Deep Impact was a NASA space probe launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on January 12, 2005. It was designed to study the interior composition of the comet Tempel 1 (9P/Tempel), by releasing an impactor into the comet. At 05:52 UTC on July 4, 2005, the Impactor successfully collided with the comet's nucleus. The impact excavated debris from the interior of the nucleus, forming an impact crater. Photographs taken by the spacecraft showed the comet to be more dusty and less icy than had been expected. The impact generated an unexpectedly large and bright dust cloud, obscuring the view of the impact crater.

Previous space missions to comets, such as Giotto, Deep Space 1, and Stardust, were fly-by missions. These missions were able to photograph and examine only the surfaces of cometary nuclei, and even then from considerable distances. The Deep Impact mission was the first to eject material from a comet's surface, and the mission garnered considerable publicity from the media, international scientists, and amateur astronomers alike.

Upon the completion of its primary mission, proposals were made to further utilize the spacecraft. Consequently, Deep Impact flew by Earth on December 31, 2007, on its way to an extended mission, designated EPOXI, with a dual purpose to study extrasolar planets and comet Hartley 2 (103P/Hartley). Communication was unexpectedly lost in August 2013 while the craft was heading for another asteroid flyby.

Scientific goals
The Deep Impact mission was planned to help answer fundamental questions about comets, which included what makes up the composition of the comet's nucleus, what depth the crater would reach from the impact, and where the comet originated in its formation. By observing the composition of the comet, astronomers hoped to determine how comets form based on the differences between the interior and exterior makeup of the comet. Observations of the impact and its aftermath would allow astronomers to attempt to determine the answers to these questions.

The mission's Principal Investigator was Michael A'Hearn, an astronomer at the University of Maryland. He led the science team, which included members from Cornell University, University of Maryland, University of Arizona, Brown University, Belton Space Exploration Initiatives, JPL, University of Hawaii, SAIC, Ball Aerospace, and Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik.

Spacecraft design and instrumentation

The spacecraft consists of two main sections, the  copper-core "Smart Impactor" that impacted the comet, and the  "Flyby" section, which imaged the comet from a safe distance during the encounter with Tempel 1.

The Flyby spacecraft is about  long,  wide and  high. It includes two solar panels, a debris shield, and several science instruments for imaging, infrared spectroscopy, and optical navigation to its destination near the comet. The spacecraft also carried two cameras, the High Resolution Imager (HRI), and the Medium Resolution Imager (MRI). The HRI is an imaging device that combines a visible-light camera with a filter wheel, and an imaging infrared spectrometer called the "Spectral Imaging Module" or SIM that operates on a spectral band from 1.05 to 4.8 micrometres. It has been optimized for observing the comet's nucleus. The MRI is the backup device, and was used primarily for navigation during the final 10-day approach. It also has a filter wheel, with a slightly different set of filters.

The Impactor section of the spacecraft contains an instrument that is optically identical to the MRI, called the Impactor Targeting Sensor (ITS), but without the filter wheel. Its dual purpose was to sense the Impactor's trajectory, which could then be adjusted up to four times between release and impact, and to image the comet from close range. As the Impactor neared the comet's surface, this camera took high-resolution pictures of the nucleus (as good as ) that were transmitted in real-time to the Flyby spacecraft before it and the Impactor were destroyed. The final image taken by the Impactor was snapped only 3.7 seconds before impact.

The Impactor's payload, dubbed the "Cratering Mass", was 100% copper, with a weight of 100 kg. Including this cratering mass, copper formed 49% of total mass of the Impactor (with aluminium at 24% of the total mass); this was to minimize interference with scientific measurements. Since copper was not expected to be found on a comet, scientists could ignore copper's signature in any spectrometer readings. Instead of using explosives, it was also cheaper to use copper as the payload.

Explosives would also have been superfluous. At its closing velocity of 10.2 km/s, the Impactor's kinetic energy was equivalent to 4.8 tonnes of TNT, considerably more than its actual mass of only 372 kg.

The mission coincidentally shared its name with the 1998 film, Deep Impact, in which a comet strikes the Earth.

Mission profile

Following its launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station pad SLC-17B at 18:47 UTC on January 12, 2005, the Deep Impact spacecraft traveled  in 174 days to reach comet Tempel 1 at a cruising speed of . Once the spacecraft reached the vicinity of the comet on July 3, 2005, it separated into the Impactor and Flyby sections. The Impactor used its thrusters to move into the path of the comet, impacting 24 hours later at a relative speed of . The Impactor delivered s of kinetic energy—the equivalent of 4.7 tons of TNT. Scientists believed that the energy of the high-velocity collision would be sufficient to excavate a crater up to  wide, larger than the bowl of the Roman Colosseum. The size of the crater was still not known one year after the impact.  The 2007 Stardust spacecraft's NExT mission determined the crater's diameter to be .

Just minutes after the impact, the Flyby probe passed by the nucleus at a close distance of , taking pictures of the crater position, the ejecta plume, and the entire cometary nucleus. The entire event was also photographed by Earth-based telescopes and orbital observatories, including Hubble, Chandra, Spitzer, and XMM-Newton. The impact was also observed by cameras and spectroscopes on board Europe's Rosetta spacecraft, which was about  from the comet at the time of impact. Rosetta determined the composition of the gas and dust cloud that was kicked up by the impact.

Mission events

Before launch
A comet-impact mission was first proposed to NASA in 1996, but at the time, NASA engineers were skeptical that the target could be hit. In 1999, a revised and technologically upgraded mission proposal, dubbed Deep Impact, was accepted and funded as part of NASA's Discovery Program of low-cost spacecraft. The two spacecraft (Impactor and Flyby) and the three main instruments were built and integrated by Ball Aerospace & Technologies in Boulder, Colorado. Developing the software for the spacecraft took 18 months and the application code consisted of 20,000 lines and 19 different application threads. The total cost of developing the spacecraft and completing its mission reached .

Launch and commissioning phase
The probe was originally scheduled for launch on December 30, 2004, but NASA officials delayed its launch, in order to allow more time for testing the software. It was successfully launched from Cape Canaveral on January 12, 2005, at 1:47 pm EST (1847 UTC) by a Delta II rocket.

