The Gongyang Zhuan, also known as the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals or the Commentary of Gongyang, is a commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, and is thus one of the Chinese classics. Along with the Zuo Zhuan and the Guliang Zhuan, the work is one of the Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals. In particular, Gongyang Zhuan is a central work to New Text Confucianism (), which advocates Confucius as an institutional reformer instead of a respected scholar, and Chunqiu as an embodiment of Confucius' holistic vision on political, social, and moral issues instead of a merely chronicle. Gongyang Zhuan significantly influenced the political institution in Han dynasty. It fell out of favor among elites and was eventually replaced by the Zuo Zhuan. Gongyang Zhuan scholarship was reinvigorated in late Ming dynasty and became a major source of inspiration for Chinese reformers from eighteen to early twentieth century.

Sima Qian states that Mencius, Gongsun Gu, Xunzi and Han Fei often drew on the Gongyang, while actually they drew on commentaries similar to what we now call the Zuozhuan; for him the distinction was meaningless.

Content
Gongyang Zhuan argues that Chunqiu is not merely a history, but a magnum opus of Confucius' ideas regarding sociopolitical order. Unlike Zuo Zhuan, a later favorite among many scholars for its vivid narrative of historical events, Gongyang Zhuan was compiled in a dialogistic style resembling a class conversation between a Confucian scholar and his student discussing the profound meanings behind the subtle words of Chunqiu and was brief in explaining the historical context. Because of its emphasis on the theoretical interpretation of the Annals, Jiang Qing (b. 1953) dubbed it "the political theory wing of Confucianism ()."

The primary assumption of Gongyang Zhuan is that Confucius authored Chunqiu in order to criticize the politics of his time and set a constitutional guideline for future generations. Moreover, Confucius is not merely a transmitter of ancient scholarship but a charismatic sage () who should have received the Mandate of Heaven and become a King himself. But since Confucius did not receive the kingship due to the political circumstances at the time, he compiled Chunqiu based on official chronicles, in which he criticized () the events and historical figures of the Spring and Autumn period according to a coherent philosophy. Based on this assumption, Gongyang Zhuan strives to undercover what it claims to be the deeper meaning behind layers of subtle texts.

Gongyang Zhuans interpretation of Chunqiu is more voluntarism than that advocated by the Old Texts scholars.

Dong Zhongshu's interpretation
Dong Zhongshu was a leading Confucian scholar in the Western Han dynasty, and was regarded as an authority on Gongyang Zhuan. Dong advocated According to Qing dynasty scholar Kang Youwei's summary, some of Gongyang Zhuan'''s political agenda including the establishment of a well-ordered hierarchical regime (), a strong and centralized political authority (), and a merit-based civil government (), and a benevolent ruler whose legitimacy is based on the Mandate of Heaven.

Jiang Qing's reading
According to contemporary scholar Jiang Qing's Introductory Treatise on Gongyang Scholarship (), Gongyang Zhuan includes the following themes:
Three Stages of Human History ().Gongyang Zhuan argues that human society evolves over time and could be divided into three phases. The first stage (據亂世) is marked by political chaos and social anomy, the second stage () is characterized by the reestablishment of legitimate political order, and the third stage (太平世) is when the world as a whole experiences great harmony and every individual is able to fully realize their potential.
Unity of cosmological and political order ()
Reconciliation between past and present sources of political legitimacy ()
Limitation on monarchical power ()
Distinction between legitimate political maneuver and realpolitik ()
Interaction between human and heaven ()
Distinction between Chinese and non-Chinese cultures  ()
Just retribution ()

Early development
The genealogy of Gongyang Zhuan has been a contested issue among scholars. According to the Book of Han, Bu Shang (Zixia), one of the top disciples of Confucius, taught Confucius' class notes to his disciple  of the State of Qi during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). An oral commentary at first, it was written down and edited during the early Han dynasty by Gongyang Gao's decedent Gongyang Shou (公羊壽) and his collaborator Humu Sheng (胡母生).

Humu Sheng later became a boshi ("erudite") in the Han court in charge of the studying and teaching of Gongyang Zhuan. Along with him was another Gongyang Zhuan authority Dong Zhongshu. With Emperor Wu of Han's adoption of Dong's proposal to formally establish Confucianism as the state ideology, the power and influence of the Gongyang School increased significantly. Later, Dong Zhongshu authored Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals, Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind and Strange Calamities of Yin and Yang, in which he popularized his mysticism interpretation of Gongyang Zhuan. Along with the widespread adoption of divination practices, the Han intelligentsia became shrouded in an atmosphere of superstition and mystery. Nonetheless, among officials, Gongyang School was seen as a vital political classic that provided ideological basis and historical precedents in governing, and was cited during policy debates.

Dong Zhongshu's two students,  and Yan Anle (顏安樂) became the leaders of Gongyang School after Dong's death.

Some exegesis monographs by Gongyang scholars mounts to over one million characters in length, that scholars from other schools accused Gongyang school for being too fixated on the trivia of Chunqiu.

At the end of Western Han dynasty, scholar Liu Xin proposed to establish professorship for Zuo Zhuan and ''Guliang Zhuan. Once his advice was adopted, Gongyang school no longer monopolized the official interpretation of Spring and Autumn Annals. From the time of the Eastern Han dynasty onwards, more and more people criticized Dong Zhongshu's interpretation of the Gongyang Zhuan.

During the later years of the Han dynasty,  became the most ardent defender of Gongyang School. He combated vigorously with scholars who prefer Zuo Zhuan and Guliang Zhuan. After spending seventeen years, he wrote a hermeneutics work on Gongyang Zhuan, which is largely survived into modern days. He Xiu's work became the primary source for textual reconstruction of Gongyang Zhuan and a major source of inspiration for later Gongyang scholars.

Huan Kuan (桓寬), author of the Confucian political treatise Discourses on Salt and Iron, was another notable Gongyang Scholar.

Commentaries
In his Confucian work Discourse on the Six Arts (六藝論), the Han scholar Zheng Xuan makes the following comment:
The Zuo Zhuan is best with regards to Confucian rites, the Gongyang Zhuan for divination and the Guliang Zhuan for the classical view of Confucianism.

The Eastern Jin dynasty scholar  (grandfather of Fan Ye, author of the Book of the Later Han), in his commentary on works relating to the Spring and Autumn Annals said that the Zuo Zhuan was colorful and rich in content but contains too much wizardry, the Guliang Zhuan was clear and elegantly written but too short whilst the Gongyang Zhuan seemed argumentative, judgmental and vulgar in style. In the opinion of the Han scholar and official , the Gongyang Zhuan'''s achievement is its appraisal of the Spring and Autumn Annals to expound the "great way of Confucianism" through the use of subtle and profound language.

Later development
In the period between the Eastern Wu and the end of the Southern and Northern dynasties (229-589 CE), the official He Xiu School was established.

During the Tang dynasty, study of the Gongyang Zhuan gradually declined with very few academics concentrating on the work.

Gongyang scholarship was introduced to Japan. Notable scholars include Hayashi Razan and his son Hayashi Gahō. Hayashi Gahō later published a commentated version of Gongyang Zhuan in 1688, attributing the comments to his father.

During the Qing dynasty the study of textual criticism flourished with successive scholars researching the Gongyang Zhuan and reinvigorating its ideas. This re-evaluation of the work was probably a response to the massive social and political changes of the period which caused scholars to reassess the dominant official interpretation of Confucianism.Gongyang Zhuan played an important role in the works of the Changzhou School of Thought proponents. The school held an important position during the late Qing dynasty as a mainstream center of learning with scholars such as , Zhuang Cunyu, , Gong Zizhen, Wei Yuan and  Kang Youwei amongst others. The school's main target for criticism was the Old Texts. In particular, Kang Youwei's interpretation helped facilitated the widespread doubt on the Old Texts among intellectuals, and thus creating a sympathetic audience for his reformist ideas, which later became well known in Hundred Days' Reform.

In 1995, Chinese scholar Jiang Qing published his work Introductory Treatise on Gongyang Scholarship, which marked the revived interest in the Gongyang Zhuan among modern political theorists.

Notes

References
Duan, Xizhong Gongyangxue jiangshu Nanjing: Nanjing University Press, 2002
Jiang, Qing Gongyangxue yinlun: Rujia de zhengzhi zhihui yu lishi xinyang'' Shenyang: Liaoning Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1995.

External links
 《春秋公羊傳 - Gongyang Zhuan》 Chinese text at the Chinese Text Project
 'Gongyang's Commentary on Spring and Autumn Annals' 《春秋公羊傳》 Chinese text with matching English vocabulary at Chinese Notes

5th-century BC history books
Chinese classic texts
Chinese history texts
Chinese literature
Confucian texts
Thirteen Classics
Zhou dynasty texts

Gongyang Zhuan


Jack Smith and the Destruction of Atlantis is a documentary film that premiered in the 2006 Tribeca Film Festival. It is a collection of interviews and clips by and about the revolutionary artist Jack Smith. It was directed by Mary Jordan and produced by Tongue Press Productions.

The film was given a limited release in New York movie theaters beginning on April 11, 2007.

Jordan is a Canadian-born filmmaker known for her documentary shorts resulting from extended visits to Africa and Southeast Asia. David Ebony, whose review of the film appeared in Art in America, had met Smith in the late 70s soon after moving to New York and at that time "attempted to assist him with a number of 'slide-show performances.'" Ebony's review, following the documentary, covers some of the difficult exhibition history of Flaming Creatures (1963), Smith's best known film, and difficult collaborations with Jonas Mekas and Andy Warhol and others. Voiceovers from Smith, culled from some 14 hours of interviews with various critics and friends, supplemented the archival visual materials, footage and extensive interviews with filmmaker John Waters, Smith's sister Mary Sue Slater, playwright Richard Foreman, Smith and Warhol star Mario Montez, writer Gary Indiana, and musician John Zorn, among others. Ebony concludes that the film "manages to evoke the quirky and often cantankerous personality of its subject without ever making him seem merely a disgruntled artist and social misfit, as some may think him. ... I feel that Jordan's multifaceted and impassioned portrait rings true. Smith, in fact, comes off in the film as an ingenious art-world Cassandra, more relevant today than ever."

