The Angry Birds Movie 2 is a 2019 animated comedy film based on Rovio Entertainment's Angry Birds video game series, produced by Columbia Pictures, Sony Pictures Animation, and Rovio Animation, and distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing. The sequel to The Angry Birds Movie (2016), the film was directed by Thurop Van Orman (in his directorial debut) and co-directed by John Rice from a screenplay by Peter Ackerman, Eyal Podell and Jonathon E. Stewart. It is an international co-production between the Finland and the United States. Jason Sudeikis, Josh Gad, Danny McBride, Maya Rudolph, Tony Hale, Anthony Padilla, Bill Hader, and Peter Dinklage reprise their voice roles from the first film, with newcomers Leslie Jones, Rachel Bloom, Awkwafina, Sterling K. Brown, Pete Davidson, Zach Woods, Dove Cameron, Lil Rel Howery, Eugenio Derbez, Tiffany Haddish, JoJo Siwa, and Brooklynn Prince joining the ensemble voice cast. In the film, birds Red (Sudeikis), Chuck (Gad), Bomb (McBride), and Silver (Bloom), are forced to team up with pigs Leonard (Hader), Courtney (Awkwafina), and Garry (Brown) to foil plans by Zeta (Jones) and the rest of the eagles on Eagle Island when an ice ball from Zeta's advanced super-weapon threatens both of their Islands.

Production on a sequel to The Angry Birds Movie began in August 2016. New ideas for the film were conceived with the premise being that the birds and pigs work together to save themselves, which very rarely happens in most Angry Birds games. New characters for the film were announced in March 2019 along with new cast members. The animators were tasked with attempting to create more realistic feather systems for the Birds' plumage and designing visual effects for snow, ice, water and lava for the film. Heitor Pereira returned to compose the film's score with artists such as Kesha and Luke Combs contributing tracks for the film. It also features eighteen classical pop songs from the 1960s to 2000s decades from famous artists and different genres from the soundtrack, like the first film.

It was theatrically released on August 2, 2019, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, in Finland on August 7, and in the United States on August 14 in RealD 3D formats. The film was not as successful as its predecessor, grossing $152.8 million on a $65 million budget, and received generally positive reviews from critics.

Plot
Three years after Piggy Island's destruction, Red protects Bird Island from the pigs, led by King Leonard Mudbeard, who are in a prank war against the birds and have rebuilt Piggy Island. One day, a giant ice ball from nearby Eagle Island hits the sea near Piggy Island, forcing the pigs to seek and agree to a permanent truce with the birds. Zeta, the leader of Eagle Island, is angry with her frozen surroundings and wants to occupy the two islands by shooting ice balls from a super-weapon to force their inhabitants to evacuate. Red's two best friends, Chuck and Bomb, surprise and ask Red to join them in a speed dating activity, where Red meets Chuck's sister Silver, an engineering student, who deems Red incompatible. Meanwhile, Zoe - the daughter of Red's classmate Terence and teacher Matilda - loses the eggs containing her unborn sisters while playing with her friends, Vincent and Samantha, so they try to recover the eggs.

Leonard visits and convinces Red to form an alliance, recruiting Chuck, Bomb, Silver, Mighty Eagle, and Leonard's new assistant Courtney. A secret meeting in Mighty Eagle's cave gets disrupted when Zeta's super-weapon hits Eagle Mountain, which alarms the other birds living on Bird Island. As the team, now joined by pig gadgeteer Garry, travels to Eagle Island by submarine, Red assures the other birds that they do not need to evacuate. Once there, Mighty Eagle confesses that Zeta was once his fiancée but he abandoned her due to cowardice before he flies away. Red insists on fighting alone but Silver decides to follow him instead. They intrude the base from the mouth of the weapon and get captured and frozen to inflatable water toys. Zeta tells them her plan to fire ice balls filled with lava at both islands and demonstrates her newly upgraded cannon. Red, regretting not telling the birds to evacuate, admits his wish to be liked by everyone to Silver, who comforts him and frees them both. Meanwhile, the other team members disguise themselves as an eagle and grab a key card to get into the base, reunited with Red and Silver and establishes a plan to destroy the cannon as it begins to load up ammunition in ten minutes for the actual attack on both islands.

Red and Silver put themselves inside an ice ball and roll it down the spiralling ammunition track of Zeta's cannon, with their allies distracting the eagles and working to sever the track by reaching and pulling a switch so that the ball flies off and crushes the cannon. The plan fails and Zeta and her guards confronted them, giving her a chance to fire the weapon. Mighty Eagle arrives and makes a desperate attempt to stop Zeta by apologizing to her for abandoning her. Zeta brushes him off, revealing his real name is Ethan and that her assistant Debbie is their daughter. While Zeta is distracted, Chuck ties up the weapon using Silver's new invention, a very strong string called Super-String, which catches and decelerates the lava balls after Zeta fires them. As the string breaks, the hatchlings, who finally recovered their eggs, along with some piglets who had joined them on their quest back home, pass by Eagle Island and help grasp the string. The lava balls slide back into the cannon, destroying it and the base. Everyone escapes, and Mighty Eagle protects Debbie from being crushed by a metal plate, redeeming himself to her and Zeta.

Mighty Eagle and Zeta get married on Bird Island, with Red as the chief witness and Debbie as the flower girl and the rest of the birds, pigs, and eagles celebrate. Afterwards, Red credits Silver and the entire team for saving the islands, and as a result finds himself even more beloved for his honesty and selflessness and starts a relationship. Meanwhile, the hatchlings discover they have accidentally swapped Zoe's eggs by mistook her eggs, so they give them back to their mother, who has brought the newly born sisters. However, as soon as the older hatchlings take their eyes off them, the sisters stow away onto the boa constrictor's boat, causing the cycle to repeat.

Voice cast

Production

Development
A sequel to The Angry Birds Movie was announced in August 2016. It was directed by The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack and Home: Adventures with Tip & Oh creator Thurop Van Orman, co-directed by John Rice, and written by Peter Ackerman. John Cohen returned from The Angry Birds Movie to serve as producer, with animation again handled by Sony Pictures Imageworks. Imageworks' sister studio Sony Pictures Animation also released the film under their banner, despite having dropped out of co-producing the project beforehand and had not co-produced the first film either.