Deep Impact state of health was uncertain during the first day after launch. Shortly after entering orbit around the Sun and deploying its solar panels, the probe switched itself to safe mode. The cause of the problem was simply an incorrect temperature limit in the fault protection logic for the spacecraft's RCS thruster catalyst beds. The spacecraft's thrusters were used to detumble the spacecraft following third stage separation. On January 13, 2005, NASA announced that the probe was out of safe mode and healthy.

On February 11, 2005, Deep Impact rockets were fired as planned to correct the spacecraft's course. This correction was so precise that the next planned correction maneuver on March 31, 2005, was unnecessary and canceled. The "commissioning phase" verified that all instruments were activated and checked out. During these tests it was found that the HRI images were not in focus after it underwent a bake-out period. After mission members investigated the problem, on June 9, 2005, it was announced that by using image processing software and the mathematical technique of deconvolution, the HRI images could be corrected to restore much of the resolution anticipated.

Cruise phase

The "cruise phase" began on March 25, 2005, immediately after the commissioning phase was completed. This phase continued until about 60 days before the encounter with comet Tempel 1. On April 25, 2005, the probe acquired the first image of its target at a distance of .

On May 4, 2005, the spacecraft executed its second trajectory correction maneuver. Burning its rocket engine for 95 seconds, the spacecraft speed was changed by . Rick Grammier, the project manager for the mission at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, reacted to the maneuver stating that "spacecraft performance has been excellent, and this burn was no different... it was a textbook maneuver that placed us right on the money."

Approach phase
The approach phase extended from 60 days before encounter (May 5, 2005) until five days before encounter. Sixty days out was the earliest time that the Deep Impact spacecraft was expected to detect the comet with its MRI camera. In fact, the comet was spotted ahead of schedule, 69 days before impact (see Cruise phase above). This milestone marks the beginning of an intensive period of observations to refine knowledge of the comet's orbit and study the comet's rotation, activity, and dust environment.

On June 14 and 22, 2005, Deep Impact observed two outbursts of activity from the comet, the latter being six times larger than the former. The spacecraft studied the images of various distant stars to determine its current trajectory and position. Don Yeomans, a mission co-investigator for JPL pointed out that "it takes 7½ minutes for the signal to get back to Earth, so you cannot joystick this thing. You have to rely on the fact that the Impactor is a smart spacecraft as is the Flyby spacecraft. So you have to build in the intelligence ahead of time and let it do its thing." On June 23, 2005, the first of the two final trajectory correct maneuvers (targeting maneuver) was successfully executed. A  velocity change was needed to adjust the flight path towards the comet and target the Impactor at a window in space about  wide.

Impact phase

Impact phase began nominally on June 29, 2005, five days before impact. The Impactor successfully separated from the Flyby spacecraft on July 3 at 6:00 UTC (6:07 UTC ERT). The first images from the instrumented Impactor were seen two hours after separation.

The Flyby spacecraft performed one of two divert maneuvers to avoid damage. A 14-minute burn was executed which slowed down the spacecraft. It was also reported that the communication link between the Flyby and the Impactor was functioning as expected. The Impactor executed three correction maneuvers in the final two hours before impact.

The Impactor was maneuvered to plant itself in front of the comet, so that Tempel 1 would collide with it. Impact occurred at 05:45 UTC (05:52 UTC ERT, +/− up to three minutes, one-way light time = 7m 26s) on the morning of July 4, 2005, within one second of the expected time for impact.

The impactor returned images as late as three seconds before impact. Most of the data captured was stored on board the Flyby spacecraft, which radioed approximately 4,500 images from the HRI, MRI, and ITS cameras to Earth over the next few days. The energy from the collision was similar in size to exploding five tons of dynamite and the comet shone six times brighter than normal.

A mission timeline is located at Impact Phase Timeline (NASA).

Results

Mission control did not become aware of the Impactor's success until five minutes later at 05:57 UTC. Don Yeomans confirmed the results for the press, "We hit it just exactly where we wanted to" and JPL Director Charles Elachi stated "The success exceeded our expectations."

In the post-impact briefing on July 4, 2005, at 08:00 UTC, the first processed images revealed existing craters on the comet. NASA scientists stated they could not see the new crater that had formed from the Impactor, but it was later discovered to be about 100 meters wide and up to  deep. Lucy McFadden, one of the co-investigators of the impact, stated "We didn't expect the success of one part of the mission [bright dust cloud] to affect a second part [seeing the resultant crater]. But that is part of the fun of science, to meet with the unexpected." Analysis of data from the Swift X-ray telescope showed that the comet continued outgassing from the impact for 13 days, with a peak five days after impact. A total of  of water and between  of dust were lost from the impact.

Initial results were surprising as the material excavated by the impact contained more dust and less ice than had been expected. The only models of cometary structure astronomers could positively rule out were the very porous ones which had comets as loose aggregates of material. In addition, the material was finer than expected; scientists compared it to talcum powder rather than sand. Other materials found while studying the impact included clays, carbonates, sodium, and crystalline silicates which were found by studying the spectroscopy of the impact. Clays and carbonates usually require liquid water to form and sodium is rare in space. Observations also revealed that the comet was about 75% empty space, and one astronomer compared the outer layers of the comet to the same makeup of a snow bank. Astronomers have expressed interest in more missions to different comets to determine if they share similar compositions or if there are different materials found deeper within comets that were produced at the time of the Solar System's formation.

Astronomers hypothesized, based on its interior chemistry, that the comet formed in the Uranus and Neptune Oort cloud region of the Solar System. A comet which forms farther from the Sun is expected to have greater amounts of ices with low freezing temperatures, such as ethane, which was present in Tempel 1. Astronomers believe that other comets with compositions similar to Tempel 1 are likely to have formed in the same region.