Wesley Morris, whose review appeared in the Boston Globe, was impressed that Jordan "manages to conjure Smith's story while also telling a story about art in America", concluding that Smith was "a pioneer of the sort of event that just doesn't seem possible in an age when counterculture feels like mass culture and very little art is shocking".

References

External links

 New York Magazine Review

2006 films
Documentary films about visual artists
2000s English-language films


Buffalo meat is the meat of the water buffalo, a large bovid, raised for its milk and meat in many countries including India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Philippines, Bulgaria, Italy, Russia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Australia and Egypt.

Buffalo meat is known by various names in different countries. In some places it is known as  red beef, or buff in India and Nepal; in some countries it is known as carabeef, from the Spanish term and breed name carabao. Meat taken from a buffalo younger than 20 months is known as padwa in India,  pado  in Nepal and bansgosh in Pakistan. Buffalo calves are often referred to as buffalo broilers and brought up exclusively on milk for the purpose of being slaughtered young for meat.

Social significance
Due to the religious importance of cows and restrictions on beef in India and Nepal, there is a need to differentiate buffalo meat from beef. In countries like India, for religious reasons, a considerable part of the population does not eat beef (meat of cattle). In a large number of the Indian states and in Nepal, slaughtering cattle is prohibited.

Differences from beef
Water buffalo are a type of bovid, but their meat is different from beef in many respects. Buffalo meat has a lower fat content, and its fat is milky white, compared to the yellow-white fat of beef. Buffalo meat is darker in color, and buffaloes, because of their larger size, have harder bones than cows. Buffalo meat has a lower muscle pH of 5.6±0.4 whereas beef muscle has a pH of 6.4±0.7. It also has a significantly smaller amount of collagen in its muscles, but the species does not differ significantly in the degree of intramuscular collagen cross-linking.

Production

Buffalo have exceptional muscular development and thus they are considerably heavy, with some weighing more than a tonne. The main agricultural use of buffalo is to obtain milk. India has the largest number of buffalo and is the largest producer of its milk, producing nearly 57 million tonnes of it annually. This accounts for 67% of global production. Slaughtering buffalo for meat is a secondary agricultural priority.

Buffalo meat from young buffalo has a much better quality as they have a higher proportion of muscle and a lower proportion of fat as compared to other cattle meat. The highest quality buffalo meat is known as "padwa" in India, taken from a buffalo younger than 24 months.

India accounts for about 43% of the world buffalo meat production, with Uttar Pradesh producing the most, followed by Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In the 21st century, buffalo meat production in India has been growing and has increased from 4.1 million tonnes CWE (carcass weight equivalent) in 2014 to 4.3 million tonnes CWE in 2015.

In India, during the calendar year 2014–2015, consumption estimates had been forecasted to rise from 3.1% and 3.5% to 2.1 and 2.175 million tonnes CWE respectively, according to the US Department of Agriculture.

Quality parameters of buffalo meat
For centuries buffalo have been used as draught animals as they have good muscular development. Buffalo are generally fed on coarse feeds; they convert them into the protein-rich lean meat. Buffalo can be suitably grown in countries having poor feed resources. Thus, buffalo are generally raised using straw crop residues and they are very cheap to feed. Some can work until the age of 30.

When buffalo are reared up to 24 months and fed with milk, their meat is of high quality. The buffen is lean and rich in protein and less fatty than  cattle. This has created a high demand for buffen among health-conscious consumers (Desmond, 1990). Buffalo may also be more resistant to disease than cattle. The nutrient requirements of buffalo steer constitute 1.8 kg TDN, 6.6 MCal ME, 0.24 kg DCP, 11 g P  and 14 g Ca. On ad libitum and high concentrate (75:25) based rations the growth rate is 610 g/day (with feed efficiency of 7:1). The protein content of buffalo meat is higher than chicken, and due to this buffalo meat is also called poor people's protein.

Indian export
India is one of the world's biggest exporters of buffalo meat. According to US Department of Agriculture, India leads over the next highest exporter Brazil. In 2015, India exported more than 2.4 million tonnes of buffalo meat and its allied products. Brazil exported 2 million tonnes and Australia 1.5 million tonnes. These two countries constitute 58.7% of all buffalo meat exports. India has 23.5% of global buffalo meat exports. In fiscal year 2014, the export share of India was 20%.

According to data obtained from Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), most of India's export is to Asian countries, which import more than 80% while African countries import around 15%. Within Asia, Vietnam imports 45% of the buffalo meat exported from India.

Buffalo meat exports from India have been growing at an average of approximately 14% yearly since 2011 and fetched more than $4.8 billion in 2014. Last year was the first time India has earned more from the export of buffen than it did from Basmati rice exports.

Several databases, such as Agricultural Outlook and United Nations Food, show there is increasing trend of meat consumption in India. However, the data also show that the consumption of buffalo meat has been falling over the years. It has come down by (-) 44.5% in 2014 from 2000. This fall in consumption has been taking place because of an increase in the price of buffalo meat and health consciousness. Consumption of chicken went up by 31% in that period, showing that white meat is taking precedence over red meat.

Gallery

See also
 Beefalo
 Buffalo burger

References

Further reading
Kondaiah N (2002). Meat and by-products.In: Handbook of Animal Husbandry. 3rd revised edition. pp. 950–975. New Delhi, India: DIPA, ICAR.

External links

Water buffalo
Meat by animal

Buffalo meat


Jingalup is a town in the Great Southern region of Western Australia located between the towns of Kojonup and Cranbrook. The town is located on Murrin Brook, which is a tributary of the Tone River.

The area was explored by Francis Thomas Gregory in 1846; he first recorded the name Jingalup. The area was eventually opened to agriculture. By 1918 the local farmers requested that a townsite be declared, and proposed the name be Mybrup. A town hall which was also used as a school and a recreation ground had been built by 1922, and the community knew the area as Jingalup. The town was gazetted in 1924.

The name is Aboriginal in origin and is a contraction of the name of a nearby well, Kodjingalup Well.

References

Great Southern (Western Australia)

Jingalup, Western Australia


Zomergasten ("Summer guests", an allusion to migratory birds) is a Dutch television programme broadcast each summer by public broadcaster VPRO.

The programme was first aired in 1988. Each episode takes up an entire Sunday evening, lasting typically three hours. It consists of an in-depth studio interview with a notable Dutch, Belgian or other Dutch-speaking foreigner, interspersed with cinema or television footage selected by the guest, which is subsequently discussed. Guests include writers, scientists, television personalities, politicians or business people.

Zomergasten has become one of the signature programmes of Dutch public television. VPRO has organized live public screenings of Zomergasten in arthouse cinemas. In 2017, several venues in Amsterdam organised public screenings of the Zomergasten edition featuring Amsterdam mayor Eberhard van der Laan.

Guests included: Hoyte van Hoytema (2023), Ilja Leonard Pfeijffer (2020), Eberhard van der Laan (2017), Arjen Lubach (2016), Reinbert de Leeuw (2014), Paul Verhoeven (2010), Jaap van Zweden (2009), Bram Moszkowicz (2007), Robbert Dijkgraaf (2005), Theo Maassen (2004), Britta Böhler (2003), Sonja Barend (1999), Arnon Grunberg (1997), Harry Mulisch (1995), Sienie Strikwerda (1988).

References

1988 Dutch television series debuts
Dutch television shows
NPO 2 original programming
Ornithology
Bird flight
Bird migration

Zomergasten


Wolf Jürgen Baron von Engelhardt (9 February 1910, Tartu – 4 December 2008, Tübingen) was a German geologist and mineralogist.

Baron von Engelhardt  was a descendant of a Baltic German noble family Engelhardt.

Biography
In the years 1929-1935, he began the study of natural sciences, in particular geology, mineralogy and chemistry at the Universities of Halle, Berlin, and Göttingen.  In Halle, he became a member of the Corps Guestphalia Halle.  He received his doctorate on September 18, 1935, from the mineralogist Victor Moritz Goldschmidt with the topic geochemistry of barium.

From 1935 to 1938 he worked as a research assistant at the Mineralogical Institute of the University of Rostock.  On July 12, 1939, he obtained the habilitation at the University of Göttingen where he studied decay and construction of minerals in northern German Fuller's earth.  From 1939 to 1944 he was a scientific assistant at the Mineralogical Institute of the University of Göttingen with the mineralogist Carl Wilhelm Correns.  From 1939 he was also employed at the University of Göttingen as a Privatdozent.

He was appointed lecturer in 1944.  With the representation at a chair in 1944, the appointment as associate professor.  From 1947 to 1952 he led the research and development department at the oil company union Elwerath in Hanover.  From 1952 to 1957 he was able to work at the University of Göttingen as honorary professor, and then from 1 November 1957 as full professor to take over the management of the Mineralogical-Petrographic Institute of the University of Tübingen.  From 1963 to 1964 Engelhardt was rector of the University of Tübingen.  He retired in 1978.  He then continued journalistic work in his field of mineralogy.

Military service and Political affiliation.
From 1933 to 1934 and in 1939 he was a member of the Sturmabteilung.  From 1937 to 1942 he was temporarily employed in the military service to then serve from 1942 to 1945 at the Sicherheitsdienst.  From the year 1940, he was a member of the Reichsdozentenschaft, a subdivision of the NSDAP.

He belonged to the National Socialist German Lecturers League and the National Socialist Old Masters Association from 1942 on.

Named after him
The asteroid 4217 Engelhardt is named in his honour.

References

1910 births
2008 deaths
Scientists from Tartu
People from Kreis Dorpat
Engelhardt family
Baltic-German people
20th-century German geologists
German mineralogists
Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
Academic staff of the University of Tübingen
Sturmabteilung personnel
German military personnel of World War II
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Hans-Stille-Medaille winners
Gustav-Steinmann-Medaille winners

Wolf von Engelhardt


Dressing for the Carnival is an 1877 painting by the American painter, printmaker and illustrator Winslow Homer.

