persecuted on sight due to a traditional belief that it is an animal of ill omen of death, or the spirit of a dead baby. However, it is present in some nature reserves and national parks where it should be undisturbed by humans.

References

Armadillos
Mammals of Argentina
Mammals of Bolivia
Mammals of Paraguay
Fauna of the Cerrado
Mammals described in 1863
Taxa named by Hermann Burmeister
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Greater fairy armadillo


Mary Letitia Martin (1815–1850) was an Irish writer who was known as the "Princess of Connemara". Educated at home in the upper-class style, she was fluent in numerous languages. She published two books in her lifetime, and a third was published posthumously.

After losing her fortune during the Great Famine, Martin and her husband went to Belgium for a time, where she contributed to periodicals. They sailed to America in 1850, but Martin died 10 days after arrival due to complications of premature childbirth.

Biography
Martin was born into the chief landowning family of Connemara, the Martins of Ballynahinch Castle, a branch of the Martyn Tribe of Galway. Her parents were Thomas Barnwall Martin and Julia Kirwin; her paternal grandfather was Richard Martin MP (1754–1834).

Educated at home and by herself, Martin became fluent in Irish, English, French and a number of other languages. According to Maria Edgeworth, who had met her during her tour of Connemara in 1833, she was courted in 1834 by Count Adolphe de Werdinsky, whom she had met in London earlier that year. She refused to marry and de Werdinsky feigned a suicide attempt at Ballynahinch.

Martin published her first novel, St. Etienne, a Tale of the Vendean War, in 1845.

In 1847, she married a cousin, Colonel Arthur Gonne Bell. He took the name of Martin on marriage, by Royal Licence. In the same year, her father died of famine fever contracted while visiting his tenants in the Clifden workhouse.

Famine
On the death of her father, Martin inherited a heavily encumbered estate of . In the following two years, her remaining fortune was destroyed in the famine as she attempted to alleviate its effects on her tenants. Penniless, she emigrated with her husband to Belgium. There she contributed to a number of periodicals, notably Encyclopaedie Des Gens Du Monde.

USA and death
In 1850, her autobiographical novel, Julia Howard, was published. That same year, the Martins sailed for America. She died ten days after arriving in New York City, following giving birth prematurely on board ship. The baby died, too. Her husband returned to England. He arranged for the posthumous publication of her novel, Deed, not Words (1857). In 1883, he was killed in a railway accident.

Select bibliography
 St. Etienne, a romance, 1845.
 Julia Howard. A Romance, London, Richard Bentley, 1850.
 Deeds, not Words; or, the Flemings of Dunaik. A Domestic Tale, London, G. Routledge, 1857.

See also

 The Tribes of Galway

Notes

References

 Humanity Dick, Shevawn Lynam, 1975.
 Galway Authors, Helen Maher, Roscommon, 1975.
 Connemara after the Famine: Journal of a Survey of the Martin Estate by Thomas Colville Scott, 1853. Edited by Tim Robinson, Dublin: The Lilliput Press, 1995.
 The Tribes of Galway, by Adrian James Martyn, Galway, 2001.
 The Eccentric Member for Galway, Peter Phillips, 2003.
 Maria Edgeworth, Tour in Connemara and the Martins of Ballinahinch, edited by Harold Edgeworth Butler. London 1950. Chapter II: A Sequel (pp. 80–101).
 The Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Review, vol. 35 (1851) p. 100
 Peter Phillips, Humanity Dick: the eccentric member for Galway, Parapress Limited, 2003 , 978-1-898594-76-5

External links
 http://www.libraryireland.com/biography/MaryLaetitiaBellMartin.php

1815 births
1850 deaths
Writers from County Galway
19th-century Irish novelists
19th-century Irish women writers
19th-century Irish writers
Irish expatriates in Belgium
Irish women novelists
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (Queens)
Deaths in childbirth

Mary Letitia Martin


Liberalism in Uruguay organized itself in the nineteenth century in the Colorado (or Red) Party, (Partido Colorado) nowadays an heterogeneous party, divided in factions ranging from Moderate to social democracy. Its general profile is more or less liberal. They can differ very much in political profile. Liberal forces are not only active in the Colorado Party and this party has also moderate factions.

The timeline

Colorado Party
1836: The supporters of general Rivera during the civil war formed the liberal Colorado Party or Red Party (Partido Colorado). This party is led in the beginning of the twentieth century by José Batlle y Ordóñez.
1976: The party is banned.
1985: The party is reinstated under the leadership of Julio María Sanguinetti.

Liberal leaders
 Partido Colorado: José Batlle y Ordóñez - Jorge Batlle

See also
 History of Uruguay
 Politics of Uruguay
 List of political parties in Uruguay

References

Uruguay
Political movements in Uruguay

Liberalism in Uruguay


Clone Wars may refer to:

 Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003 TV series), an American animated television series set in the Star Wars galaxy
 Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series), an American 3D CGI animated television series created by Lucasfilm Animation
 Star Wars: The Clone Wars (movie), a 2008 movie
 Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars, a 2011 video game for multiple platforms, such as Playstation 3, Xbox 360, PC, PSP and Nintendo DS.
 Clone Wars (Star Wars), a series of conflicts in the fictional Star Wars universe

Related pages
Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, a 2002 movie

Clone Wars


Central R. Co. of N. J. v. Mills, 113 U.S. 249 (1885), involved a case where the Court of Claims had dismissed a petition of the claimants, regarding the rejection of two items sued for: (1) labor done and materials furnished by the claimants in constructing the coffer dams, and in performing the work necessarily connected therewith and preliminary to the masonry work for the piers and abutments, (2) loss and damages resulting to the claimants in consequence of the reduction of the dimensions of the piers and abutments made subsequently to the making of the contract.