Crater
Because the quality of the images of the crater formed during the Deep Impact collision was not satisfactory, on July 3, 2007, NASA approved the New Exploration of Tempel 1 (or NExT) mission. The mission utilized the already existing Stardust spacecraft, which had studied Comet Wild 2 in 2004. Stardust was placed into a new orbit so that it passed by Tempel 1 at a distance of approximately  on February 15, 2011, at 04:42 UTC. This was the first time that a comet was visited by two probes on separate occasions (1P/Halley had been visited by several probes within a few weeks in 1986), and it provided an opportunity to better observe the crater that was created by Deep Impact as well as observing the changes caused by the comet's latest close approach to the Sun.

On February 15, NASA scientists identified the crater formed by Deep Impact in images from Stardust. The crater is estimated to be  in diameter, and has a bright mound in the center likely created when material from the impact fell back into the crater.

Public interest

Media coverage

The impact was a substantial news event reported and discussed online, in print, and on television. There was a genuine suspense because experts held widely differing opinions over the result of the impact. Various experts debated whether the Impactor would go straight through the comet and out the other side, would create an impact crater, would open up a hole in the interior of the comet, and other theories. However, twenty-four hours before impact, the flight team at JPL began privately expressing a high level of confidence that, barring any unforeseen technical glitches, the spacecraft would intercept Tempel 1. One senior personnel member stated "All we can do now is sit back and wait. Everything we can technically do to ensure impact has been done." In the final minutes as the Impactor hit the comet, more than 10,000 people watched the collision on a giant movie screen at Hawaii's Waikīkī Beach.

Experts came up with a range of soundbites to summarize the mission to the public. Iwan Williams of Queen Mary University of London, said "It was like a mosquito hitting a 747. What we've found is that the mosquito didn't splat on the surface; it's actually gone through the windscreen."

One day after the impact, Marina Bay, a Russian astrologer, sued NASA for  for the impact which "ruin[ed] the natural balance of forces in the universe." Her lawyer asked the public to volunteer to help in the claim by declaring "The impact changed the magnetic properties of the comet, and this could have affected mobile telephony here on Earth. If your phone went down this morning, ask yourself Why? and then get in touch with us." On August 9, 2005, the Presnensky Court of Moscow ruled against Bay, although she did attempt to appeal the result. One Russian physicist said that the impact had no effect on Earth and "the change to the orbit of the comet after the collision was only about 10 cm (3.9 in)."

Send Your Name To A Comet campaign

The mission was notable for one of its promotional campaigns, "Send Your Name To A Comet!". Visitors to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's website were invited to submit their name between May 2003 and January 2004, and the names gathered—some 625,000 in all—were then burnt onto a mini-CD, which was attached to the Impactor. Dr. Don Yeomans, a member of the spacecraft's scientific team, stated "this is an opportunity to become part of an extraordinary space mission ... when the craft is launched in December 2004, yours and the names of your loved-ones can hitch along for the ride and be part of what may be the best space fireworks show in history." The idea was credited with driving interest in the mission.

Reaction from China
Chinese researchers used the Deep Impact mission as an opportunity to highlight the efficiency of American science because public support ensured the possibility of funding long-term research. By contrast, "in China, the public usually has no idea what our scientists are doing, and limited funding for the promotion of science weakens people's enthusiasm for research."

Two days after the US mission succeeded in having a probe collide with a comet, China revealed a plan: landing a probe on a small comet or asteroid to push it off course.  China said it would begin the mission after sending a probe to the Moon.

Contributions from amateur astronomers
Since observing time on large, professional telescopes such as Keck or Hubble is always scarce, the Deep Impact scientists called upon "advanced amateur, student, and professional astronomers" to use small telescopes to make long-term observations of the target comet before and after impact. The purpose of these observations was to look for "volatile outgassing, dust coma development and dust production rates, dust tail development, and jet activity and outbursts." By mid-2007, amateur astronomers had submitted over a thousand CCD images of the comet.

One notable amateur observation was by students from schools in Hawaii, working with US and UK scientists, who during the press conference took live images using the Faulkes Automatic Telescope in Hawaii (the students operated the telescope over the Internet) and were one of the first groups to get images of the impact. One amateur astronomer reported seeing a structureless bright cloud around the comet, and an estimated 2 magnitude increase in brightness after the impact. Another amateur published a map of the crash area from NASA images.

Musical tribute
The Deep Impact mission coincided with celebrations in the Los Angeles area marking the 50th anniversary of "Rock Around the Clock" by Bill Haley & His Comets becoming the first rock and roll single to reach No. 1 on the recording sales charts. Within 24 hours of the mission's success, a 2-minute music video produced by Martin Lewis had been created using images of the impact itself combined with computer animation of the Deep Impact probe in flight, interspersed with footage of Bill Haley & His Comets performing in 1955 and the surviving original members of The Comets performing in March 2005. The video was posted to NASA's website for a couple of weeks afterwards.

On July 5, 2005, the surviving original members of The Comets (ranging in age from 71–84) performed a free concert for hundreds of employees of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to help them celebrate the mission's success. This event received worldwide press attention. In February 2006, the International Astronomical Union citation that officially named asteroid 79896 Billhaley included a reference to the JPL concert.

Extended mission

Deep Impact embarked on an extended mission designated EPOXI (Extrasolar Planet Observation and Deep Impact Extended Investigation) to visit other comets, after being put to sleep in 2005 upon completion of the Tempel 1 mission.

Comet Boethin plan
Its first extended visit was to do a flyby of Comet Boethin, but with some complications. On July 21, 2005, Deep Impact executed a trajectory correction maneuver that allows the spacecraft to use Earth's gravity to begin a new mission in a path towards another comet.

The original plan was for a December 5, 2008, flyby of Comet Boethin, coming within  of the comet. Michael A'Hearn, the Deep Impact team leader, explained "We propose to direct the spacecraft for a flyby of Comet Boethin to investigate whether the results found at Comet Tempel 1 are unique or are also found on other comets." The $40 million mission would provide about half of the information as the collision of Tempel 1 but at a fraction of the cost. Deep Impact would use its spectrometer to study the comet's surface composition and its telescope for viewing the surface features.

However, as the December 2007 Earth gravity assist approached, astronomers were unable to locate Comet Boethin, which may have broken up into pieces too faint to be observed. Consequently, its orbit could not be calculated with sufficient precision to permit a flyby.

