Calculus is a mathematical or logical formal seestem. It wis cleckit in the 17t century bi Isaac Newton an Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz an uises infineetesimal quantities for tae find the tangent o curves  — differential calculus — or for tae calculate lenths an areas o curved feegurs — integral calculus. Thir operations is inverses, frae the fundamental theorem o calculus.

Introduction coorses in calculus for ordinar includes the study o logarithms, exponential functions an trigonometric functions

Amang the important areas o calculus is:

 differential calculus — a brainch o mathematics based on the notions o the differential an dereivative, an that's adae wi solvin differential equations.
 infineetesimal calculus — a brainch o mathematics includin differential an integral calculus that's adae wi infineetesimals.
 integral calculus — a brainch o mathematics that's adae wi the calculation o integrals an conter-dereivatives, an wi reddin differential equations.
 probabeelity calculus — a brainch o mathematics that's adae wi the modellin o chance.

The'r boolean calculus, proposeetional calculus, lambda calculus an predicate calculus forby.

Calculus


Jason Lester (born in Montreal, Quebec) is a professional poker player who has also lived in New York City and Los Angeles. He currently resides in Miami, FL. He is also an exceptional backgammon player and has won many tournaments in the past. He finished in 4th place at the 2003 World Series of Poker (WSOP), the year Chris Moneymaker won the event. Lester was also involved in the film Lucky You, starring Robert Duvall, Eric Bana, and Drew Barrymore, in which he played himself, among other poker stars.

Lester picked up his first career WSOP bracelet in the 2006 $5,000 pot limit hold'em event.

As of 2011, his total live tournament winnings exceed $2,099,689. His 21 cashes as the WSOP account for $1,620,443 of those winnings.

References

External links

 PokerListings.com interview
 Hendon Mob tournament results

Canadian poker players
American poker players
World Series of Poker bracelet winners
Canadian backgammon players
American backgammon players
Anglophone Quebec people
Sportspeople from Montreal
Sportspeople from Miami
Sportspeople from New York City
Sportspeople from Los Angeles
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Jason Lester


Ian Gibson (born 21 April 1939) is an Irish author and Hispanist known for his biographies of the poet Antonio Machado, the artist Salvador Dalí, the bibliographer Henry Spencer Ashbee, the filmmaker Luis Buñuel. and particularly his work on the poet and playwright Federico García Lorca, for which he won several awards, including the 1989 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography. His work, La represión nacionalista de Granada en 1936 y la muerte de Federico García Lorca (The Nationalist Repression of Granada in 1936 and the Death of Federico García Lorca) was banned in Spain under Franco.

Born in Dublin to a Methodist family, he was educated at Newtown School in Waterford and graduated from Trinity College, Dublin. He taught modern Spanish literature at Queen's University Belfast and the University of London before moving to Spain. His first novel, Viento del Sur (Wind of the South, 2001), written in Spanish, examines class, religion, family life, and public schools in British society through the fictitious autobiography of a character named John Hill, an English linguist and academic. It won favourable reviews in Spain.

Gibson has also worked in television on projects centering on his scholarly work in Spanish history, having served as a historical consultant and even acting in one historical drama.

He was granted a Spanish passport (citizenship) 1984.

Gibson narrated a two-part documentary for BBC2 on the Great Famine of Ireland in 1995.

He appeared in a honorary position in the list proposed by Podemos, Alianza Verde and independents to the  2023 local elections in Granada.

Works
 La represión nacionalista de Granada en 1936 y la muerte de Federico García Lorca (1971)
 En busca de José Antonio (1981)
 Un irlandés en España (1982)
 La noche que mataron a Calvo Sotelo (1982)
 Paracuellos, cómo fue (1983)
 Guía de la Granada de Federico García Lorca (1989)
 España (1993)
 Vida, pasión y muerte de Federico García Lorca (1998)
 La vida desaforada de Salvador Dalí (1998)
 Lorca-Dalí, el amor que no pudo ser (1999)
 Viento del sur (2001)
 Yo, Ruben Darío (2002)
 Cela, el hombre que quiso ganar (2004)
 Ligero de equipaje (2006)
 Cuatro poetas en guerra (2007)
 Lorca y el mundo gay (2009)
 La berlina de Prim (2012), Fernando Lara Novel Award, 2012
 Luis Buñuel. La forja de un cineasta universal (1900-1938) (2013)
Aventuras ibéricas (2017)
Los últimos caminos de Antonio Machado (2019)

References

 Short biography
 Guardian article on Viento del Sur

External links

1939 births
Living people
20th-century Irish biographers
Irish male non-fiction writers
Irish male writers
Irish emigrants to Spain
Spanish people of Irish descent
Spanish male writers
Spanish biographers
Male biographers
Irish Hispanists
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
Historians of fascism
People educated at Newtown School, Waterford
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
21st-century Irish biographers
Historians of the Spanish Civil War
Irish Anti-Francoists

Ian Gibson (author)


Anonymity means "namelessness" and comes from Greek words meaning "without name". It is when a person's identity or name is unknown. If a person is called anonymous, nobody knows who he or she is, or the anonymous person does not want to be found out.

The concept of anonymity has some important uses. It is vital for a democracy that votes cast in an election are anonymous. In that way, no-one can find out how a person voted in an election.

Names
Privacy

Anonymity


In December 1953, the British colonial government in Singapore passed the National Service Ordinance, requiring all male British subjects and Federal citizens between the ages of 18–20 to register for part-time National Service. The deadline for registration was on 12 May 1954 and those who failed to register would be either jailed or fined. On 12 May 1954, students from the Chinese Middle Schools did not register themselves for National Service. In light of the impending deadline for registration and with requests from the Chinese students, Chief Secretary William Goode would later meet representatives from the affected student body in the government house on 13 May 1954.

On 13 May 1954, students gathered to present their petition to Chief Secretary William Goode. However, the peaceful demonstration turned into a clash between the police and students. More than 2 dozen people were injured and 48 students were arrested. The demonstration of 13 May 1954 was followed by further demonstrations and proved a key moment in galvanising popular opposition to colonial rule.

Background
Following the end of the Japanese Occupation in 1945, the British sought to regain political control over Singapore, which was a vital strategic centre to them. The British Military Administration was set up, focusing on the reorientation of the state in order to meet post-war crises. The British set sights to bolster social and economic life, and to secure their footing in Singapore. Of the social programmes that the government laid out, the most far-reaching and critical was education. The British envisioned setting up "national schools", prioritising English-medium education and undermining vernacular education. With that, Chinese schools were starved of funding, resulting in anger and resentments among the Chinese students and teachers. This led to a rise in anti-colonial sentiments.

This growing anti-colonial sentiment was further fuelled by the larger anti-colonial sentiment that was also happening outside Singapore. Winning freedom for colonies in Africa and Asia played a part in instilling hope in the progressive left in Singapore, that independence may come one day.

In 1948, the outbreak of communist insurrection in the Malayan jungles saw the declaration of emergency in Singapore. The declaration of emergency, which was to last for almost a decade, saw heightened security control. Singapore was turned into a police state; progressives and anti-colonial activists were rounded up; and political repression suspended all forms of left-wing politics in Singapore. While organised opposition to colonial rule was difficult, the period was nevertheless plagued with social discontent and stirrings of anti-colonial and nationalistic sentiments, in view of the British's plan to consolidate and maintain rule following the Japanese occupation.

13 May 1954
In December 1953, the National Service Ordinance was passed, requiring the registration of all male British subjects and Federal citizens between the ages of 18-20 for part-time military training. After the announcement was made regarding the National Service draft, personnel involved were to register for the call-up from 8 April to 12 May 1954. By 12 May 1954, students from the Chinese Middle Schools still did not register themselves for National Service (NS). In light of the impending deadline for registration and with requests from the Chinese students, Chief Secretary William Goode would meet representatives from the affected student body in the government house on 13 May 1954. This day however, resulted in a clash between Chinese Middle School students and riot squads. More than two dozen were reportedly injured and nearly 50 students were arrested. Of those arrested, 7 were convicted of obstructing the police. Following the riot, students re-assembled in Chung Cheng High School and only dispersed in the afternoon on 14 May 1954.

On 18 May 1954, a delegation of students (the 55-member Chinese Middle Schools Student Delegation) met the Chinese Chamber of Commerce (CCC), requesting the CCC's help to speak to the British government on their behalf. However, the only concrete result from this meeting was having their school holidays being pushed forward by 2 weeks to deny students the opportunity to rally together. Having their school holidays pushed forward, this action prompted a second massive sit in by the students which took place on 23 May 1954 in Chung Cheng High School. However, due to the prevention of food supplies from reaching these students, the group dispersed. The third massive sit in took place in the Chinese High School on 2 June 1954. This time, students requested for the postponement of call-up for National Service. Though, the lack of response from the government saw the students going on hunger strike on 15 June. The students only dispersed on 24 June.

Constant negotiations were made back and forth between the students and the government in the following days. However, due to the resistance put up by the students, the attempt to recruit male youths for National Service took a back seat.

The aftermath of 13 May 1954 resulted in the conviction of 7 students for obstructing the police during the demonstration, as well as further tightening of control over the students by the British.

Interpretations of 13 May 1954
Different historical interpretations have been taken to the incidents occurring on and following 13 May 1954. The incidents have been characterised as a communist subversion, as an Anti-Colonial Movement, and as a bottom up, spontaneous response to particular events.

Communist subversion
In the 1950s, the Chinese students were one of the largest groups involved in demonstrations. Their motivations have been consistently credited to communist manipulation – through a united front strategy. The united front strategy was a political tool employed by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) with aims of regathering and rebuilding their strength, which was greatly depleted in jungle fighting during the earlier years of the State of Emergency between 1948 and 1960. The strategy focused on building relations and contacts with workers, peasants and students, emphasising on how plans and arrangements should be made in order to gain mass. According to Singh (2008), the first step of this strategy was to engage students through the exploitation of communal issues. Singh quotes an MCP directive as saying:The work of winning over the school children is very important and must not be overlooked. Especially in circumstances where the enemy is stronger than we are, the work of winning support from school children and organising them is more important than military activities. According to Lee (1996), the reason why the MCP started the mass movement from students can be attributed to two major reasons. First, the MCP recognised these Chinese students as a valuable political force and worked towards systematically absorbing them into the communist movement. Second, during this period of time, members of the Town Committee (a secret organisation operating underground as the executive arm of the Malayan Communist Party, with its mobile headquarters on the borders of Malaya and Thailand) were arrested, leaving only the cells in charge of propaganda, and cells in the Chinese Middle School, intact. The propaganda sector consisted of few people, but the student sector had many members. Thus, it was the student sector which had the manpower to launch the open united front struggle when the time came. However, in order to mobilise and arouse the students, an issue had to be capitalised upon. The National Service Ordinance was chosen to serve this purpose. In Lee's book, he also mentioned that in the eyes of the communists themselves, the agitation over  national service was a great success. Lee made this statement based on a following comment by Ng Meng Chang (a student cadre):.... said that the tremendous success of the May 13 incident was beyond expectation... this was the most successful student struggle ever since the emergency regulations... Lee also concluded by saying that the incident had seen the creation of many prospective student leaders, who were to be supported and become future pillars of the student movement. This statement was drawn from unpublished statements of ex-detainees.