Background

The decision of the Court of Claims in regard to item (1) was that the claimants had not shown that the written contract did not express the intent of both parties as to the coffer dams, and that even if that court were satisfied that the claimants executed the contract in mistake of their rights, there was no evidence that the defendants shared the mistake. Its decision in regard to item (2) was that it would be disposed to regard the case, on the facts, as one for equitable interposition for the purpose of further inquiry and the ascertainment of the rights of the parties in equity if it had jurisdiction, but that the statute did not authorize it to entertain those considerations, because, in the proceedings before it, it could hear and determine only claims for labor done and materials furnished by the claimants under their contract with the defendants.

Opinion of the Court

The Supreme Court held that the ruling of the Court of Claims in regard to item (1)—the coffer dams—was erroneous, and that by the actual contract between the parties the claimants were not to do any of the work covered by the claim made by them under item (1), and that the written contract must be reformed accordingly. As to item (2), this Court held, that the Court of Claims placed too limited a construction upon the special act of Congress, and that its power, under that act, extended to reforming the contract in respect to permitting the officers of the United States to materially vary the plans for the piers so as to essentially change the obligations of the parties.

The decree of the Court of Claims was reversed, and the cause was remanded, with directions to proceed in it according to law and in conformity with the opinion of this Court. This cause was remanded to the Court of Claims, with a direction to enter judgment accordingly.

See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 113

References

External links

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Waite Court
1885 in United States case law
Central Railroad of New Jersey
Railway litigation in 1885

Central Railroad Co. of New Jersey v. Mills


Gordon Charles Danielson (October 28, 1912 - September 30, 1983) was a Distinguished Professor in Sciences and Humanities in 1964 at Iowa State University at Ames, Iowa.

His name was added to the  Distinguished Professor Award Wall in Beardsher Hall.

A scholarship fund, the Gordon C. Danielson Fund was established in his name.

Danielson collaborated  with Cornelius Lanczos to write the paper, Some Improvements in Practical Fourier Analysis and their Application to X-ray Scattering from Liquids (1942).  The Danielson-Lanczos lemma, which appears in this paper, is the basis of the Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm, an efficient algorithm for computing the discrete Fourier transform.

With L. D. Muhlstein he wrote Effects of Ordering on the Transport Properties of Sodium Tungsten Bronze (1967).

References

Effects of Ordering on the Transport Properties of Sodium Tungsten Bronze

American physicists
Iowa State University faculty
1983 deaths
1912 births

G. C. Danielson


My Mother's Smile is a 2002 Italian film directed by Marco Bellocchio. The original Italian title is L'ora di religione (Il sorriso di mia madre) ("The Hour of Religion (My Mother's Smile)").

Summary
The film tells the story of a man whose "martyred" mother is in the process of canonization. She had been killed by her insane son, Egidio, while she slept. However, since this death would not count as "martyrdom", and would not qualify her for sainthood, the family is claiming she had been awake, begging her son to stop blaspheming, and that she had forgiven him before she died. The story is told from the perspective of her son Ernesto, a well-known painter and an atheist. The film portrays a colorful fresco so hypocritical to Catholicism today, showing how hard it still creeps into our lives, even against our will (as the protagonist shows). He often remembers for the delivery of a blasphemy explicit narrative tension at maximum (for this reason in Italy it was rated not suitable for kids who are less than 14 years old).

Plot
Ernesto Picciafuoco, painter and illustrator of children's tales, is a part of a very important but impoverished family, which wants to regain its stature by having a member canonized. ns. The late mother of the protagonist seems to be the only true religious person in the weak and stupid family. Two of the young rebels are now in the 40s and are completely detached from the hypocrisy of religion. One of them pretends to be very religious, to get back his job. The other, the protagonist, is uncertain, beset by moral doubts, mainly because of his young son who could learn the hypocrisy from him.
The film is a journey through the absurd and surreal episodes. Ernesto, the protagonist, is contacted by a mysterious cardinal who wants to question him about the process of sanctification of the mother, about which he knew nothing until then. Then the child goes to school for the hearings with teachers, where he meets a young and charming, "religious teacher", to whom he is attracted, but that will be an impossibility. He has a discussion with a religious man appointed to investigate circumstances of "martyrdom", which asks account the non-baptism of his son, showing that he is well informed about him and trying to know why Ernest had "lost faith". Ernesto is then challenged to a duel, for petty reasons, from a noble dream of an improbable restoration of the monarchy, but the duel is interrupted after a few seconds. He talks with his aunt, who has never shown much faith, but now, attracted by possible financial gain and popularity that the family would derive from sanctification, for a purely opportunistic attempt to bring her nephew on the "right path". Meanwhile, the wife of Ernesto administers a sort of baptism to the child sleeping, anxious to repair the previous "non-". Ernesto's aunt smiles cravingly while awaiting to be seen by his Holiness, with their familial collaborators, all but Ernesto, who prefers to walk with his child to school.

