Glued laminated timber, commonly referred to as glulam, is a type of structural engineered wood product constituted by layers of dimensional lumber bonded together with durable, moisture-resistant structural adhesives so that all of the grain runs parallel to the longitudinal axis. In North America, the material providing the laminations is termed laminating stock or lamstock.

History

The principles of glulam construction are believed to date back to the 1860s, in the assembly room of King Edward VI College, a school in Southampton, England. The first patent however emerged in 1901 when Otto Karl Freidrich Hetzer, a carpenter from Weimar, Germany, patented this method of construction. Approved in Switzerland, Hetzer's patent explored creating a straight beam out of several laminations glued together. In 1906 he received a patent in Germany for curved sections of glulam. Other countries in Europe soon began approving patents and by 1922, glulam had been used in 14 countries.

The technology was first brought to the United States by Max Hanisch Sr., who had been associated with the Hetzer firm in 1906 before emigrating to the United States in 1923. With no financial backing, it was not until 1934 that Hanisch was able to first use glulam in the United States. The project, a school and community gym in Peshtigo, Wisconsin, took time to get started, as manufacturers were hard to find, but eventually the Thompson Brothers Boat Manufacturing Company took on the project. The Wisconsin Industrial Commission, however, rejected the arches as they had no previous experience working with glulam. A compromise was reached in which the arches could be used if they were used in conjunction with bolts, lags, metal strapping, and angles to reinforce the structure. Though the reinforcements were unnecessary, ground finally broke in late 1934 featuring four spans of three-hinged arches with clear spans of . The partnership for this project lead to the creation of Unit Structures Inc., a construction firm for glulam owned by both the Hanisch and Thompson families.

In 1936, Unit Structures patented both the forming equipment used to produce glulam arches and the glulam arches themselves. A second project, this time for the Forest Products Laboratory (FPL), gave Unit Structures the opportunity to prove the strength and stiffness of glulam members to architects and engineers. Full-scale load tests conducted by placing  of sandbags on the roof exceeded the design specs by 50%. The noted deflections were also in favor of the system. While the results took some time to get published, the test enabled Unit Structures to continue building with glulam. At this time, I-sections featuring plywood webs and glulam flanges became popular in Europe while rectangular sections became the norm in America. The I-sections saved on lumber, which was beneficial to Europeans as they had high lumber costs but were more labor intensive, which was expensive in the States. The glulam system piqued the interest of those on the west coast and many firms began to engage with it.

In 1942, the introduction of a fully water-resistant phenol-resorcinol adhesive enabled glulam to be used in exposed exterior environments without concern of glue line degradation, expanding its applicable market. During the midst of World War II, glulam construction became more widespread as steel was needed for the war effort. In 1952, leading fabricators of engineered and solid wood joined forces to create the American Institute of Timber Construction (AITC) to help standardize the industry and promote its use. The first U.S. manufacturing standard for glulam was published by the Department of Commerce in 1963. Since then, glulam manufacturing has spread within the United States and into Canada and has been used for other structures, such as bridges, as well. It is currently standardized under ANSI Standard A190.1.

Manufacturing
The manufacturing of glulam is typically broken down into four steps: drying and grading the lumber, joining the lumber to form longer laminations, gluing the layers, and finishing and fabrication. The lumber used to produce glulam may come to the manufacturers pre-dried or will have to be dried onsite. A hand-held or on the line moisture meter is used to check the moisture levels of the lumber. Each piece of lumber going into the manufacturing process should have a moisture content between 8% and 14% in accordance with the adhesive used. If a piece of lumber is above this threshold it is redried.

Once the lumber is dry, knots on the ends of the lumber are trimmed and grading occurs. Lumber is then grouped based on the grade. To create lengths of glulam longer than those typically available for sawn lumber, the lumber must be end-jointed. The most common joint for this is a finger joint,  in length that is cut on either end with special cutter heads. A structural resin, typically RF curing melamine formaldehyde (MF) or PF resin, is applied to the joint between successive boards and cured under end pressure using a continuous RF curing system. After the resins have cured, the lumber is planed on each side to ensure smooth surfaces for gluing.