Flyby of Comet Hartley 2

In November 2007 the JPL team targeted Deep Impact toward Comet Hartley 2. However, this would require an extra two years of travel for Deep Impact (including earth gravity assists in December 2007 and December 2008). On May 28, 2010, a burn of 11.3 seconds was conducted, to enable the June 27 Earth fly-by to be optimized for the transit to Hartley 2 and fly-by on November 4. The velocity change was .

On November 4, 2010, the Deep Impact extended mission (EPOXI) returned images from comet Hartley 2. EPOXI came within  of the comet, returning detailed photographs of the "peanut" shaped cometary nucleus and several bright jets. The probe's medium-resolution instrument captured the photographs.

Comet Garradd (C/2009 P1)

Deep Impact observed Comet Garradd (C/2009 P1) from February 20 to April 8, 2012, using its Medium Resolution Instrument, through a variety of filters. The comet was  from the Sun and  from the spacecraft. It was found that the outgassing from the comet varies with a period of 10.4 hours, which is presumed to be due to the rotation of its nucleus. The dry ice content of the comet was measured and found to be about ten percent of its water ice content by number of molecules.

Possible mission to asteroid (163249) 2002 GT
At the end of 2011, Deep Impact was re-targeted towards asteroid (163249) 2002 GT which it would reach on January 4, 2020. At the time of re-targeting, whether or not a related science mission would be carried out in 2020 was yet to be determined, based on NASA's budget and the health of the probe. A 71-second engine burn on October 4, 2012, changed the probe's velocity by  to keep the mission on track. Also, there was a 140-second burn on November 24, 2011. Distance of a flyby would not be more than 400 kilometers.

Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON)
In February 2013, Deep Impact observed Comet ISON. The comet remained observable until March 2013.

Contact lost and end of mission
On September 3, 2013, a mission update was posted to the EPOXI mission status website, stating "Communication with the spacecraft was lost some time between August 11 and August 14 ... The last communication was on August 8. ... the team on August 30 determined the cause of the problem. The team is now trying to determine how best to try to recover communication."

On September 10, 2013, a Deep Impact mission status report explained that mission controllers believe the computers on the spacecraft are continuously rebooting themselves and so are unable to issue any commands to the vehicle's thrusters. As a result of this problem, communication with the spacecraft was explained to be more difficult, as the orientation of the vehicle's antennas is unknown. Additionally, the solar panels on the vehicle may no longer be positioned correctly for generating power.

On September 20, 2013, NASA abandoned further attempts to contact the craft. According to chief scientist A'Hearn, the reason for the software malfunction was a Y2K-like problem. August 11, 2013, 00:38:49.6, was 232 tenth-seconds (deciseconds) from January 1, 2000, leading to speculation that a system on the craft tracked time in one-tenth second increments since January 1, 2000, and stored it in an unsigned 32-bit integer, which then overflowed at this time, similar to the Year 2038 problem.

See also
 Double Asteroid Redirection Test – Similar mission that impacted the asteroid Dimorphos to study the effect of impact on asteroid trajectory
 Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) – Satellite that impacted Earth's Moon in 2009 in an attempt to eject water
 Hayabusa2
 Timeline of Solar System exploration
 List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft
 List of missions to minor planets
 List of missions to comets

References

External links

 Deep Impact website at NASA.gov
 EPOXI website at NASA.gov
 EPOXI Mission Archive at the NASA Planetary Data System, Small Bodies Node
 Deep Impact website by NASA's Solar System Exploration
 Deep Impact legacy site by NASA's Solar System Exploration
 Deep Impact website by Ball Aerospace
 Deep Impact Mission Archive at the NASA Planetary Data System, Small Bodies Node

NASA space probes
Missions to comets
Discovery Program
University of Maryland, College Park research projects
Satellites orbiting the Sun
Derelict space probes
Space probes launched in 2005
Spacecraft launched by Delta II rockets
Missions to asteroids
Impactor spacecraft
Space probes decommissioned in 2013

Deep Impact (spacecraft)


Adam Poniński (1732 or 1733 – 23 July 1798 was a Polish nobleman, Prince, one of the leaders of the Radom Confederation of 1767, Grand Treasurer of the Crown (from 1775), member of the Permanent Council, he is remembered as the infamous Marshal of the Sejm (together with Michał Hieronim Radziwiłł) of the Partition Sejm (1773–1775). Considered by many contemporaries and historians a traitor, serving Russian ambassadors, he was stripped of all titles and exiled by the decree of the Great Sejm in 1790 but restored soon afterwards by the Confederation of Targowica.

His son, Adam Poniński, born in 1758, became a military general.

References

Jerzy Jan Lerski, Piotr Wróbel, Richard J. Kozicki, Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996, , Google Print, p.466

1732 births
1798 deaths
Radom confederates

Adam Poniński (1732–1798)


MacDraw is a discontinued vector graphics drawing application released along with the first Apple Macintosh systems in 1984. MacDraw was one of the first WYSIWYG drawing programs that could be used in collaboration with MacWrite.  It was eventually adapted by Claris and, in the early 1990s, MacDraw Pro was released with color support.
MacDraw was the vector cousin of MacPaint.

In the preface of the third edition of Introduction to Algorithms, the authors make an emphatic plea for the creation of an OS X-compatible version of MacDraw Pro.

Early versions
MacDraw was based on Apple's earlier program, LisaDraw, which was developed for the Apple Lisa computer which was released in 1983. LisaDraw and MacDraw were developed by the same person, Mark Cutter.

The first version of MacDraw was similar to that of MacPaint, featuring both the same tools and patterns. However MacDraw is vector-based, meaning that an object's properties and placement can be changed at any time. MacDraw includes features for printing and also integrates with MacWrite via cut-and-paste. MacDraw is more advanced than MacPaint, featuring a grid and the ability to change the drawing dimensions. However MacDraw lacks support for using more than one document at a time and also lacks zooming capabilities. MacDraw is especially useful in drawing flowcharts, diagrams and technical drawings.