Homer painted African Americans, completely avoiding the stereotypes with which their collective image had been flooded during the period of Reconstruction after the American Civil War. The 1870s and 1880s produced innumerable images of African Americans at carnival time, mindless, jolly, condescending.
But Homer's Dressing for the Carnival is unlike all of them: a deeply nuanced and, in the end, tragic scene of preparation for festivity. A group of people is preparing for the African-American festival known in the South as Jonkonnu and in the North as Pinkster. It entailed the costuming of a Harlequin-like figure or Lord of Misrule, and this Homer depicts: a man caparisoned in bright, tatterdemalion clothes, yellow, red, and blue, with a liberty cap on his head. Two women are sewing them on him. The one on the right extends her arm, pulling the long thread right through, in a gesture of compelling and somber gravity; she is a classical Fate, seen below the Mason-Dixon line. Next to her, but apart from her, gazing at the vesting ceremony with wonder, are some children, one of whom holds a Stars and Stripes (for by Reconstruction, the rituals of the Fourth of July had been overlaid on those of Jonkonnu). Homer makes us sense how far the hopes of emancipation still are from the realities of black life in the South.

References

1877 paintings
Paintings by Winslow Homer
Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Paintings of children
Black people in art

Dressing for the Carnival


Guybrush Ulysses Threepwood is a fictional character who serves as the main protagonist of the Monkey Island series of computer adventure games by LucasArts. He is a pirate who adventures throughout the Caribbean in search of fame and treasure alongside his love interest and later wife, Elaine Marley, often thwarting the plans of the undead pirate LeChuck in the process. Though a "mighty pirate" by his own account, he is a rather clumsy and disorganized protagonist throughout the series. It is a running joke throughout the games for characters to garble Guybrush Threepwood's unusual name, either deliberately or accidentally. In all voiced appearances, Guybrush has been portrayed by actor Dominic Armato.

Name
The origin of the name "Guybrush" comes in part from Deluxe Paint, the tool used by the artists to create the character sprite. Since the character had no name at this point, the file was simply called "". When the file was saved, Steve Purcell, the artist responsible for the sprite, added "" to the filename, indicating that it was the Deluxe Paint "brush file" for the "Guy" sprite. The file name was then "guybrush.bbm", so the developers eventually just started referring to this unnamed 'Guy' as "Guybrush". Guybrush's surname "Threepwood" was decided upon in a company contest and is derived from P. G. Wodehouse's family of characters including Galahad Threepwood and Freddie Threepwood (with whom he shares similar characteristics). "Threepwood" is also rumoured to have been the name of Dave Grossman's RPG character.

Incarnations
Guybrush's age is not defined in the game, though he may be seventeen years old in The Secret of Monkey Island; in the second game, Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge, while obtaining fake identification (a library card) in the Phatt City library, a slip of the tongue ("nine....errr, twenty one") suggests that he may be nineteen.
He is twenty years old in The Curse of Monkey Island as he proves to Dinghy Dog when he tries to guess Guybrush's age and Guybrush proves it with his SCUMM Actors Guild Membership Card, although, in Tales of Monkey Island, Elaine states it was three years between Monkey Island 2 and 3 (she was in a poxed rage during this statement, and that Stan mentioned it was three months). Escape from Monkey Island takes place three months after Curse, following Guybrush and Elaine's honeymoon, while it is stated in-game that Tales of Monkey Island takes place roughly ten years since Guybrush became a pirate, making him 27–28 years old. However, Guybrush often lies about his age, for example telling the librarian that he was 21 in the aforementioned Phatt library in LeChuck's Revenge.

Appearances

Monkey Island series
Guybrush is introduced in The Secret of Monkey Island, where he travels to Mêlée Island in hopes of becoming a pirate. Over the course of his journey, he falls in love with the island's governor, Elaine Marley, and works with her to destroy the ghost pirate LeChuck. In Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge, Guybrush goes on a quest for the legendary treasure of Big Whoop, which is needed to destroy the reanimated zombie LeChuck. In The Curse of Monkey Island, Guybrush works to defeat LeChuck once more and lift a curse from Elaine, with the two marrying at the game's conclusion. In Escape from Monkey Island, Guybrush must help Elaine be reelected as governor and prevent the corporate takeover of the Caribbean. In Tales of Monkey Island, Guybrush accidentally releases a voodoo pox, and must team up with an allegedly reformed LeChuck to cure Elaine and the rest of the Caribbean. In Return to Monkey Island, an older Guybrush tells his and Elaine's young son, Boybrush, about an adventure in which he and LeChuck race to find the supposed "Secret of Monkey Island".

Other appearances
Guybrush is paid homage in the Naughty Dog video game, Uncharted 4: A Thief's End, where a pirate with major similarities is featured as one of the twelve pirate captains that founded Libertalia. Although he remains unnamed throughout the game, the resemblance is uncanny and his sigil is represented by a monkey. His portrait can be seen in the Libertalia treasury with the other founders and though his name is partly scratched out, the letters still visible spell out the truncated name "Guy Wood".

Guybrush appears in Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II as "Guybrush Threepkiller" – a playable skin for Starkiller. In Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, Guybrush can be accessed as a playable character via a cheat code; in addition, a secret room hidden in the game's final level temporarily transforms the player into Guybrush.

Guybrush is mentioned in Sea of Thieves in journals aboard a wrecked ship. Guybrush himself appears in the game as part of the expansion "The Legend of Monkey Island". Set between Curse and Escape, Guybrush and Elaine honeymoon in the Sea of Thieves, but they are intercepted by LeChuck, who traps them in a dream based on Mêlée Island to prevent them from stopping his latest scheme.

Homage is also paid to the pirate in Tiny Tina's Wonderlands, where the skeleton pirate Bones Three-Wood requests help against his pirate foe, LeChance.

Promotion and reception
Symbiote Studios and LucasArts have made a statue which features Guybrush Threepwood facing off against LeChuck in a fight.

IGN thought Guybrush was one of the few characters that would be strong enough to carry their own movie franchise, calling him "delightfully amusing" and noting that humour was one of his defining traits. Guybrush was included in GameSpot's vote for the all-time greatest video game hero. Guybrush was eliminated in the first round when facing off against Wander from Shadow of the Colossus, garnering 46.5% of the votes. Empire listed Guybrush as the seventh top greatest video game character, saying that he was "[a]rguably the most-loved character in point and click adventure gaming history". UGO Networks listed Guybrush as one of their best heroes of all time. When detailing pirates, UGO also called Guybrush "[t]he perfect protagonist for a light-hearted pirate adventure". Tom Chatfield, writing for The Observer, listed Guybrush as one of the 10 best video game characters, characterizing Guybrush as "an unforgettable presence in countless nascent gaming lives, from his knobbly knees to his less-than-silky sword skills". Guybrush also was listed in the Guinness World Records as the 38th top video game character. In 2012, GamesRadar ranked him as the 10th best hero in video games, adding "he may not be the most intimidating of protagonists[...], he gets by with his sharp wit and resourcefulness", and that "he's not only an unlikely pirate, but also an unlikely hero". In 2021, Rachel Weber of GamesRadar ranked Guybrush as 30th of their "50 iconic video game characters". HobbyConsolas included Guybrush on their "The 30 best heroes of the last 30 years".

References

External links
Guybrush Threepwood on the Monkey Island Wiki

Fictional sea pirate captains
Fictional pirates in video games
Fictional swordfighters in video games
Fictional treasure hunters
Male characters in video games
Monkey Island characters
Video game characters introduced in 1990
Video game protagonists

Guybrush Threepwood


Charles B. Wang (; August 19, 1944 – October 21, 2018) was a Chinese-American billionaire, businessman, and philanthropist, who was a co-founder and CEO of Computer Associates International, Inc. (later renamed CA Technologies). He was a minority owner (and past majority owner) of the NHL's New York Islanders ice hockey team and their AHL affiliate.

In 1976, at age 31, Wang (pronounced "Wong") launched Computer Associates, using credit cards for funding. Wang then grew Computer Associates into one of the country's largest ISVs (independent software vendors). Wang authored two books to help executives master technology: Techno Vision (1994, McGraw-Hill) and Techno Vision II (1997, McGraw-Hill). Wang retired from Computer Associates in 2002. He was an active philanthropist, working with such organizations as Smile Train, the World Childhood Foundation, the Islanders Children's Foundation and the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, among others. In January 2022, the new UBS Arena in Belmont, home of the New York Islanders, raised a plaque to honor Wang for all his work and dedication to the team. Wang's net worth was estimated to be $17.6 billion.

Early life
Charles B. Wang was born in Shanghai to parents Kenneth and Mary Wang. He has two brothers, Anthony W. Wang and Francis Wang. His father was a Supreme Court judge in the Republic of China. In the closing years of the Chinese Civil War which saw the Nationalist government flee to Taiwan, the Wangs moved to Queens, New York City when he was eight years old. He attended Brooklyn Technical High School in Fort Greene, Brooklyn. Wang earned a Bachelor of Science degree from Queens College and began his computer career at Columbia University's Riverside Research Institute.

Business

Computer Associates

Wang and his business partner Russell Artzt established Computer Associates in 1976, guiding the company toward its current standing as one of the largest ISVs in the world. One year later, Computer Associates became the first enterprise software company to provide multi-platform products, foreshadowing its ongoing emphasis on compatibility and integration. By 1989, Computer Associates became the second software-only company to reach US$1 billion in revenues.

Wang's tenure as CEO of Computer Associates was marked by rapid growth, frequently as a result of strict hiring practices and high expectations for executives of acquired companies. Nearly all of Computer Associates' managers were promoted from within, so very few acquired managers were kept. Newly hired salespeople had some sales experience, but specifically not in software.  A Master's Degree in Business Administration held little to no value at CA, so employment candidates and acquired employees with MBAs were typically rejected.  It was unusual for a technician to be considered for sales because the firm's training program was geared toward products instead of professional selling. The pass/fail demarcation was sharp, so perceived inadequate sales performance meant termination. All told, Wang engaged in several dozen acquisitions and those acquired facilities were repopulated with Computer Associates employees.