Once planed, a glue extruder spreads the resin onto the lumber. This resin is most often phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde, but PF resin or melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) resin can also be used. For straight beams, the resinated lumber is stacked in a specific lay-up pattern in a clamping bed so that a mechanical or hydraulic system can press the lumber together. For curved beams, the same process occurs, but lumber is instead stacked in a curved form. These beams are cured at room temperature for 5 to 16 hours before the pressure is released unless the hydraulic pressure is combined with RF curing, which can reduce the length of time needed for curing. Once the glulam beams are completely cured, they are removed from the clamping system the wide-side faces are sanded or planed to remove any resin that is squeezed out between the boards. The narrow top and bottom faces may also be sanded if necessary, based on the desired appearance. The corners are often rounded as well. Specifications for appearance govern whether or not additional finishing is completed. Additional finishing may include filling knot holes with putty, sanding the beams further, and applying sealers, finishes, or primers.

Technological developments

Resin glues
When glued laminated timber was introduced as a building material in the early twentieth century, casein glues (which are waterproof but have low shear strength) were widely used. Joints with casein glues had detachment failures due to inherent stresses in the wood. The invention of cold-curing synthetic resin glues in 1928 ("Kaurit") and other urea-formaldehyde glues solved these problems - resin glues, which are inexpensive and easy to use, are waterproof and enable high adhesive strength. The development of resin glues contributed to the wide use of glued laminated timber construction.

Finger joints
The use of finger joints with glulam allowed for production of glulam beams and columns on large scale. Glulam finger joints were developed to provide broad surface area for gluing. Automatic finger-jointing machines help cut the finger joints, connect and glue them together under pressure, allowing for a strong, durable joint, capable of carrying high loads comparable to natural wood with the same cross-section.

Computer numerical control
Computer numerical control (CNC) allows architects and designers to cut glued laminated timber into unusual shapes with a high degree of precision. CNC machine tools can utilize up to five axes, which enables undercutting and hollowing-out processes. The cost-effective CNC machines carve the material using mechanical tools, like a router.

Advantages
There are several advantages to using glulam in construction:

 Size and shape - By laminating a number of smaller pieces of lumber into a single large structural member, the dimensions of glulam members are only limited by transport and handling rather than the size of a tree like sawn lumber. This also enables the use of smaller trees harvested from second-growth forests and plantations rather than relying on old-growth forests. Glulam can also be manufactured in a variety of shapes, so it offers architects artistic freedom without sacrificing structural requirements.
 Versatility - Because the size and shape of glulam members can be so variable, they are able to be used as both beams and columns.
 Strength and stiffness - Glulam has a higher strength to weight ratio compared to both concrete and steel. Glulam also reduces the impact defects in the wood have on the strength of the member making it stronger than sawn lumber as well.  Glulam has also been proven to have a higher resistance to lateral-torsional buckling than steel.
 Environmentally friendly - Glulam has much lower embodied energy than reinforced concrete and steel because the laminating process allows the timber to be used for much longer spans, heavier loads, and more complex shapes than reinforced concrete or steel. The embodied energy to produce it is one sixth of that of a comparable strength of steel. Also, as glulam is a wood product, it naturally sequesters carbon, keeping it from being released into the atmosphere.  As long as the wood used to manufacture the glulam members comes from a sustainably managed forest, glulam is a renewable resource.
 Fire safety - While glulam is inherently flammable because it is made of wood, if it catches on fire a char layer forms that protects the interior of the member and thus maintains the strength of the member for some time.

Disadvantages
As with any system, there are some drawbacks to using glulam:

 Material cost - Glulam is generally noted to be more costly than concrete at high axial loads, though this can depend on location and its abundance of either material. While glulam beams may be cheaper than HEA steel beams in some cases, it is not a significant difference.
 Moisture - Glulam, especially when used for bridge projects, is susceptible to changes in moisture which can impact its strength. When glulam was exposed to a number of wet/dry cycles, the bending strength decreased dramatically, 43.5%.
 Dimensions - When compared to more common structural materials, glulam generally requires larger members to support the same load. Compared to steel, the cross-sectional area and height of a glulam member are significantly greater which may even make it impossible to use. Compared to concrete, glulam columns will be smaller for small axial loads, but once large axial forces come into play, concrete columns have a smaller cross-sectional area.
 Biodegradation - As a wood product, glulam is subject to concern regarding biodegradation. In regions where there is a high risk for biodegradation, additional measures to protect the glulam need to be taken.