In the summer of 2017, production designer Pete Oswald stated that the sequel would be more of an adventure movie that introduces new characters and locations into the world first established in The Angry Birds Movie. While he was not in a position to offer further details about the plot and characters, which remained unknown until the months before the film's release, he expressed hope that it would be a better film than the first installment.

The creative decision to break from the games' source material and have the birds and pigs end their conflict and form an alliance to face a greater threat was one that was made out of a desire to surprise audiences with a new experience with the same characters, as well as attempt to outdo what was accomplished in the first film with an unprecedented level of creative freedom available. Josh Gad stated that the production team went forward with such idea because it was not only an "ingenious" one, but also because they felt it would feel most appropriate in light of the increasingly polarized political climate at the time, as people who disagree on significant issues struggle to find common ground.

Overall, the budget was approximately $65 million.

Casting
In April 2018, the majority of the voice cast was announced. Jason Sudeikis, Gad, Danny McBride, Maya Rudolph, Bill Hader, and Peter Dinklage will reprise their roles from the first film. Leslie Jones will voice a new female villain, revealed to be Zeta in the teaser trailer. In December 2018, Nicki Minaj joined the cast of the film. Upon its release, the teaser trailer briefly revealed that Hal, a green boomerang bird from the games and the first film, will return in the sequel. Anthony Padilla would return to voice Hal. The following day, producer John Cohen announced in a tweet that Awkwafina will voice Courtney, the first named female pig in the Angry Birds franchise that briefly appeared in the teaser.

When the film's first full trailer was released on March 27, 2019, more details about the sequel's characters and their voice roles were revealed. Among several new characters confirmed to appear in the movie was Silver, a bird first introduced in the Angry Birds 2 game, voiced by Rachel Bloom, and Ella, voiced by Dove Cameron. In June, People revealed the identity of the white bird living with Zeta in the teaser trailer as Debbie, voiced by Tiffany Haddish who was one of several voice actors not listed in the initial casting. Later that month, the film's final trailer revealed that Terence, a large red bird from the first film, would appear without Sean Penn reprising his voice role, and Nolan North replacing Penn.

Animation
Unlike the previous film, the sequel was co-produced with Rovio Animation and Sony Pictures Animation. While it was possible to reuse assets from the first film instead of starting from scratch, significant work was needed to make them compatible with new technological systems that were adopted in the past few years. The animators faced great challenges attempting to create more realistic feather systems for the Birds' plumage, even with the help of Sony Pictures Imageworks' existing feather system that was first used in Stuart Little (1999), especially when it came to designing the villain Zeta, the hardest character to animate in the film with over 1,000 controls, a very complex face structure and a tall, flexible torso. The team also faced a demanding task in designing visual effects for snow, ice, water and lava for the film and production was also affected by the unavailability of certain animators who were being used to complete Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018) months prior, as well as the amount of time lost due to Sony moving the film's release date ahead by more than half a month.

Music
Heitor Pereira, who previously composed the first film, returned to compose the score of The Angry Birds Movie 2. On July 25, 2019, Kesha released her song "Best Day" for the film as a single. Days later, Luke Combs released a song, "Let's Just Be Friends" for the film as a single as well. Both singles were played in the film's end credits.

Also included on the film was Giacomo Puccini's aria "Un bel di vedremo" from his opera Madama Butterfly. However this was credited as "Opera", by Heitor Pereira in the soundtrack.

The film's soundtrack, titled The Angry Birds Movie 2: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on August 9, 2019, only in digital format and is available to download through payment platforms. It includes two songs previously unreleased and original from the movie: Luke Combs' "Let's Just Be Friends" and Kesha's "Best Day (Angry Birds 2 Remix)". The rest of the album consists of a compilation of eighteen classical pop music hits from the 1960s to 2000s decades, in different genres and various artists.

Marketing
As with the first film, Sony also attempted to connect the film to certain social causes while marketing it, leveraging the premise of the threat of worlds being frozen to call attention to urgent action on climate change and using Silver, who is depicted as a technical expert, as a model to inspire more young women to pursue STEM disciplines.

Video game

A cooperative tie-in video game, The Angry Birds Movie 2 VR: Under Pressure, was released exclusively for the PlayStation 4's PlayStation VR system on August 6, 2019. The game takes place aboard the Piggy Gadget Lab that the main characters use to get to Eagle Island for the film's climatic confrontation.

Release

Theatrical
The Angry Birds Movie 2 was theatrically released in the United States on August 14, 2019, coinciding with the 10th anniversary of the debut of the original Angry Birds game. The film was originally scheduled to be released on September 20, September 6, and August 16. It was released two weeks earlier on August 2 in the United Kingdom and Ireland. This was the last film from Sony Pictures Animation to have an exclusive theatrical release in the United States until Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse in June 2023 as several of its following movies were released by streaming services such as Netflix and Amazon Prime Video worldwide excluding China, where Sony still theatrically released the films. It was also the last film from SPA to be released in the 2010s.

The film's North American theatrical release was preceded by Hair Love (2019), a Kickstarter-funded campaign short film created by Matthew A. Cherry and Bruce W. Smith.

Home media
The Angry Birds Movie 2 was released on digital and Movies Anywhere by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment on October 29, 2019, with Blu-ray, Ultra HD Blu-ray, and DVD releases following on November 12. All releases include an animated short film entitled Live Stream. The Ultra HD Blu-ray version was the first release of its kind to be IMAX enhanced.

Reception

Box office
The Angry Birds Movie 2 has grossed $41.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $110.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $152.8 million.

In the United States and Canada, the film was projected to gross $16–18 million from 3,800 theaters over its first six days of release. It made $2.6 million on its first day, ranking fifth and $1.7 million on its second. It ended up making $16.2 million over the six-day span (including an opening weekend of $10.6 million), finishing in fifth. It was less than a third of the first film's $38.1 million debut, and was blamed on the marketing making the sequel look the same as the first, as well as the crowded marketplace.

Critical response
 The website's critical consensus reads, "Like its non-aerodynamic title characters, The Angry Birds Movie 2 takes improbable yet delightfully entertaining flight, landing humorous hits along the way." According to Rotten Tomatoes, it was the best-reviewed film adaptation of a video game on their website and the highest score for an animated video game movie and is rated higher than the first film.  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by its predecessor, and PostTrak gave the film a 4 out of 5 stars and 72% "definite recommend" from parents and kids under 12.