Cast
 Sergio Castellitto - Ernesto Picciafuocco
 Jacqueline Lustig - Irene Picciafuocco
 Chiara Conti - Diana Sereni
 Gigio Alberti - Ettore Picciafuocco
 Alberto Mondini - Leonardo Picciafuocco
 Gianfelice Imparato - Erminio Picciafuocco
 Gianni Schicchi - Filippo Argenti (as Gianni Schicchi Gabrieli)
 Maurizio Donadoni - Cardinal Piumini
 Donato Placido - Egidio Picciafuocco
 Renzo Rossi - Baldracchi
 Pietro De Silva - Curzio Sandali
 Bruno Cariello - Don Pugni
 Piera Degli Esposti - Aunt Maria
 Toni Bertorelli - Count Ludovico Bulla
 Maria Luisa Bellocchio - Zia Ernesto

Awards
 David di Donatello for Best Supporting Actress (Piera Degli Esposti)
 European Film Awards Best Actor (Sergio Castellitto)
 4 Nastro d'Argento
 Prize of the Ecumenical Jury - Special Mention at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival

References

External links

2002 films
Films directed by Marco Bellocchio
2002 drama films
Italian drama films

My Mother's Smile


Fly ash, flue ash, coal ash, or pulverised fuel ash (in the UK) plurale tantum: coal combustion residuals (CCRs)is a coal combustion product that is composed of the particulates (fine particles of burned fuel) that are driven out of coal-fired boilers together with the flue gases. Ash that falls to the bottom of the boiler's combustion chamber (commonly called a firebox) is called bottom ash. In modern coal-fired power plants, fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys. Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the boiler, it is known as coal ash.

Depending upon the source and composition of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO), the main mineral compounds in coal-bearing rock strata.

The use of fly ash as a lightweight aggregate (LWA) offers a valuable opportunity to recycle one of the largest waste streams in the US. In addition, fly ash can offer many benefits, both economically and environmentally when utilized as a LWA.

The minor constituents of fly ash depend upon the specific coal bed composition but may include one or more of the following elements or compounds found in trace concentrations (up to hundreds of ppm): gallium, arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, hexavalent chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along with very small concentrations of dioxins, PAH compounds, and other trace carbon compounds.

In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but air pollution control standards now require that it be captured prior to release by fitting pollution control equipment. In the United States, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled, often used as a pozzolan to produce hydraulic cement or hydraulic plaster and a replacement or partial replacement for Portland cement in concrete production. Pozzolans ensure the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more protection from wet conditions and chemical attack.

In the case that fly (or bottom) ash is not produced from coal, for example when solid waste is incinerated in a waste-to-energy facility to produce electricity, the ash may contain higher levels of contaminants than coal ash. In that case the ash produced is often classified as hazardous waste.

Chemical composition and classification

Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected by electrostatic precipitators or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and range in size from 0.5 µm to 300 µm. The major consequence of the rapid cooling is that few minerals have time to crystallize, and that mainly amorphous, quenched glass remains. Nevertheless, some refractory phases in the pulverized coal do not melt (entirely), and remain crystalline. In consequence, fly ash is a heterogeneous material.

SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and occasionally CaO are the main chemical components present in fly ashes. The mineralogy of fly ashes is very diverse. The main phases encountered are a glass phase, together with quartz, mullite and the iron oxides hematite, magnetite and/or maghemite. Other phases often identified are cristobalite, anhydrite, free lime, periclase, calcite, sylvite, halite, portlandite, rutile and anatase. The Ca-bearing minerals anorthite, gehlenite, akermanite and various calcium silicates and calcium aluminates identical to those found in Portland cement can be identified in Ca-rich fly ashes.
The mercury content can reach , but is generally included in the range 0.01–1 ppm for bituminous coal.
The concentrations of other trace elements vary as well according to the kind of coal combusted to form it.

Classification
Two classes of fly ash are defined by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C618: Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash. The chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content of the coal burned (i.e., anthracite, bituminous, and lignite).

Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the application, this may not be necessary. Fly ash used as a cement replacement must meet strict construction standards, but no standard environmental regulations have been established in the United States. Seventy-five percent of the fly ash must have a fineness of 45 µm or less, and have a carbon content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%. In the US, LOI must be under 6%. The particle size distribution of raw fly ash tends to fluctuate constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the boiler performance. This makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in an optimal way to replace cement in concrete production, it must be processed using beneficiation methods like mechanical air classification. But if fly ash is used as a filler to replace sand in concrete production, unbeneficiated fly ash with higher LOI can be also used. Especially important is the ongoing quality verification. This is mainly expressed by quality control seals like the Bureau of Indian Standards mark or the DCL mark of the Dubai Municipality.

Class "F"
The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 7% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime—mixed with water to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, adding a chemical activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can form a geopolymer.

Class "C"
Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash hardens and gets stronger over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and sulfate () contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes.

At least one US manufacturer has announced a fly ash brick containing up to 50% Class C fly ash. Testing shows bricks meet or exceed the performance standards listed in ASTM C 216 for conventional clay brick. It is also within the allowable shrinkage limits for concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specification for Concrete Building Brick. It is estimated that the production method used in fly ash bricks will reduce the embodied energy of masonry construction by up to 90%. Bricks and pavers were expected to be available in commercial quantities before the end of 2009.

Disposal and market sources
In the past, fly ash produced from coal combustion was simply entrained in flue gases and dispersed into the atmosphere. This created environmental and health concerns that prompted laws in heavily industrialized countries that have reduced fly ash emissions to less than 1% of ash produced. Worldwide, more than 65% of fly ash produced from coal power stations is disposed of in landfills and ash ponds.