He was also known for his commitment to a family-oriented management style, and for promoting several women to management positions. In 1979, three years after the company's founding, Wang had installed his older brother Tony, a one-time corporate lawyer, as president and COO. Tony held the position until his retirement in 1992 to make way for Sanjay Kumar, who joined the company via its 1987 surprising acquisition of archrival Uccel Corporation. In 1998, Nancy Li, Charles Wang's second wife, was named the company's Chief Technology Officer ("CTO"). Responding to criticism over his so-called "paternalistic" management style, Wang had argued that the investment community punished Computer Associate's stock price because of his refusal to override his sense of familial loyalty to avoid the appearance of nepotism.

In 1998, Wang had initiated a $9 billion hostile takeover for the shares of Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC). The Washington Post reported CSC management's "concern" about the tender offer by alluding to Computer Associates' "ties to foreigners." It was a pointed reference to Wang's origin and that certain Chinese government institutions (as well as those in North America, Europe and elsewhere) were Computer Associates clients. The suggestion was that becoming linked with Computer Associates would jeopardize CSC's contracts with U.S. government agencies. Blaming what in his view was a witch-hunt with racial motivations, Wang dropped the tender offer.

In 2000, a class-action lawsuit accused Wang, then president Kumar and co-founder Artzt of wrongly reporting more than $2.5 billion in revenue in its 1997, 1998, 1999 and 2000 fiscal (April through March) years in order to artificially inflate the stock price. A previous stock option set in 1995 specified that a certain number of shares would vest when Computer Associates' shares sustained a target price. The benchmark was met in 1998, and the three executives combined received nearly $1 billion in Computer Associates stock with Wang himself netting $700 million; he had already been the highest paid CEO in the U.S. for the prior four years. Since then, at least four other class-action suits were filed against Computer Associates, all of which had named Wang specifically, and all of which were settled or dismissed without finding any liability on Wang's part. As the controversy continued to dog Wang even after he returned a portion of the stock award, he quit as CEO in 2000 and later resigned as chairman of the board in 2002.

Kumar resigned as chairman and chief executive in April 2004, following an investigation into the accounting scandal which improperly reported revenue. A federal grand jury in Brooklyn indicted Kumar on fraud charges on September 22, 2004. Kumar pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice and securities fraud charges on April 24, 2006.

New York Islanders
Wang was a minority owner of the New York Islanders of the National Hockey League (NHL) franchise, of which he had become a part-owner in 2000, and majority owner from 2001 to 2016. He later purchased the share of business partner Sanjay Kumar in 2004, and acquired the original Iowa Barnstormers Arena Football League franchise, moving them to Long Island and renaming them the New York Dragons. Wang's sometimes unorthodox decisions as owner received a mixture of praise and criticism.

According to former Islanders general manager Mike Milbury, Wang "assumed that nobody could put a goal past a sumo wrestler". Milbury said that "He was a man of his word, a guy who desperately wanted to keep the team on the Island."

Wang initially had a willingness to spend money with the goal of making the Islanders competitive; however, recent team payrolls decreased as the Islanders failed to reach the playoffs between the 2006–07 and 2012–13 seasons.

Wang hired Neil Smith as the Islanders' general manager during the 2006 Stanley Cup Finals, but 40 days later Smith was fired due to his unwillingness to adhere to the "management by committee" style of Wang. Wang then gave the job to Garth Snow, who subsequently retired from his playing position as the team's backup goaltender. Wang said that "philosophical differences" were the basis for firing Smith. This series of personnel moves, combined with Wang's approval of long-term contracts for Alexei Yashin and goaltender Rick DiPietro several years later, inspired a critical reaction from hockey journalists. Milbury reported that he had to talk Wang out of giving Michael Peca a ten-year deal.

A Forbes article investigated why certain NHL franchises could remain profitable despite poor attendance and overall league unprofitability. They found that several league owners under-reported their cable broadcast revenue; they specifically accused Wang of excluding half of the $17 million paid to the Islanders for the 2003 cable broadcast season. Wang made numerous efforts to build a new arena in Nassau County, as the Veterans Memorial Coliseum was the second-oldest active arena, and the Islanders lease ended in 2015.

He was the master developer of The Lighthouse Project, a property transformation of the Nassau Coliseum and surrounding . The project was to have included a five-star hotel; condominiums; an athletic complex featuring four ice rinks, a basketball facility, and a state-of-the-art health club that would have served as the Islanders' practice facility and would have also been open to the public. The development would also have included a sports technology center, open-air plaza, and conference center. The project was deemed to be too large by Town of Hempstead Supervisor Kate Murray, who made a counter-proposal that was about half the size of what Wang had originally intended. Wang balked at Murray's proposal, and decided to try to finance the building of a new arena for the Islanders with public funds, rather than paying for it himself as part of the Lighthouse Project. In May 2011, Wang, along with Nassau County, started an 82-day campaign for a $400 million bond to fund a new arena for the Islanders. On August 1, 2011, the proposal was defeated by a margin of 57% to 43%.

Wang had stated that he would not have bought the team if he knew how difficult it would be, and would not do so if he had the choice over again. A New York Times article detailed Wang's "desperate" attempts to keep the team on Long Island. Ultimately, however, Wang was unable to secure a renovated or new arena in Uniondale. Jeff Wilpon, the COO of Major League Baseball's New York Mets, discussed the possibility of buying the Islanders from Wang and moving them adjacent to the Mets' home ballpark, Citi Field in Flushing, Queens. There were also reports that businessman Nelson Peltz wanted to buy the Islanders from Wang and move them to the Barclays Center in Brooklyn. On October 24, 2012, Wang announced that the Islanders would move to the Barclays Center in 2015, after the end of their lease at the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum. In various interviews, Wang said that "it was Brooklyn, or out of town". Despite the move, the franchise retained the New York Islanders name as they were geographically still on Long Island, and after a short second tenure at the Coliseum moved to the new UBS Arena in Elmont, New York in 2021.

In August 2014, the NHL announced that Wang had agreed to sell "a substantial minority interest in the team" to a group of investors, including Jon Ledecky and Scott D. Malkin.

Philanthropy

Wang was an active philanthropist and in 1999 established the Charles B. Wang Foundation with the goal of donating to numerous charities that focused on bettering the lives of children and the disenfranchised. He worked with such causes as Smile Train, the World Childhood Foundation, the Plainview Chinese Cultural Center and the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, among others. His donation of over $50 million to Stony Brook University for the construction of the Charles B. Wang Center was, at the time, the largest in history to a State University of New York school. He also funded the expansion of the Chinatown Health Clinic which was renamed the Charles B. Wang Community Health Center.

As the co-founder and chairman of Smile Train in 1999, Wang gave a $30 million initial gift to cover all administrative expenses and henceforth remained active in the charity's efforts to help children with cleft lip and palates, in more than 80 countries.

One of the more important attributes that Wang brought to his ownership of the Islanders was to expand their community-based programs through the Islanders Children's Foundation, which started in 2003 and has become a mainstay. The foundation works with children's health, education, and youth hockey development charities. In 2006, the team created Project Hope, which is focused on developing ice hockey in China. Wang recruited women's professional hockey player, Angela Ruggiero, to the project as well.

In 2000, Wang and his brothers, Anthony and Francis, donated a new law school to China's Soochow University in honor of their father Kenneth Wang and in celebration of the university's 100th anniversary, it opened officially in 2003.

Awards and honors
On May 3, 2009, Wang was honored by the Los Angeles Chinese Historical Society of Southern California in "Celebrating Chinese Americans in Sports".

Personal life and death
Wang's Cove Neck mansion on the Gold Coast of Long Island is located near Sagamore Hill, President Theodore Roosevelt's home.

Wang died of lung cancer at his home in Cove Neck on October 21, 2018, at the age of 74.

Wang was survived by his mother; two brothers, Anthony and Francis; his wife, Nancy Li; and three children – Kimberly Dey, with his first wife, Ingrid S. Wang, and Jasmine and Cameron, with Ms. Li. He was also survived by three grandchildren.

See also
 Chinese people in New York City
 Taiwanese people in New York City

References

External links
 Charles B Wang Project Hope
 Charles B Wang Community Health Center

1944 births
2018 deaths
American computer businesspeople
Chinese emigrants to the United States
Arena Football League executives
Bridgeport Sound Tigers
Businesspeople from Shanghai
National Hockey League executives
National Hockey League owners
New York Islanders executives
Businesspeople from Queens, New York
Sportspeople from Shanghai
People from Oyster Bay (town), New York
Queens College, City University of New York alumni
Brooklyn Technical High School alumni
Chinese Civil War refugees
Deaths from lung cancer in New York (state)

Charles Wang


James Hastie (1848 – 9 December 1897) was a British rower who won Silver Goblets at Henley Royal Regatta three times.

Early life and career
Hastie was born at sea, and became a brewers agent in London.  He was a member of Thames Rowing Club where he was a long-standing captain. In 1877 Hastie with W Eyre won Silver Goblets at Henley Royal Regatta beating Frank Lumley Playford and S Le B Smith in the final. He was captain of Thames in 1878 when he was involved in meetings to set up the Amateur Rowing Association  and to set a definition for amateur.  In 1879 with Eyre he was runner-up in Silver Goblets to Francis Gulston and R H Labat. However Hastie and Eyre won Silver Goblets in 1880 beating Alexander Payne and F D Leader in the final and in 1881 beating Playford and P Adcock in the final. He spent the night of the census in 1881 at the Thames Clubhouse in Putney.

Hastie died in the Staines district at the age of 49.

References

1848 births
1897 deaths
English male rowers
British male rowers
People born at sea

James Hastie (rower)


The Liberian Catalogue () is a list of the bishops of Rome from Peter to Liberius (died 366). For each bishop, the list gives the lengths of his episcopate, the corresponding consular dates and the names of the reigning emperors. In many cases there are other details. The catalogue is found in copies of the Chronography of 354, a "collection of tracts .. edited (apparently by one Furius Dionysius Philocalus) in 354".

The Liberian Catalogue is clearly the work of a compiler using earlier texts. It has been suggested that it is largely dependent on a work of Bishop Hippolytus of Rome (died 235), and is his lost Chronica. The character of the entries changes after Pontian. There are a number of "strange errors" (Edmundson 1913, lecture VIII) in the Liberian Catalogue, some of which may be the product merely of copyist errors. The texts in the Chronography do display damage in transmission.