Guy Lodge of Variety summarized his review with: "Perked up by some ingenious slapstick and Leslie Jones' inspired voice work, this gumball-bright sequel to 2016's game-based spinoff is another unexpected pleasure." Sandie Chen of Common Sense Media gave the film a three out of five stars stating, "Silly pranks, an ace voice cast, and a super-team mission storyline make this fast-paced sequel more fun than the original. It's a predictably well-intentioned second installment, in which the birds and pigs are forced to work together against an even more formidable foe. It also shows how Red's insecurity lingers, since he was only recently accepted and respected. Although some of the movie's jokes and sight gags are recycled (because, frankly, it's unlikely that little kids will ever get tired of naked piggy-butt jokes), the addition of the third mystery island is interesting enough to keep younger audiences guessing." Stephen Dalton of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "It may lack the refined wit and revered pedigree of blue-chip animation franchises such as Toy Story, but it still ticks plenty of lightweight fun boxes for its prime target audience of younger children, with just enough adult humor to keep parents from yawning, too." Bob Hoose of Plugged In praised the humor, stating, "Surprisingly, the whole frenetic animated escapade ends up being pretty entertaining and funny. Even adults will, at some point, snort out an unexpected chortle." Simon Thompson of IGN gave the film a 6 out of 10 stating, "The Angry Birds Movie 2 does what you'd expect it to do, some nice touches move the franchise forward, but it could have dug deeper as some other franchises have. The whole is less than the sum of its parts, but those parts just about make the grade. Kids or a certain age will love it, and ultimately that's all that really matters here."

Accolades

See also
 List of films based on video games

Notes

References

External links

  at Sony Pictures

2010s American animated films
2010s children's comedy films
2019 comedy films
2019 films
2019 computer-animated films
American children's animated comedy films
American computer-animated films
Angry Birds
Animated films about birds
Animated films based on video games
Columbia Pictures animated films
Columbia Pictures films
Films about pigs
Films directed by Thurop Van Orman
Films scored by Heitor Pereira
Films set on islands
Finnish adventure films
Finnish animated films
Finnish comedy films
Sony Pictures Animation films
2010s English-language films
Films based on Sega video games

The Angry Birds Movie 2


Cut flowers are flowers and flower buds (often with some stem and leaf) that have been cut from the plant bearing it. It is removed from the plant for decorative use. Cut greens are leaves with or without stems added to the cut flowers for contrast and design purposes. These displays improve the quality of the human environment.

Floral design professionals work at florist shops (floristry) and use their design skills and experience with many types of flowers and greens to create works of art with flowers.

Cut flowers, and to a lesser extent, cut greens, are a significant and international segment of the floral industry. The plants that are grown vary by plant species as well as by climate, cultural practices and the accessibility of worldwide transportation. Professional horticulturists raise the plants specifically for this purpose, in field or glasshouse growing conditions. Boxes of harvested flowers are shipped via air freight throughout the world.

The study of the efficient production, distribution and marketing of floral crops is a branch of horticulture, called floriculture.

Uses
Flowers brighten and enhance the human environment. Cut flowers and flower arrangements with cut greens bring the outdoors indoors. Many home gardeners harvest flowers from their own gardens, to increase their everyday enjoyment. Garden cut flowers are also used to enhance gatherings of family and friends. These are often enhanced with the addition foliage from other plants.

In some cultures, a major use of cut flowers is for worship; this can be seen especially in south and southeast Asia.

Sometimes the flowers are picked rather than cut, without any significant leaf or stem. Such flowers may be used for wearing in hair, or in a button-hole. Masses of flowers may be used for sprinkling, in a similar way to confetti.

Garlands, wreaths and bouquets are major value added products in many markets.

It is common for cut flowers and cut greens to be placed in a vase. Common uses are informal and formal bouquets in a glass vase for hospital visits, wedding bouquets, wedding arrangements, funeral casket displays, large arrangements in hotel lobbies and party venues, boutonnieres, wreaths, and garlands. Cut flowers are used at flower shows at garden clubs throughout the world and flower competitions at county and state fairs in the U.S. Cut flowers are a common gift for family or friends or just a day brightener on a work station or kitchen table.

Cut flowers and cut greens

Plants used for cut flowers and cut greens are derived from many plant species and diverse plant families. Cut flower arrangements can include cut stems from annual plants, flower bulbs or herbaceous perennials, cut stems of evergreens or colored leaves, flowers from landscape shrubs, flowers that have been dried or preserved, fruit on tree branches, dried uniquely shaped fruit or stems from plants, unique dried weeds (sometimes painted to add a distinctive touch), etc. These plants come from diverse natural habitats, so different environmental conditions are used to grow them. The cut flower plants that were first used in the development of the floral industry in northern Europe were those adapted to the cool temperatures that occur there. On the other hand, the warmer temperatures of Southeast Asia, led to the development of different plants adapted to those conditions.

The floral industry was primarily local, wherever in the world, until the 1950s. The advent and development of international trade and transportation changed the cut flower segment of the floral industry. Cut flowers could be grown cheaply in a cool or warm region of the world and shipped to markets in population centers anywhere. This started in the cool coastal regions of California but quickly expanded into the mountains of Colombia, Ecuador, Kenya, Ethiopia, China, Mexico, etc., and to distinctive environments in Indonesia, South Africa, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, etc. In many of these countries, flower farmers could choose a location for year round plant production based on the altitude, cooler crops higher in the mountains, warmer crops at lower altitudes and offer work and income to the local population.

This led to an increase in the taxa used as cut flowers across the world. Rare flowers became common, such as these local flowers from the Western Cape seen at a flower show in Clanwilliam, South Africa.