Later incarnations
MacDraw II (1988) was a complete rewrite of the original MacDraw. It was developed at Apple by project leader Gerard Schuten and team members Amy Goldsmith and Marjory Kaptanoglu, and was released by Claris. MacDraw II introduced color and many other missing features and was also enhanced for the Macintosh II. MacDraw eventually evolved into MacDraw Pro (1991) and ultimately ClarisDraw (1993). The final version of ClarisDraw was 1.0v4 (1994). It runs without difficulties on PowerPC-based Macs under Classic Mac OS and the Mac OS X Classic Environment (but Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard dropped support for the Classic Environment).

Dekorra Optics have a version of their EazyDraw software, EazyDraw Retro, that can open documents produced by the various incarnations of MacDraw, including ClarisDraw. Later versions of Libreoffice support MacDraw files as well, but only if the file type 'Legacy Mac Drawing' is manually selected.

References

Classic Mac OS-only software made by Apple Inc.
Classic Mac OS software
Discontinued software
1984 software

MacDraw


The Cordobazo was a civil uprising in the city of Córdoba, Argentina, at the end of May 1969, during the military dictatorship of General Juan Carlos Onganía, which occurred a few days after the Rosariazo, and a year after the global protests of 1968. Contrary to previous protests, the Cordobazo did not correspond to previous struggles, headed by Marxist workers' leaders, but associated students and workers in the same struggle against the military government.

The labor union CGT, headed in Cordoba by Agustín Tosco, called for National strike on May 30, 1969. But in Cordoba they decided to do a general strike one day earlier, on 29 May 1969. This strike brought police repression and a civil uprising, an episode later termed the Cordobazo.

Context

General Onganía had taken power during the 1966 coup, self-named Revolución Argentina (Argentine Revolution), which had toppled President Arturo Illia (Radical Civic Union, UCR). Onganía's regime immediately suspended the right to strike, froze workers' wages, deactivated the Commission on Minimum Wages, while his Minister of Economy, Adalbert Krieger Vasena, decreed a 40% devaluation of the peso. The age of retirement was also extended.

Onganía had also implemented the "law on repression of Communism" and had ordered the Dirección de Investigación de Políticas Antidemocráticas (DIPA) political police to detain political activists and trade-unionists who did not care to cooperate with him in the "participationist" policies, and, considering universities as "centers of subversion and communism", had also reneged on the 1918 University Reform (which had found its origins in students' protests in Córdoba), violently expelling from universities teachers and students in the Noche de los Bastones Largos.

Furthermore, Onganía was attempting to impose corporatism in Argentina. In this context, the important industrial hub of Córdoba was one of the experimental place of corporatist policies, implemented by the appointed governor Carlos Caballero.

Popular uprising

These unpopular measures led to increasing strikes and protests in the country. At the beginning of May '69, a succession of strikes and popular assemblies occurred in Córdoba, which were harshly repressed by the provincial and national military authorities of the junta.

On 13 May 1969, in Tucumán, former workers of a sugar mill took the factory and its manager as hostage, asking for overdue payments.

On 14 May, in Córdoba, automobile industry workers protested the elimination of the Saturday rest.

On 15 May, the university of Corrientes increased the price of food tickets in its cafeteria fivefold, and the ensuing protest ended up with one student, Juan José Cabral, killed by the police (see Correntinazo).

On 17 May, the student Adolfo Bello was killed during a protest in Rosario (see Rosariazo).

On 21 May, the police killed the 15-year-old student Luis Blanco during a silent march of 4,000 persons in Rosario, in commemoration of Bello's death. Rosario is declared by the authorities an emergency zone under military jurisdiction.

On 29 May 1969, the police shot dead the first victim of the Cordobazo, Máximo Mena, which triggered further demonstrations and rioting. Progressively, the population took control of most of the city, setting up barricades to defend themselves. They burnt several administrative centers, as well as the headquarters of the foreign firms, which symbolized Vasena's economic policies, of Citroën and Xerox, although they then accompanied the firefighters in order to impede the fire from extending itself to other city blocks.

On the night of 29 to 30 May 1969, Onganía decided to send the military to crush the uprising. Meanwhile, the headquarters of the CGT de los Argentinos (CGTA, an offshoot of the General Confederation of Labour created in 1968 over opposition to the collaborationist stance adopted by the general secretary of the CGT, Augusto Vandor) were searched and its leaders arrested. Thus, Agustín Tosco, one of the main leader of the CGTA, was arrested and condemned by the War Council.

On the following days, official medias reflected the official vision of the events, allegedly a conspiracy of international communism.

Consequences

The Cordobazo immediately influenced events in other parts of the country, where violent demonstrations also occurred, and favored the influence of trade unionists radically opposed to the dictatorship. This latter current, known as sindicalismo clasista, came to head the SMATA trade union of
Córdoba, as well as the autonomous unions of Fiat Concord and Fiat Materfer (SITRAC-SITRAM). Workers' leaders of Córdoba, such as
Agustín Tosco, René Salamanca, Gregorio Flores and José Francisco Páez, played a role on the national political stage. In Salta, Armando Jaime also headed the CGT clasista.

It also underlined two new facts in Argentine politics: on one hand, the alliance of the students' movement with the workers, and on the other hand, the predominance of the interior (or of the provinces of Argentina) on the capital, Buenos Aires.

The Cordobazo also had lasting influences on the history of Argentina. On one hand, it showed that the population accepted violent means to defend themselves against the military dictatorship, since no other democratic means of expression could be used. On the other hand, liberal democracy, parliamentarism and the system of elections was globally refused by what came to be known as the New Opposition (Nueva Oposición). Even Arturo Frondizi, who had been elected in 1958, had legitimized the 1955 military coup, known as the Revolución Libertadora, which had toppled Juan Perón.

Henceforth, the Cordobazo showed, to contemporary activists, that they could find popular support for violent and revolutionary means of actions against Onganía's dictatorship, thus radicalizing the social and political context of Argentina. Several armed groups were formed or strengthened in the aftermaths of the Cordobazo, among them the Fuerzas Armadas Peronistas (FAP, 1967), the Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación (FAL, 1968), the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo (ERP), the Revolutionary Peronists Montoneros, and the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias.