Applications

Sport structures

Sport structures are a particularly suitable application for wide-span glulam roofs.  This is supported by the light weight of the material, combined with the ability to furnish long lengths and large cross-sections. Prefabrication is invariably employed, and the structural engineer needs to develop clear method statements for delivery and erection at an early stage in the design. The PostFinance Arena is an example of a wide-span sports stadium roof using glulam arches reaching up to 85 metres.  The structure was built in Bern in 1967, and has subsequently been refurbished and extended. Eastern Kentucky University's Alumni Coliseum was built in 1963 with the world's largest glued laminated arches, which span .

The roof of the Richmond Olympic Oval, built for speed skating events at the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, British Columbia, features one of the world's largest clearspan wooden structures. The roof includes 2,400 cubic metres of Douglas fir lamstock lumber in glulam beams. A total of 34 yellow cedar glulam posts support the overhangs where the roof extends beyond the walls.

Anaheim Ice in Anaheim, California, is also an example of using glued laminated timber. Disney Development Company desired to build an aesthetic ice rink with less cost, and glulam was one of the most qualified materials in order to meet the owner's requirement. Architect Frank Gehry suggested a design with large double-curved yellow pine glulam beams, and the ice rink was constructed in 1995.

Bridges

Pressure-treated glulam timbers or timbers manufactured from naturally durable wood species are well suited for creating bridges and waterfront structures. Wood's ability to absorb impact forces created by traffic and its natural resistance to chemicals, such as those used for de-icing roadways, make it ideal for these installations.

Glulam has been successfully used for pedestrian, forest, highway, and railway bridges. One North American glulam bridge is Keystone Wye in the Black Hills of South Dakota, constructed in 1967. The da Vinci Bridge in Norway, completed in 2001, is almost completely constructed with glulam. The Kingsway Pedestrian Bridge in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada, is constructed of cast-in-place concrete for the support piers, structural steel and glulam for the arch, a post tensioned precast concrete walking deck, and stainless steel support rods connecting the arch to the walking deck.

Religious buildings

Glulam is used for the construction of multi-use facilities such as churches, school buildings, and libraries. The Cathedral of Christ the Light in Oakland, California, is one such example and uses glulam to enhance the ecological and aesthetic effect. It was built as the replacement of the Cathedral of Saint Francis de Sales, which became unusable after the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989. The ,  -shaped building formed the frame with a glued-laminated timber beam and steel-rod skeleton covered with a glass skin. Considering the conventional mode of construction with steel or reinforced concrete moment-frame, this glulam-and-steel combination case is regarded as an advanced way to realize the economy and aesthetic in the construction.

As an alternative to new-felled oak trees, glued laminated timber was proposed as the structural material in the replacement spire of , destroyed by fire in 2019.

Other

In 2019, the world's tallest structure employing the use of glulam was Mjøstårnet, an 18-story mixed-use building in Brumunddal, Norway. However, in 2022, the Ascent MKE building in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, surpassed it with 26 stories, measuring over 86 meters tall.

The roof of the Centre Pompidou-Metz museum in France is composed of sixteen kilometers of glued laminated timber intersecting to form hexagonal units. With a surface area of 8,000 m2, the irregular geometry of the roof, featuring various curves and counter-curves, resembles a Chinese hat.

Failures
In 2005, researchers at Lund University, Sweden, found a number of failures of glulam structures in Scandinavian countries. They concluded that construction faults or design errors were responsible.
In January 2002 the roof of the Siemens velodrome arena in Copenhagen collapsed when  a joint between glulam trusses failed at the point of its dowel fastenings.
In February  2003 the roof of a newly built exhibition hall in Jyväskylä, Finland, collapsed. It was found that during construction the specified number of dowels at joints between glulam timbers were missing or had been wrongly placed.

The collapse of the Perkolo bridge in Sjoa, Norway, in 2016 was caused by a design miscalculation of stresses at joints. Following this incident thirteen road bridges of glulam construction were checked, with only minor faults found.

On 15 August 2022 Tretten Bridge in Gudbrandsdalen, Norway, collapsed as two vehicles were crossing. It was made with glulam and steel construction and had been erected in 2012, with a design life of "at least 100 years". The cause of the failure was not immediately apparent, although during the 2016 inspection , one joint was found to have dowels that were too short.