Cool temperature plants
These plants prefer to grow at temperatures of 10 °C (50 °F) to 18 °C (65 °F)

Moderate temperature plants
These plants prefer to grow at temperatures of 15 °C (59 °F) to 24 °C (75 °F)

Others - Banksia marginata, Chinese Lanterns - Alkekengi, Clematis - Clematis, Cyclamen - Cyclamen persicum, Epacris impressa, Fuchsia - Fuchsia, Freesia - Freesia, Leucodendron, Love-in-a-Mist - Nigella damascena, Pansy - Viola x wittrockiana, Pelargonium, Primrose - Primula, Protea

Warm temperature plants
These plants prefer to grow at temperatures of 18 °C (65 °F) to 30 °C (86 °F)

Others - Begonia, Ylang Ylang - Cananga odorata, Cooktown Orchid - Dendrobium bigibbum, Tasmanian Blue Gum - Eucalyptus globulus, Poinsettia - Euphorbia pulcherima, Gladiolus - Gladiolus, Gumamela - Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Busy Lizzie - Impatiens, Lobelia - Lobelia cardinalis, Oleander - Nerium oleander, Frangipani - Plumeria rubra, Petunia, Sampaguita - Jasminum sambac, Sturt's Desert Rose - Gossypium sturtianum, Waratah - Telopia specisissima, Royal Bluebell - Wahlenbergia gloriosa

Longevity or postharvest life

Flowers removed from the plant remain alive. Respiration and photosynthesis continue, but no longer have a storehouse of sugars to support them. Additionally, the flowers no longer receive water from the roots, yet transpiration continues.

In many countries, cut flowers are a local crop because of their perishable nature. In India, much of the product has a shelf life of only a day. Among these are marigold flowers for garlands and temples, which are typically harvested before dawn, and discarded after use the same day.

The postharvest life or vase life of cut flowers can be several days. The vase life of cut flowers and cut greens can be extended with thoughtful care. This care starts from the moment of harvest and continues until they are enjoyed by a flower consumer. Everyone involved must participate in the, "Floral Chain-of-Life", or the life of the cut flowers and cut greens is reduced.

Flowers are harvested in the cool part of the day, generally morning, and placed into water as soon as possible to reduce water loss from transpiration. The cut stems go into clean buckets with low pH water as a hydrating solution. Next, the cut stems are refrigerated to slow respiration, photosynthesis and transpiration. Vacuum coolers and hydrocoolers are used for large numbers of flowers on commercial farms. When cold, 2-4 C (36-42 F), the cut stems are sized and graded for shipment. Additionally, most or all of the leaves are removed from the cut flower stems to reduce the cost of shipping and reduce disease issues. The stems stay dry through this process to prevent disease in subsequent storage. The major cut flower types can be packaged and stored dry while other types are stored and shipped in water in a Dutch flower bucket, Procona or similar system. Boxes and pallets of the cut flowers and cut greens are shipped to a far away market, but the brokers and shippers must maintain the correct storage conditions for the flowers.

Cut flowers are conditioned upon arrival at a wholesale florist or retail florist. The flowers are carefully removed from the shipment boxes and placed into low pH water in clean buckets to begin hydration. In the same or later step, the stems are cut under water to remove air bubbles from the xylem vessels in the stems and placed into water with a low pH for hydration and bacteria prevention, a biocide (disinfectant) to reduce bacteria and fungi in the water and a type of sugar (often sucrose) to supply energy to the developing cut flowers. The flowers may complete conditioning at room temperature or in a refrigerator depending on the cultivar. Cut flowers and cut greens are kept refrigerated during delivery to the florist or floral designer and to the consumer. Design activities occur at room temperature but floral arrangements are kept refrigerated and hydrated with the floral food solution.

It is important for flower consumers to keep fresh flowers in shade in the car and not allow them to sit in the sun in a hot car. Use clean vases and the flower food available from the florist. The disinfectant in the flower food is especially important. Refill the vase or container with water regularly and re-cut the stems periodically to ensure that there is a fresh surface from which the stems can take up water. Keep flowers away from ceiling fans and air-conditioning vents as this can lead to dehydration and keep flowers away from fresh fruit or vegetables (to reduce the impacts of ethylene from ripening fruit and vegetables). Bacteria and fungi in the water in the vase can easily plug the stems of cut flowers and cut greens, so it is important to use the commercial flower food that includes disinfectants.

Flower vase life can be affected by pre-harvest factors, such as growing conditions, genetic makeup, or post-harvest factors, such as mechanical damage, bacteria or fungi. Vase life also varies across plant species and cultivars. Cut flowers with a short vase life, of less than 5 days, include dahlias, irises, peonies, daffodils, and delphinium; flowers with a medium vase life (6 to 14 days) include marigolds, snapdragons, orchids, and roses; and flowers with a long vase life (2 to 4 weeks) include tulips, carnations, and chrysanthemums.

Chemical treatments that extend vase life are a major component of floriculture research. These include:

 Bud opening development, where buds are harvested early in development then kept in a solution of sucrose, plant hormones, and germicides before they open.
 Pulsing, where flowers are treated with increasing concentrations of sucrose for 16–20 hours at a time.
 Holding or vase solutions, which treat flowers with a mixture of carbohydrates (generally sugar), plant growth regulators, germicides, ethylene inhibitors, mineral salts, and organic acids.

Additives

The Brooklyn Botanical Garden tested different items that have been claimed to prolong the lives of cut flowers when added to the vase water. These were aspirin, sugar, vitamin pills, vinegar, pennies, and flower food. They found that the best additive for flowers was the retailer-provided "flower food" that is usually given with a bouquet. Flower foods contain an acidifier that lowers the water's pH, disinfectants,  and sugar. The sugar replaces the sugar from its roots. The stem unpluggers allow the flower to continue to take up fluids. Sugar alone is almost as effective.

Dried, preserved and everlasting flowers

Preserved flowers are a common use for cut flowers and some cut florist greens. Panicled hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata),      strawflower (Xerochrysum bracteatum), and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) can be dried in a vase with no water on a table in an air conditioned kitchen. It is better hang them upside down in a dark air conditioned room; stems are straighter and colors are better. These can be used as a decoration for many months. Additional techniques - use of silica gel, micro sieve, freeze drying, etc. - are available to preserve more tender species.

International trade

Cut flowers have become a part of international trade and an active economic engine in a number of tropical countries (for instance in Kenya).

Research and Markets has estimated that the cut flower global market will reach a size of US$50.1 Billion by 2030 from its current estimate of US$33.3 Billion for 2022. Roses are projected to increase at a 5.9% compound annual growth rate, while chrysanthemum and gerbera will increase by 5.3% over the next eight years.