13 May 1954, as Communist subversion, was seen in the context of the cold war and in supporting this position, sources from scholars such as Lee (1996) and Singh (2008) are largely drawn from colonial media.

Anti-Colonial Movement
Following the declaration of emergency in 1948, the political instability left in Singapore grew vastly, both in size and power in 1954. This was attributed to large levels of economic exploitation and the social injustice felt by the people, which then saw subsequent calls for self-governance and democracy. This was especially so for the Chinese when the decision was made by the British to prioritise English-medium education over vernacular education. That resulted in friction between the Chinese community and the British authorities. Anger and anti-colonial resentments were felt within the Chinese community, for English language represented colonial domination. In 1954, both the Chinese leadership and student activists faced further pressures when the British made English the only language to be used in the legislative assembly.

The Chinese middle school students had however, also moved out of the parameters of strictly Chinese-focused issues by linking themselves to a larger historical context of anti-colonial movement. The Chinese students, together with the Socialist Club members of the University of Malaya, identified themselves with the students of China, India, and Indonesia who also played a role in their country's liberation.  Both the English and Chinese-educated students were seen to be working together to resist colonial rule, and that the socialist club had a hand in organising "13 May 1954". This was in view that copies of the Fajar Publication (Issue 7) were found in the Chinese High Schools. With that, amidst the Chinese student's demonstration, the hostels of students from the socialist club were also raided by the police on 28 May 1954, and 8 members of the University socialist club were charged with sedition for articles printed in the Fajar Publication.  According to Loh (2013), this particular issue, dated 10 May 1954, and titled as "Aggression in Asia", was one that involved critical views on the ongoing Anglo-American Military initiative to form the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO). In addition, the issue also contained comments on the National Service Bill which was passed in Singapore earlier on. It argued that pressing students into military service was in no way "national" for it entailed "a colonial people to be trained to fight wars in the making of which they have no part – no choice of their foes or allies. Though we are not fit to rule ourselves, we are not unfit to die for other people's interests." Loh bases his opinion largely from the Fajar Publication itself.

Anti-colonial sentiment was overwhelming, but the colonial authorities looked upon them as the result of communist agitation. Common hatred of exploitation, British rule and the declaration of Emergency paved the way for "13 May 1954", a resistance seen to be driven by overwhelming "leftist resentments against the British", with the rank and file on the ground taking initiative and moving without proper direction and control.

In the view of scholars like Quee, Tan & Hong and Barr, & Trocki, 13 May 1954 represented the convergence of notions of nationalism, with help from the English-educated. The student resistance was very focused and uncompromising. It was evident that they were pushing the boundaries as far as the emergency regulations would allow, and anti-colonialism was the main engine driving their cause.

Spontaneous response to particular events
The riot can also be explained as a spontaneous response to events surrounding the National Service Ordinance. Singaporean historian, Thum Ping Tjin, argues that the National Service Ordinance was actually supported by the Chinese, based upon Chinese press reports that recalled the heroic defence of Singapore by volunteers in 1942. Community leaders also praised the ordinance and called upon the Chinese community to fulfill their task of defending the country." Thum bases his opinion largely from Chinese sources such as the Nanyang Siang Pao, Nanfang Evening Post and Sin Chew Jit Poh.

In Thum's view, "13th May 1954" was an event triggered by the flawed implementation of the system. Some overage students had been forced to miss examinations or leave school as a result of a call up. The lack of documents sent to these young men to explain the purpose of national service caused many to believe that they would be sent into the Malayan jungle to fight for the British. Students were also turned down time and again by the government when all they wanted was to seek clarifications regarding National Service.

In addition, miscommunication and translation regarding the term "National Service" resulted in adverse sentiments among these Chinese Middle School students for it was mistranslated as minzhong fuwu, 民众服务, which literally meant "servitude by the masses", a term with demeaning connotations implying the mass of the people acting as indentured servants of the elite. This discontent and miscommunication was further fuelled by the ineffective registration process whereby Chinese Middle School students were provoked by the disruptive and authoritative conduct of the government team, who sent teams into Chung Cheng High School without warning, and went from class to class to distribute registration forms, disrupting lessons. Teachers who refused to halt their lessons were also forced to leave the classrooms, leaving students outraged and refusing to register for national service. This episode was repeated again on 23 April 1954 at the Chinese High School.

On 13 May 1954 itself, representatives from the affected students made preparations to meet William Goode in government house to negotiate the ordinance. The crowd (approximately 1000 people) that assembled in the vicinity of the government house to give their support were actually students from the Chinese inter-schools sports competition — just a 30-minute walk away at Jalan Besar Stadium via Serangoon Road and Bukit Timah Road. The students were there to await the outcome of the meeting, and it was not a planned protest.

In the days following 13 May 1954, tensions arose due to the "difficulties posed to the students by the Governor", when all that the students wanted was a form of written assurance for the postponement of national service for all students who are still schooling. According to Thum, once again drawing his opinions from Chinese sources, the process of appeal was made difficult for the students. For instance, their first petition was returned to them unopened because it was not submitted through "proper channels". With that, the students resubmitted their petition by registered mail however, the petition was again, returned to the students with the instruction that petitions from students should be submitted through the principal and management committee of their school. This was done, but there was no reply from the government once again.

Significance of 13 May 1954
The aftermath of 13 May 1954 saw the formation of the Singapore Chinese Middle School Students Union (SCMSSU), and it was under the banner of SCMSSU that the 1950s saw more intense left-wing activities, for example, the Hock Lee Bus riots.

13 May 1954 also has a crucial significance in the politics in Singapore, for it was this event that enforced unity between students, labour workers and the People's Action Party (PAP), then led by Lee Kuan Yew and leftist trade union leaders Lim Chin Siong and Fong Swee Suan. The Chinese students' engaged Lee, then a practising lawyer, to defend the seven students who were charged for obstructing the police on 13 May 1954. Prior to this, Lee was also involved in fighting the case for the Fajar 8. Although the seven students were eventually still sentenced to three months imprisonment, this episode allowed Lee to build connections with the Chinese (especially the students and trade union workers), a group that was crucial in supporting his victory in the 1959 elections. The 1959 election was the first full internal self-government granted by the British authority, and the People's Action Party led by Lee won 43 out of 51 seats in the legislative assembly, forming the government. However, this landslide victory would not have been possible without the support from the Chinese community, especially that of the labour unions, as the Chinese made up the majority population in Singapore. The PAP appealed to the Chinese community by promoting workers' rights and establishing policies that aimed to abolish Emergency Regulations, putting an end to colonialist exploitation. This was important for the Chinese community who had then been fighting for their place throughout colonial ruling.

See also
 Chinese Middle School Riot
 Hock Lee Bus Riots
 List of riots in Singapore
 Operation Coldstore

References

National Service Riots, 1954
Riots and civil disorder in Singapore
Student protests in Singapore
National Service Riots, 1954
Conscription in Singapore
May 1954 events in Asia

1954 National Service riots


is a district in Shibuya, Tokyo. Harajuku is the common name given to a geographic area spreading from Harajuku Station to Omotesando, corresponding on official maps of Shibuya ward as Jingūmae 1 chōme to 4 chōme. In popular reference, Harajuku also encompasses many smaller backstreets such as Takeshita Street and Cat Street spreading from Sendagaya in the north to Shibuya in the south.

Harajuku is known internationally as a center of Japanese youth culture and fashion. Shopping and dining options include many small, youth-oriented, independent boutiques and cafés, but the neighborhood also attracts many larger international chain stores with high-end luxury merchandisers extensively represented along Omotesando.

Harajuku Station on the East Japan Railway (JR East) Yamanote Line and Meiji-jingumae 'Harajuku' Station served by the Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line and Tokyo Metro Fukutoshin Line also act as gateways to local attractions such as the Meiji Shrine, Yoyogi Park and Yoyogi National Gymnasium, making Harajuku and its environs one of the most popular destinations in Tokyo for both domestic and international tourists.

History

Pre-Edo period

In the pre-Edo period, the area that came to be known as Harajuku was a small post town on the Kamakura Highway. It was said that in the Gosannen War, Minamoto no Yoshiie mustered his soldiers in this area and the hill here is called Seizoroi-saka (current Jingūmae 2 chōme). It is said that as the Igagoe reward for delivering Ieyasu Tokugawa safely from Sakai to Mikawa in the 1582 Honno-ji Incident, Onden-mura (隠田村) together with Harajuku-mura (原宿村) were given to the Iga ninja in 1590.

In the Edo period, an Iga clan residence was put in Harajuku to defend Edo, due to its strategic location south of the Koshu Road. Other than the mansion of the Hiroshima Domain feudal lord Asano (current Jingūmae 4 and 5 chōme), there were many mansions of shogunate retainers.

The livelihood of the farmers consisted mainly of rice cleaning and flour milling with the watermill at the Shibuya River. However, due to the poor quality of the land, production never succeeded and the villages never prospered. It is said that local farmers often performed rain-making invocations at local shrines in an attempt to improve their fortunes. There are also the tales Oyama-Afuri Shrine of Tanzawa and Worship on the day trip to Mt Haruna remaining.

Meiji Restoration to the end of the Second World War (1868 – 1945)

At the start of the Meiji period in 1868, the land around Harajuku Village was owned by the shogunate. In November of the same year, the towns and villages of Shibuya Ward, including Harajuku Village, were placed under the jurisdiction of the Tokyo Prefecture.