See also
 Engineered Wood
 Cross laminated timber
 Fiberboard
 Hardboard
 I joist
 Laminated veneer lumber
 Masonite
 Medium-density fiberboard
 Oriented strand board
 Parallam
 Particle board
 Plastic composite (disambiguation)
 Plywood
 Pressed wood
 Timber framing
 Plyscraper
 Tretten Bridge collapse (2022)

References

External links
 Glulam Beam Repair/Reinforcement – An article (Printed in STRUCTURE magazine, Sep. 2006) by Gary W. Gray P.E. and Paul C. Gilham P.E.
 Timber Engineering Europe Glulam
 Canadian Wood Council Glulam

Composite materials
Engineered wood
Timber framing

Glued laminated timber


is a 2009 Japanese gore film. It was directed by Yoshihiro Nishimura and Naoyuki Tomomatsu and premiered at the New York Asian Film Festival in June 2009. It is based on a manga of the same name by Shungiku Uchida.

Plot
In a typical Tokyo high school, a perpetually teenage vampire named Monami (played by Yukie Kawamura) falls for her male classmate, Mizushima (played by Takumi Saito); however, despite him reciprocating her feelings, the young man is already (reluctantly) dating a girl named Keiko (played by Eri Otoguro) who's both the leader of a Sweet Lolita gang and the vice principal/science professor's daughter.

The ensuing love triangle soon leads Keiko to seek the assistance of her father who, unbeknownst to his daughter, moonlights as a Kabuki-clad mad scientist with the school nurse as his assistant. The pair experiment on students in the school basement, hoping to discover the secret of reanimating corpses in a matter akin to the work of the fictional mad scientist, Victor Frankenstein.

Their hopes are soon answered when they discover a solution of Monami's blood holds the properties to bring life to dead body parts and inanimate objects.

The story begins to unfold after Mizushima carelessly accepts a honmei choco spiked with Monami's blood, turning him into a half vampire. When Keiko discovers their secret, she attacks Monami but accidentally throws herself off the school roof in the process. Her premature death leads to her father using the blood solution to transform her into a vicious Frankenstein's monster determined to get revenge against Monami.

From then on, Monami and Keiko battle each other in the pursuit of winning Mizushima's heart, regardless of his feelings towards either of them. Monami ultimately kills her archrival by ripping the flesh off the latter's body using droplets of her own blood to form spikes and impaling her skeletal corpse on top of Tokyo Tower.

At the end, Keiko's father turns himself in a Franken Advanced Composite Life Form with use of Monami's blood, and it is revealed that Igor was turned into a vampire by Monami a hundred years ago, and that Mizushima is only one in a long succession of boyfriends.

Cast

Subculture references
The film parodies subcultures prevalent in Japan, including ganguro and Lolita. Wrist cutting is a theme that returns from Nishimura's 2008 film, Tokyo Gore Police.

Release
In the United States, the film was released on 26 June 2009 from American Film Market.

References

External links

 Vampire Girl vs Frankenstein Girl - The Official Anime Website from FUNimation

2009 films
2009 horror films
2000s Japanese films
Films directed by Naoyuki Tomomatsu
Films directed by Yoshihiro Nishimura
Funimation
Japanese coming-of-age films
Japanese splatter films
Japanese vampire films
Live-action films based on manga
Mad scientist films

Vampire Girl vs. Frankenstein Girl


The TV parental guidelines are a television content rating system in the United States. They were proposed on December 19, 1996 by the United States Congress, the television industry and Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The ratings went in effect on January 1, 1997 on most broadcast and cable television networks. This was due to public concern of explicit sex, graphic violence and profanity in television programs. The ratings are a voluntary system.

The ratings are usually applied to most television series, TV movies and edited basic cable versions of theatrical movies. Pay television, like HBO, Showtime and Cinemax also assign the TV parental guideline ratings on movies. Most of these movies are not rated by Motion Picture Association of America or unrated versions of certain movies that may be rated.

The ratings are designed to be used with the V-chip. The V-chip is in televisions which are made in and after 2000. The guidelines carry no legal forces. They're not used on news or sports shows.

References

American television

TV Parental Guidelines


Michael Dietz (born February 10, 1971) is an American actor and producer.

Career

He was an executive producer for GSN'S The Line
and a co-executive producer for SyFy's Geeks Who Drink. Other producing credits include Celebrity Apprentice, Stars Earn Stripes, Tru TV's Killer Karaoke, Minute To Win It, Discovery Channel's One Man Army, Chefs vs City, and Great American Road Trip, as well as a challenge consultant for ABC'S Wipeout and a challenge producer for season ten of Big Brother. He produced the feature film Born which was shown at the Cannes Film Festival and was released by Lionsgate.