Royal FloraHolland in Aalsmeer, Netherlands is the largest flower market in the world. Flowers with a value of over US$4 Billion pass through the market each year. In 2019, the export value of cut flowers was €4.200 Million from the EU, Colombia exports were €1.235 Million, Ecuador exports were €721 Million, Kenya exports were €487 Million and Ethiopia exports were €180 Million, while US exports were only €14 Million compared to €1.052 Million in imports. Union Fleur, a European international flower trade association, represents the interests of Austria, Colombia, Denmark, Ethiopia, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey, Uganda, and the United States. Most of Royal FloraHolland exports go to European neighbors.

Cut flower exports from China rose from US$71.4 Million in 2011 to US$162.1 Million in 2022, primarily from Yunnan Province where there are 300,000 farmers cultivating 1.5 million hectares of flowers. Overall production is much higher because 90% of flowers are sold in China. Most cut flowers are sold through the Dounan Flower Market in Kunming, Yunnan, China. It is likely that cut flower production in India is similar to China based on the similar population sizes.

In recent decades, with the increasing use of air freight, it has become economic for high value crops to be grown far from their point of sale; the market is usually in industrialized countries. Typical of these is the production of roses in Ecuador and carnations in Colombia, mainly for the US market, and production in Kenya and Uganda for the European market. Some countries specialize in especially high value products, such as orchids from Singapore and Thailand.

Cultivation
Cut flower cultivation is intensive, usually on the basis of greenhouse monocultures, and requires large amounts of highly toxic pesticides, residues of which can often still be found in flower shops on imported flowers.

As with the production of fruit and vegetables, the industry depends on significant amounts of water, which may be collected and stored by the farm owners. The Patel Dam failure in May 2018, associated with a large Kenyan rose farm, killed dozens of people.

These facts have spurred the development of movements like "Slow Flowers", which propagates sustainable floriculture in the consumer country (U.S., Canada) itself.

See also
Floral industry
Slow Flowers
List of cut flowers and cut greens
Flower arrangement
History of flower arrangement
Bedding and garden flowers
House plants - foliage and patio plants
Potted flowering plants

References

External links
Cut-Flower Care — How to Make Your Fresh-Cut Flowers Last by Rose G. Edinger, Brooklyn Botanical Garden, Spring 2003, retrieved October 21, 2006
— What are preserved flowers? Everything you want to know about preserved flowers by Floralonly, Albert, published 28, May 2020

Floriculture
Floristry
Floral industry

Cut flowers


Jonathan C. Gibralter (born 1956) is an American academic executive and president of Wells College in Aurora, Cayuga County, New York. Previously, he was also the 14th president of Frostburg State University in Maryland, from August 2006 to June 30, 2015, as well as president of Farmingdale State College in East Farmingdale, New York from 2001 to 2006.

Early life and education
Gibralter grew up in Bayside, Queens, New York and attended Queensborough Community College, earned a bachelor of arts degree in psychology from Binghamton University in 1978, a master of arts degree in counseling psychology from New York University in 1982, a Ph.D. in human development from Syracuse University in 1996, and an MBA from University of Maryland University College in 2013.

Career
In 1986, he got a teaching position at the State University of New York at Morrisville, later becoming Director of Individual Studies (1988-1990) and Associate Dean for the School of Liberal Arts (1990-1993). From 1993 to 1998, Gibralter was the dean of the Rome, New York campus of Mohawk Valley Community College. Gibralter was the Dean of Academic Affairs, and then Interim President, at Corning Community College from 1998 to 2001.

He was president of Farmingdale State College in East Farmingdale, New York from 2001 to 2006. In 2006, he became president of Frostburg State University in Frostburg, Maryland and remained in that position until 2015. In 2015, he became president of Wells College.

Honors and awards
In September 2008, Gibralter was honored with the Presidential Leadership Award for his efforts in promoting a campus climate that de-emphasizes alcohol and combats binge drinking at Frostburg State University.

Personal life
Gibralter is the father of two adult sons and is married to Laurie Gibralter.

References

External links
Jonathan Gibralter at Wells College

Frostburg State University faculty
Living people
1956 births
New York University alumni
Binghamton University alumni
People from Bayside, Queens
Syracuse University alumni
Farmingdale State College faculty
People from Suffolk County, New York
Wells College faculty
Morrisville State College faculty
Queensborough Community College alumni

Jonathan Gibralter


The independence of Brazil comprised a series of political and military events that led to the independence of the Kingdom of Brazil from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves as the Brazilian Empire. It is celebrated on 7 September, the date when prince regent Pedro of Braganza declared the country's independence from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves on the banks of the Ipiranga brook in 1822 on what became known as the Cry of Ipiranga. Formal recognition by Portugal came with the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, signed in 1825.

In 1807, the French army invaded Portugal, which had refused to participate in the continental blockade against the United Kingdom. Unable to resist the invasion, the Portuguese royal family and government fled to Brazil, which was then the richest and most developed of the Portuguese colonies. The installation of the House of Appeals and other public bodies of the Portuguese government in Rio de Janeiro represented a series of political, economic and social transformations that led to then prince regent John of Braganza (later king John VI of Portugal), to elevate the State of Brazil to the status of a kingdom on 16 December 1815, united with its former metropolis.

In 1820, the liberal revolution broke out in Portugal and the royal family was forced to return to Lisbon. Before leaving Brazil, however, the now king John VI named his eldest son, Pedro of Braganza, as prince regent of Brazil. Although Pedro was faithful to his father, the desire of the Portuguese courts to repatriate him (including demoting him from prince regent to governor-of-arms, that is, a mere military commander of the Portuguese Army, no longer holding any political position) and returning Brazil to its former colonial status led him to rebel.

During the war of independence that ensued — which began with the expulsion of the Portuguese troops from Pernambuco in 1821 — the Brazilian Army was formed by hiring mercenaries, enlisting civilians and some Portuguese colonial troops. The army immediately opposed the Portuguese forces, which controlled some parts of the country, namely, in the then provinces of Cisplatina (currently Uruguay), Bahia, Piauí, Maranhão and Grão-Pará. At the same time that the conflict was taking place, a revolutionary movement broke out in Pernambuco and other neighboring provinces, which intended to form their own country, the Confederation of the Equator, with a republican government, but it was harshly repressed.