Ash that is stored or deposited outdoors can eventually leach toxic compounds into underground water aquifers. For this reason, much of the current debate around fly ash disposal revolves around creating specially lined landfills that prevent the chemical compounds from being leached into the ground water and local ecosystems.

Since coal was the dominant energy source in the United States for many decades, power companies often located their coal plants near metropolitan areas. Compounding the environmental issues, the coal plants need significant amounts of water to operate their boilers, leading coal plants (and later their fly ash storage basins) to be located near metropolitan areas and near rivers and lakes which are often used as drinking supplies by nearby cities. Many of those fly ash basins were unlined and also at great risk of spilling and flooding from nearby rivers and lakes. For example, Duke Energy in North Carolina has been involved in several major lawsuits related to its coal ash storage and spills into the leakage of ash into the water basin.

The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years due to increasing landfill costs and current interest in sustainable development. , coal-fired power plants in the US reported producing  of fly ash, of which  were reused in various applications. Environmental benefits to recycling fly ash includes reducing the demand for virgin materials that would need quarrying and cheap substitution for materials such as Portland cement.

Reuse
There is no US governmental registration or labelling of fly ash utilization in the different sectors of the economy – industry, infrastructures and agriculture. Fly ash utilization survey data, acknowledged as incomplete, are published annually by the American Coal Ash Association.

Coal ash uses include (approximately in order of decreasing importance):
 Concrete production, as a substitute material for Portland cement, sand.
 Corrosion control in RC structures
 Fly-ash pellets which can replace normal aggregate in concrete mixture.
 Embankments and other structural fills (usually for road construction)
 Grout and Flowable fill production
 Waste stabilization and solidification
 Cement clinker production (as a substitute material for clay)
 Mine reclamation
 Stabilization of soft soils
 Road subbase construction
 As aggregate substitute material (e.g. for brick production)
 Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete
 Agricultural uses: soil amendment, fertilizer, cattle feeders, soil stabilization in stock feed yards, and agricultural stakes
 Loose application on rivers to melt ice
 Loose application on roads and parking lots for ice control

Other applications include cosmetics, toothpaste, kitchen counter tops, floor and ceiling tiles, bowling balls, flotation devices, stucco, utensils, tool handles, picture frames, auto bodies and boat hulls, cellular concrete, geopolymers, roofing tiles, roofing granules, decking, fireplace mantles, cinder block, PVC pipe, structural insulated panels, house siding and trim, running tracks, blasting grit, recycled plastic lumber, utility poles and crossarms, railway sleepers, highway noise barriers, marine pilings, doors, window frames, scaffolding, sign posts, crypts, columns, railroad ties, vinyl flooring, paving stones, shower stalls, garage doors, park benches, landscape timbers, planters, pallet blocks, molding, mail boxes, artificial reef, binding agent, paints and undercoatings, metal castings, and filler in wood and plastic products.

Portland cement
Owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly ash is used as a replacement for Portland cement in concrete. The use of fly ash as a pozzolanic ingredient was recognized as early as 1914, although the earliest noteworthy study of its use was in 1937. Roman structures such as aqueducts or the Pantheon in Rome used volcanic ash or pozzolana (which possesses similar properties to fly ash) as pozzolan in their concrete. As pozzolan greatly improves the strength and durability of concrete, the use of ash is a key factor in their preservation.

Use of fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement is particularly suitable but not limited to Class C fly ashes.  Class "F" fly ashes can have volatile effects on the entrained air content of concrete, causing reduced resistance to freeze/thaw damage. Fly ash often replaces up to 30% by mass of Portland cement, but can be used in higher dosages in certain applications. In some cases, fly ash can add to the concrete's final strength and increase its chemical resistance and durability.

Fly ash can significantly improve the workability of concrete. Recently, techniques have been developed to replace partial cement with high-volume fly ash (50% cement replacement). For roller-compacted concrete (RCC)[used in dam construction], replacement values of 70% have been achieved with processed fly ash at the Ghatghar dam project in Maharashtra, India. Due to the spherical shape of fly ash particles, it can increase workability of cement while reducing water demand. Proponents of fly ash claim that replacing Portland cement with fly ash reduces the greenhouse gas "footprint" of concrete, as the production of one ton of Portland cement generates approximately one ton of CO2, compared to no CO2 generated with fly ash. New fly ash production, i.e., the burning of coal, produces approximately 20 to 30 tons of CO2 per ton of fly ash. Since the worldwide production of Portland cement is expected to reach nearly 2 billion tons by 2010, replacement of any large portion of this cement by fly ash could significantly reduce carbon emissions associated with construction, as long as the comparison takes the production of fly ash as a given.

Embankment
Fly ash properties are unusual among engineering materials. Unlike soils typically used for embankment construction, fly ash has a large uniformity coefficient and it consists of clay-sized particles. Engineering properties that affect the use of fly ash in embankments include grain size distribution, compaction characteristics, shear strength, compressibility, permeability, and frost susceptibility. Nearly all the types of fly ash used in embankments are Class F.