Anomalies in the Liberian Catalogue
George Edmundson pointed out a number of anomalies. "The deaths of St. Peter and St. Paul are stated to have taken place in A.D. 55 Clement succeeds Linus in A.D. 67, and Anencletus, the real successor of Linus, is duplicated and follows Clement, first at Cletus, then as Anacletus. Clement's death is recorded as having occurred sixteen years before he became bishop according to the generally received date." Nor were the errors confined to the first-century episcopates. The Hippolytean source is not even accurate about Pope Pius himself, who in the words of the Muratorian fragment lived "very recently in our own times". Hegesippus and Irenaeus, both of whom stayed some time in Rome soon after the death of Pius, both give the order of succession as Pius, Anicetus, Soter, Eleutherus. The Liberian Catalogue makes Pius the successor of Anicetus instead of the predecessor.

Depositio martyrum and the Depositio episcoporum
Two other lists are associated, in the sense that they occur in the same manuscript (the Chronographus anni 354). These are the Depositio martyrum and Depositio episcoporum. While these names could be generic, for lists of martyrs and bishops, scholarly usage without qualification tends to mean these lists.

See also
List of lists of ancient kings
List of Popes

References
George Edmundson, 1913. The Church in Rome in the First Century (Bampton Lectures) (Lecture VIII, on-line)
Catholic Encyclopedia: "Chronological Lists of Popes" (on-line)

External links
 Online edition of the Chronography of 354
 Edition and translation of the Liberian Catalogue

Documents of the Catholic Church
Christian anti-Gnosticism
Regnal lists
4th-century Christian texts

Liberian Catalogue


Slavery in Portugal existed since before the country's formation. During the pre-independence period, inhabitants of the current Portuguese territory were often enslaved and enslaved others. After independence, during the existence of the Kingdom of Portugal, the country played a leading role in the Atlantic slave trade, which involved the mass trade and transportation of slaves from Africa and other parts of the world to the American continent. The import of slaves was banned in European Portugal in 1761 by the Marquês de Pombal. However, slavery within the African Portuguese colonies was only abolished in 1869.

The Atlantic slave trade began in 1444, when Portuguese traders brought the first large number of slaves from Africa to Europe. In 1526, Portuguese mariners carried the first shipload of African slaves to Brazil in the Americas, establishing the Atlantic slave trade.

History

Ancient era

Slavery was a major economic and social institution in Europe during the classical era and a great deal is known about the ancient Greeks and Romans in relation to the topic. Rome added Portugal to its empire (2nd century BC), the latter a province of Lusitania at the time, and the name of the future kingdom was derived from "Portucale", a Roman and post-Roman settlement situated at the mouth of the Douro River. The details of slavery in ancient Rome slavery in Roman Portugal are not well-known; however, there were several forms of slavery, including enslaved miners and domestic servants.

Visigothic and Suebi kingdoms
The Visigoths and the Suebi (Germanic tribes), of the 5th century AD, seized control of the Iberian peninsula as the Roman Empire fell. At the time, Portugal did not exist as a separate kingdom, but was primarily a part of the Visigothic Iberian kingdom (the Visigothic ruling class lived apart and heavily taxed the native population). However, during this period, a gradual transition to feudalism and serfdom was occurring throughout Europe.

Islamic Iberia

After the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century, in which Moors from North Africa crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigothic rulers of Iberia, the territory of both modern-day Portugal and Spain fell under Islamic control. The pattern of slavery and serfdom in the Iberian Peninsula differs from the rest of Western Europe due to the Islamic conquest. They established Moorish kingdoms in Iberia, including the area that is occupied by modern Portugal. In comparison to the north, classical-style slavery continued for a longer period of time in southern Europe, and trade between Christian Europe, across the Mediterranean, with Islamic North Africa meant that Slavic and Christian Iberian enslaved people appeared in Italy, Spain, Southern France, and Portugal; in the 8th century, the Islamic conquest in Portugal and Spain changed this pattern.

Trade ties between the Moorish kingdoms and the North African Moorish state led to a greater flow of trade within those geographical areas. In addition, the Moors engaged sections of Spaniards and Portuguese Christians in slave labor. There was not a "racial" component to slavery in Iberia. The Moors used ethnic European slaves: 1/12 of Iberian population were slave Europeans, less than 1% of Iberia were Moors and more than 99% were native Iberians. Periodic Arab and Moorish raiding expeditions were sent from Islamic Iberia to ravage the remaining Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back stolen goods and slaves. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur held 3,000 women and children as captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves, held 3,000 Christian slaves in 1191. In addition, the Christian Iberians who lived within Arab and Moorish-ruled territories were subject to specific laws and taxes for state protection.

Reconquista

Muslim Moors who converted to Christianity, known as Moriscos, were enslaved by the Portuguese during the Reconquista; 9.3 per cent of slaves in southern Portugal were Moors and many Moors were enslaved in 16th-century Portugal.
It has been documented that other slaves were treated better than Moriscos, the slaves were less than 1% of population.

After the Reconquista period, Moorish slaves began to outnumber Slavic slaves in both importance and numbers in Portugal.

Age of Discovery

Black slaves
African slaves prior to 1441 were predominately Berbers and Arabs from the North African Barbary coast, known as "Moors" to the Iberians. They were typically enslaved during wars and conquests between Christian and Islamic kingdoms. The first expeditions of Sub-Saharan Africa were sent out by Prince Infante D. Henrique, known commonly today as Henry the Navigator, with the intent to probe how far the kingdoms of the Moors and their power reached. The expeditions sent by Henry came back with African slaves as a way to compensate for the expenses of their voyages. The enslavement of Africans was seen as a military campaign because the people that the Portuguese encountered were identified as Moorish and thus associated with Islam. The royal chronicler Gomes Eanes de Zurara was never decided on the "Moorishness" of the slaves brought back from Africa, due to a seeming lack of contact with Islam. Slavery in Portugal and the number of slaves expanded after the Portuguese began an exploration of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Slave raids in sub-Saharan Africa began in the 1430s and 1440s as war campaigns, but this period was short-lived. The Portuguese quickly transitioned into a trade network with African nobility and slavers. Prince Infante D. Henrique began selling African slaves in Lagos in 1444. In 1455, Pope Nicholas V gave Portugal the rights to continue the slave trade in West Africa, under the provision that they convert all people who are enslaved. The Portuguese soon expanded their trade along the whole west coast of Africa. Infante D Henrique held the monopoly on all expeditions to Africa granted by the crown until his death in 1460. Afterward, any ship sailing for Africa required authorization from the crown. All slaves and goods brought back to Portugal were subject to duties and tariffs. Slaves were baptized before shipment. Their process of enslavement, which was viewed by critics as cruel, was justified by the conversion of the enslaved to Christianity.

The high demand for slaves was due to a shortage of laborers in Portugal. Black slaves were in higher demand than Moorish slaves because they were much easier to convert to Christianity and less likely to escape. Although it was more expensive to purchase a slave than it was to employ a freeman, the sparse population and the lack of free labor made the purchase of a slave a necessary investment. The number of black slaves in Portugal given by contemporary accounts argue that Lisbon and the colonies of Portugal averaged a maximum of 10% of the population between the 16th and 18th centuries, but these numbers are impossible to verify. Most slaves in Portugal were concentrated in Lisbon and to the south in the Algarve. The number of black slaves brought to Lisbon and sold cannot be known. This is because the records of both royal institutions responsible for the sale of black enlsaved people, the Casa de Guiné and the Casa dos Escravos were damaged during the earthquake of 1755 in Lisbon, and the fiscal records containing the numbers and sales of these companies were destroyed. The records of the royal chronicler Zurara claim that 927 African slaves were brought to Portugal between 1441 and 1448, and an estimated 1000 black slaves arrived in Portugal each year afterward. A common estimate is that around 2,000 black slaves arrive in Lisbon annually after 1490.

During the 15th century, there were thousands of Africans in Portugal but were rare in Europe. The majority of Africans were servants but some were considered as trustworthy and responsible slaves. Because of Portugal's small population, Portuguese colonization was only possible with a large number of slaves they had acquired. In the late 15th and into the 16th centuries, the Portuguese economic reliance on slaves was less in question than the sheer number of slaves found in Portugal. People wishing to purchase slaves in Portugal had two sources, the royal slaving company, the Casa da Guiné, or from slave merchants who had purchased their slaves through the Casa de Guiné to sell as retail. There were up to 70 slave merchants in Lisbon in the 1550s. Slave auctions occurred in the town or market square, or in the streets of central Lisbon. The sale of slaves was compared by observers as similar to the sale of horses or livestock. The laws of commerce regarding slavery address them as merchandise or objects. There was a period of time set upon purchase for the buyer to decide if he is happy with the slave he had purchased.

The occupations of slaves varied widely. Some slaves in Lisbon could find themselves working in domestic settings, but most worked hard labor in the mines and metal forges, while others worked at the docks loading and maintaining ships. Some slaves worked peddling cheap goods at the markets and returning the profits to their masters. Opportunities for slaves to become free were scarce, however, there were many instances in which slaves had either elevated their status or obtained their freedom. Slaves were able to buy their freedom by saving any earnings, so long as their masters allow them to keep their earnings, or purchase a slave to replace them. Women slaves could be freed if their masters chose to marry them, but this was more common among the colonies. When Lisbon was on the verge of being invaded in 1580, slaves were promised their freedom in exchange for their military service. 440 slaves took the offer and most, after being freed, left Portugal. Black female slaves were desired for sexual purposes, resulting in many mixed-race offspring. This prompted the Council of Trent in 1563 to denounce the widespread immorality. Mulattoes had the ability to integrate into society, some would even command whole fleets of ships. Slavery did little to alter society in Portugal, due to the slight ease of enslaved people's integration, those who did not assimilate were treated similarly to the poor.