Finally, the Cordobazo showed Onganía's weakness. He forced his Minister of Economy Vasena to resign, while a transition period opened itself, the military junta, supreme organ of the so-called Revolución Argentina, deciding to depose Onganía of his leadership, replaced in June 1970 by General Roberto M. Levingston, former military attaché at the Argentine Embassy in Washington D.C. Instead of calling for elections, Levingston decided to go ahead with the Revolución Argentina, governing against the will of the different political parties.

The latter countered Levingston's policies by the conjoint declaration of 11 November 1970, named la Hora del Pueblo (The Hour of the People), which called for free and immediate democratic elections to put an end to the political crisis. The declaration was signed by the Radical Civic Union (UCR), the Justicialist Party (Peronist Party), the Argentine Socialist Party (PSA), the Conservative People's Party (PCP) and the Partido Bloquista (PB).

The Opposition's call for elections led to Levingston's replacement by General Alejandro Lanusse, who called for elections but excluded the Peronist Party from participating to it. Lanusse tried to implement starting in July 1971 the Gran Acuerdo Nacional (Great National Agreement), which was to find an honorable exit for the military junta without allowing Peronism participation to the elections. The proposal was rejected by Perón, exiled in Spain, who formed the FRECILINA (Frente Cívico de Liberación Nacional, Civic Front of National Liberation), headed by his delegate Héctor José Cámpora and which gathered the Justicialist Party and the Movimiento de Integración y Desarrollo (MID), headed by Arturo Frondizi. The FRECILINA requested free and unrestricted elections, which took place on March 11, 1973.

See also

History of Argentina
Bogotazo
Caracazo
Rosariazo
List of cases of police brutality in Argentina

References

Bibliography

English language

Brennan, James : Working class protest, popular revolt, and urban insurrection in Argentina: The 1969 'Cordobazo''' in: Journal of social history,(1993(27)), pp. 477–498

 Spanish language El cordobazo : una rebelión popular, compilación e introducción: Juan Carlos Cena. Prólogo: Osvaldo Bayer, Buenos Aires : Ed. La Rosa Blindada, 2000En negro y blanco : Fotografías del Cordobazo al Juico a las Juntas, Idea y compilación: Pablo Cerolini. Coordinación y compilación: Alejandro Reynoso, Buenos Aires : Latingráfica, 2006
Balvé, Beba C. ; Balvé, Beatriz S.: El '69 : huelga política de masas : rosariazo, cordobazo, rosariazo, Buenos Aires : Ed. RyR [etc.], 2005
Brennan, James : Working class protest, popular revolt, and urban insurrection in Argentina: The 1969 'Cordobazo in: Journal of social history,(1993(27)), pp. 477–498
Iñigo Carrera, Nicolás: Historia y lucha de clases : el Cordobazo 30 años después in: Crítica de nuestro tiempo : revista internacional de teoría y política. - Buenos Aires, Año 8, Nr. 21, pp. 134–145
González, Daniel: : Osvaldo Bayer, Buenos Aires : Capital Intelectual, 2006
Moreno, Nahuel : Después del cordobazo, 3. ed., Buenos Aires: Ed. Antídoto, 1997
Torres, Elpidio: El cordobazo organizado : la historia sin mitos, Buenos Aires : Ed. Catálogos, 1999

 Films
Enrique Juárez (close to the Grupo Cine Liberación movement), Ya es tiempo de violencia'' (1969)

External links
El Cordobazo Fragmentos del documental del periodista argentino Roberto Di Chiara, quien lo construyó a su vez con material de su archivo.
El Cordobazo (completo) Documental completo del fragmento publicado en YouTube.

Protests in Argentina
1969 riots
Conflicts in 1969
History of Argentina (1955–1973)
Riots and civil disorder in Argentina
Police misconduct in Argentina
1969 in Argentina
Activism
Protests

Cordobazo


Clara Beranger ( Strouse; January 14, 1886 – September 10, 1956) was an American screenwriter of the silent film era and a member of the original faculty of the USC School of Cinematic Arts.

Biography

Beranger was born Clara Strouse in Baltimore, Maryland, to Benjamin and Fannie (Kahn) Strouse. Her family was of German Jewish descent. Benjamin and his brothers had emigrated and opened a dry-goods store in Indiana.

After graduating from The Baltimore Women's College, now known as Goucher College, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1907, Clara moved to New York City and went into journalism, writing for various popular magazines and devoting time to study the stage. She married Albert Berwanger with whom she had a daughter, Frances Berwanger in 1909.  When she began to write, Clara would change her name to Beranger.

Freelance
Using the pseudonym of Charles S. Beranger, her first screen employment was as a freelancer, writing for the Edison, Vitagraph and Kalem companies, to whom she furnished many originals as well as continuities. Her success attracted some attention and she was appointed as a staff writer for the Fox Corporation.  She wrote several scripts for the popular child star Baby Marie Osborne as well as a much-praised adaptation of A Tale of Two Cities. Beranger also wrote The Interloper for Kitty Gordon, The Bluffer for June Elvidge and The Mirror for Marjorie Rambeau, though many of these films are considered lost.  With Forrest Halsey, Beranger wrote the stage play, His Chinese Wife, which received good reviews and became one of the successes of the 1919–1920 season.

Famous Players–Lasky
In 1921, Clara took Frances, then twelve, and migrated to Hollywood to write for motion pictures, where she signed a long contract with Cecil B. DeMille's Famous Players–Lasky; the outfit with whom she is most associated.  She wrote or contributed to more than 24 DeMille productions, and produced both Come Out of the Kitchen and Girls for Marguerite Clark; Sadie Love and Wanted: A Husband for Billie Burke; Judy of Rogue's Harbor for Mary Miles Minter; The Fear Market for Alice Brady; The Cost for Violet Heming; Half an Hour for Dorothy Dalton; Civilian Clothes for Thomas Meighan, Notoriety for Bebe Daniels, and the classic Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde for John Barrymore.

