Homebrew, when applied to video games, refers to games produced by hobbyists for proprietary video game consoles which are not intended to be user-programmable. The official documentation is often only available to licensed developers, and these systems may use storage formats that make distribution difficult, such as ROM cartridges or encrypted CD-ROMs. Many consoles have hardware restrictions to prevent unauthorized development.

Development can use unofficial, community maintained toolchains or official development kits such as Net Yaroze, Linux for PlayStation 2, or Microsoft XNA. Targets for homebrew games are typically those which are no longer commercially relevant or produced, and with simpler graphics and/or computational abilities, such as the Atari 2600, Nintendo Entertainment System, Wii, Nintendo 3DS, Genesis, Dreamcast, Game Boy Advance, PlayStation, and PlayStation 2.

Development
New games for older systems are typically developed using emulators. Development for newer systems usually involves actual hardware, given the lack of accurate emulators. Efforts have been made to use actual console hardware for many older systems, though. Atari 2600 programmers may burn an EEPROM to plug into a custom cartridge board or use audio transfer via the Starpath Supercharger. Game Boy Advance developers have several ways to use GBA flash cartridges in this regard.

First generation consoles

Odyssey
In 2009, Odball became the first game for the Magnavox Odyssey since 1973. It was produced by Robert Vinciguerra who has since written several other Odyssey games. On July 11, 2011, Dodgeball was published by Chris Read.

Second generation consoles

Atari 2600

Channel F
A handful of games have been programmed for the Fairchild Channel F, the first console to use ROM cartridges. The first known release is Sean Riddle's clone of Lights Out which included instructions on how to modify the SABA#20 Chess game into a Multi-Cartridge. There is also a version of Tetris and in 2008 "Videocart 27: Pac-Man" became the first full production game for the system since it was discontinued.

Third and fourth generation consoles

NES / Famicom
Several compilers are available for the Nintendo Entertainment System, but like the Atari 2600, most development is done in 6502 assembly language. One impediment to NES homebrew development is the relative difficulty involved with producing physical cartridges, although third-party flash carts do exist, making homebrew possible on original NES hardware. Several varieties of custom processors are used within NES cartridges to expand system capabilities; most are difficult to replicate except by scavenging old cartridges. One of the unofficial games that supports parallax scrolling and the MMC5 chip is Street Fighter II: Nostalgic Edition, which is a port of Street Fighter II: The World Warrior developed by Parisoft.

While the original Famicom and its clones can play unlicensed games, the 10NES hardware lock-out mechanism of the original model NES complicates the production of physical cartridges. The 10NES chip can be permanently disabled by performing a minor change to the hardware. The redesigned NES (also known as the New-Style NES or the New Famicom) lacks the 10NES chip.

Genesis / Mega Drive
The Sega Genesis has no physical lockout mechanism (instead relying on software encoding), making it easier to release software for the system. Pier Solar and the Great Architects, Paprium, and a port of Teenage Queen are examples of games that were released as physical cartridges. Other games include Sacred Line Genesis, Coffee Crisis, and Frog Feast for the Genesis and Mighty Mighty Missile for the Sega CD.

The 2018 game Tanglewood was notable in that it was developed using original Sega Genesis development hardware.

TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine

The TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine has a comparatively small homebrew scene. The first homebrew title was MindRec's Implode in 2002, a few years after the system's last official release (Dead Of The Brain I & II for the PC Engine in 1999). The title was released on CD-ROM. Two years later, MindRec released Meteor Blaster DX on CD-R. Their official word on the change of CD format was that they were unable to be pressed to CD-ROM proper due to the glass mastering software suddenly unable to handle the unorthodox style of CD structure that the system expects. Five years later, Aetherbyte Studios released Insanity, a Berzerk clone, on pressed CD-ROMs, quelling the notion of unpressable CDs. Aetherbyte later went on to prototype and produce a new HuCard design called "AbCARD", which was fully compatible with the console. Aetherbyte celebrated the 30th Anniversary of the PC Engine since its release in 1987.

There is one C compiler for the console known as HuC, however it has not been officially updated since 2005. The MagicKit assembler is generally considered the de facto assembler for the console, and comes included with HuC. Additional libraries for HuC/MagicKit include Squirrel, a sound engine developed by Aetherbyte Studios, and the SGX/ACD library, developed by Tomatheous, that gives the developer easy access to the SuperGrafx video hardware as well as the Arcade Card.