In 1906, Harajuku Station was opened as a part of the expansion of the Yamanote Line. In 1919, with the establishment of Meiji Shrine, Omotesando was widened and reordered as a formal approach route.

In 1943, the Tōgō Shrine was built and consecrated in honor of Imperial Japanese Navy Marshal-Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō.

In the final period of the Pacific War in 1945, much of the area was burned to the ground during the Great Tokyo Air Raid.

1945 to 1970
During the postwar occupation, military housing in the area named Washington Heights was constructed on land now occupied by Yoyogi Park and the Yoyogi National Gymnasium. Shops that appealed to the US soldiers and their families, such as Kiddyland, Oriental Bazaar, and the Fuji Tori, opened along Omotesando during this period.

In 1964, swimming, diving, and basketball events for the Tokyo Olympics were held at nearby Yoyogi National Gymnasium.

In 1965, the name of the area in the Japanese address system was officially changed from Harajuku to Jingumae. The name Harajuku has persisted due to the earlier naming of the nearby JR East Harajuku Station. Prior to 1965, Onden, referred to the low-lying area close to Meiji Street and the Shibuya River while "Harajuku" referred to the northern end of Omotesando, the plateau around Aoyama, currently known as Jingu-mae block 2, a large area of Jingu-mae block 3, and the plateau extending behind Togo Shrine in Jingu-mae block 1. The area from Harajuku station to the area surrounding Takeshita Street was called "Takeshita-cho".

1970s and 1980s

Coming into the 1970s, fashion-obsessed youth culture experienced a transition, from Shinjuku to Harajuku, then to Shibuya. Palais France, a building that sold fashion clothing and accessories, furniture, and other goods, was constructed on Meiji Street near the exit of Takeshita Street. In 1978, the fashion building Laforet Harajuku was opened; thus, Harajuku came to be widely known as a fashion and retail centre.

In the 1980s, Takeshita Street became known for teenage street dancing groups called takenoko-zoku.

From 1977, a Sundays only pedestrian precinct was established by closing local roads. This produced a surge in people gathering close to entrances of Yoyogi Park to watch Rock 'n' Rollers and other new bands performing impromptu open air gigs. In the peak period, crowds of up to 10,000 people would gather. In 1998, the Sundays only pedestrian zone was abolished.

1990s to present

In the 1990s and 2000s, with the rise of fast fashion, there was an influx of international fashion brand flagship store openings including Gap Inc., Forever 21, Uniqlo, Topshop and H&M. At the same time, new independent fashion trend shops spread into the previously residential areas of Jingumae 3 and 4 chome, with this area becoming known as Ura-Harajuku. (The "Harajuku Backstreets").

In 2006, Omotesando Hills opened replacing the former Dojunkai apartments on Omotesando.

In 2008, the Tokyo Metro Fukutoshin Line opened providing an alternative metro access linking Harajuku to Shibuya and Ikebukuro.

2019 New Year's Day Terrorist attack

During the early morning of January 1, 2019, a 21-year-old man named Kazuhiro Kusakabe drove his Kei car into the crowd of pedestrians celebrating New Year's Day on Takeshita Street. The man claimed his actions were a terrorist attack, and later stated that his intention was to retaliate against the usage of the death penalty. The man attempted to flee from the scene but was soon apprehended by authorities in a nearby park.

Sightseeing and local landmarks

Harajuku is a retail fashion and dining destination in its own right, but still earns much of its wider reputation as a gathering place for fans and aficionados of Japanese street fashion and associated subcultures. Jingu Bashi, the pedestrian bridge between Harajuku Station and the entrance to the Meiji Shrine used to act as a gathering place on Sundays to showcase some of the more theatrical styles. Another gathering place was the lower part of Omotesandō avenue, as it used to be pedestrian-only ("Hokosha Tengoku") on Sundays.

Other local landmarks include:

 Meiji Shrine, a large Shinto shrine located in an evergreen forest and dedicated to the deified spirits of Emperor Meiji and his wife, Empress Shōken.
 Yoyogi Park
 Yoyogi National Gymnasium, designed by Kenzo Tange to host swimming and diving events at the 1964 Summer Olympics
 Omotesando
 Ura-Harajuku
 Laforet Harajuku
 Omotesando Hills
 Tōgō Shrine
 Ukiyo-e Ōta Memorial Museum of Art
 Nezu Museum

Former landmark buildings

 Dojunkai Apartments, a 1927 building replaced in 2005 by Tadao Ando designed Omotesando Hills
 Drive-in Route 5 (Now LaforetHarajuku)
 Octagonal Pavilion (the only Korean BBQ restaurant in Harajuku district in the 1960s; presently the Octagonal Building)
 Palais France
 Harajuku Central Apartments (demolished)
 Hanae Mori Building (demolished)
 Omotesando Vivre
 Mother and Child Department Store Harajuku Carillon (Now Forever 21)
 WC Harajuku Wego store by Chinatsu Wakatsuki
 P.G.C.D. Head Office
 Menard BilecHarajukuLuseine Store
 N's game Omotesando branch
 Resona Bank Harajuku Branch (Now I.T.'S. International)
 Kokudo Head Office
 Bureau of Transportation Hospital (Now the Bureau of Transportation, Tokyo Metropolitan Government)
 Kawaii Monster Cafe is designed by designer Sebastian Masuda and presents a variety of unique menus.

Transport

Rail
 Harajuku Station (JR East Yamanote Line)
 Meiji-jingumae 'Harajuku' Station (Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line, Tokyo Metro Fukutoshin Line)

Road
 Meiji Street
 Omotesando Street
 Gaien-nishi Street

See also
Fruits, magazine covering Harajuku street fashion

References

External links

 Harajuku photos and guide
 Japan-guide: Harajuku

Internet memes
Neighborhoods of Tokyo
Districts of Shibuya
Shopping districts and streets in Japan

Harajuku


A sandwich is a food prepared by placing different kinds of foods between two pieces of bread. The pieces of bread in a sandwich are referred to as slices or sheets of bread. Between the slices of bread, people often add in vegetables, meat, or cheese. The sandwich is thought to have been made first for the Earl of Sandwich, hence the name.

Many people enjoy the sandwich as it is easy and quick to make in a hurry. Also, the sandwich can be easily eaten with one hand without utensils which allows consumers to have a hand free to do other things. Some people prefer to eat a sandwich with both hands.

In many countries, children eat sandwiches for lunch at school. The sandwiches are put in a lunchbox and often wrapped in cling film to keep them fresh.

Variations

A sandwich is not limited to a single layer of filling between two pieces of bread. It can have more than one layer of filling and bread. Each layer of filling is commonly referred to as a "deck". For instance, a single decker sandwich would be the standard two slices of bread and one layer of filling. A double decker sandwich will have three slices of bread with two layers of fillings. Generally one piece, is one piece of bread cut in two with a filling between each piece.

The double decker sandwich is so called because each layer of filling forms a deck, much like a double decker bus. A club sandwich is a double decker sandwich with chicken, bacon and salad. A triple decker sandwich would consist of four slices of bread with three layers of fillings. The BLT is a common type of sandwich filled with bacon, lettuce, and tomato.

If there is only one piece of bread it is sometimes called an open sandwich. Open sandwiches are very common in Scandinavian countries, e.g. in Denmark "smørrebrød" is an open sandwich.

Another form of sandwich is the toasted sandwich. The toasted sandwich can be made from slices of toast instead of bread or the sandwich is toasted whole in an oven or a sandwich presser.

Sandwiches made with different types of bread might be given unique names. A panini, for example, is usually a sandwich on a small roll or loaf which is pressed between two heavy, heated grill plates. Sandwiches are commonly made of white bread, brown bread or French bread, but can also be made of other types (e.g. a panini uses ciabatta).

Sandwiches can also be called by many other names in different parts of the world such as 'grinder', 'sub', 'hoagie' and 'wedge'.

Types

There are many different types of sandwiches. Examples are:

Cold sheets of bread:  Sandwich
Heated sheets of bread: Toastie
A breaded bun : Burger
Ciabatta: Panini
A long bread: Baguette
Wrap: Soft Flatbread
Peanut butter and jelly sandwich: White Bread
Peanut butter sandwich: White Bread

Fillings

There are many types of filling that can be placed within a sandwich.  These include:

Eggs
Ham
Ground beef
Cheese
Chicken
Cucumber
Ice cream  (Ice cream sandwich)
Toast
Peanut butter
Jelly
Tuna
Chocolate spread
Butter

In popular culture

In one episode of The Apprentice, the apprentices were required to make sandwiches for Donald Trump.

In the French film Taxi the protagonist is made a special sandwich with half Bayonne ham, half Paris. This later sparks the jealousy of another character.

In the Warner Brothers cartoon Scooby Doo, Scooby was well known to love making sandwiches with Shaggy having many layers, often with a great variety of fillings.

In the television series Buffy, during episode 61, Buffy eyes a classmate eating a sandwich, snatches it and hungrily scarfs it down.

In the television series Star Trek, Scotty used the word sandwich to refer to the makeup of a piece of technology which was made of three layers of two materials, which caused the food synthesizer in the galley of the USS Enterprise to believe that he was requesting a meal. Scotty canceled the process by kicking the offending unit.

The largest sandwich ever made was made by Wild Woody's Chill and Grill, Roseville, Michigan. It weighed 5,440 lbs.

References

Sandwiches

Sandwich


(literally 'double six') refers to two different forms of a Japanese board game: ban-sugoroku (盤双六, 'board-sugoroku') which is similar to western tables games like backgammon, and e-sugoroku (絵双六, 'picture-sugoroku') which is similar to Western snakes and ladders.

Ban-sugoroku

Ban-sugoroku is played in a similar way to western tables games. It has the same starting position as Backgammon, but the aim and rules of play are different. For example:

 Doubles are not special. If a player rolls doubles, each die still counts only once.
 There is no "bearing off". The goal is to move all of one's men to within the last six spaces of the board.
 There is no doubling cube.
 "Closing out", that is forming a prime of six contiguous points with one or more of opponents men on the bar, is an automatic win.

The game is thought to have been introduced from China (where it was known as Shuanglu) into Japan in the sixth century.

It is known that in the centuries following the game's introduction into Japan it was made illegal several times, most prominently in 689 and 754. This is because the simple and luck-based nature of sugoroku made it an ideal gambling game. This version of sugoroku and records of playing for gambling continuously appeared until early Edo era. In early Edo-era, a new and quick gambling game called Chō-han (丁半) appeared and using sugoroku for gambling quickly dwindled.