Soil stabilization
Soil stabilization is the permanent physical and chemical alteration of soils to enhance their physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and/or control the shrink-swell properties of a soil, thus improving the load-bearing capacity of a sub-grade to support pavements and foundations. Stabilization can be used to treat a wide range of sub-grade materials from expansive clays to granular materials. Stabilization can be achieved with a variety of chemical additives including lime, fly ash, and Portland cement. Proper design and testing is an important component of any stabilization project. This allows for the establishment of design criteria, and determination of the proper chemical additive and admixture rate that achieves the desired engineering properties. Stabilization process benefits can include: Higher resistance (R) values, Reduction in plasticity, Lower permeability, Reduction of pavement thickness, Elimination of excavation – material hauling/handling – and base importation, Aids compaction, Provides "all-weather" access onto and within projects sites. Another form of soil treatment closely related to soil stabilization is soil modification, sometimes referred to as "mud drying" or soil conditioning. Although some stabilization inherently occurs in soil modification, the distinction is that soil modification is merely a means to reduce the moisture content of a soil to expedite construction, whereas stabilization can substantially increase the shear strength of a material such that it can be incorporated into the project's structural design. The determining factors associated with soil modification vs soil stabilization may be the existing moisture content, the end use of the soil structure and ultimately the cost benefit provided. Equipment for the stabilization and modification processes include: chemical additive spreaders, soil mixers (reclaimers), portable pneumatic storage containers, water trucks, deep lift compactors, motor graders.

Flowable fill
Fly ash is also used as a component in the production of flowable fill (also called controlled low strength material, or CLSM), which is used as self-leveling, self-compact backfill material in lieu of compacted earth or granular fill. The strength of flowable fill mixes can range from 50 to 1,200 lbf/in2 (0.3 to 8.3 MPa), depending on the design requirements of the project in question. Flowable fill includes mixtures of Portland cement and filler material, and can contain mineral admixtures. Fly ash can replace either the Portland cement or fine aggregate (in most cases, river sand) as a filler material. High fly ash content mixes contain nearly all fly ash, with a small percentage of Portland cement and enough water to make the mix flowable. Low fly ash content mixes contain a high percentage of filler material, and a low percentage of fly ash, Portland cement, and water. Class F fly ash is best suited for high fly ash content mixes, whereas Class C fly ash is almost always used in low fly ash content mixes.

Asphalt concrete
Asphalt concrete is a composite material consisting of an asphalt binder and mineral aggregate commonly used to surface roads. Both Class F and Class C fly ash can typically be used as a mineral filler to fill the voids and provide contact points between larger aggregate particles in asphalt concrete mixes. This application is used in conjunction, or as a replacement for, other binders (such as Portland cement or hydrated lime). For use in asphalt pavement, the fly ash must meet mineral filler specifications outlined in ASTM D242. The hydrophobic nature of fly ash gives pavements better resistance to stripping. Fly ash has also been shown to increase the stiffness of the asphalt matrix, improving rutting resistance and increasing mix durability.

Filler for thermoplastics
Coal and shale oil fly ashes have been used as a filler for thermoplastics that could be used for injection molding applications.

Geopolymers
More recently, fly ash has been used as a component in geopolymers, where the reactivity of the fly ash glasses can be used to create a binder similar to a hydrated Portland cement in appearance, but with potentially superior properties, including reduced CO2 emissions, depending on the formulation.

Roller compacted concrete

Another application of using fly ash is in roller compacted concrete dams. Many dams in the US have been constructed with high fly ash contents. Fly ash lowers the heat of hydration allowing thicker placements to occur. Data for these can be found at the US Bureau of Reclamation. This has also been demonstrated in the Ghatghar Dam Project in India.

Bricks
There are several techniques for manufacturing construction bricks from fly ash, producing a wide variety of products. One type of fly ash brick is manufactured by mixing fly ash with an equal amount of clay, then firing in a kiln at about   This approach has the principal benefit of reducing the amount of clay required. Another type of fly ash brick is made by mixing soil, plaster of Paris, fly ash and water, and allowing the mixture to dry. Because no heat is required, this technique reduces air pollution. More modern manufacturing processes use a greater proportion of fly ash, and a high pressure manufacturing technique, which produces high strength bricks with environmental benefits.

In the United Kingdom, fly ash has been used for over fifty years to make concrete building blocks. They are widely used for the inner skin of cavity walls. They are naturally more thermally insulating than blocks made with other aggregates.

Ash bricks have been used in house construction in Windhoek, Namibia, since the 1970s. There is, however, a problem with the bricks in that they tend to fail or produce unsightly pop-outs. This happens when the bricks come into contact with moisture and a chemical reaction occurs causing the bricks to expand.

In India, fly ash bricks are used for construction. Leading manufacturers use an industrial standard known as "Pulverized fuel ash for lime-Pozzolana mixture" using over 75% post-industrial recycled waste, and a compression process. This produces a strong product with good insulation properties and environmental benefits.

Metal matrix composites
Fly ash particles have proved their potential as good reinforcement with aluminum alloys and show the improvement of physical and mechanical properties. In particular, the compression strength, tensile strength, and hardness increase when the percentage of fly ash content is increased, whereas the density decreases. The presence of fly ash cenospheres in a pure Al matrix decreases its coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).

Mineral extraction
It may be possible to use vacuum distillation in order to extract germanium and tungsten from fly ash and recycle them.

Waste treatment and stabilization
Fly ash, in view of its alkalinity and water absorption capacity, may be used in combination with other alkaline materials to transform sewage sludge into organic fertilizer or biofuel.

Catalyst
Fly ash, when treated with sodium hydroxide, appears to function well as a catalyst for converting polyethylene into substance similar to crude oil in a high-temperature process called pyrolysis and utilized in waste water treatment.