The cc65 C compiler is compatible with the console, although there is no development library supported for it.

There are a few original TurboGrafx CD games being made such as FX Unit Yuki: The Henshin Engine and a port of Mysterious Song in 2012.

SNES / Super Famicom

Bung Enterprises released the Game Doctor SF hardware series. It allows users to copy games and run new games on SNES hardware. ROMs can be converted into the Game Doctor SF format and put onto a 3 1/2" floppy. Games as large as twelve megabits can be put on floppy disks formatted to 1.6 megabytes. An alternative device is the Super Flash, by Tototek, which allows multiple games to be burned onto a flash memory chip in a cartridge. This allows games as large as 48 megabits. The system can also program compatibility with a C compiler.

The run and gun game, Alisha's Adventure, used original Super Famicom development hardware. WaterMelon's action role-playing game codenamed ProjectN, is a brand-new homebrew game for the SNES that is currently in development.

Neo-Geo MVS, AES, and CD
The Neo-Geo Home Cart and Arcade Systems can be tough candidates for homebrew development. Neo-Geo AES and MVS cartridges have two separate boards: one for video, and one for sound. If programming a cartridge for the system were to occur, it would involve replacing the old ROM chips with one's newly programmed ones as the cartridges are in a sense, Arcade boards. NGDevTeam who have released Fast Striker and Gunlord found a workaround with this. What they did was print out their own board, and soldered their own ROM chips into them; this, however, can cause the Universe Bios logo to look corrupted if a custom bios were to be programmed. Programming for the Neo-Geo CD, however is easier than programming for cartridges. The CDs themselves can actually contain both sound and video respectively. Depending on the Megabit count for a game program, load times will vary. A CD game with low Megabit counts will load only one time; whereas a CD game with higher megabit counts could load in between scenes, or rounds. There are now some full games scheduled for release in physical form, such as Neo Xyx.

Programmer of the Neo-Geo Universe Bios, Razoola is currently working on a "Skeleton Game Driver" that supports two players. This ROM is meant to remedy the corrupted Universe Bios Screens, as well as work with an unmodified/stock Neo-Geo Multi-Video System (MVS), or Advanced Entertainment System (AES).

Razion is an example of an original Neo Geo game ported over to modern consoles, in this case the Nintendo Switch.

Game Boy
There are many toolkits and utilities available to program homebrew on the handheld. ROM hacks of popular games on the handheld are available for the system. There are also unofficial ports and demakes of games from other home consoles and handhelds made for the Game Boy, some examples are a demake of the PlayStation game Castlevania: Symphony of the Night, a port of the infamous Philips CDi game Zelda's Adventure, and a port of Stunt Race FX for the Game Boy.

Fifth generation consoles

Jaguar

The first hobbyist-developed Atari Jaguar game was released in 1995: a version of Tetris called JSTetris. It was written using a hacked version of the Alpine Development Kit, one of the pieces of hardware used to program official Jaguar games. After purchasing all the intellectual property assets of Atari Corporation from JTS in 1998, Hasbro Interactive, on May 14, 1999, announced that they have released all rights to the Jaguar, declaring the console an open platform. Following the announcement, a few developers and publishers, such as AtariAge, B&C Computervisions, Piko Interactive, Songbird Productions, Telegames, and Video61, have released both previously unfinished games from the Jaguar's past as well as several brand new games.

Since emulation of the console is still limited, coding uses a real console through either the Skunkboard development cartridge, using a BJL modified Jaguar, or the official Alpine Development Kit. The commercial game BattleSphere Gold, also contains the JUGS (Jaguar Unmodified Game Server) aid to development.

Games are released in either cartridge, CD–or both–formats. Most developers have published their works either online on forums or in cartridge via independent publishers. Since both systems do not have regional locking, all of the titles are region free. Some of the earliest CD releases were not encrypted, requiring either B&C's Jaguar CD Bypass Cartridge or Reboot's Jagtopia (Freeboot) program burned into a CD in order to run unencrypted CD games, but Curt Vendel of Atari Museum released the binaries and encryption keys for both the cartridge and CD format, making it possible to run games without the need of development hardware. A cracked BIOS of the Jaguar D can be soldered inside the system.

There are also ST-to-Jaguar conversions, which involves porting titles from the Atari ST to the Jaguar, which may include some enhancements. While they can be downloaded for free, select titles were sold on August 3, 2016 and others, as of date, are being licensed and sold in festivals dedicated to the system such as E-JagFest, JagFest or online via AtariAge.