After four years of conflict, Portugal finally recognized Brazil's independence, and on 29 August 1825, the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance was signed between Brazil and Portugal. In exchange for recognition as a sovereign state, Brazil committed to paying a substantial compensation to Portugal and signing a trade treaty with the United Kingdom as compensation for its mediation.

Officially, the date celebrated for Brazil's independence is 7 September 1822, when the event known as the Cry of Ipiranga took place on the banks of the Ipiranga brook in the city of São Paulo. Pedro of Braganza was acclaimed Emperor of Brazil on 12 October 1822, being crowned and consecrated on 1 December 1822, and the country became known as the Empire of Brazil.

Background

The land now called Brazil was claimed by the Kingdom of Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese naval fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered Indigenous peoples divided into several tribes, most of whom shared the same Tupi–Guarani language family, and shared and disputed territory. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their North American territories, had brought diseases with them against which many Indians were helpless due to lack of immunity. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, and influenza killed tens of thousands.

Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization only effectively started in 1534 when king John III divided the territory into fifteen hereditary captaincies. This arrangement proved problematic, however, and in 1549 the king assigned a governor-general to administer the entire colony. The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes while others slowly disappeared in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity.

By the mid-16th century, sugar had become Brazil's main export due to the increasing international demand. To profit from the situation, by 1700 over 963,000 African slaves had been brought across the Atlantic Ocean to work in the plantations of Brazil. More Africans were brought to Brazil up until that date than to all the other places in the Americas (and the entire Western Hemisphere) combined.

Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567, and to the northwest, taking São Luís in 1615. They sent military expeditions to the northwest of the South American continent to the Amazon River basin rainforest and conquered competing English and Dutch strongholds, founding villages and forts from 1669. In 1680 they reached the far southeast and founded Colônia do Sacramento on the bank of the Río de la Plata, in the Banda Oriental region (present-day Uruguay).

At the end of the 17th century, sugar exports started to decline, but beginning in the 1690s, the discovery of gold by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais, current Mato Grosso and Goiás saved the colony from imminent collapse. From all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants came to the mines in an early gold rush.

The Spanish tried to prevent Portuguese expansion northwest, west, southwest and southeast into the territory that belonged to them according to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas division of the New World by the Bishop and Pope of Rome, Alexander VI (1431–1503, reigned 1492–1503) and succeeded in conquering the Banda Oriental region in 1777. However, this was in vain as the Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in the same year, confirmed Portuguese sovereignty over all lands proceeding from its territorial expansion, thus creating most of the current Brazilian southeastern border.

During the French invasion of Portugal by Emperor Napoleon I in 1807, the Portuguese royal family (House of Braganza) fled across the Atlantic Ocean with the help of the British Royal Navy to Brazil, establishing Rio de Janeiro as the de facto capital of the Portuguese Empire during the ensuing worldwide Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). This had the side effect of soon creating within Brazil many of the institutions required to exist as an independent state; most importantly, it freed Brazil to trade with other nations at will.

After Napoleon's Imperial French army was finally defeated at Waterloo in June 1815, in order to maintain the capital in Brazil and allay Brazilian fears of being returned to colonial status, King John VI of Portugal raised the de jure status of Brazil to an equal kingdom and integral part of the new United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, rather than a mere colony, a status which it enjoyed for the next seven years, sending his son, Dom Pedro, as prince regent.

Path to independence

Portuguese Cortes

In 1820 the Constitutionalist Revolution erupted in Portugal. The movement initiated by the liberal constitutionalists resulted in the meeting of the Cortes (or Constituent Assembly), that would have to create the kingdom's first constitution. The Cortes at the same time demanded the return of King Dom John VI, who had been living in Brazil since 1808, who elevated Brazil to a kingdom as part of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves in 1815 and who nominated his son and heir prince Dom Pedro as regent, to govern Brazil in his place on 7 March 1821. The king left for Europe on 26 April, while Dom Pedro remained in Brazil governing it with the aid of the ministers of the Kingdom (Interior) and Foreign Affairs, of War, of Navy and of Finance.

The Portuguese military officers headquartered in Brazil were completely sympathetic to the Constitutionalist movement in Portugal. The main leader of the Portuguese officers, General Jorge de Avilez Zuzarte de Sousa Tavares, forced the prince to dismiss and banish from the country the ministers of Kingdom and Finance. Both were loyal allies of Pedro, who had become a pawn in the hands of the military. The humiliation suffered by the prince, who swore he would never yield to the pressure of the military again, would have a decisive influence on his abdication ten years later. Meanwhile, on 30 September 1821, the Cortes approved a decree that subordinated the governments of the Brazilian provinces directly to Portugal. Prince Pedro became for all purposes only the governor of Rio de Janeiro Province. Other decrees that came after ordered his return to Europe and also extinguished the judicial courts created by João VI in 1808.

Dissatisfaction over the Cortes measures among most residents in Brazil (both Brazilian-born and Portuguese-born) rose to a point that it soon became publicly known. Two groups that opposed the Cortes''' actions to gradually undermine Brazilian sovereignty appeared: Liberals, led by Joaquim Gonçalves Ledo (with the support of the Freemasons), and the Bonifacians, led by José Bonifácio de Andrada. The factions, with quite different views of what Brazil could and should be, agreed only on their desire to keep Brazil co-equal with Portugal, united in a sovereign monarchy, rather than Brazil being merely provinces controlled from Lisbon.

Avilez rebellion

The Portuguese members of the Cortes showed no respect towards Prince Pedro and openly mocked him. And so the loyalty that Pedro had shown towards the Cortes gradually shifted to the Brazilian cause. His wife, princess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, favoured the Brazilian side and encouraged him to remain in the country which the Liberals and Bonifacians openly called for. Pedro's reply to the Cortes came on 9 January 1822, when, according to newspapers, he said: "As it is for the good of all and for the nation's general happiness, I am ready: Tell the people that I will stay".

After Pedro's decision to defy the Cortes and remain in Brazil, around 2,000 men led by Jorge Avilez rioted before concentrating on mount Castelo, which was soon surrounded by 10,000 armed Brazilians, led by the Royal Police Guard. Dom Pedro then "dismissed" the Portuguese commanding general and ordered him to remove his soldiers across the bay to Niterói, where they would await transport to Portugal.