Asians

After the Portuguese first made contact with Japan in 1543, a large-scale slave trade developed in the Nanban trade, one of the Portuguese trade includes the Portuguese purchase of Japanese that sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, the Nanban trade existed throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased large numbers of Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing to large proportions, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571. Records of three Japanese slaves dating from the 16th century, named Gaspar Fernandes, Miguel and Ventura who ended up in Mexico showed that they were purchased by Portuguese slave traders in Japan, brought to Manila from where they were shipped to Mexico by their owner Perez.

More than several hundred Japanese, especially women, were sold as slaves.
Portuguese visitors so often engaged in slavery in Japan and occasionally South Asian and African crew members were taken to Macau and other Portuguese colonies in Southeast Asia, the Americas, and India, where there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders in Goa by the early 17th century, many of whom became prostitutes.
Enslaved Japanese women were even occasionally sold as concubines to black African crew members, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document. Hideyoshi blamed the Portuguese and Jesuits for this slave trade and banned Christian proselytizing as a result. Historians have noted, however, that anti-Portuguese propaganda was actively promoted by the Japanese, particularly with regards to the Portuguese purchases of Japanese women for sexual purposes.

Some Korean slaves were bought by the Portuguese and brought to Portugal from Japan, where they had been among the tens of thousands of Korean prisoners of war transported to Japan during the Japanese invasions of Korea. Historians pointed out that at the same time Hideyoshi expressed his indignation and outrage at the Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves, he himself was engaging in a mass slave trade of Korean prisoners of war in Japan. Chinese were bought in large numbers as slaves by the Portuguese in the 1520s. Japanese Christian daimyos mainly responsible for selling to the Portuguese their fellow Japanese. Japanese women and Japanese men, Javanese, Chinese, and Indians were all sold as slaves in Portugal.

Some Chinese slaves in Spain ended up there after being brought to Lisbon, Portugal, and sold when they were boys. Tristán de la China was a Chinese who was taken as a slave by the Portuguese, while he was still a boy and in the 1520s was obtained by Cristobál de Haro in Lisbon, and taken to live in Seville and Valladolid. He was paid for his service as a translator in the 1525 Loaísa expedition, during which he was still an adolescent. The survivors, including Tristan, were shipwrecked for a decade until 1537 when they were brought back by a Portuguese ship to Lisbon.

There are records of Chinese slaves in Lisbon as early as 1540. According to modern historians, the first known visit of a Chinese person to Europe dates to 1540 (or soon after), when a Chinese scholar, apparently enslaved by Portuguese raiders somewhere on the southern China coast, was brought to Portugal. Purchased by João de Barros, he worked with the Portuguese historian on translating Chinese texts into Portuguese.

In 16th-century southern Portugal there were Chinese slaves but the number of them was described as "negligible", being outnumbered by East Indian, Mourisco, and African slaves. Amerindians, Chinese, Malays, and Indians were slaves in Portugal but in far fewer number than Turks, Berbers, and Arabs. China and Malacca were origins of slaves delivered to Portugal by Portuguese viceroys. A testament from 23 October 1562 recorded a Chinese man named António who was enslaved and owned by a Portuguese woman, Dona Maria de Vilhena, a wealthy noblewoman in Évora. António was among the three most common male names given to male slaves in Évora. D. Maria owned one of the only two Chinese slaves in Évora and she specifically selected and used him from among the slaves she owned to drive her mules for her because he was Chinese since rigorous and demanding tasks were assigned to Mourisco, Chinese, and Indian slaves. D. Maria's owning a Chinese, three Indians, and three Mouriscos among her fifteen slaves reflected on her high social status, since Chinese, Mouriscos, and Indians were among the ethnicities of prized slaves and were very expensive compared to blacks, so high class individuals owned these ethnicities and it was because her former husband Simão was involved in the slave trade in the east that she owned slaves of many different ethnicities. When she died, D. Maria freed twelve of her slaves including this Chinese man in her testament, leaving them with sums from 20,000 to 10,000 réis in money. D. Maria de Vilhena was the daughter of the nobleman and explorer Sancho de Tovar, the capitão of Sofala (List of colonial governors of Mozambique), and she was married twice, the first marriage to the explorer Cristóvão de Mendonça, and her second marriage was to Simão da Silveira, capitão of Diu (Lista de governadores, capitães e castelões de Diu). D. Maria was left a widow by Simão, and she was a major slave owner, possessing the most slaves in Évora, with her testament recording fifteen slaves.

A legal case was brought before the Spanish Council of the Indies in the 1570s, involving two Chinese men in Seville, one of them a freeman, Esteban Cabrera, and the other a slave, Diego Indio, against Juan de Morales, Diego's owner. Diego called on Esteban to give evidence as a witness on his behalf. Diego recalled that he was taken as a slave by Francisco de Casteñeda from Mexico, to Nicaragua, then to Lima in Peru, then to Panama, and eventually to Spain via Lisbon, while he was still a boy.

Chinese boys were kidnapped from Macau and sold as slaves in Lisbon while they were still children. Brazil imported some of Lisbon's Chinese slaves. Fillippo Sassetti saw some Chinese and Japanese slaves in Lisbon among the large slave community in 1578, although most of the slaves were blacks. Brazil and Portugal were both recipients of Chinese slaves bought by Portuguese. Portugal exported to Brazil some Chinese slaves. Military, religious, and civil service secretarial work and other lenient and light jobs were given to Chinese slaves while hard labor was given to Africans. Only African slaves in 1578 Lisbon outnumbered the large numbers of Japanese and Chinese slaves in the same city. Some of the Chinese slaves were sold in Brazil, a Portuguese colony. Cooking was the main profession of Chinese slaves around 1580 in Lisbon, according to Fillippo Sassetti from Florence and the Portuguese viewed them as diligent, smart, and "loyal".

The Portuguese also valued Oriental slaves more than the black Africans and the Moors for their rarity. Chinese slaves were more expensive than Moors and blacks and showed off the high status of the owner The Portuguese attributed qualities like intelligence and industriousness to Chinese slaves. Traits such as high intelligence were ascribed to Chinese, Indian, and Japanese slaves.

In 1595, a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese and Japanese slaves due to hostility from the Chinese and Japanese regarding the trafficking in Japanese and Chinese slaves On 19 February 1624, the King of Portugal forbade the enslavement of Chinese people of either sex.

A Portuguese woman, Dona Ana de Ataíde owned an Indian man named António as a slave in Évora. He served as a cook for her. Ana de Ataíde's Indian slave escaped from her in 1587. A large number of slaves were forcibly brought there since the commercial, artisanal, and service sectors all flourished in a regional capital like Évora.

A fugitive Indian slave from Evora named António went to Badajoz after leaving his master in 1545.

Portuguese domination was accepted by the "docile" Jau slaves. In Évora, Brites Figueira owned a Javanese (Jau) slave named Maria Jau. Antão Azedo took an Indian slave named Heitor to Evora, who along with another slave was from Bengal were among the 34 Indian slaves in total who were owned by Tristão Homem, a nobleman in 1544 in Évora. Manuel Gomes previously owned a slave who escaped in 1558 at age 18 and he was said to be from the "land of Prester John of the Indias" named Diogo.

In Évora, men were owned and used as slaves by female establishments like convents for nuns. Three male slaves and three female slaves were given to the nuns of Montemor by the alcaide-mor's widow. In order to "serve those who serve God" and being told to obey orders "in all things that they ordered them", a boy named Manual along with his slave mother were given to the Nuns of Montemor by father Jorge Fernandes in 1544. A capelão do rei, father João Pinto left an Indian man in Porto, where he was picked up in 1546 by the Évora-based Santa Marta convent's nuns to serve as their slave. However, female slaves did not serve in male establishments, unlike vice versa.

Slavery in Macau and the coast of China

Beginning in the 16th century, the Portuguese tried to establish trading ports and settlements along the coast of China. Early attempts at establishing such bases, such as those in Ningbo and Quanzhou, were however destroyed by the Chinese, following violent raids by the settlers to neighboring ports, which included pillaging and plunder and sometimes enslavement.
The resulting complaints made it to the province's governor who commanded the settlement destroyed and the inhabitants wiped out. In 1545, a force of 60,000 Chinese troops descended on the community, and 800 of the 1,200 Portuguese residents were massacred, with 25 vessels and 42 junks destroyed.

Until the mid-17th century, during the early Portuguese mandate of Macau, some 5,000 slaves lived in the territory, in addition to 2,000 Portuguese and an ever-growing number of Chinese, which in 1664 reached 20,000.
This number decreased in the following decades to between 1000 and 2000. Most of the slaves were of African origin. Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese, initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese/Sinhalese (from today's Sri Lanka), Indochinese, Malay (from Malacca), and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau. Slave women of Indian, Indonesian, Malay, and Japanese origin were used as partners by Portuguese men. Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men.  From 1555 onwards Macau received slave women of Timorese origin as well as women of African origin, and from Malacca and India. Macau was permitted by Pombal to receive an influx of Timorese women. Macau received an influx of African slaves, Japanese slaves as well as Christian Korean slaves who were bought by the Portuguese from the Japanese after they were taken prisoner during the Japanese invasions of Korea in the era of Hideyoshi.

On 24 June 1622, the Dutch attacked Macau in the Battle of Macau, expecting to turn the area into a Dutch possession, with an 800-strong invasion force led by under Captain Kornelis Reyerszoon. The relatively small number of defenders repulsed the Dutch attack, which was not repeated. The majority of the defenders were Africans slaves, with only a few dozen Portuguese soldiers and priests in support, and they accounted for most of the victims in the battle. Following the defeat, the Dutch Governor Jan Coen said of the Macao slaves, that "it was they who defeated and drove away our people there". In China during the 19th century, the British consul to China noted that some Portuguese merchants were still buying children between five and eight years of age.

In 1814, the Jiaqing Emperor added a clause to the section of the fundamental laws of China titled "Wizards, Witches, and all Superstitions, prohibited", later modified in 1821 and published in 1826 by the Daoguang Emperor, which sentenced Europeans, namely Portuguese Christians who would not repent their conversion, to be sent to Muslim cities in Xinjiang as slaves to Muslim leaders.