In addition, fly ash, mainly class C, may be used in the stabilization/solidification process of hazardous wastes and contaminated soils. For example, the Rhenipal process uses fly ash as an admixture to stabilize sewage sludge and other toxic sludges. This process has been used since 1996 to stabilize large amounts of chromium(VI) contaminated leather sludges in Alcanena, Portugal.

Environmental problems

Groundwater contamination
Coal contains trace levels of trace elements (such as arsenic, barium, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, thallium, selenium, molybdenum and mercury), many of which are highly toxic to humans and other life. Therefore, fly ash obtained after combustion of this coal contains enhanced concentrations of these elements and the potential of the ash to cause groundwater pollution is significant. In the USA there are documented cases of groundwater pollution that followed ash disposal or utilization without the necessary protection having been put in place.

Examples

Maryland
Constellation Energy disposed fly ash generated by its Brandon Shores Generating Station at a former sand and gravel mine in Gambrills, Maryland, during 1996 to 2007. The ash contaminated groundwater with heavy metals. The Maryland Department of the Environment issued a fine of $1 million to Constellation. Nearby residents filed a lawsuit against Constellation and in 2008 the company settled the case for $54 million.

North Carolina
In 2014, residents living near the Buck Steam Station in Dukeville, North Carolina, were told that "coal ash pits near their homes could be leaching dangerous materials into groundwater."

Illinois
Illinois has many coal ash dumpsites with coal ash generated by coal-burning electric power plants. Of the state's 24 coal ash dumpsites with available data, 22 have released toxic pollutants including arsenic, cobalt, and lithium, into groundwater, rivers and lakes. The hazardous toxic chemicals dumped into the water in Illinois by these coal ash dumpsites include more than 300,000 pounds of aluminum, 600 pounds of arsenic, nearly 300,000 pounds of boron, over 200 pounds of cadmium, over 15,000 pounds of manganese, roughly 1,500 pounds of selenium, roughly 500,000 pounds of nitrogen, and nearly 40 million pounds of sulfate, according to a report by the Environmental Integrity Project, Earthjustice, the Prairie Rivers Network, and the Sierra Club.

Tennessee

In 2008, the Kingston Fossil Plant in Roane County spilled 1.1 billion gallons of coal ash into the Emory and Clinch Rivers and damaged nearby residential areas. It is the largest industrial spill in the U.S.

Texas
Groundwater surrounding every single one of the 16 coal-burning power plants in Texas has been polluted by coal ash, according to a study by the Environmental Integrity Project (EIP). Unsafe levels of arsenic, cobalt, lithium, and other contaminants were found in the groundwater near all the ash dump sites. At 12 of the 16 sites, the EIP analysis found levels of arsenic in the groundwater 10 times higher than the EPA Maximum Contaminant Level; arsenic has been found to cause several types of cancer. At 10 of the sites, lithium, which causes neurological disease, was found in the groundwater at concentrations more than 1,000 micrograms per liter, which is 25 times the maximum acceptable level. The report concludes that the fossil fuel industry in Texas has failed to comply with federal regulations on coal ash processing, and state regulators have failed to protect the groundwater.

Ecology
The effect of fly ash on the environment can vary based on the thermal power plant where it is produced, as well as the proportion of fly ash to bottom ash in the waste product. This is due to the different chemical make-up of the coal based on the geology of the area the coal is found and the burning process of the coal in the power plant. When the coal is combusted, it creates an alkaline dust. This alkaline dust can have a pH ranging from 8 to as high as 12. Fly ash dust can be deposited on topsoil increasing the pH and affecting the plants and animals in the surrounding ecosystem. Trace elements, such as, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, lead, nickel, chromium, cobalt, arsenic, cadmium, and mercury, can be found at higher concentrations compared to bottom ash and the parent coal.

Fly ash can leach toxic constituents that can be anywhere from one hundred to one thousand times greater than the federal standard for drinking water. Fly ash can contaminate surface water through erosion, surface runoff, airborne particles landing on the water surface, contaminated ground water moving into surface waters, flooding drainage, or discharge from a coal ash pond. Fish can be contaminated a couple of different ways. When the water is contaminated by fly ash, the fish can absorb the toxins through their gills. The sediment in the water can also become contaminated. The contaminated sediment can contaminate the food sources for the fish, the fish can then become contaminated from consuming those food sources. This can then lead to contamination of organisms that consume these fish, such as, birds, bear, and even humans. Once exposed to fly ash contaminating the water, aquatic organisms have had increased levels of calcium, zinc, bromine, gold, cerium, chromium, selenium, cadmium, and mercury.

Soils contaminated by fly ash showed an increase in bulk density and water capacity, but a decrease in hydraulic conductivity and cohesiveness. The effect of fly ash on soils and microorganisms in the soils are influenced by the pH of the ash and trace metal concentrations in the ash. Microbial communities in contaminated soil have shown reductions in respiration and nitrification. These contaminated soils can be detrimental or beneficial to plant development. Fly ash typically has beneficial outcomes when it corrects nutrient deficiencies in the soil. Most detrimental effects were observed when boron phytotoxicity was observed. Plants absorb elements elevated by the fly ash from the soil. Arsenic, molybdenum, and selenium were the only elements found at potentially toxic levels for grazing animals. Terrestrial organisms exposed to fly ash only showed increased levels of selenium.

In the UK, fly ash lagoons from old coal-fired power stations have been made into nature reserves such as Newport Wetlands, providing habitat for rare birds and other wildlife.

Spills of bulk storage

Where fly ash is stored in bulk, it is usually stored wet rather than dry to minimize fugitive dust. The resulting impoundments (ash ponds) are typically large and stable for long periods, but any breach of their dams or bunding is rapid and on a massive scale.