As an actor, he had guest stints on prime time shows Wasteland, Charmed, Beverly Hills, 90210, The Drew Carey Show, House, CSI, and Baywatch, as well as starring roles on Guiding Light and Port Charles.

Dietz co-invented the board game Bubblebrain which has won several awards including Family Fun Magazine's Toy Of The Year.

In 2005, Dietz formed Lucky Butterfly Productions, a film and television company.

Personal life
Dietz is married to actress Paige Rowland; the couple has one child.

References

External links

Profile, soapoperadigest.com; accessed January 25, 2017.
Profile, deadline.com; accessed January 25, 2017.

American male film actors
American male soap opera actors
American male television actors
American television producers
Male actors from Pennsylvania
1971 births
Living people

Michael Dietz


Gideon v. Wainwright, , is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. The Court decided that if a person is charged with a crime, and they cannot pay for a lawyer, the state has to give them one for free. This case caused the public defender program to be created in the United States. (A public defender is a lawyer who defends clients who cannot pay them.)

Background
Between midnight and 8:00 a.m. on June 3, 1961, someone broke into the Bay Harbor Pool Room in Panama City, Florida. The person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole coins from a cash register. Later that day, a witness said he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the pool room at around 5:30 that morning. The witness said Gideon left with a wine bottle and money in his pockets. Based only on this information, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny. This charge means a person broke into a place, meaning to steal someone else's property. (In Florida, at the time, "petty" larceny meant that the person stole something that was worth less than $50.) Under Florida law, if Gideon was found guilty, he could be put in prison for up to five years.

Laws about rights to counsel

In state courts
In 1961, state courts had to follow the Supreme Court's decision in Betts v. Brady. In this case, the Court ruled that if a defendant was charged with a capital crime, he had to be assigned a lawyer if he could not pay for one. However, as long as the defendant was not charged with a capital crime, the states did not have to assign free lawyers to every defendant who could not afford them. The Court ruled that having a lawyer was not a basic right, and was not necessary for a fair trial.

In their decision, the Court did rule that there were special cases where a court should assign a lawyer. In these special cases, not having a lawyer would make it difficult for a defendant to get a fair trial. These "specialized circumstances" included things like a defendant not having education or not knowing the rules of the court.

Importance
What this meant was that in 1961, throughout the state of Florida, most defendants did not have lawyers. They had two choices: to plead guilty, or to defend themselves at trial. A Florida lawyer remembers that "[before] 1963, lawyers were likely to appear in Florida courtrooms only for the wealthy."

In a letter he wrote from prison, Gideon once wrote:

Appeal

First, Gideon filed a writ of habeas corpus with the Florida State Supreme Court. This is a request to be set free from unfair imprisonment. The Florida Supreme Court summarily denied his request  meaning they refused to even hold a court hearing or hear Gideon's arguments.

From his prison cell, using the prison library and writing in pencil on prison paper, Gideon then appealed to the United States Supreme Court. He asked the Supreme Court to review his case "because the 'due process clause' of the fourteenth admendment of the constitution and the fifth and sixth articales of the Bill of rights has been violated" sic.

Gideon argued that he had been denied a lawyer, which violated his Sixth Amendment rights. In Betts v. Brady, the Supreme Court had ruled that the Sixth Amendment did not apply to the states. However, Gideon argued that it did, because of the Fourteenth Amendment.

The Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws." Gideon argued that without assigning lawyers to poor defendants, the state of Florida was not giving those defendants due process or equal protection under the laws.

The Supreme Court agreed to hear Gideon's appeal. They had decided to think about whether Betts v. Brady should be "reconsidered" (re-thought).

Supreme Court case

The legal issue
The basic question the Supreme Court had to answer had to do with the Sixth Amendment. They had already decided that under the Sixth Amendment, everyone accused of a crime in federal court had the right to have a lawyer, even if they could not pay for one. Now they needed to decide whether the Sixth Amendment applied to the states like it did to the federal government. In other words, did every person accused of a crime in state court have the right to a lawyer?

Arguments

For Gideon
The Supreme Court had assigned Gideon a well-known lawyer from Washington, D.C. named Abe Fortas. (In 1965, Fortas would become a United States Supreme Court Justice.)