Treatment

During transport to Portugal, enslaved people were fastened and chained with manacles, padlocks, and rings around their necks. Portuguese owners could whip, chain, and pour burning hot wax and fat onto the skin of their slaves, and punish their slaves in any way that they wished, as long as the slaves remained alive. The Portuguese also used branding irons to brand their slaves as property.

Banning
Voices condemning the slave trade were raised early during the Atlantic Slave Trade period. Among them was Gaspar da Cruz, a Dominican friar who dismissed any arguments by the slave traffickers that they had "legally" purchased already-enslaved children, among the earliest condemnations of slavery in Europe during this period.

From an early age during the Atlantic Slave Trade period, the crown attempted to stop the trading of non-African slaves. The enslavement and overseas trading of Chinese slaves, who the Portuguese prized, was specifically addressed in response to Chinese authorities' requests, who, although not against the enslavement of people in Macau and Chinese territories, which was common practice, at different times attempted to stop the transport of slaves outside the territory. In 1595, a Portuguese royal decree banned the selling and buying of ethnically Chinese slaves; it was reiterated by the Portuguese king on 19 February 1624, and, in 1744, by the Qianlong Emperor, who forbade the practice to Chinese subjects, reiterating his order in 1750. However, these laws were not able to stop the trade completely, a practice which lasted until the 1700s. In the American colonies, Portugal halted the use of Chinese, Japanese, Europeans, and Indians to work as slaves for sugar plantations, which was reserved exclusively for African slaves.

The ban on importing slaves from Africa occurred in continental Portugal and Portuguese India through a 1761 decree by the Marquis of Pombal, not for humanitarian reasons, but mainly because they were needed in Brasil. The Atlantic slave trade was definitively outlawed altogether by Portugal in 1836, at the same time as other European powers, as a result of British diplomatic pressure. Slavery within the Portuguese colonies in Africa would only be definitively abolished in 1869, following a treaty between the United States and Britain for the joint suppression of the slave trade.

See also
 Al-Andalus
 Atlantic slave trade
 Barbary pirates
 Economic history of Portugal
 Slavery in ancient Rome
 Slavery in Angola
 Slavery in Brazil
 Slavery in China
 Slavery in India

References

Bibliography

Economic history of Portugal
Human rights abuses in Portugal

Slavery in Portugal


Aston Kajara is a Ugandan lawyer and politician. He is the current State Minister of Finance for Privatization in the Ugandan Cabinet. He was appointed to that position on 27 May 2011. In the cabinet reshuffle of 1 March 2015, he retained his cabinet post. Prior to that, from 16 February 2009 until 1 March 2015, he served as the State Minister of Finance for Investments. He is also the elected Member of Parliament (MP), representing Mwenge County South Kyenjojo District. He has represented that constituency in parliament from 2001 until 2006 and from 2011 until now.

Background and education
He was born in Kyenjojo District on 19 September 1956. He attended Kyenjojo Primary School. He transferred to Nyakasura School in Fort Portal,  for both his O-Level and A-Level studies. Aston Kajara studied law at Makerere University, Uganda's oldest university, earning the degree of Bachelor of Laws (LLB). He also holds the Diploma in Legal Practice, from the Law Development Center, in Kampala, Uganda's capital city.

Work experience
Between 1983 until 1988, Aston Kajara worked in the Ministry of Finance, as a Customs Officer. From 1988 until 1990, he served as Board Member and Company Secretary at Uganda Motors Limited, a Ugandan automobile and industrial machinery distributing company, based in Kampala. Between 1992 and 1995, he served as Principal Revenue Officer at the Uganda Revenue Authority.

In 1994, he was elected to the Constituent Assembly which drafted the 1995 Ugandan constitution. In 1995, he went into private legal practice as a Partner at Kajara, Kabiito & Company Advocates, also in Kampala. He maintained his law practice until 2001. In 1996 he contested for the parliamentary seat of Mwenge County South in Kyenjojo District. He won and served as the MP that constituency until 2001. In 2002, he became a Legal Consultant at his legal firm whose name had now changed to Kateeba, Runyangira & Kajara Advocates. In 2006, he regained his parliamentary seat of Mwenge County South. He was also appointed State Minister for Karamoja Affairs, serving in that position until his appointment to his current cabinet post in February 2009. In 2011, he was re-elected to parliament.

Personal details
Aston Kajara is married. He  enjoys social networking, sports and travel.

See also
 Parliament of Uganda
 Cabinet of Uganda
 Kyenjojo District

References

External links
 Parliament of Uganda Website
 Full Ministerial Cabinet List May 2011

1956 births
Living people
People from Kyenjojo District
20th-century Ugandan lawyers
Makerere University alumni
Members of the Parliament of Uganda
Government ministers of Uganda
21st-century Ugandan politicians

Aston Kajara


"Fuckin' in the Bushes" is the first track on British band Oasis' fourth studio album, Standing on the Shoulder of Giants.

The song was frequently used as the first song in Oasis' concerts, such as on their Don't Believe the Truth Tour, played on a tape. It contains samples taken from Murray Lerner's movie Message to Love - Isle of Wight 1970. It is featured during the climactic scene of the movie Snatch, and it was played when Oasis received their award for Outstanding Contribution to Music.

Professional wrestler Nigel McGuinness used the song as his entrance theme.

Bowling for Soup have used the song as an intro on the UK leg of their Get Happy Tour.

It is used on the ITV television program James Corden's World Cup Live.

On March 27th 2021 Campbell Hatton (son of Ricky) used the song as his entrance song for his debut fight in Gibraltar.

Oasis (band) songs
2000 songs

Fuckin' in the Bushes


The Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) is a department of the Government of the United Kingdom. Equivalent to other countries' ministries of foreign affairs, it was created on 2 September 2020 through the merger of the Foreign & Commonwealth Office (FCO) and the Department for International Development (DFID). The FCO was itself created in 1968 by the merger of the Foreign Office (FO) and the Commonwealth Office. The department in its various forms is responsible for representing and promoting British interests worldwide.

The head of the FCDO is the Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs, commonly abbreviated to "Foreign Secretary". This is regarded as one of the four most prestigious positions in the Cabinet – the Great Offices of State – alongside those of Prime Minister, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary. James Cleverly was appointed Foreign Secretary on 6 September 2022.

The FCDO is managed day-to-day by a civil servant, the permanent under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, who also acts as the Head of His Majesty's Diplomatic Service. Philip Barton took office as permanent under-secretary on 2 September 2020.

The expenditure, administration and policy of the FCDO are scrutinised by the Foreign Affairs Select Committee.

Responsibilities
According to the FCDO website, the department's key responsibilities (as of 2020) are as follows:

 Safeguarding the UK's national security by countering terrorism and weapons proliferation, and working to reduce conflict.
 Building the UK's prosperity by increasing exports and investment, opening markets, ensuring access to resources, and promoting sustainable global growth.
 Supporting British nationals around the world through modern and efficient consular services.
In addition to the above responsibilities, the FCDO is responsible for the British Overseas Territories, which had previously been administered from 1782 to 1801 by the Home Office, from 1801 to 1854 by the War and Colonial Office, from 1854 to 1966 by the Colonial Office, from 1966 to 1968 by the Commonwealth Office, from 1968 to 2020 by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and since 2020 by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (this did not include protectorates, which fell under the purview of the Foreign Office, or to British India, which had been administered by the East India Company until 1858, and thereafter by the India Office). This arrangement has been subject to criticism in the UK and in the overseas territories. For example, the chief minister of Anguilla, Victor Banks, said: "We are not foreign; neither are we members of the Commonwealth, so we should have a different interface with the UK that is based on mutual respect". There have been numerous suggestions on ways to improve the relationship between the overseas territories and the UK. Suggestions have included setting up a dedicated department to handle relations with the overseas territories, and the absorption of the OTD in the Cabinet Office, thus affording the overseas territories with better connections to the centre of government.

Ministers
The FCDO Ministers are as follows:

History

Eighteenth century
The Foreign Office was formed in March 1782 by combining the Southern and Northern Departments of the Secretary of State, each of which covered both foreign and domestic affairs in their parts of the Kingdom. The two departments' foreign affairs responsibilities became the Foreign Office, whilst their domestic affairs responsibilities were assigned to the Home Office. The Home Office is technically the senior.

Nineteenth century

During the 19th century, it was not infrequent for the Foreign Office to approach The Times newspaper and ask for continental intelligence, which was often superior to that conveyed by official sources. Examples of journalists who specialized in foreign affairs and were well connected to politicians included: Henry Southern, Valentine Chirol, Harold Nicolson, and Robert Bruce Lockhart.

Twentieth century
During the First World War, the Arab Bureau was set up within the British Foreign Office as a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department. During the early cold war an important department was the Information Research Department (IRD) which was used to create propaganda against socialist and anti-colonial movements. The Foreign Office hired its first woman diplomat, Monica Milne, in 1946.

The Foreign and Commonwealth Office (1968–2020)
The FCO was formed on 17 October 1968, from the merger of the short-lived Commonwealth Office and the Foreign Office. The Commonwealth Office had been created only in 1966, by the merger of the Commonwealth Relations Office and the Colonial Office, the Commonwealth Relations Office having been formed by the merger of the Dominions Office and the India Office in 1947—with the Dominions Office having been split from the Colonial Office in 1925.

The Foreign and Commonwealth Office held responsibility for international development issues between 1970 and 1974, and again between 1979 and 1997.

The National Archives website contains a Government timeline to show the departments responsible for Foreign Affairs from 1945.

Under New Labour (1997–2010)
From 1997, international development became the responsibility of the separate Department for International Development.

When David Miliband took over as Foreign Secretary in June 2007, he set in hand a review of the FCO's strategic priorities. One of the key messages of these discussions was the conclusion that the existing framework of ten international strategic priorities, dating from 2003, was no longer appropriate. Although the framework had been useful in helping the FCO plan its work and allocate its resources, there was agreement that it needed a new framework to drive its work forward.