This variant of the tables family has died out in Japan and most other countries, while the Western style modern backgammon (with doubling-cube) still has some avid players.

E-sugoroku

A simpler e-sugoroku, with rules similar to snakes and ladders , appeared as early as late 13th century and was made popular due to the cheap and elaborate wooden block printing technology of the Edo period. Thousands of variations of boards were made with pictures and themes from religion, political, actors, and even adult material. In the Meiji and later periods, this variation of the game remained popular and was often included in child-oriented magazines. With ban-sugoroku being obsolete, today the word sugoroku almost always means e-sugoroku.

Other Sugoroku games
Many e-sugoroku-based video games were released, including: Kiteretsu Daihyakka: Chōjikū Sugoroku, Sugoroku Ginga Senki, Battle Hunter, Ganbare Goemon: Mononoke Sugoroku, Culdcept, Dokodemo Hamster 4: Doki Doki Sugoroku Daibouken!, Hello Kitty: Minna de Sugoroku, Gotouchi Hello Kitty Sugoroku Monogatari, Yu-Gi-Oh! Sugoroku's Board Game, Family Pirate Party, Hidamari Sketch: Doko Demo Sugoroku x 365, and PictureBook Games: Pop-Up Pursuit.

The video game Samurai Warriors 2 features a mini-game named Sugoroku, but it bears very little resemblance to traditional Sugoroku. Instead, it plays very much like Itadaki Street, Wily & Right no RockBoard: That's Paradise, or a simplified version of Monopoly: players take turns in moving around a board, the spaces of which are designated as different territories of Japan. By landing on an unoccupied space, the player is able to buy that space for a set amount of money. If one player lands on a space purchased by another, they must pay a fee to that player, or else can choose to challenge the player for control of that space (utilising the main Samurai Warriors 2 game engine for special challenge games). Also present on the board are "Shrine" spaces, which are roughly analogous to Monopoly'''s Chance and Community Chest spaces.

The Mario Party series can be seen with heavy influences from sugoroku, especially e-sugoroku.

The video game Eternal Melody is primarily a simulation game with RPG elements, including dungeons. Dungeon exploration plays out as a game of Sugoroku.

The survival horror game Kuon features ban-sugoroku as a minigame that can be unlocked.

Several of the Dragon Quest games feature a minigame called sugoroku (known as Treasures n' Trapdoors or Pachisi in English localizations) that has players moving along a board with spaces after rolling a 6-sided die.

References

 Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 3/4. (November 1936), p. 434.
 Monumenta Nipponica'', Vol. 43, No. 4. (Winter, 1988), pp. 468.

External links

 Sugoroku Net
 Sugoroku Digital Collections, UC Berkeley Library

Japanese games
Historical tables games
Backgammon

Sugoroku


Robert James Turnbull (January 1775 - June 15, 1833) was an American lawyer, planter, writer and politician from South Carolina who also published under the name Brutus. His essays in the Charleston Mercury advocating nullification were published as a pamphlet under the title The Crisis: Or, Essays on the Usurpations of the Federal Government, which has been described as "the handbook for nullification and resistance."

Background
Turnbull's father was Andrew Turnbull, a British physician who married a Greek wife (a native of Smyrna, where he had worked for British interests). Dr. Turnbull was given a grant by the British Crown in 1772 to establish a colony in Florida, which was settled by about 15,000 Greeks and other immigrants from the Mediterranean, with the largest number coming from the island of Menorca. The colony was not a large success, and Dr. Turnbull lost his grants. The Turnbull family settled in Charleston, South Carolina, when the British Army occupied the city during the American Revolution. Robert James Turnbull, who was born in New Smyrna, Florida in January 1775, was still an infant when his family moved to Charleston. After the war ended, Dr. Turnbull, Robert's father, refused to take up American citizenship. Robert was sent to school in England after the war, during which time his Visit to the "Philadelphia Penitentiary" (which discussed the penitentiary concept and argued against capital punishment) was published in London (1797). It was translated into French in 1800, and gained him some notice in the United States as well as in Europe. He returned to the United States, and studied law in Charleston and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He took up legal practice in Charleston until 1810, when he moved to a large plantation in the rural part of the state.

Denmark Vesey
In July 1822, Turnbull served on the seven-man court that tried Denmark Vesey and a number of his co-conspirators, who had planned a slave rebellion. It sentenced 34 of them to death (including Vesey and his closest lieutenants, Peter Poyas and Gullah Jack) and 37 others to penal transportation outside the state.

Political leadership
Turnbull wrote a series of articles on nullification and free trade in 1827 for the Charleston Mercury which were afterward issued as The Crisis and helped cement his place as a leader in the nullification faction in South Carolina politics. He was a member of the 1831 free trade convention in Columbia, South Carolina and a similar one in Charleston in 1832; he wrote the report of the 1831 convention. In November 1832, Turnbull served as a delegate to the South Carolina convention that passed the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared that the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable within the state after February 1, 1833. He also prepared the report of the convention. He died in Charleston on June 15, 1833, during the late stages of the Nullification Crisis which he had played such a role in precipitating.

References

1775 births
1833 deaths
American essayists
American planters
American pamphleteers
American male non-fiction writers
Politicians from Charleston, South Carolina
South Carolina lawyers
Writers from Charleston, South Carolina
Lawyers from Charleston, South Carolina
American slave owners
19th-century American lawyers

Robert James Turnbull


This Land Press is a media and merchandising company based in Tulsa, Oklahoma, that produces and sells Oklahoma-themed apparel and gifts, produces a quarterly print magazine, publishes books, and operates a retail store. It was founded by Michael Mason, an Oklahoma-born author, journalist, and editor.  In March 2011, Tulsa businessman Vincent LoVoi partnered with Mason and became the publisher of This Land Press.

In January 2017, the company announced it would suspend production of the quarterly magazine.

Magazine

This Land Press began publishing This Land, a semi-monthly broadsheet, in May 2010.  This place-based publication primarily features longform, in-depth, narrative journalism focusing on life and culture in the middle of America.

The first issue of This Land magazine featured the cover story "Something Good is Going to Happen to You: Growing up Gay in the Oral Roberts Family," by Randy Roberts Potts. Five thousand copies of the magazine were distributed throughout the Tulsa area. The second issue featured the cover story "Private Manning and the Making of Wikileaks" by Denver Nicks, one of the first accounts of the early life of Chelsea Manning. TIME magazine called This Land'''s article "the best answer to date" on the question of Manning's early life.

During 2010, This Land published four issues total. In January 2011, it began circulating on a monthly basis throughout the Tulsa area.  Mark Brown joined This Land Press as the managing editor of This Land in March of the same year. With its July 2011 issue, This Land began its semi-monthly schedule. On September 1, 2011, This Land published an article called "The Nightmare of Dreamland," by Lee Roy Chapman. The article revealed that a founder of Tulsa, W. Tate Brady, was a participant in the Tulsa Outrage of 1917, a member of the Ku Klux Klan, and an architect of the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921.

In April 2015, This Land magazine changed its format and frequency to that of a quarterly perfect-bound magazine.

In February 2017, the company released the Race Reader, an anthology of previously published material dealing with race relations in the middle of America.

In a letter to subscribers accompanying the Race Reader, the company announced that it would suspend publication of the magazine and instead focus on its retail and merchandise, but suggested the print publication may someday return. A Columbia Journalism Review post-mortem entitled "Celebrated heartland news outlet drops magazine, keeps T-shirts and soaps" poked gentle fun at This Land's shift from print to retail, but also celebrated the legacy and influence of the magazine.

The Faith Reader, featuring previously published material on the subject of faith, religion and spirituality, was released in the fall of 2017.

Past contributors to the print edition include Rivka Galchen, Ben Greenman, Sam Lipsyte, Nick Tosches, Ron Padgett, S. E. Hinton, Gordon Grice, Hank Stuever, and Michael Wallis, among others.

 Reception

In March 2011, the Columbia Journalism Review called This Land Press "The New Yorker with balls" and "a rare example of literary journalism at the community level."  The article also compared This Land Press to the Oxford American, saying that both publications "have a talent for mixing anachronistically beautiful print content with web features that are equal to (rather than derivative of) their print counterparts."

KWGS, a National Public Radio station in Tulsa, covered the launch of This Land after the publication of its third issue in November 2010. In the broadcast, host Rich Fisher compared the publication to the "Golden Age of monthly magazine publication."

In an audio report, Monocle magazine stated that "This Land'' suggests the kind of pioneering spirit that Woody Guthrie would likely approve."

Video

This Land TV was directed and produced by Matt Leach and Sterlin Harjo. The season premiere of This Land TV began on March 7, 2011 and continued for 12 episodes which aired throughout Oklahoma on The Cox Channel. Notable guests included actor Wes Studi, winemaker Charles Smith, musicians Wayne Coyne, Rosanne Cash, the Red Dirt Rangers, and many others.

In January 2014, a This Land produced documentary, "This May Be the Last Time" premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. Variety magazine called it "a testament to Native American oral history in its most lyrical form."

Audio

This Land Press produced short audio features that aired on public radio stations throughout the U.S.

References

External links
 This Land Press Website

New media
Book publishing companies of the United States
Publishing companies established in 2010
Companies based in Tulsa, Oklahoma
2010 establishments in Oklahoma
Book publishing companies based in Oklahoma

This Land Press


The Kaikoura lights is a name given by the New Zealand media to a series of UFO sightings that occurred in December 1978, over the skies above the Kaikōura mountain ranges in the northeast of New Zealand's South Island. The first sightings were made on 21 December when the crew of a Safe Air Ltd cargo aircraft began observing a series of strange lights around their Armstrong Whitworth AW.660 Argosy aircraft, which tracked along with their aircraft for several minutes before disappearing and then reappearing elsewhere. The UFO was very large and had five white flashing lights that were visible on the craft. Some people say that they could see some little disks drop from the UFO and then disappear. The pilots described some of the lights to be the size of a house and others small but flashing brilliantly. These objects appeared on the air traffic controller radar in Wellington and also on the aircraft's on-board radar.