PC-FX
There is only one Homebrew development kit known for the PC-FX, which is based on the GNU Compiler Collection version 2.95.1. The Mednafen author began work on a library for the compiler called pcfxlib but it was discontinued due to lack of interest until trap15 started development of a new library called liberis. The toolchain is designed for a Linux environment, although it can also be used with cygwin. To date, no Homebrew titles for the PC-FX have been released, although Aetherbyte Studios and Eponasoft have both expressed interest in developing new software for the console.

PlayStation
Making games on the PlayStation is possible with any model of the system through the use of a modchip or the double 'Swap Trick'.  There is also a softmod/save game exploit called "tonyhax" Requirements consist of a PC, SDK, and a 'Comms Link' device to upload and download files to and from the console.

Another way of starting homebrew on the PlayStation is 'UniROM', which is a Softmod. UniROM works by being installed onto a cheat-device, which is connected via the parallel-port (on old consoles) and allows loading of custom code via burned CDs and the serial port.

Homebrew was originally promoted by Sony with the Net Yaroze, which had a large scene for quite some time. However, the official Net Yaroze site was shut down in mid-2009, and Sony stopped supporting the system as well as the users who still owned the console.

Saturn
All models of the Sega Saturn can be used for hobbyist development. Modchips for the Saturn Model 1 have been scarce for some time, as it seems that no one has produced any new modchips in years. As such, the only two options left are to either perform the swap trick or extensively modify a Saturn Model 2 modchip.

Running homebrew on the Model 2 can be accomplished by bridging two points on the modchip, soldering a wire from the modchip to the Saturn power supply, and inserting it where the CD-ROM ribbon cable inserts. The swap trick is more difficult to pull off on this Model due to the lack of an access light.

Another method is what is known as the "PseudoSaturn" unlocking method. It is a program created by CyberWarrior2000 that abuses the "Pro Action Replay" cartridge's firmware. It unlocks region, frequency, and CD protection of most Saturn models. Either a modded Saturn or a swap trick is required to run the installer, which loads the code in the FlashROM of the cartridge. Afterwards, the cartridge unlocks everything and most software can be run, from backups to homebrews. There is also now a new engine for development called the Jo-Engine created by Johannes Fetz to allow easy development of 2D games. This engine is currently able to compile 2D games without the Sega Graphic Libraries (SGL). Another engine by XL2, called the Z-Treme engine, led to the creation of a fully 3D Sonic The Hedgehog game called Sonic Z-Treme. Z-Treme uses Sega Basic Libraries (SBL) and Sega Graphic Libraries (SGL).

Virtual Boy
Nintendo's Virtual Boy has no region lock, but it wasn't until the flash carts FlashBoy and FlashBoy+ were released that the homebrew scene began to grow. Two previously unreleased games, Bound High! and Niko-Chan Battle (the Japanese version of Faceball) have been released.

In 2015, A dedicated fan ported Konami's cyberpunk click and point Snatcher over the Virtual Boy platform. Red Square, an Yume Nikki fan game was created in six weeks for the 2019 Dream Diary Jam.

Nintendo 64
The Nintendo 64 Homebrew scene began, and started off small, in January 1997, after the release of the DoctorV64, by Bung, during which many hobbyist developers utilized the use of a DoctorV64 for playback of their game or demo code, while also programming and utilizing their own written tools and programs for development, usually for Windows 95, or Linux.

Nintendo 64 homebrew demo scene competitions, known as "Presence Of Mind" were held, in which entrants utilized the DoctorV64, were hosted by the now-defunct N64 Homebrew Development website, Dextrose.com, in December 1997, leading into 1998, and 1999.

A Presence Of Mind competition was due to happen in 2000, but with the waning popularity of the console by this time, did not occur.

Between the years 2001 and 2005, homebrew development for the console stalled.

A new flashcart for the system, titled the NeoMyth Flashcart, was announced in May 2006.

Jennifer Taylor started work on the opensource SDK known as LibDragon in May 2009, for developers to utilize a non-proprietary SDK for homebrew game and program development on the Nintendo 64.

In April 2010, another new developer-friendly device for running custom programs and code, known as the 64Drive, would begin to be  developed by Marshall H.
In 2012, Ukrainian developer KRIKzz would develop their own device for the Nintendo 64, which is also utilized for homebrew development.
During this time, the Nintendo 64 homebrew scene picked up again, and in 2016 a subreddit, as well as a Discord Server (N64Brew), were created to further bring Nintendo 64 Homebrew developers together, and to the forefront. Communication between developers still happens on IRC, under the channel #n64dev.