The new strategic framework consists of three core elements:

 A flexible global network of staff and offices, serving the whole of the UK Government.
 Three essential services that support the British economy, British nationals abroad and managed migration for Britain. These services are delivered through UK Trade & Investment (UKTI), consular teams in Britain and overseas, and UK Visas and Immigration.
 Four policy goals:
 countering terrorism and weapons proliferation and their causes
 preventing and resolving conflict
 promoting a low-carbon, high-growth, global economy
 developing effective international institutions, in particular the United Nations and the European Union.

In August 2005, a report by management consultant group Collinson Grant was made public by Andrew Mackinlay. The report severely criticised the FCO's management structure, noting:

 The Foreign Office could be "slow to act".
 Delegation is lacking within the management structure.
 Accountability was poor.
 The FCO could feasibly cut 1200 jobs.
 At least £48 million could be saved annually.

The Foreign Office commissioned the report to highlight areas which would help it achieve its pledge to reduce spending by £87 million over three years. In response to the report being made public, the Foreign Office stated it had already implemented the report's recommendations.

In 2009, Gordon Brown created the position of Chief Scientific Adviser (CSA) to the FCO. The first science adviser was David C. Clary.

On 25 April 2010, the department apologised after The Sunday Telegraph obtained a "foolish" document calling for the upcoming September visit of Pope Benedict XVI to be marked by the launch of "Benedict-branded" condoms, the opening of an abortion clinic and the blessing of a same-sex marriage.

Coalition and Conservatives (2010–2020)

In 2012, the Foreign Office was criticised by Gerald Steinberg of the Jerusalem-based research institute NGO Monitor, saying that the Foreign Office and the Department for International Development provided more than £500,000 in funding to Palestinian NGOs which he said "promote political attacks on Israel". In response, a spokesman for the Foreign Office said "we are very careful about who and what we fund. The objective of our funding is to support efforts to achieve a two-state solution. Funding a particular project for a limited period of time does not mean that we endorse every single action or public comment made by an NGO or by its employees."

In September 2012, the FCO and the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs signed a Memorandum of Understanding on diplomatic cooperation, which promotes the co-location of embassies, the joint provision of consular services, and common crisis response. The project has been criticised for further diminishing the UK's influence in Europe.

In 2011, the then Foreign Secretary, William Hague, announced the government's intention to open a number of new diplomatic posts in order to enhance the UK's overseas network. As such, eight new embassies and six new consulates were opened around the world.

Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (2020–present)
On 16 June 2020, Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced the merger of the FCO with the Department for International Development. This was following the decision in the February 2020 cabinet reshuffle to give cross-departmental briefs to all junior ministers in the Department for International Development and the Foreign Office. The merger, which created the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, took place in September 2020 with a stated aim of ensuring that aid is spent "in line with the UK's priorities overseas". The merger was criticised by three former prime ministers – Gordon Brown, Tony Blair and David Cameron – with Cameron saying that it would mean "less respect for the UK overseas". The chief executive of Save the Children, Kevin Watkins, called it "reckless, irresponsible and a dereliction of UK leadership" that "threatens to reverse hard-won gains in child survival, nutrition and poverty".

In November 2021, it was reported that an employment tribunal had ruled that the FCDO had racially discriminated against Sonia Warner, a black senior civil servant, by treating her unfairly in a disciplinary process.

On 21 February 2022, UK Minister for Africa announced a new £74 million financial package to support women entrepreneurs across Nigeria, who own businesses and small and medium enterprises (SME's).

In 2022, Maria Bamieh settled an employment claim against the Foreign Office for more than £400,000 shortly before her claim was due to be heard by an employment tribunal. She said that the Foreign Office failed to support her when she attempted to expose corruption at the EU's rule of law mission (EULEX). The Foreign Office said : "We have agreed to settle this long-running case without any admission of liability and continue to strongly refute these allegations."

Diplomatic Academy

Following a prior announcement by the then Foreign Secretary William Hague, the FCO opened the Diplomatic Academy in February 2015. The new centre, opened by the Duke of Cambridge, was established in order to create a cross-government centre of excellence for all civil servants working on international issues. The Diplomatic Academy serves to broaden the FCO's network and engaged in more collaborative work with academic and diplomatic partners.

Programme Funds
The FCDO, through its core departmental budget, funds projects which are in line with its policy priorities outlined in its Single Departmental Plan. This funding includes both Official Development Assistance (ODA), and non-ODA funds. The funds are used for a wide range of projects and serve to support traditional diplomatic activities.

The FCDO plays a key role in delivering two, major UK government funds which work to support the government's National Security Strategy and Aid Strategy.

 The Conflict, Stability and Security Fund (CSSF) – Used to support cross-governmental efforts at reducing conflict-related risks in countries which the UK has important interests.
 The Prosperity Fund – Supports economic development and reform in the UK's partner countries.
 The Global Innovation Fund – Invests in evidence-based innovations with the potential to positively impact the lives of people living on less than $5 per day.

The FCDO also supports a number of academic funds:
 Chevening scholarships
 Marshall scholarships
 Domestic Programme Fund
 Overseas Territories Environment and Climate Fund (Darwin Plus)
 Science and Innovation Network

2021 aid budget cuts
In 2021, the UK government cut its overseas aid budget from 0.7% to 0.5% of Gross National Income despite UK legislation against such a move. These cuts, amounting to GBP 4 billion, reduced funding for humanitarian intervention by 44% in places like Yemen and Syria. It also cut funding for the fight against polio, malaria and HIV/AIDS. Funding for girls education worldwide was also reduced by 25%.

Investments
The Global Innovation Fund (GIF) announced the first two investments made under its 'Innovating for Climate Resilience fund', which was launched at COP26 with support from the UK's Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and in partnership with the Adaptation Research Alliance and the Global Resilience Partnership.

FCDO Services
In April 2006, a new executive agency was established, FCO Services (now FCDO Services), to provide corporate service functions. It moved to Trading Fund status in April 2008, so that it had the ability to provide services similar to those it already offers to the FCDO to other government departments and even to outside businesses.

It is accountable to the secretary of state for foreign, Commonwealth and development affairs, and provides secure support services to the FCDO, other government departments and foreign governments and bodies with which the UK has close links.

Since 2011, FCDO Services has been developing the Government Secure Application Environment (GSAE) on a secure cloud computing platform to support UK government organisations. It also manages the UK National Authority for Counter Eavesdropping (UK NACE) which helps protect UK assets from physical, electronic and cyber attack.

FCDO Services is a public sector organisation, it is not funded by the public and has to rely on the income it produces to meet its costs, by providing services on a commercial basis to customers both in the UK and throughout the world. Its accounting officer and chief executive is accountable to the secretary of state for foreign, Commonwealth and development affairs and to Parliament, for the organisation's performance and conduct.

Global Response Office
The FCDO Global Response Office is based in an undisclosed location. It operates 24/7, every day of the year. It takes calls from British Nationals overseas, usually in emergency situations such as lost passports, hospitalisations, deaths and arrests.

Buildings

As well as embassies abroad, the FCDO has premises within the UK:
 Foreign and Commonwealth Office Main Building, Whitehall, King Charles St, London (abbreviated to KCS by FCDO staff)
Abercrombie House, East Kilbride (abbreviated to AH by FCDO staff)
Hanslope Park, Hanslope, Milton Keynes (abbreviated to HSP by FCDO staff). Location of FCDO Services, HMGCC and Technical Security Department of the UK Secret Intelligence Service)
 Lancaster House, St James's, London. A mansion in the St James's district in the West End of London which the Foreign Office holds on lease from the Crown. It is used primarily for hospitality, entertaining foreign dignitaries and housing the Government Wine Cellar.

The FCO formerly also used the following building:
 Old Admiralty Building (abbreviated to OAB), Whitehall, London

Main Building

The Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office occupies a building which originally provided premises for four separate government departments: the Foreign Office, the India Office, the Colonial Office, and the Home Office. Construction on the building began in 1861 and finished in 1868, on the plot of land bounded by Whitehall, King Charles Street, Horse Guards Road and Downing Street. The building was designed by the architect George Gilbert Scott. Its architecture is in the Italianate style; Scott had initially envisaged a Gothic design, but Lord Palmerston, then prime minister, insisted on a classical style. The English sculptors Henry Hugh Armstead and John Birnie Philip produced a number of allegorical figures ("Art", "Law", "Commerce", etc.) for the exterior.

In 1925 the Foreign Office played host to the signing of the Locarno Treaties, aimed at reducing tension in Europe. The ceremony took place in a suite of rooms that had been designed for banqueting, which subsequently became known as the Locarno Suite. During the Second World War, the Locarno Suite's fine furnishings were removed or covered up, and it became home to a Foreign Office code-breaking department.

Due to increasing numbers of staff, the offices became increasingly cramped and much of the fine Victorian interior was covered over—especially after the Second World War. In the 1960s, demolition was proposed, as part of major redevelopment plan for the area drawn up by the architect Leslie Martin. A subsequent public outcry prevented these proposals from ever being implemented. Instead, the Foreign Office became a Grade I listed building in 1970. In 1978, the Home Office moved to a new building, easing overcrowding.

With a new sense of the building's historical value, it underwent a 17-year, £100 million restoration process, completed in 1997. The Locarno Suite, used as offices and storage since the Second World War, was fully restored for use in international conferences. The building is now open to the public each year over Open House Weekend.

In 2014 refurbishment to accommodate all Foreign and Commonwealth Office employees into one building was started by Mace.

Devolution
International relations are handled centrally from Whitehall on behalf of the whole of the United Kingdom and its dependencies. However, the devolved administrations also maintain an overseas presence in the European Union, the U.S. and China alongside British diplomatic missions. These offices aim to promote their own economies and ensure that devolved interests are taken into account in British foreign policy. Ministers from devolved administrations can attend international negotiations when agreed with the British Government, e.g. EU fisheries negotiations.

See also

 Conflict, Stability and Security Fund
 Foreign and Commonwealth Office migrated archives
 Palmerston (cat), former resident Chief Mouser of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office
 Stabilisation Unit
 List of development aid agencies

References

Further reading

External links

Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
Ministerial departments of the Government of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Italianate architecture in England
Grade I listed government buildings
Grade I listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Ministries established in 1968
George Gilbert Scott buildings
1968 establishments in the United Kingdom
Foreign Office during World War II
Whitehall