Jose Bonifácio was nominated minister of Kingdom and Foreign Affairs on 18 January 1822. Bonifácio soon established a fatherlike relationship with Pedro, who began to consider the experienced statesman his greatest ally. Gonçalves Ledo and the Liberals tried to minimize the close relationship between Bonifácio and Pedro, offering to the prince the title of Perpetual Defender of Brazil.Armitage. p. 61 For the Liberals, the creation of a Constituent Assembly to prepare a Brazilian constitution was necessary, while the Bonifacians preferred that Pedro create the constitution himself, to avoid the possibility of anarchy similar to the first years of the French Revolution.

The prince acquiesced to the Liberals' desires, and signed a decree on 3 June 1822 calling for the election of deputies that would gather in a Constituent and Legislative General Assembly in Brazil.Lustosa, p. 145

From United Kingdom under Portugal to independent empire

Pedro departed to São Paulo Province to secure the province's loyalty to the Brazilian cause. He reached its capital on 25 August and remained there until 5 September. While on his way back to Rio de Janeiro on 7 September he received at Ipiranga mail from José Bonifácio and his wife, Leopoldina. The letter told him that the Cortes had annulled all acts of the Bonifácio cabinet, removed Pedro's remaining powers, and ordered him to return to Portugal.  It was clear that independence was the only option left, which his wife supported. Pedro turned to his companions, that included his Guard of Honor, and said: "Friends, the Portuguese Cortes want to enslave and pursue us. From today on our relations are broken. No ties can unite us anymore". He removed his blue-white armband that symbolized Portugal: "Armbands off, soldiers. Hail to the independence, to freedom and to the separation of Brazil from Portugal!" He unsheathed his sword affirming that "For my blood, my honor, my God, I swear to give Brazil freedom," and later cried out: "Brazilians, Independence or death!". This event is known as the "Cry of Ipiranga", the declaration of Brazil's independence,

Returning to the city of São Paulo on the night of 7 September 1822, Pedro and his companions announced the news of Brazilian independence from Portugal. The Prince was received with great popular celebration and was called not only "King of Brazil", but also "Emperor of Brazil".Lima (1997), p. 398

Pedro returned to Rio de Janeiro on 14 September and in the following days the Liberals had distributed pamphlets (written by Joaquim Gonçalves Ledo) that suggested that the Prince should be named Constitutional Emperor. On 17 September the President of the Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro, José Clemente Pereira, sent to the other Chambers of the country the news that the Acclamation would occur on Pedro's birthday, 12 October.

The official separation would only occur on 22 September 1822 in a letter written by Pedro to João VI. In it, Pedro still calls himself Prince Regent and his father is considered the King of the independent Brazil.Vianna, p. 413 On 12 October 1822, in the Field of Santana (later known as Field of the Acclamation) Prince Pedro was acclaimed Dom Pedro I, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil. It was at the same time the beginning of Pedro's reign and also of the Empire of Brazil. However, the Emperor made it clear that although he accepted the emperorship, if João VI returned to Brazil he would step down from the throne in favor of his father.

The reason for the imperial title was that the title of king would symbolically mean a continuation of the Portuguese dynastic tradition and perhaps of the feared absolutism, while the title of emperor derived from popular acclamation as in Ancient Rome or at least reigning through popular sanction as in the case of Napoleon.Barman (1999), p. 4; "Some weeks later he was acclaimed emperor as Pedro I of Brazil. In the terminology of the period, the word 'empire' signifying a monarchy of unusually large size and resources (as in the case of Russia), and this designation avoided D. Pedro's usurping the title of 'king' from his father, João VI." On 1 December 1822, Pedro I was crowned and consecrated.

International recognition
According to the Brazilian government and researcher Rodrigo Wiese Randig, the first country to recognize Brazil was the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (today's Argentina), in June 1823, followed by the United States in May 1824, and the Kingdom of Benin in July 1824. However, according to historian Toby Green, the African states of Dahomey and Onim were the first two to recognize the new empire in 1822 and 1823 respectively. These states had traditionally maintained close diplomatic and economic contacts with South America.

War of Independence

Upon the declaration of the independence, the authority of the new regime only extended to Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and the adjacent provinces. The rest of Brazil remained firmly under the control of Portuguese juntas and garrisons.  It would take a war to put the whole of Brazil under Pedro's control. The fighting began with skirmishes between rival militias in 1822 and lasted until January 1824, when the last Portuguese garrisons and naval units surrendered or left the country.

Meanwhile, the Imperial government had to create a regular Army and Navy.  Forced enlistment was widespread, extending to foreign immigrants, and Brazil made use of slaves in militias, as well as freeing slaves to enlist them in army and navy. The campaigns on land and sea covered the vast territories of Bahia, Cisplatina, Grão-Pará, Maranhão, Pernambuco, Ceará and Piauí.

By 1822, Brazilian forces were firmly in control of Rio de Janeiro and the central area of Brazil.  Loyal militias began insurrections in the aforementioned territories, but strong, and regularly reinforced Portuguese garrisons in the port cities of  Salvador, Montevideo, São Luís and Belém continued to dominate the adjacent areas and to pose the threat of a reconquest that the irregular Brazilian militias and guerrilla forces, which were loosely besieging them by land supported by newly created units of the Brazilian army, would be unable to prevent.

For the Brazilians, the answer to this stalemate was to seize control of the sea.  Eleven former Portuguese warships, great and small, had fallen into Brazilian hands in Rio de Janeiro and these formed the basis of a new navy. The problem was manpower: the crews of these ships were largely Portuguese who were openly mutinous, and although many Portuguese naval officers had declared allegiance to Brazil their loyalty could not be relied on.  The Brazilian Government solved the problem by recruiting 50 officers and 500 seamen in secret in London and Liverpool, many of them veterans of the Napoleonic Wars, and appointed Thomas Cochrane as commander-in-chief.
On 1 April 1823, a Brazilian squadron of 6 ships sailed for Bahia.  After an initial disappointing engagement with a superior Portuguese fleet, Cochrane blockaded Salvador.  Deprived now of supplies and reinforcements by sea and besieged by the Brazilian army on land, on 2 July the Portuguese forces abandoned Bahia in a convoy of 90 ships.  Leaving the frigate 'Niteroi' under Captain John Taylor to harry them to the coasts of Europe, Cochrane then sailed north to São Luís (Maranhão).  There he tricked the Portuguese garrison into evacuating Maranhão by pretending that a huge Brazilian fleet and army were over the  horizon.  He then sent Captain John Pascoe Grenfell to play the same trick on the Portuguese in Belém do Pará at the mouth of the Amazon.  By November 1823, the whole of the north of Brazil was under Brazilian control, and the following month, the demoralized Portuguese also evacuated Montevideo and the Cisplatine Province.  By 1824, Brazil was free of all enemy troops and was de facto independent.