On 30 December 1978, a television crew from Australia recorded background film for a network show of interviews about the sightings. For many minutes at a time on the flight to Christchurch, unidentified lights were observed by five people on the flight deck, were tracked by Wellington Air Traffic Controllers, and filmed in colour by the television crew. One object reportedly followed the aircraft almost until landing. The cargo plane then took off again with the television crew still on board, heading for Blenheim. When the aircraft reached about 2000 feet, it encountered what appeared to be a large lighted orb which fell into station off the wing tip and tracked along with the cargo aircraft for almost quarter of an hour, while being filmed, watched, tracked on the aircraft radar and described on a tape recording made by the TV film crew.

A spate of sightings followed the initial report and an Air Force Skyhawk was put on stand-by to investigate any positive sightings. They have appeared intermittently since the initial December 1978 sightings, with the most recent sighting being reported during 2015.

Investigation

After the sightings,  the Royal New Zealand Air Force, the police and the Carter Observatory in Wellington cooperated in an investigation, the results of which were lodged in the National Archives in Wellington. The New Zealand Ministry of Defence attributed the sightings to lights from squid boats reflected off clouds, unburnt meteors, or lights from the planet Venus or trains and cars.

Declassified documents from the CIA, taken after the dispatch of a Lockheed P-3 Orion to the area after the sightings, stated that the sightings were "unique among civilian UFO reports because there is a large amount of documentary evidence which includes the recollections of seven witnesses, two tape recordings made during the sightings, the detection of some unusual ground and airplane radar targets, and a 16mm colour movie."

In December 2010, the New Zealand military released a classified report on the incident under the Freedom of Information Act, which concludes the same thing.

See also
 List of reported UFO sightings
 UFO sightings in New Zealand

References

Further reading
 The Kaikoura UFOs. . Startup, Bill; Illingworth, Neill; 1980; Hodder and Stoughton; Auckland, London, Sydney; Paperback;
  New Zealand UFO Studies Centre: "Kaikoura UFO Controversy" edited by Rocky Wood. Wellington (New Zealand) : New Zealand UFO Studies Centre, 1980. – 22 s. – (4th special issue)
 "Let's Hope They're Friendly". Fogarty, Quentin. 1982; Australia: Angus & Robertson,  NLNZ: 21992152

External links
 The 1978 Kaikoura, New Zealand Photographs at About.com
 Bruce Maccabee's page on the Kaikoura UFO sightings – includes his article on same published in Applied Optics.
 Air Force: Kaikoura UFO Explainable , UFO Casebook Magazine, December 2010
  – link to RNZAF files for 1956–1979 including their Report on Kaikoura UFO's (go to 10th pdf at this link).
  – link to RNZAF files for 1978–1981 including interviews & technical reports from DSIR & report from NZ UFO Studies Centre re Kaikoura UFO's (go to 6th pdf at this link).
  – link to RNZAF files for 1979–1980 including Press release Summary of their Investigation into Kaikoura UFO's (go to 9th pdf at this link).
  - link to National Library of New Zealand copy of "Let's hope they're friendly" by Quentin Fogarty ; with an afterword by J. Allen Hynek.

1978 in New Zealand
Alleged UFO-related aviation incidents
Aviation accidents and incidents in 1978
UFO sightings
Kaikōura District
History of Canterbury, New Zealand
December 1978 events in New Zealand

Kaikoura lights


In computer networking, tcpcrypt is a transport layer communication encryption protocol. Unlike prior protocols like TLS (SSL), tcpcrypt is implemented as a TCP extension. It was designed by a team of six security and networking experts: Andrea Bittau, Mike Hamburg, Mark Handley, David Mazières, Dan Boneh and Quinn Slack. Tcpcrypt has been published as an Internet Draft. Experimental user-space implementations are available for Linux, Mac OS X, FreeBSD and Windows. There is also a Linux kernel implementation.

The TCPINC (TCP Increased Security) working group was formed in June 2014 by IETF to work on standardizing security extensions in the TCP protocol. In May 2019 the working group released  and  as an experimental standard for Tcpcrypt.

Description
Tcpcrypt provides opportunistic encryption — if either side does not support this extension, then the protocol falls back to regular unencrypted TCP. Tcpcrypt also provides encryption to any application using TCP, even ones that do not know about encryption. This enables incremental and seamless deployment.

Unlike TLS, tcpcrypt itself does not do any authentication, but passes a unique "session ID" down to the application; the application can then use this token for further authentication. This means that any authentication scheme can be used, including passwords or certificates. It also does a larger part of the public-key connection initiation on the client side, to reduce load on servers and mitigate DoS attacks.

History
The first draft of the protocol specification was published in July 2010, with reference implementations following in August. However, after initial meetings in IETF, proponents of the protocol failed to gain traction for standardization and the project went dormant in 2011.

In 2013 and 2014, following Edward Snowden's Global surveillance disclosures about the NSA and agencies of other governments, IETF took a strong stance for protecting Internet users against surveillance. This aligns with tcpcrypt's goals of ubiquitous transparent encryption, which revived interest in standardization of the protocol. An official IETF mailing list was created for tcpcrypt in March 2014, followed by the formation of the TCPINC (TCP Increased Security) working group in June and a new version of the draft specification.

Performance
Tcpcrypt enforces TCP timestamps and adds its own TCP options to each data packet, amounting to 36 bytes per packet compared to plain TCP. With a mean observed packet size for TCP packets of 471 bytes, this can lead to an overhead of 8% of useful bandwidth. This 36 bytes overhead may not be an issue for internet connections faster than 64kbs, but can be an issue for dial up internet users.

Compared to TLS/SSL, tcpcrypt is designed to have a lower performance impact. In part this is because tcpcrypt does not have built-in authentication, which can be implemented by the application itself. Cryptography primitives are used in such a way to reduce load on the server side, because a single server usually has to provide services for far more clients than reverse.

Implementations
The current user space implementations are considered experimental and are reportedly unstable on some systems. It also does not support IPv6 yet, which is currently only supported by the Linux kernel version. It is expected that once tcpcrypt becomes a standard, operating systems will come with tcpcrypt support built-in, making the user space solution unnecessary.

See also
 DTLS
 IPsec
 Obfuscated TCP – an earlier failed proposal for opportunistic TCP encryption

References

External links
 tcpcrypt.org
 TCPINC Working Group Charter at IETF
 Slides from USENIX 2010 presentation, explaining basics of tcpcrypt

TCP extensions
Internet security
Cryptographic protocols

Tcpcrypt


The American Samoan Legislature or Fono has two chambers, the House of Representatives and the Senate, which has a directly elected head of government, the Governor of American Samoa.

The House of Representatives has 21 members, all elected for a two-year term. Fourteen of them are from single-seat districts, six are from dual-seat districts, and one is elected by a public meeting on Swain Island. The Senate has 18 members, elected for a four-year term by and from the chiefs of the islands. The Governor and their deputy, the Lieutenant Governor, are elected to a four-year term with a limit of two terms as governor.

Although individuals can and do affiliate with political parties, elections are held on a non-partisan basis, and candidates run without party labels. The governor and lieutenant governor are elected on a shared ticket.

As a U.S. territory, American Samoa also votes to send a non-voting delegate to the US House of Representatives, from American Samoa's at-large congressional district. The official head of state is the President of the United States. While American Samoans can vote in party primaries, they cannot vote in the general presidential election.

Latest elections

In 2020, incumbent delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives Amata Coleman Radewagen won re-election to a fourth term with 83.3 percent of the votes.

Also in 2020, Lieutenant Governor Lemanu Peleti Mauga was elected governor, replacing the term-limited Lolo Matalasi Moliga.

In 2018, a referendum seeking to amend the local constitution, and give the legislature the authority to override the governor's veto instead of the U.S. Secretary of Interior as happens now, was defeated.

Reform proposal
In 2001, Congressman Eni Faleomavaega announced the introduction federal legislation to protect the voting rights of active duty military members whose home of residence is American Samoa. There have also been proposals to grant American Samoa a vote in the United States Congress, but these would likely face similar constitutional questions as proposals to grant the District of Columbia full representation in Congress.

See also
Electoral calendar
Electoral system
Political party strength in American Samoa

References

External links
 Adam Carr's Election Archives
 Report on Radio New Zealand about the 2006 General Election

American Samoa

Elections in American Samoa


Lysander Button (September 2, 1810 – July 29, 1898) was the inventor of many of the early improvements made on hand and steam fire engines. Many of those improvements made their way to the modern fire engines of today.

Button was born in North Haven, Connecticut on September 2, 1810 but moved with his parents to Albany by 1825. After John Rogers relocated his machine shop from Albany to a spot on King's Canal in Waterford, Saratoga County, New York, Button found a job there as a machinist. Rogers manufactured fire engines and had even submitted two patents in the 1830s (the copies of which have unfortunately been lost). Rogers sold the shop to William Platt and Judge Nicholas Doe, who expanded the product line to include other castings such as iron water wheels. Without the advantages of a formal education, Button became foreman in the shop by 1833 and was named a partner the following year.

In 1841, Platt sold his share of the business to Button, who became the sole owner after Judge Doe died. For the next fifteen years the business was known as L. Button & Company, which continued to operate on Kings Canal. Button later moved to a steam-powered building on Third Street in the Village of Waterford.  Most of his innovations were for the so-called "hand-pumper" fire engines. He possessed remarkable gifts in mechanical engineering, since by 1838 he had developed the first "piano engine" which delivered water from the front end of the trunk of the device. Another notable improvement was the "runaround" that returned water to the suction to relieve pressure on the hose. In 1841 he developed the first fire engine water pump, with valves set at an angle of 45 degrees and straight-level waterways from the inlet to the outlet.

Upon coming of age, Lysander's eldest son Theodore became involved with the company, and the name was changed to Button & Son. From 1873 to 1891 Theodore submitted some half a dozen patents, including improvements in hose and pipe couplings, feed water regulators, and steam engines. Two patents were assigned to his brother Charles, who seems to have remained affiliated with the fire engine business even after it was sold to other parties.

In 1876, the Button Steamer won the Centennial Award at the Philadelphia International Exhibition for its simplicity, strength, and reliability. However, after spending almost half a century manufacturing fire engines, Lysander decided to retire in 1882 and sell the entire works, including the rights to his many patents, to Holroyd & Company of Waterford.

Years later, Button fire engines continued to be manufactured by the American Fire Engine Company, which was formed in 1891 by the consolidation of the Button Fire Engine Works, Silsby Manufacturing Company, Ahrens Manufacturing Company, and Clapp & Jones. In 1900, a group of New York investors formed the International Fire Engine Company, which included American Fire Engine, LaFrance Fire Engine Company, and Thomas Manning Jr. & Company.