In December 2008, the collapse of an embankment at an impoundment for wet storage of fly ash at the Tennessee Valley Authority's Kingston Fossil Plant caused a major release of 5.4 million cubic yards of coal fly ash, damaging three homes and flowing into the Emory River. Cleanup costs may exceed $1.2 billion. This spill was followed a few weeks later by a smaller TVA-plant spill in Alabama, which contaminated Widows Creek and the Tennessee River.

In 2014, 39,000 tons of ash and 27 million gallons (100,000 cubic meters) of contaminated water spilled into the Dan River near Eden, NC from a closed North Carolina coal-fired power plant that is owned by Duke Energy. It is currently the third worst coal ash spill ever to happen in the United States.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published a Coal Combustion Residuals (CCR) regulation in 2015. The agency continued to classify coal ash as non-hazardous (thereby avoiding strict permitting requirements under Subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), but with new restrictions:
 Existing ash ponds that are contaminating groundwater must stop receiving CCR, and close or retrofit with a liner.
 Existing ash ponds and landfills must comply with structural and location restrictions, where applicable, or close.
 A pond no longer receiving CCR is still subject to all regulations unless it is dewatered and covered by 2018.
 New ponds and landfills must include a geomembrane liner over a layer of compacted soil.
The regulation was designed to prevent pond failures and protect groundwater. Enhanced inspection, record keeping and monitoring is required. Procedures for closure are also included and include capping, liners, and dewatering. The CCR regulation has since been subject to litigation.

Contaminants
Fly ash contains trace concentrations of heavy metals and other substances that are known to be detrimental to health in sufficient quantities. Potentially toxic trace elements in coal include arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, barium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, radium, selenium, thorium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc. Approximately 10% of the mass of coals burned in the United States consists of unburnable mineral material that becomes ash, so the concentration of most trace elements in coal ash is approximately 10 times the concentration in the original coal. A 1997 analysis by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) found that fly ash typically contained 10 to 30 ppm of uranium, comparable to the levels found in some granitic rocks, phosphate rock, and black shale.

In 1980 the U.S. Congress defined coal ash as a "special waste" that would not be regulated under the stringent hazardous waste permitting requirements of RCRA. In its amendments to RCRA, Congress directed EPA to study the special waste issue and make a determination as to whether stricter permit regulation was necessary. In 2000, EPA stated that coal fly ash did not need to be regulated as a hazardous waste. As a result, most power plants were not required to install geomembranes or leachate collection systems in ash ponds.

Studies by the USGS and others of radioactive elements in coal ash have concluded that fly ash compares with common soils or rocks and should not be the source of alarm. However, community and environmental organizations have documented numerous environmental contamination and damage concerns.

Exposure concerns

Crystalline silica and lime along with toxic chemicals represent exposure risks to human health and the environment. Fly ash contains crystalline silica which is known to cause lung disease, in particular silicosis, if inhaled. Crystalline silica is listed by the IARC and US National Toxicology Program as a known human carcinogen.

Lime (CaO) reacts with water (H2O) to form calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], giving fly ash a pH somewhere between 10 and 12, a medium to strong base. This can also cause lung damage if present in sufficient quantities.

Material Safety Data Sheets recommend a number of safety precautions be taken when handling or working with fly ash. These include wearing protective goggles, respirators and disposable clothing and avoiding agitating the fly ash in order to minimize the amount which becomes airborne.

The National Academy of Sciences noted in 2007 that "the presence of high contaminant levels in many CCR (coal combustion residue) leachates may create human health and ecological concerns".

Regulation

United States
Following the 2008 Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill, EPA began developing regulations that would apply to all ash ponds nationwide. EPA published the CCR rule in 2015. Some of the provisions in the 2015 CCR regulation were challenged in litigation, and the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit remanded certain portions of the regulation to EPA for further rulemaking.

EPA published a proposed rule on August 14, 2019, that would use location-based criteria, rather than a numerical threshold (i.e. impoundment or landfill size) that would require an operator to demonstrate minimal environmental impact so that a site could remain in operation.

In response to the court remand, EPA published its "CCR Part A" final rule on August 28, 2020 requiring all unlined ash ponds to retrofit with liners or close by April 11, 2021. Some facilities may apply to obtain additional time—up to 2028—to find alternatives for managing ash wastes before closing their surface impoundments. EPA published its "CCR Part B" rule on November 12, 2020, which allows certain facilities to use an alternative liner, based on a demonstration that human health and the environment will not be affected. Further litigation on the CCR regulation is pending as of 2021.

In October 2020 EPA published a final effluent guidelines rule that reverses some provisions of its 2015 regulation, which had tightened requirements on toxic metals in wastewater discharged from ash ponds and other power plant wastestreams. The 2020 rule has also been challenged in litigation. In March 2023 EPA published a proposed rule that would reverse some aspects of the 2020 rule and impose more stringent wastewater limitations for some facilities.