Fortas argued that it was impossible for a person to get a fair trial without a lawyer. He argued that under the Fourteenth Amendment's "due process" requirement, the states had to give a person a fair trial before taking away their freedom. By denying Gideon a lawyer, the state of Florida denied him a fair trial and violated his right to due process under the Fourteenth Amendment.

Against Gideon
A lawyer named Bruce Jacob argued the case against Gideon in front of the Supreme Court. He made a few different arguments.

Jacob argued that the Constitution allows states to make their own rules about the criminal procedure (how to run criminal trials). He talked about federalism  the separation of powers between federal and state governments that is written into the Constitution. By making a rule saying the states always had to give poor defendants free lawyers, the federal government would be over-stepping its powers. The states would be unable to make their own rules, and this would take away a right the Constitution gave to the states.

Jacob also argued that a person does not need a lawyer to get a fair trial. He said that judges, and even prosecutors, help protect the rights of people who defend themselves in court.

In addition, Jacob said that if the Court ruled in favor of Gideon, the effects would be harmful. If the Court ruled that a lawyer was needed for a fair trial, then the state would also have to give poor defendants free lawyers for other types of trials, like appeals and civil trials. The state would never have enough lawyers for this or enough money to pay them, he said. Also, out of Florida's 8,000 prisoners, 65%  5,200 prisoners  had not had lawyers. Jacob argued that many of these prisoners could go free if the Court ruled in favor of Gideon.

Decision

On March 18, 1963, the Supreme Court voted 9-0 that Gideon was right. His rights had been violated.

The Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment's right to a lawyer does apply to the states. It reasoned that without a lawyer, a person cannot get a fair trial. If a person does not get a fair trial, they are not getting the "due process of law" that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees. In other words, because people have the right to due process, they have the right to a fair trial; and because they cannot get a fair trial without a lawyer, they also have the right to a lawyer.

The Court also said that its earlier decision in Betts v. Brady had been wrong. This ruling overturned the Supreme Court's earlier decision in Betts v. Brady (meaning the Betts decision was no longer valid). Justice Black (who had disagreed with the Betts decision when the Court made it) wrote:

After the Supreme Court

Gideon
The Supreme Court's ruling did not mean that Gideon could automatically go free. It meant he got a new trial  this time, with a free lawyer assigned to him.

Gideon asked for a lawyer named Fred Turner, who had a very good reputation, and the judge agreed. With Turner arguing the case, it took jurors less than an hour to find Gideon not guilty. Gideon was set free that day.

Gideon died on January 18, 1972, from cancer and tuberculosis. He was buried in an unmarked grave in Missouri.

Almost thirteen years later, the American Civil Liberties Union paid for a headstone to be put on Gideon's grave. On the gravestone, there is a quote based on something Gideon wrote in a letter to Abe Fortas: "I believe that each era finds an improvement in law for the benefit of mankind."p. 78

Results
Based on the Supreme Court decision, each of Florida's 5,200 prisoners who had been convicted without counsel had the right to a new trial  this time with a lawyer. However, about 1,200 of these prisoners were set free without a new trial. This happened because witnesses in their cases had died or moved away, and the state of Florida did not have enough evidence to try them again.

The same year Gideon was decided, the Florida state legislature set up their public defender system. Throughout the 1960s, states that did not already have public defender systems created them.

Importance
When Gideon was decided, there were still 13 states that did not always give lawyers to poor criminal defendants. Like in Florida, many of these poor defendants did not get fair trials because they did not have a lawyer's help. After the Gideon decision, every person who is charged with a crime, in any court in the United States, has the right to a lawyer  even if they cannot pay for one. Defendants can decide they do not want a lawyer, but when they do that, they are giving up their right to a lawyer because they want to.

Four years after Gideon, in a case called Burget v. Texas, the Supreme Court ruled that the Gideon decision applied "retroactively." This means it applies even to defendants who were convicted before Gideon was decided in 1963. In other words, the Court was admitting that defendants should have had the right to counsel all along, even before Gideon. The Court decided in Gideon that people could not get a fair trial without lawyers; that was just as true for people who were convicted before 1963. These people, too, now deserved new trials, with free lawyers to help them.

Gideon today
The Gideon decision still guarantees free counsel to every poor individual charged with a crime in the United States. However, many legal scholars agree that there are many problems with the public defender system in the 21st century. Because of these problems, they argue, many poor defendants are not getting the rights the Gideon decision gave them.