Button and his wife Abigail Ranney had five children: May Josephine, Eliza, Theodore, Julia, and Charles. After retiring, Lysander took a special interest in local schools by serving on the Board of Trustees and advocating for clean water in the school system. He was also prominent in the Presbyterian Church, becoming a ruling elder. He was superintendent of the Sunday school for 25 years and was a teacher there until within one year of his death, which occurred on July 29, 1898. About 750 Button fire engines were sold throughout the world, and many still exist in working condition, used for parades and in contests. The Waterford Historical Museum was able to obtain the Button & Blake hand pumper called the "Converse" in 2005 so that history fans now and in the future may see an original Button fire engine in person.

References

Sources

 Handbook of Modern Steam Fire Engines, Stephen Roper, 1897.
 Standard of the Age: A Brief History of the Button Fire Engine Works, Brad Utter, 2007.
 Invented in Saratoga County, Timothy Starr, 2008.
 History of the American Steam Fire Engine, William King, 1850.

External links
 Welcome to Waterford, New York
 Village of Waterford, New York
 Saratoga County History - Industries, Railroads and Inventions
 Waterford Museum and Cultural Center
 Button Family Memoirs On-line

19th-century American inventors
People from Waterford, New York
People from North Haven, Connecticut
1810 births
1898 deaths
History of firefighting

Lysander Button


STS-75 was a 1996 NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 19th mission of the Columbia orbiter.

Crew

Allen, Hoffman, Nicollier and Chang-Díaz had previously been members of the STS-46 crew, which had flown the TSS-1 experiment in 1992.

Mission objective

Tethered Satellite System
The primary objective of STS-75 was to carry the Tethered Satellite System Reflight (TSS-1R) into orbit and to deploy it spaceward on a conducting tether. The mission also flew the United States Microgravity Payload (USMP-3) designed to investigate materials science and condensed matter physics.

The TSS-1R mission was a reflight of TSS-1 which was flown onboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-46 in July/August 1992. The Tether Satellite System circled the Earth at an altitude of 296 kilometers, placing the tether system within the rarefied electrically charged layer of the atmosphere known as the ionosphere.

STS-75 mission scientists hoped to deploy the tether to a distance of . Over  of the tether were deployed (over a period of 5 hours) before the tether broke. Many pieces of floating debris were produced by the plasma discharge and rupture of the tether, and some collided with it. The satellite remained in orbit for a number of weeks and was easily visible from the ground.

The electric conductor of the tether was a copper braid wound around a nylon (Nomex) string. It was encased in teflon-like insulation, with an outer cover of kevlar, inside a nylon (Nomex) sheath. The culprit turned out to be the innermost core, made of a porous material which, during its manufacture, trapped many bubbles of air, at atmospheric pressure.

Later vacuum-chamber experiments suggested that the unwinding of the reel uncovered pinholes in the insulation. That in itself would not have caused a major problem, because the ionosphere around the tether, under normal circumstance, was too rarefied to divert much of the current. However, the air trapped in the insulation changed that. As air bubbled out of the pinholes, the high voltage of the nearby tether, about 3500 volts, converted it into a relatively dense plasma (similar to the ignition of a fluorescent tube), and therefore made the tether a much better conductor of electricity. This plasma diverted to the metal of the shuttle and from there to the ionospheric return circuit. That current was enough to melt the cable.

The specific TSS-1R mission objectives were: characterize the current-voltage response of the TSS-orbiter system, characterize the satellite's high-voltage sheath structure and current collection process, demonstrate electric power generation, verify tether control laws and basic tether dynamics, demonstrate the effect of neutral gas on the plasma sheath and current collection, characterize the TSS radio frequency and plasma wave emissions and characterize the TSS dynamic-electrodynamic coupling.

TSS-1R Science Investigations included: TSS Deployer Core Equipment and Satellite Core Equipment (DCORE/SCORE), Research on Orbital Plasma Electrodynamics (ROPE), Research on Electrodynamic Tether Effects (RETE), Magnetic Field Experiment for TSS Missions (TEMAG), Shuttle Electrodynamic Tether System (SETS), Shuttle Potential and Return Electron Experiment (SPREE), Tether Optical Phenomena Experiment (TOP), Investigation of Electromagnetic Emissions by the Electrodynamic Tether (EMET), Observations at the Earth's Surface of Electromagnetic Emissions by TSS (OESSE), Investigation and Measurement of Dynamic Noise in the TSS (IMDN), Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of TSS Dynamics (TEID) and the Theory and Modeling in Support of Tethered Satellite Applications (TMST).

Other mission objectives
The USMP-3 payload consisted of four major experiments mounted on two Mission Peculiar Experiment Support Structures (MPESS) and three Shuttle Mid-deck experiments. The experiments were: Advanced Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (AADSF), Material pour l'Etude des Phenomenes Interessant la Solidification sur Terre et en Orbite (MEPHISTO), Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS), Orbital Acceleration Research Experiment (OARE), Critical Fluid Light Scattering Experiment (ZENO) and Isothermal Dendritic Growth Experiment (IDGE).

Alternating use of bunk bed
Astronauts Jeffrey A. Hoffman and Scott J. Horowitz, both Jewish, had alternating use of the same bunk bed, to which Hoffman attached, upon Horowitz's request, a mezuzah, using Velcro.

Operating system
STS-75 also was the first use of an operating system based on the Linux kernel on orbit. An older Digital Unix program, originally on a DEC AlphaServer, was ported to run Linux on a laptop. The next use of Linux was a year later, on STS-83.

Fictional STS-75 mission
STS-75 was the shuttle mission described in the fictional NASA Document 12-571-3570, although this document was disseminated several years before STS-75 was launched. The document purports to report on experiments to determine effective sexual positions in microgravity. Astronomer and scientific writer Pierre Kohler mistook this document for fact and is responsible for a major increase in its redistribution in the early 21st century. Conspiracy theories first made in the early beginnings of the Shuttle era of sex in space were suddenly made rampant again, causing a minor press debacle among tabloids.

References

External links

 NASA mission summary
 STS-75 Video Highlights

STS-075
Spacecraft launched in 1996

STS-75


Il-Arslan ("The Lion") (full name: Taj ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Fath Il-Arslan ibn Atsiz, Persian: تاج الدین ابوالفتح ایل ارسلان بن اتسز) (died March 1172) was the Shah of Khwarezm from 1156 until 1172. He was the son of Atsïz.

Reign
In 1152 Il-Arslan was made governor of Jand, an outpost on the Syr Darya which had recently been reconquered, by his father. In 1156 Atsïz died and Il-Arslan succeeded him as Khwarazm-Shah. Like his father, he decided to pay tribute to both the Seljuk sultan Sanjar and the Qara Khitai gurkhan.

Sanjar died only a few months after Il-Arslan's ascension, causing Seljuk Khurasan to descend into chaos. This allowed Il-Arslan to effectively break off Seljuk suzerainty, although he remained on friendly terms with Sanjar's successor, Mas'ud. They were alleged to have attempted to create a joint campaign against the Qara Khitai, but such an alliance never occurred. Like his father, Il-Arslan sought to expand his influence in Khurasan, and in the 1160s took an active interest in the area by supplying armies to local allies, but despite the collapse of central Seljuk authority in that area, he was unable to make any significant headway against the regional rulers.

In 1158 Il-Arslan became involved in the affairs of another Qara Khitai vassal state, the Karakhanids of Samarkand. The Karakhanid Chaghrï Khan had been persecuting the Qarluks in his realm, and several Qarluk leaders fled to Khwarazm and sought Il-Arslan's help. He responded by invading the Karakhnid dominions, taking Bukhara and besieging Samarkand, where Chaghrï Khan had taken refuge. The latter appealed to both the Turks of the Syr Darya and the Qara Khitai, and the gurkhan sent an army, but its commander hesitated to enter into conflict with the Khwarazmis. In the end a peace was mediated where Chaghrï Khan was forced to take back the Qarluk leaders and restore them to their former positions.

In 1172 the Qara Khitai launched a punitive expedition against Il-Arslan, who had not paid the required annual tribute. The shah collected his army but soon became sick and turned over his forces to one of his lieutenants. The Khwarazmi army was defeated, however, and Il-Arslan died shortly after. Following his death the state briefly became embroiled in turmoil, as the succession was disputed between his sons Tekish and Sultan Shah.

Court life
Little is known about the court life at Gurganj under Il-Arslan. It was likely a continuation of the prospering milieu that had existed during his father's reign, with the secretary and poet Rashid al-Din Vatvat continuing to serve as the head of the chancery.

References

Sources
Biran, Michael. The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Boyle, J. A. . The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1968.

1172 deaths
Khwarezmid rulers
Year of birth unknown
12th-century rulers
Anushtegin dynasty

Il-Arslan


Stephen Chapin (born December 30, 1946) is an American singer-songwriter. He is best known as the youngest of the four Chapin brothers, which include Harry Chapin and Tom Chapin and is son of drummer Jim Chapin and Elspeth Burke Chapin Hart, editor, artist and matriarch of the Burke, Leacock, Chapin clan.  He is the father of Christina Chapin, Frankie Chapin, and Jonathan Chapin.  He is the uncle of Jen Chapin and The Chapin Sisters. He has toured nationally and internationally, with his own band; The Harry Chapin Band; and with his late brother Harry Chapin as his band leader, musical director, arranger, producer, piano player/multi instrumentalist and singer.  He continues to perform concerts all over the world with The Harry Chapin Band which includes the original members of the band: Steve Chapin, Big John Wallace, and Howard Fields, and new members since 2005, Clark Wallace (Big John's son) and Jonathan Chapin (Steve's son).

Chapin has also produced many albums including The Chapin Family Christmas Album, and has worked as a teacher, arranger, recording artist, commercial producer, performer, singer, and songwriter. He has appeared on all Harry Chapin albums, and arranged and produced most of them.  Most notably,  Harry Chapin's Greatest Stories Live album which includes his performance of one of his songs "Let Time Go Lightly".

The Harry Chapin Band includes Chapin and former Harry Chapin band members "Big John" Wallace and Howard Fields. Chapin and Wallace have been making music together since their mid-1950s choir-boy days at Grace Church Brooklyn Heights, through the doo-wop days, folk and early rock eras, and the Harry Chapin years. It was during the mid-1970s that they teamed up with Howard to forge the musical bonds that forge the heart of their music.