India
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change of India first published a gazette notification in 1999 specifying use of fly ash and mandating a target date for all thermal power plants to comply by ensuring 100% utilisation. Subsequent amendments in 2003 and 2009 shifted the deadline for compliance to 2014. As reported by Central Electricity Authority, New Delhi, as of 2015, only 60% of fly ash produced was being utilised. This has resulted in the latest notification in 2015 which has set December 31, 2017, as the revised deadline to achieve 100% utilisation. Out of the approximately 55.7% fly ash utilised, bulk of it (42.3%) goes into cement production whereas only about 0.74% is used as an additive in concrete (See Table 5 [29]). Researchers in India are actively addressing this challenge by working on fly ash as an admixture for concrete and activated pozzolanic cement such as geopolymer [34] to help achieve the target of 100% utilisation. The biggest scope clearly lies in the area of increasing the quantity of fly ash being incorporated in concrete. India produced 280 Million Tonnes of Cement in 2016 . With housing sector consuming 67% of the cement, there is a huge scope for incorporating fly ash in both the increasing share of PPC and low to moderate strength concrete. There is a misconception that the Indian codes IS 456:2000 for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete and IS 3812.1:2013 for Fly Ash restrict the use of Fly Ash to less than 35%. Similar misconceptions exists in countries like USA but evidence to the contrary is the use of HVFA in many large projects where design mixes have been used under strict quality control. It is suggested that in order to make the most of the research results presented in the paper, Ultra High Volume Fly ash Concrete (UHVFA) concrete is urgently developed for widespread use in India using local fly ash. Urgent steps are also required to promote alkali activated pozzolan or geopolymer cement based concretes.

In the geologic record
Due to the ignition of coal deposits by the Siberian Traps during the Permian–Triassic extinction event around 252 million years ago, large amounts of char very similar to modern fly ash were released into the oceans, which is preserved in the geologic record in marine deposits located in the Canadian High Arctic. It has been hypothesised that the fly ash could have resulted in toxic environmental conditions.

See also

 Alkali–silica reaction (ASR)
 Alkali–aggregate reaction
 Cement
 Coal waste
 Energetically modified cement (EMC)
 Health effects of coal ash
 Pozzolanic reaction
 Silica fume
 Cenocell

References

External links

 Evaluation of Dust Exposures at Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Union Bridge, MD, a NIOSH Report, HETA 2000-0309-2857
 Determination of Airborne Crystalline Silica Treatise by NIOSH
 American Coal Ash Association
 Fly Ash Info, the Ash Library Website, University of Kentucky
 United States Geological Survey – Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash (document)
 Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility: Coal Combustion Waste
 UK Quality Ash Association : A site promoting the many uses of fly ash in the UK
 Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste, Scientific American (13 December 2007)
 UK Quality Ash Association A web site providing further information on the applications for PFA.
 Asian Coal Ash Association A web site providing further information on technologies and trade related to coal combustion products.

Cement
Coal
Coal-fired power stations
Concrete
Environmental impact of the coal industry
Environmental impact of the energy industry
Silicates
Waste
Waste treatment technology
Types of ash
By-products

Fly ash


Brisbane Forest Park (now officially the southern part of D'Aguilar National Park), is located on parts of the D'Aguilar Range. The large nature reserve lies on the western boundary of City of Brisbane into the City of Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia, in Enoggera Reservoir, adjacent to The Gap and between the Mount Coot-tha Reserve on the Taylor Range and higher peaks to the north. Brisbane Forest Park supports plants and animals and is essential to their survival. The main entrance is located in the suburb of The Gap although there are a number of other access points.

A number of waterways have their headwaters in the park including South Pine River, Enoggera Creek, Gold Creek, Moggill Creek and its tributary Gap Creek, Cabbage Tree Creek and Cedar Creek, a tributary of Kedron Brook. Lake Manchester Dam, Gold Creek Dam and Enoggera Dam are also located within the park.

History

The first national park on the D'Aguilar Range, Maiala National Park was declared in 1930. The park was established by a community group called the Brisbane National & Recreation Park Committee. In 1973 the group released a study on the feasibility of establishing a park between Mount Coot-tha and Mount Nebo. Initially the Brisbane City Council was concerned with the incompatibility of opening a public recreation area in a water supply catchment. A co-ordinating authority was set up to allay concerns and an Act of Parliament was passed in 1977 protecting 25 000 hectares.

In 2009, Brisbane Forest Park was renamed and became one of two sections of the D'Aguilar National Park.

Walkabout Creek Wildlife Centre

The Walk-About Creek Wildlife Centre (at the Mount Nebo Road, The Gap, entrance to Brisbane Forest Park) has an information and education centre for Australian wildlife, a large walk-through aviary, aquariums and enclosures for wildlife (including a section for Australian nocturnal animals). The nocturnal section also has a pair of satin bowerbirds.

Australian wildlife on display at the Walk-About Wildlife Centre includes Australian native birds, a platypus, short-beaked echidnas, feathertail gliders, striped possums, tree kangaroos, swamp wallabies, bare-nosed wombats, spotted-tail quoll, fat-tailed dunnarts, emus, saltwater crocodile, snakes, lizards, turtles and fish (including lungfish).

Public access to Enoggera Dam is via Walkabout Creek Wildlife Centre.

Access
Brisbane Forest Park is accessible by car.

Many walks are possible in the Brisbane Forest Park with boardwalks erected to protect the area and to make it easier for the walkers. The walk to Greene's Falls leads through rainforest to the top of the waterfall.

See also

 Brisbane native plants

References

External links

 About D'Aguilar National Park
 The Marsupial Society of Australia - Brisbane Forest Park

1977 establishments in Australia
Zoos established in 1977
Tourist attractions in Brisbane
Forests of Queensland
Zoos in Queensland
Aviaries
Parks in Brisbane
The Gap, Queensland
City of Moreton Bay

Brisbane Forest Park