There are still today no reliable statistics related to the numbers of, for example, the total of the war casualties. However, based upon historical registration and contemporary reports of some battles of this war as well as upon the admitted numbers in similar fights that happened in these times around the globe, and considering how long the Brazilian independence war lasted (22 months), estimates of all killed in action on both sides are placed from around 5,700 to 6,200.

In Pernambuco
 Siege of Recife

In Piauí and Maranhão
 Battle of Jenipapo
 Siege of Caxias

In Grão-Pará
 Siege of Belém

In Bahia
 Battle of Pirajá
 Battle of Itaparica
 Battle of 4 May
 Siege of Salvador

In Cisplatina
 Siege of Montevideo (1823)

Peace treaty and aftermath
The last Portuguese soldiers left Brazil in 1824.  The Treaty of Rio de Janeiro recognizing Brazil's independence was signed by Brazil and Portugal on 29 August 1825.

The Brazilian aristocracy had its wish: Brazil made a transition to independence with comparatively little disruption and bloodshed. But this meant that independent Brazil retained its colonial social structure: monarchy, slavery, large landed estates, monoculture, an inefficient agricultural system, a highly stratified society, and a free population that was 90 percent illiterate.

See also

 Empire of Brazil
 Colonial Brazil
 Cry of Ipiranga
 History of Brazil
 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro (1825)
 Independence Day (Brazil)

Further reading
 Gomes, Laurentino, 1822Footnotes

References

 Armitage, John. História do Brasil. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1981.
 Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.
 Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004.
 Dolhnikoff, Miriam. Pacto imperial: origens do federalismo no Brasil do século XIX. São Paulo: Globo, 2005.

 Gomes, Laurentino. 1822. Nova Fronteira, 2010.
 Holanda, Sérgio Buarque de. O Brasil Monárquico: o processo de emancipação. 4. ed. São Paulo: Difusão Européia do Livro, 1976.
 Lima, Manuel de Oliveira. O movimento da independência. 6. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks, 1997.
 Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007.
 Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002.
 Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república''. 15. ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994.

External links

1820s conflicts
Empire of Brazil
Military history of Brazil
Latin American wars of independence
1822 in Brazil
Separatism in Brazil
Separatism in Portugal
Brazil–Portugal relations
1822 in international relations
Pedro I of Brazil

it:Impero del Brasile#Indipendenza brasiliana

Independence of Brazil


Air Commodore Ashley David Stevenson,  (born 30 September 1958) is a retired senior Royal Air Force (RAF) officer and a former Commandant of Royal Air Force College Cranwell.

Military career
Stevenson was commissioned into the Flying Branch as a flying officer from the ranks of the RAF on 25 February 1982. He conducted his flying training in the USA on the T-37 and T-38 aircraft, completing using the Hawk in the UK.

He was awarded the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct in 1992 for his actions in an ejection situation following a bird strike of his two-seat Harrier T.4 on 25 September 1991, where he rescued his rear seat passenger (the first woman to eject from a British combat jet) after she landed in the aircraft's burning wreckage. This was Stevenson's second ejection from a Harrier after he had ejected from a GR.5 on 17 October 1990.

As Officer Commanding No. 3 (Fighter) Squadron, Wing Commander Stevenson commanded the detachment of Harrier GR.7 aircraft deployed during the Sierra Leone crisis, the first operation conducted by the combined RAF/Royal Navy Joint Force Harrier.

Stevenson served as Station Commander RAF Wittering for two years and, on promotion to air commodore, was appointed Air Commodore Force Development Headquarters in No. 1 Group on 27 November 2006.

Stevenson was appointed to the newly created NATO post of Commander Kandahar Airfield, Afghanistan in July 2007. He then became Commandant Royal Air Force College Cranwell and Director of Recruiting in April 2008.

He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 Birthday Honours.

References

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Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Living people
Recipients of the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct
Royal Air Force officers
Royal Air Force personnel of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
1958 births
Commandants of the Royal Air Force College Cranwell

Ashley Stevenson


The Indonesian Navy is the naval branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. It was started on 10 September 1945 at the start of the Indonesian National Revolution.

There are three major fleets known as "Armada", which are Komando Armada I (1st Fleet Command) in Jakarta, Komando Armada II (2nd Fleet Command)  in Surabaya, Komando Armada III (3rd Fleet Command)  in Sorong  There is also the  Komando Lintas Laut Militer (Military Sealift Command) and the Marine Corps.

At first there were only wooden ships, but then it got some ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy.  It fought the  Royal Netherlands Navy.

In the 1960s as part of the increasing military ties between Indonesia and the Warsaw Pact, the Navy got  naval combat equipment from Eastern European countries.  It was used in the campaign for the liberation of West Irian from Dutch rule.

Organizations based in Indonesia
Navies

Indonesian Navy


Referring Peak () is a conspicuous black peak over 1,200 m, standing on the north side of Mackay Glacier about 1.5 nautical miles (2.8 km) west of the mouth of Cleveland Glacier, in Victoria land. Charted and named by the British Antarctic Expedition, 1910–13. The name suggests the easy identification of the peak and its use as a landmark.

Mountains of Victoria Land
Scott Coast

Referring Peak


Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 27 (P. Oxy. 27) is a fragment of Antidosis (83, 87) by Isocrates, written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the first or second century. It is housed in the University of Chicago (Haskell Oriental Institute). The text was published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1898.

The manuscript was written on papyrus in the form of a roll. The measurements of the fragment are 52 by 127 mm. The text is written in a small upright uncial hand. Grenfell and Hunt collated the text of the manuscript on the basis of the Benseler-Blass edition (1885).

See also
 Oxyrhynchus Papyri
 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 26
 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 28

References

027
1st-century manuscripts
2nd-century manuscripts

Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 27