References

External links

Chapin Family

1946 births
Living people
American male singer-songwriters
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
Record producers from New York (state)

Steve Chapin


Transportation Communications Newsletter is an electronic newsletter published Monday through Friday via Yahoo Groups and Google Groups.  It has .

The newsletter began as a discussion group on MakeList.com on June 13, 1998 and evolved into its current newsletter format over the next several years.  The newsletter features a collection of news items and information related to all aspects of communications in the transportation field.  Frequent topics include intelligent transportation systems, telematics and traveler information systems. The newsletter uses a headline and link format which allows readers to skim the stories and click on only those which are of interest.

The newsletter's founder and editor is Bernie Wagenblast who has worked in various aspects of transportation communications since 1979.  This includes time as a radio traffic reporter in New York City, manager of a public sector transportation operations center and as a voiceover artist for various transportation projects including AirTrain Newark, AirTrain JFK and the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority's E-ZPass service center.

The newsletter ranks as the top Yahoo Group in the transportation category, based on the number of subscribers.  Total subscribers in February 2009 were over 7,000.

External links
 Transportation Communications Newsletter
 Institute of Transportation Engineers paper on Transportation Communications Newsletter

Online magazines published in the United States
Transport magazines published in the United States
Electronic mailing lists


Krupabai Satthianadhan (1862–1894) was an Indian writer who wrote in English.

Early life
Krupabai was born to Haripunt and Radhabai Khisty, Hindu converts to Christianity, in Ahmednagar, then in the Bombay Presidency, on 14 February 1862. Her father died when she was still a child, and she was brought up by her mother and elder brother, Bhasker. Bhasker, who was much older, had a strong influence on her and endeavoured to awaken her intellect by lending her books and discussing many issues with her. However, he too died young, and Krupabai immortalized him in her semi-autobiographical novel Saguna: A Story of Native Christian Life.

She also wrote another novel entitled Kamala, A Story of Hindu Life (1894). Both these novels are bildungsromane, in which she speaks about gender, caste, ethnicity and cultural identity. Despite the difference in social milieu, two novels deals with a similar theme: the predicament of women who resist being cast in the slandered mould of domesticity. Kamala and Saguna are both attracted to books and face varying degrees hostility such an unnatural inclination. Saguna is largely autobiographical. As the daughter of a Christian convert, the protagonist manages, despite the odds, not only to receive formal education, but also to get admission to a medical college, and eventually meets a man who could share her life as equal.

Training in medicine
Krupabai was deeply wounded by Bhasker's death, and two European missionary ladies took charge of her and her education. This was her first encounter with the British at close quarters, and as Saguna shows it was a mixed experience. Later on she went to boarding school in the city of Bombay. She met an American woman doctor there who got her interested in medicine. Krupabai had absorbed her father's missionary ideals early in life and decided that by becoming a doctor she could help other women, especially those in purdah. By this time her health was already showing signs of deterioration, so although she won a scholarship to go to England and study medicine, she was not allowed to go. However, the Madras Medical College agreed to admit her in 1878, and she became a boarder at the house of the Reverend W. T. Satthianadhan, an extremely well known Christian missionary. Her academic performance was brilliant from the start, but due to strain and overwork she had her first breakdown in health a year later, and had to return to her sister in Pune to convalesce in 1879.

Teaching career
A year later she was back at Madras, where she met and developed a friendship with Samuel Satthianadhan, the Reverend's son. In 1881 Samuel and Krupabai married. Soon after Samuel got a job as Headmaster of Breeks Memorial School in Ootacamund. In Ootacamund, Krupabai was able to start a school for Muslim girls with help from the Church Missionary Society, and she also taught in a number of other girls schools as well. Ootacamund was a hill station renowned for its salubrious climate and Krupabai's health stayed fair. She was able to find the time and energy to write, and published articles under the byline "An Indian Lady" in leading periodicals.

Three years later the couple moved to Rajamundry, and Krupabai became ill again, so they relocated to Kumbakonam. In spite of the changeableness of her health this was a very productive period for her, and by the time they returned permanently to Madras in 1886, she was ready to begin a full-scale novel. Saguna was serialised between 1887 and 1888 in the prestigious Madras Christian College Magazine. However, during this time her only child died before reaching its first birthday and she was plunged into depression for which she required treatment.

Her tuberculosis was diagnosed in Bombay but was certified beyond cure. Knowing that she had little time to live, she began work on Kamala. She worked continuously on the book till her death, breaking off only to write a memoir of her father-in-law and an unfinished one of her mother-in-law.

Satthianadhan died in Madras on 8 August 1894. Her death came as a great blow to her admirers, and just a few months afterwards a scholarship for women was set up in her memory at the Madras Medical College, as well as a memorial medal at the University of Madras for the best female Matriculation candidate in English. Her novels were published as books and translated into Tamil.

Works
Saguna: A Story of Native Christian Life, edited by Chandani Lokugé, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998).
Kamala: A Story of Hindu Life, edited by Chandani Lokuge.

References

1862 births
1894 deaths
Writers from Mumbai
19th-century Indian novelists
Indian women novelists
Indian Christians
People from British India
19th-century Indian women writers
People from Ahmednagar
People from Bombay Presidency
Writers from British India

Krupabai Satthianadhan


Joaquín Rodríguez (July 20, 1743 – January 27, 1800), better known as Costillares, was a Spanish bullfighter who has been considered the father of modern spectator bullfighting.

Biography
Costillares was born in Seville, son of the matador Luis Rodríguez, who also worked in a slaughterhouse, and followed his father in both professions. He learned about the anatomy of the bull at the slaughterhouse, which would help him as a bullfighter. He began his career with Pedro Palomo, and gained recognition in Seville, where he among the first to perform to acclaim at the recently constructed Real Maestranza bullring. Costillares debuted in Madrid in 1767, and began a rivalry with the popular favorite Pedro Romero. He appeared regularly in Madrid between 1780 and 1790, surviving serious injury in a 1782 fight.  He died in Madrid, aged 56.

Spanish bullfighters
People from Seville
1743 births
1800 deaths

Costillares


Leadenhall Street () is a street in the City of London. It is about  and links Cornhill in the west to Aldgate in the east. It was formerly the start of the A11 road from London to Norwich, but that route now starts further east at Aldgate.

Leadenhall Street has always been a centre of commerce. It connected the medieval market of Leaden Hall with Aldgate, the eastern gate in the Roman city wall. The East India Company had its headquarters there, as later did the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O). By the mid 20th century, grand stone-faced offices lined the street. Today it is closely associated with the insurance industry and particularly the Lloyd's insurance market, with its dramatic building in the adjacent Lime Street. It forms part of a cluster of tall buildings including the 48-storey "Cheesegrater" and the 38-storey "Scalpel". Other buildings planned for the street include the 57-storey "Diamond", the 50-storey "Prussian Blue" and the 34-storey "Gotham City". Older buildings like the medieval church of St Katherine Cree seem incongruous among these towers, but the medieval heritage is preserved in the narrow slightly curving street and dense commercial activity.

History

Although Leadenhall Street is within the walls of Roman Londinium, and a map published in 1897 showed it as a Roman street, this remains speculative. The basilica, the largest building in Londinium, extended beneath the western end of Leadenhall Street. Roman remains have also been found on both sides of Leadenhall Street, beneath East India House (now No 12) and the P&O Building (now St Helen's Square).

The street probably originated in the medieval period. It appears in a map of London in 1270, then named Cornhulle in the west and Alegatestrete in the east. The name derives from a lead-roofed mansion, first used as a poultry market in 1321. The street runs from this Leaden Hall towards Aldgate, the eastern gate of the city wall. The only remaining buildings from this period are the churches of St Katherine Cree and St Andrew Undershaft in the adjacent street of St Mary Axe.

The name "Ledenhall Street" first appears on a map from 1658. In the Great Fire of London in 1666, the north-eastern edge of the damaged area reached Leadenhall Market, leaving Leadenhall Street itself intact.

From 1729 to 1861 the largest building in the street was East India House, the headquarters of the East India Company. In 1840 Leadenhall Street comprised mainly 4-storey stone buildings, as shown in a pictorial record by John Tallis. Its business directory lists 158 separate premises with a wide variety of trades and merchants. Apart from St Katherine Cree, there are no survivors from this period. The oldest is the former Leadenhall Press building (No 50) from 1868.

In the Victorian era, merchants were progressively replaced by banks, typically sturdy 6-storey stone buildings. Notable survivors include Lloyds Bank (No 113), the former Bank of Adelaide (No 11), the former Grace & Co (No 147) and the Lutyens designed No 139.

Bomb damage during World War II mainly affected the south side of Leadenhall Street to the east of Lime Street (No 26 to 49). Early post-war reconstruction matched the height of existing buildings, while introducing modern styles such as the former Scandinavian Bank (No 36) and the former Bank of Credit and Commerce International (No 100). In the late 1980s, the former Midland Bank (No 69) and the former Swiss Re House (No 77) introduced the post-modern style.

Today Leadenhall Street is closely associated with the insurance industry and particularly the Lloyd's insurance market, which occupied No 12 from 1928 to 1958, and has since been based in the adjacent Lime Street. The 14-storey Lloyd's building, completed in 1986, started a trend for dramatic architecture in the area.

Tall buildings on Leadenhall Street are constrained by the protected view of St Paul's Cathedral from Fleet Street.  To avoiding impinging on this view, the 48-storey Leadenhall Building (No 122) adopted a distinctive sloping profile, known as "The Cheesegrater", while "The Scalpel", a 38-storey building across the street (52 Lime Street), slopes in the opposite direction. Other buildings being developed, including the 57-storey "Diamond" (No 100) and the 50-storey "Prussian Blue" on the corner with Bishopsgate, will fill in the gaps in this cluster of buildings.

Buildings

South side

Starts at: Gracechurch Street

One Leadenhall – a 36-storey office building, including a 5-storey base with a grid of pre-cast concrete and glass panels, and a recessed glass tower above, designed by Make Architects. Construction started in 2021. The site was part of the Roman basilica in the 2nd century, and was occupied by the original Leaden Hall, first recorded in 1309.

Side street: Whittington Avenue leading to Leadenhall Market.