From an interview with Louella Parson in 1922:

I will be out in California when Mr. DeMille begins operations.  Under my old contract I furnished eight continuities a year; now that I work only for William DeMille I only write four.  That gives me an opportunity to see my work through from the story to the screen.  It makes it possible for me to go over my script scene by scene with the producer, so he can make the picture with almost no changes.  In the old days I had to keep my nose to the grindstone continually so as to finish the eight pictures in time for the different directors for whom I was writing.

William DeMille
In 1921 Beranger met her future husband William DeMille  and work on the adaptation of Miss Lulu Bett, the Pulitzer Prize-winning play about a young woman who discovers that she's married to a man who is already married. Not as famous today as Cecil, and though most of his silents have been lost, William is still considered one of the silents' most respected directors. Miss Lulu Bett shows a delicate touch in the telling of an impoverished spinster's misfortunes in a small town.

William had other affairs including Lorna Moon who had borne him a son out of wedlock, and with another screenwriter, Olga Printzlau;  but he genuinely fell in love with Clara who had tolerated it all. In June 1926, William to the surprise of his wife, announced that he wanted a divorce.  Anna refused him and took their daughters, Agnes and Margaret, to Europe for a long trip.  When the family returned, William announced that he had given up Beranger and would try again with his wife, but this arrangement only lasted about a year. Anna never recovered from the divorce, and took the children to live in New York permanently. William DeMille (50) and Clara Beranger (42) would be married in Albuquerque, New Mexico on August 14, 1928 in the drawing room aboard "The Chief", a transcontinental special train. William de Mille states that Beranger wrote all of his screen plays from 1921 - 1928. He writes in his book, Hollywood Saga ; "In April, 1928, I had just finished 'Tenth Avenue,' my forty - fifth production and was working on 'Craig's Wife' with Clara Beranger , who had written the screen plays of all my pictures for seven years and continued to do so even after our marriage." .

After marrying into the DeMille dynasty, Beranger would continue to write, including Craig's Wife (1928) for Irene Rich and This Mad World (1930) for Kay Johnson.  William would lose everything in the Depression and unhappily rely on Beranger to support him, until Beranger asked Cecil DeMille to employ him to write scenarios.

USC School of Cinematic Arts
Baranger would retire from writing pictures in 1934, though she remained a frequent contributor to magazines such as Liberty and Good Housekeeping, and writer of inspirational books. Beranger's largest impact would be as one of the original faculty of USC School of Cinematic Arts which had begun in 1929 as a collaboration between the University of Southern California and Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.  Also among the original faculty were actors Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford, directors D.W. Griffith and Ernst Lubitsch, and producers Irving Thalberg and Darryl Zanuck.  Cecil would endow the Drama Department, to which William would be appointed as Director, at last allowing him to exploit his education and skills as a teacher and director.

Beranger was a large proponent of the idea that Hollywood had a responsibility to teach the next generation of artists, and would write a much-used text Writing for the Screen in 1950 and continue to lecture on screenwriting for the rest of her life.  She suffered a heart attack and died in 1956.

Filmography

 Memories of His Youth (1913, scenario)
 The Master Mind (1914, scenario)
 Cameo Kirby (1914, uncredited)
 The Galley Slave (1915, scenario)
 Princess Romanoff (1915, scenario)
 From the Valley of the Missing (1915, scenario)
 Anna Karenina (1915, writer)
 Her Mother's Secret (1915/I, scenario, uncredited)
 Mary Moreland (1917)
 The Mirror (1917)
 The Slave Market (1917, scenario)
 The Greater Woman (1917, unconfirmed)
 The Dormant Power (1917, writer)
 The Debt (1917, writer)
 Motherhood (1917/I, writer)
 The Golden Wall (1918)
 The Interloper (1918)
 Appearance of Evil (1918, scenario)
 Winning Grandma (1918, scenario)
 The Way Out (1918, scenario)
 Milady o' the Beanstalk (1918, scenario)
 The Voice of Destiny (1918, screenplay)
 The Love Net (1918, writer)
 By Hook or Crook (1918, writer)
 The Beloved Blackmailer (1918, writer)
 Dolly Does Her Bit (1918, writer)
 The Grouch (1918, scenario)
 The Little Intruder (1919)
 The Hand Invisible (1919)
 Heart of Gold (1919)
 The Praise Agent (1919, scenario)
 Phil for Short (1919, scenario)
 Hit or Miss (1919, scenario)
 The Unveiling Hand (1919, scenario)
 The Bluffer (1919, screenplay)
 Dust of Desire (1919, story, writer)
 Wanted: A Husband (1919, writer)
 Sadie Love (1919, writer)
 Bringing Up Betty (1919, writer)
 The Firing Line (1919, writer)
 Girls (1919, writer)
 Come Out of the Kitchen (1919, writer)

 Half an Hour (1920)
 White Youth (1920, story)
 Flames of the Flesh (1920, story)
 Blackbirds (1920, writer)
 Civilian Clothes (1920, writer)
 The Cost (1920, writer)
 Judy of Rogue's Harbor (1920, writer)
 The Fear Market (1920, writer)
 Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1920)
 Miss Lulu Bett (1921, adaptation)
 Exit the Vamp (1921, screenplay, story)
 The Gilded Lily (1921, story)
 The Wonderful Thing (1921, writer)
 A Heart to Let (1921, writer)
 Sheltered Daughters (1921, writer)
 Her Husband's Trademark (1922, story)
 Clarence (1922, writer)
 Nice People (1922, writer)
 Bought and Paid For (1922, writer)
 Grumpy (1923, adaptation, screenplay)
 The World's Applause (1923, screenplay, story)
 Don't Call It Love (1923, writer)
 The Marriage Maker (1923, writer)
 Only 38 (1923, writer)
 The Bedroom Window (1924, screenplay, story)
 The Fast Set (1924, writer)
 Icebound (1924, writer)
 Locked Doors (1925, screenplay, story)
 New Brooms (1925, writer)
 Lost: A Wife (1925, writer)
 Men and Women (1925, writer)
 Don Juan's Three Nights (1926, writer)
 Nobody's Widow (1927, adaptation)
 The Forbidden Woman (1927, adaptation, screenplay)
 The Little Adventuress (1927, adaptation, screenplay)
 Almost Human (1927, screenplay, titles)
 Craig's Wife (1928, adaptation)
 The Idle Rich (1929, writer)
 This Mad World (1930, adaptation, screenplay)
 His Double Life (1933, adaptation)
 Social Register (1934, writer)