According to these scholars, one of the biggest problems with today's public defender programs is that they do not get enough money from the government to deal with the number of poor defendants they have to represent. This means:
 Programs cannot hire enough lawyers
 Public defenders have to take on many different cases at a time
 When lawyers have too many cases, they have very little time to work on each case, and they cannot do their jobs as well
 These lawyers are not paid well, and because their jobs are also very stressful, many lawyers do not stay in public defender jobs for long
 Some public defenders have very little experience in criminal law
 Many poor defendants are given free counsel at trial, then later are told they have to pay for the lawyer's services

When public defenders cannot do their jobs well because they have too many cases, have too little experience, or are too overwhelmed, defendants get more severe punishments when they are convicted.

=

Notes

References

1963 in the United States
United States Supreme Court cases

Gideon v. Wainwright


Gladiators (Latin: gladiatōrēs, "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword," from gladius, "sword") were professional fighters in ancient Rome, who fought against each other, wild animals  and sentenced criminals, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of the public. These fights took place in arenas in many cities from the Roman Republic period through the Roman Empire.

The word comes from gladius, the Latin word for a short sword used by legionaries and some gladiators.

Gladiators often were slaves and people from other countries that fought Ancient Rome and lost and were captured. Some were normal citizens of the Roman Republic who wanted to be a gladiator and give up their freedom for a chance at glory.

There were different types of gladiators in the arena, such as Thracians, Mirmillones, Retiarii, and the Secutores. They used different types of armor and weapons. Besides swords, some used spears or axes. The gladiators were the professional athletes of their time. A few became very famous and rich.

Sometimes gladiators fought to the death. Sometimes the Emperor was there, and would have the final say about who would live and who would die.

Other websites
 BBC News: Gladiator bones found in Turkey
 The Roman Gladiator

Ancient Rome
Entertainment occupations

Gladiator


Robert Katz (27 June 1933 – 20 October 2010) was an American novelist, screenwriter, and non-fiction author.

Biography

Katz was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Sidney and Helen Katz, née Holland, and married Beverly Gerstel on September 22, 1957. The couple had two sons: Stephen Lee Katz and Jonathan Howard Katz.

He studied at Brooklyn College 1951–53 and went on to be a photojournalist and writer at the United Hias Service, NYC 1953–57; at the American Cancer Society in New York (1958–63); and then at the United Nations in New York and Rome (1963–64). He was a freelance writer from 1964 until his death.

He fulfilled academic roles at numerous institutions, including being visiting professor of Investigative Journalism at the University of California, Santa Cruz (1986–92). Awarded an ongoing Guggenheim Fellowship in 1970, he had also been a fellow of Adlai E. Stevenson College, University of California during 1986 to 1992. He became a grantee of the American Council of Learned Societies in 1971 and a recipient of the Laceno d'Oro (best screenplay) award at the Neorealist Film Festival in Avellino, Italy (1983).

Katz was involved in a criminal-libel lawsuit in Italy over the contents of his book Death in Rome, in which he was charged with "defaming the memory of the Pope" Pius XII regarding the Ardeatine Massacre of 335 Italians, including 70 Jews, at the Ardeatine Caves in 1944. The book aroused international religious and political controversy; the book was made into the 1973 film Massacre in Rome starring Richard Burton. which brought the controversy to court, culminating in a two-year criminal trial. Katz was ultimately convicted and sentenced to fourteen months in prison for defaming the memory of Pope Pius XII.  The verdict was overturned on appeal and later the case was dismissed by Italy's Supreme Court.

Katz lived for many years in Tuscany, Italy. He died October 20, 2010, in Montevarchi, Italy, as a result of complications from cancer surgery.

Non-fiction writings
Death in Rome, New York: Macmillan Publishers, 1967.
Black Sabbath: A Journey through a Crime against Humanity, Macmillan, 1969.
The Fall of the House of Savoy, Macmillan, 1971.
A Giant in the Earth, Stein & Day, 1973.
Days of Wrath: The Ordeal of Aldo Moro, the Kidnapping, the Execution, the Aftermath, Doubleday, 1980. (Pulitzer Prize nomination 1981)
Il caso Moro (with G. Ferrara and A. Balducci), Pironti, 1987.
Love is Colder than Death: The Life and Times of Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Random House, 1987.
Naked by the Window: The Fatal Marriage of Carl Andre and Ana Mendieta, Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990.
Dossier Priebke, Rizzoli, 1997.
The Battle for Rome: the Germans, the Allies, the Partisans and the Pope, September 1943-June 1944, Simon & Schuster, 2003.