7-10 Leadenhall Street – a 6-storey office building, built in 1924–27. It was the head office of Friends Provident during 1929–57. It was occupied by the Iraqi Rafidain Bank until it went into liquidation in 2008. The building was acquired shortly after by the Iraqi Ministry of Foreign Affairs, initially used as a Commercial Attaché to its main embassy in Kensington. The Ministry still retains the freehold interest in the property, although the building has been vacant for a number of years. The building was briefly taken over by the Occupy London movement in January 2012.

11 Leadenhall Street - a 6-storey 3-bay office building, built in 1912 for the Bank of Adelaide. It was later occupied by the National Westminster Bank.

12 Leadenhall Street - a stone arch is all that remains of the former Lloyd's Building, which was built in 1928 and demolished in 1979. The arch was designed by Sir Edwin Cooper in 1922 as a war memorial for the Lloyd's Rooms at the Royal Exchange, and moved to Leadenhall Street in 1928. From 1729 to 1861 this site was occupied by East India House.

Lloyd's of London, 1 Lime Street - a 14-storey office building designed by Richard Rogers Partnership and built in 1978-86 for the insurance market, Lloyd's of London. The building exemplifies the high-tech style, and is distinctive in having services such as staircases, lifts, ducts, electrical conduits and water pipes on the outside, with the aim of creating a flexible uncluttered space inside. It was the youngest structure to obtain Grade I listing.

Side street: Lime Street

The Scalpel, 52 Lime Street - a 38-storey office building designed by Kohn Pedersen Fox and built in 2013-18 as the European headquarters of the insurance company W R Berkley. The building consists of a series of triangular planes of partially reflective glass with bright metallic fold lines.

36-38 Leadenhall Street - a 9-storey office building designed by Yorke, Rosenberg & Mardall and built in 1970-73 for the Scandinavian Bank. It was built in a Chicago-derived flush-fronted style, with uniform floors and piers of polished yellow-brown stone, flush smoked-glass bands, and sharp mitred glass joints on the Billiter Street corner.

Side street: Billiter Street

40 Leadenhall Street - a 34-storey office and retail development, designed by Make Architects and built in 2020-23. The site  between Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch Street, surrounding the Grade II listed 19-21 Billiter Street, comprises a series of vertical slices from 14 to 34 storeys, nicknamed "Gotham City". The north façade has floor to ceiling glazing with flush back-painted glass panels across the floor slabs, creating a smooth wall of glass, within a perimeter metal frame. The site was previously occupied by the Institute of London Underwriters.

50 Leadenhall Street - a 3-bay, 5-storey office building. From 1868 to 1905 it was the home of the Leadenhall Press.

Hallmark Building, 52-56 Leadenhall Street - a 12-bay, 7-storey office building in the Beaux-Arts style designed by M.E. Collins & L.S. Sullivan and built in 1919–21. It was previously known as Furness House, and occupied by the London Metal Exchange. The site was occupied by the Tylers' and Bricklayers' Hall from 1538 to 1833.

65 Leadenhall Street - a 5-bay, 7-storey office building designed by A.H. Kersey and Richardson & Gill and built in 1922 in yellow sandstone.

Landmark House, 69 Leadenhall Street and 94-95 Fenchurch Street - a 7-storey office building in the post-modern style designed by Terry Farrell Partnership and built in 1986-87 for the Midland Bank. The corner location is emphasised by a drum entrance and a glazed turret above containing a boardroom. The side elevations are in coloured granite with alternating layers on the lower floors.

In front of Landmark House is the Aldgate Pump, a Grade-II listed 18th Century water pump.

Ends at: Fenchurch Street

North side

Starts at: Mitre Street

77 Leadenhall Street - a 7-storey office building in the post-modern style designed by GMW Partnership and built in 1986-87 for Swiss Re. The site was once part of the Holy Trinity Priory, Aldgate, which was dissolved in 1532 and mainly demolished, although a fragment remains inside the modern building.

78 Leadenhall Street - a 7-storey office building in the post-modern [postmodern architecture] style designed by Ley, Colbeck & Partners and built in 1989–91.

80 Leadenhall Street - a 7-storey office building designed by Hamilton Associates and built in 1988–90.

St Katherine Cree - an Anglican church, founded in 1280. The tower is from c1504, with a cupola and doorcase from 1776. The church itself was built in 1628–31, using squared ragstone on the foundations of the previous building, still visible on the south wall facing Leadenhall Street. The church is Grade 1 listed.

Side street: Creechurch Lane

88 Leadenhall Street - a 7-storey office building designed by Fitzroy Robinson & Partners and completed in 1999. It is clad in limestone, granite and brick. The design references the art-deco style Cunard House, built on the site in the 1930s.

100 Leadenhall Street - a 7-storey office building designed by Fitzroy Robinson & Partners and built in 1971–75. It was the UK headquarters of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, which was liquidated in 1991 after widespread fraud and money laundering. The building was reclad in glass and stone in 2002 as part of a refurbishment programme designed by Rolfe Judd Architects. It will be redeveloped as a 57-storey building designed by SOM. It will have an angled façade with diamond pattern glazing, and has been nicknamed "The Diamond".

106 Leadenhall Street - a 6-storey office building in the art deco style designed by Joseph Architects and Surveyors and built in 1924. It has 3 giant bronze-spandrelled windows framed by Portland stone pilasters [pilaster], with a projecting stone cornice above. It will be demolished as part of the 100 Leadenhall Street redevelopment.

Bankside House, 107 Leadenhall Street - a 7-storey office building built in 1931 by Bankside Investment Trust. It is built in Portland stone with deeply modelled classical features, in two sections stepping down towards St Andrew Undershaft church. It will be demolished as part of the 100 Leadenhall Street redevelopment.

Lloyd's Bank, 113-116 Leadenhall Street - a 5-storey Victorian bank designed by E. B. Ellis and built in 1891.

Side street: St Mary Axe

St Helen's Square - a public space at the junction of Leadenhall Street and St Mary Axe, between the Leadenhall Building and St Andrew Undershaft, named after nearby St Helen's church. The piazza was created in 1963 by the demolition of the P&O building (No 122), to enable the construction of the 10-storey Indosuez House and the 28-storey Commercial Union building. The piazza was refurbished in 2019.

Leadenhall Building, 122 Leadenhall Street - a 48-storey office building designed by Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, built during 2011–14, and known as "The Cheesegrater". The steel ladder frame is visible through the glass façade and exposed in the atrium at the base. 122 Leadenhall Street was formerly the Kings Arms Inn and Hotel. It became the head office of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O) in 1848. P&O demolished adjacent residential properties at 123-125 Leadenhall Street to create a new office in 1854 . A new 10-storey P&O tower (later Indosuez House), was completed in 1969. The building was damaged by an IRA bomb in 1992 and demolished in 2007. A relic of the P&O building, a sculpture of Navigation, is now sited on the east wall of No 139-144.

139-144 Leadenhall Street - a 7-bay 5-storey bank with an elevation by Lutyens on a building designed by Whinney, Son & Austen Hall, built in 1929–31, now Grade II listed. The Portland stone front includes an arcaded ground floor that opens to a vaulted lobby, a mezzanine with arched windows with curved sills, a second floor with pedimented windows, two plain storeys above, and end-pavilions in front of a two-storeyed attic.

St Andrews House, 145-146 Leadenhall Street - a 3-bay 5-storey bank designed by William Nimmo & Partners, built in 1989–92. It copies proportions and details from No 139-144 next door.

Grace Hall, 147-148 Leadenhall Street - a 3-bay 4-storey bank building designed by J W O'Connor and built in 1926-27 for the New York bank Grace & Co. It is now a Grade II listed private events venue. It is built in Portland stone, with a pedimented entrance to the banking hall, and an arch that extends into the mezzanine floor. Above are 3 floors with recessed sash windows with original wood frames and glazing bars.

6-8 Bishopsgate - this site, which includes the former 150 Leadenhall Street, will be a 50-storey mixed-use tower designed by WilkinsonEyre, originally known as "Prussian Blue". The design comprises a series of stacked blocks, differentiated by variations in glazing and aluminium fins, and by cantilevering the upper block. The corner building will be an 11-storey stone-clad block with deeply recessed openings.

Ends at: Bishopsgate

Cultural references

The Leadenhall Street Mosaic is a Romano-British mosaic pavement from the first or second century depicting Bacchus astride a tigress. It was discovered during building work on East India House. The surviving pieces have been in the British Museum since 1880.

One of the first telephone exchanges in London was installed at 101 Leadenhall Street in 1879.

The Leadenhall Building (No. 122) is used as the venue for the BBC's The Apprentice interviews.

References

External links

Streets in the City of London

Leadenhall Street


Mariental Abbey (), in the present-day municipality of Mariental in Lower Saxony, Germany, is a former Cistercian monastery founded in 1138, now used and owned by a Lutheran congregation of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Brunswick.

History
The monastery was founded by Friedrich II von Sommerschenburg ( – 1162), Count palatine (Pfalzgraf) of Saxony. It then was a daughter house of Altenberg Abbey of the filiation of Morimond. The initial complement consisted of twelve monks from Altenberg under an abbot (Bodo) from Amelungsborn Abbey. The Augustinian nunnery of Marienberg in nearby Helmstedt was subsequently established in 1176. When the Sommerschenburg family became extinct in 1179, Mariental Abbey with its possessions were seized by the Welf duke Henry the Lion.

The abbey soon achieved great prosperity: its estates extended as far as Magdeburg, Jüterbog and Braunschweig. In 1232 it established a daughter house of its own, . However, at the end of the 14th century it entered a phase of steady decline.

The monastery was dissolved in 1569 as a consequence of the Protestant Reformation. A Lutheran school had been set up in the premises in 1542, operating until 1745. A seminary for the training of teachers was also established here, and this continued until 1773, when it was transferred to Helmstedt.

The buildings today belong to the Braunschweigische Vereinigte Kloster- und Studienfonds, while the church has become the Protestant parish church of Mariental.

References
 Friedrich, Ernst Andreas, 1998: Wenn Steine reden könnten, vol. IV. Hannover: Landbuch-Verlag

External links
 Mariental
 Mariental: photogallery

Cistercian monasteries in Germany
Monasteries in Lower Saxony
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
1130s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1133 establishments in Europe
Lutheran churches converted from Roman Catholicism
Lutheran churches in Lower Saxony

Mariental Abbey