References

Notes

Bibliography

Bibliography
You Can Be Happy. NY:Samuel Curl (1946)
Writing for the Screen. Dubuque, Iowa:Wm. C. Brown Company (1950)
Peace Begins at Home. Lee's Summit, MO:Unity School of Christianity (1954)

External links

 Clara Beranger at Women Film Pioneers Project
1920 passport photo of Clara Beranger, off to Cuba to film Civilian Clothes

1886 births
1956 deaths
American women screenwriters
Goucher College alumni
Writers from Baltimore
University of Southern California faculty
American people of German descent
Screenwriters from Maryland
Women film pioneers
Screenwriters from California
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American screenwriters
American women academics

Clara Beranger


Insulin aspart (sold as "Novolog" or "NovoRapid") is a fast-acting form of insulin. It is used to treat diabetes. It begins to work in minutes.

It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in June 2000. It lets patients take the amount of the drug that they need, according to what they eat.

Anti-diabetic drugs

Insulin aspart


"Angel" is a song by American rock musician Jimi Hendrix, featured on his 1971 posthumous studio album The Cry of Love. Written and self-produced by Hendrix, he recorded it for his planned fourth studio album just months before he died in September 1970.

In 1971, "Angel" was included on the first posthumously-released Hendrix album, The Cry of Love.  The same year, the song was also released as a single A-side in the United Kingdom and as a B-side in the United States.

Background and recording
Despite its late entry into his catalog, the song "Angel" dates back to relatively early in Hendrix's career. In October 1967, he and drummer Mitch Mitchell first recorded it with the title "Little Wing" in a session at Olympic Studios in London. Later in the year the song took on its own identity, with an initial demo recorded solo as "Sweet Angel" on November 13, 1967 at Olympic. It was later released on South Saturn Delta (1997).  On December 28, 1967, Hendrix recorded overdubs for his earlier demo; this version is included on The Jimi Hendrix Experience box set (2000).

By January 14, 1968, Hendrix finished writing the lyrics, as indicated in his handwritten notes. For the title, he used "My Angel Catherina (Return of Little Wing)", thus connecting it to the "Little Wing" he recorded in October 1967 for Axis: Bold as Love.  According to sessionographers Gary Geldeart and Steve Rodham, Hendrix made a private recording of "Angel" at a New York apartment in March 1968.  In 1995, the apartment recordings were released on a companion disc to the book Voodoo Child: The Illustrated Legend of Jimi Hendrix.

After delaying progress on the song for over two years, Hendrix returned to work on "Angel" with Mitchell and bassist Billy Cox in July 1970, during sessions for his planned fourth studio album. The master recording was produced at Electric Lady Studios on July 23, the last of seven takes. Overdubbing and mixing were completed on August 20 and Mitch Mitchell added further drum overdubs on October 19, 1970.  As with the majority of material recorded during this period, "Angel" was produced by Hendrix and engineered by Eddie Kramer.

Composition and lyrics
Jimi Hendrix wrote "Angel" in reference to a dream he had about his mother, Lucille Hendrix née Jeter, when he was a child; speaking in a December 1967 interview conducted by Meatball Fulton, Hendrix explained the inspiration behind the song by describing the dream as follows:

In the biography Jimi Hendrix: Electric Gypsy, Hendrix historians Harry Shapiro and Caesar Glebbeek have compared "Angel"which they describe as "arguably Jimi's finest ballad"with fellow The Cry of Love track "Night Bird Flying", citing similarities in their lyrics as evidence of the more personal subject matter explored by the musician in his later career. The song has also been likened lyrically to "May This Be Love" (from Are You Experienced) and "Long Hot Summer Night" (from Electric Ladyland), in which Shapiro and Glebbeek feel that Hendrix is seeking a "mystical woman... as his only means of inner peace and personal salvation".

Release and reception
Following Hendrix's death in September 1970, "Angel" was among the ten songs selected by Mitch Mitchell and Eddie Kramer for inclusion on the first posthumous studio album, The Cry of Love, released in March 1971. In the same month, the song was released as a single in Europe, and it was also included as the B-side to the "Freedom" single released in North America. In 1995, the track appeared on the controversial Alan Douglas-produced Voodoo Soup album, and in 1997, it was featured on the first new release by the family-run Experience Hendrix, First Rays of the New Rising Sun.

"Angel" is generally considered an important song in Hendrix's back catalogue. In a four-star review of The Cry of Love for AllMusic, critic Sean Westergaard identified the track, in addition to "Ezy Ryder", as one of the main highlights of the album, while critic Robert Christgau praised it, along with "Night Bird Flying", as an "offhand rhapsody". The song is included on several Hendrix compilation albums, including The Ultimate Experience (1992), Experience Hendrix: The Best of Jimi Hendrix (1997), and Voodoo Child: The Jimi Hendrix Collection (2001).

Cover versions
"Angel" has been recorded by a number of artists over the years. English singer-songwriter Rod Stewart was the first to adapt the song for his 1972 album, Never a Dull Moment. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic describes it as a "soulful reading of the original". The song was also released as a single, which reached number four on the UK Singles Chart, number 40 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and number 47 in Canada.  Stewart with the Faces recorded a live performance of "Angel", which appears on Coast to Coast: Overture and Beginners (1974). In 1995, Jeff Healey recorded "Angel" for the album Cover to Cover.  Lulu recorded a Rod Stewart-influenced version for her album, Making Life Rhyme (2015).

References

Sources

1971 songs
1971 singles
1970s ballads
Jimi Hendrix songs
Songs written by Jimi Hendrix
1972 singles
Hard rock ballads
Rock ballads
Rod Stewart songs
Song recordings produced by Jimi Hendrix
Track Records singles
Polydor Records singles

Angel (Jimi Hendrix song)