Novels

The Cassandra Crossing, Ballantine, 1976.
Ziggurat, Houghton, 1977.
The Spoils of Ararat, Houghton, 1978.

Filmography
Massacre in Rome (1973) (book "Death in Rome") (screenplay)
The Cassandra Crossing (1976) (screenplay) (story)
The Salamander (1981) (writer)
La pelle (1981) (screenplay)
Kamikaze 1989 (1982) (writer)
Dolce e selvaggio (1983) (English dialogue)
Il Caso Moro (1986) (book Days of Wrath) (screenplay)
Il cugino americano (1986) (story)
Hotel Colonial (1987) (writer)
The Plague (1992) (narration)
The Contractor (2007) (V) (story)

References

External links
Robert Katz's View of Modern Italy

1933 births
2010 deaths
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male screenwriters
Writers from Brooklyn
Novelists from New York City
American male novelists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
Screenwriters from New York (state)
Brooklyn College alumni
21st-century American male writers

Robert Katz


Shiloh and Other Stories is a 1982 collection of short stories written by American author Bobbie Ann Mason. The collection won the Ernest Hemingway Foundation award for fiction. The collection brought Mason her first critical acclaim.

The short story alluded to in the collection's title, "Shiloh", revolves around a man named Leroy who lives in rural Kentucky and is forced to quit his job as a truck driver after an accident. The plot centers around his attempt to adjust to life after the accident, while at the same time facing problems with his marriage and attempting to cope with the urbanization of his neighborhood, which was once a community of farmers.  The story ends with Leroy and his wife Norma Jean visiting the battlefield of Shiloh, where Norma Jean tells Leroy that she is leaving him because she no longer loves him. Norma Jean then walks to the edge of the bluff and looks over, Leroy pursues her, and the story ends.

1982 short story collections
American short story collections
PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction-winning works
Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award-winning works
Harper & Row books

Shiloh and Other Stories


Blumlein pair is a stereo recording technique invented by Alan Blumlein for the creation of recordings that, upon replaying through headphones or loudspeakers, recreate the spatial characteristics of the recorded signal.

The pair consists of an array of two matched microphones that have a bi-directional ("figure-eight") polar pattern, positioned 90° from each other. Ideally, the transducers should occupy the same physical space; since this cannot be achieved, the microphone capsules are placed as close to each other as physically possible, generally with one centered directly above the other. The array is oriented so that the line bisecting the angle between the two microphones points towards the sound source to be recorded (see diagram). The pickup patterns of the pair, combined with their positioning, delivers a high degree of stereo separation in the source signal, as well as the room ambiance.

The Blumlein pair produces an exceptionally realistic stereo image, but the quality of recordings is highly dependent on the acoustics of the room and the size of the sound source.

Both ribbon and condenser microphones can be used for Blumlein-pair recording. A few types of stereo ribbon microphones (B & O, Royer , AEA) have even been purpose-built for just this type of recording. Several types of stereo condenser microphone (Neumann, AKG, Schoeps, Nevaton BPT) have also offered a Blumlein arrangement as one of their possible configurations. Individual microphones with variable patterns (such as those from Pearl/Milab) can be used. The Soundfield microphone used to make Ambisonic recordings can be adjusted to mimic two microphones of any pattern at any angle to each other, including a Blumlein pair.

In his early experiments at EMI with what he called "binaural" sound, Blumlein did not use this actual technique because he did not have access to figure-eight microphones. This meant that he had to develop ways of using omnidirectional microphones to record what we now know as stereo sound. In the claims he made in his U.K. patent application in 1931, as well as details of these techniques, he included the theoretical possibility of using directional microphones in what later became known as a Blumlein pair. During the period when Blumlein's patent (British Patent 394325) was being written, Harry F. Olson published a patent for the first practical ribbon microphone, and much of the later experimental work was carried out with this type of microphone

It is unclear when this approach became known as the Blumlein pair, although it does not appear to have been known by that name during his lifetime.

References

External links

 Visualization XY Stereo System – Blumlein Pair Eight/Eight 90° – Intensity Stereo

Microphone practices
Stereophonic techniques

Blumlein pair