The N64Brew community has hosted game jam development competitions in 2020, 2021, and 2022. These competitions focused on creating games for the system (rather than demos, compared to the '98 and '99 competitions). These competitions also held interviews with the judges and developers behind the games they worked on. Notable judges for the competitions were former Nintendo 64 developers, such as Allan Findlay, David Doak, Neil Voss, and Giles Goddard.

In August 2020, a wiki dedicated to providing accurate documentation of the Nintendo 64, its peripherals, and related software was created by the Nintendo 64 homebrew community.

There have also been a number of other game emulators developed for the Nintendo 64, notably a Nintendo Entertainment System, Super Nintendo, Neo Geo, Game Boy and Game Boy Color  and a ScummVM emulator, among others.

In 2022, active development for the console and programs for the console is back in swing. There are roughly 2,000 active members within the Nintendo 64 Homebrew community.
The 16-bit top-down shooter Xeno Crisis has received a version for the Nintendo 64, released on physical cartridge in April 2023.

Sixth generation consoles

Dreamcast
Despite its short commercial lifespan of less than two years in North America, the Dreamcast benefits from an active homebrew scene even ten years after its discontinuation. Due to a flaw in the Dreamcast's BIOS, which was intended for use with MIL-CD's, the console can run software from a CD-R without the use of a modchip. Sega responded to this by removing MIL-CD support from the BIOS on Dreamcast consoles manufactured from November 2000 onwards.

The console is especially notable for its commercial homebrew scene. One notable project was the Bleemcast! emulator, which was a series of bootdisks made to play PlayStation games on the system, featuring visual enhancements over the original console. Newer independent releases include Last Hope, released by RedSpotGames, and DUX, both Shoot 'em up style games. These releases were written using the KallistiOS development system. A port of the freeware high-level development language Fenix and BennuGD is available for use in game development; many DIV Games Studio games have been ported and others were originally written for the system.

PlayStation 2
Early versions of the PlayStation 2 have a buffer overflow bug in the part of the BIOS that handles PS1 game compatibility; hackers found a way to turn this into a loophole called the PS2 Independence Exploit, allowing the use of homebrew software. Other options for homebrew development would be the use of a modchip or the utilization of a PS2 hard drive and an HD Loader. In Europe and Australia, the PS2 came with a free Yabasic interpreter on the bundled demo disc for some time. This allows simple programs to be created for the PS2 by the end-user. This was included in a failed attempt to circumvent a UK tax by defining the console as a "computer" if it contained certain software. A port of the NetBSD project and BlackRhino GNU/Linux, an alternative Debian-based distribution, are also available for the PS2.

Using homebrew programs (e.g. 'SMS Media Player') it is possible to listen to various audio file formats (MP3, OMA, Ogg Vorbis, AAC, FLAC, AC3), and watch various video formats (DivX/XviD, MPEG1, MPEG2, MPEG4-ASP in AVI Container) using the console. Media can be played from any device connected to the console i.e. external USB/FireWire/thumb drive/hard disk drive (FAT32 only), the internal hard disk on early revision consoles, optical CD-R(W)/DVD±R(W) disks (modded systems or patched disks), or network shares (Windows Network or PS2 host: protocol).

A more recent development (May 2008) called Free McBoot or FMCB allows homebrew programs to be launched without a trigger disc required by the older exploit. This also allows the use of homebrew on unmodded systems without a functional disc drive. However, installation of the exploit to each individual memory card requires either an already exploited/modded system in order to launch the installer, or a boot image that can load an app that loads ELF files (a Network Adaptor with a hard drive is also required). Simply copying from one memory card to another will not work. This exploit does not work on the latest slimline PS2s (the later SCPH-9000x models with BIOS 2.30 and newer) but will work on all models prior to that. The newest versions of Free McBoot (version 1.90 and newer) also have the ability to install and boot from both Sony and non-Sony HDDs when using an original "fat" model PS2 and network adapter. This support is called Free HDBoot or FHDB. With a few minor issues, it is now possible to play games entirely from the HDD, without needing to use the optical disc drive nor a physical memory card.

Unlike the Independence Exploit, which requires a trigger disk, Free McBoot needs only a standard Memory Card, which allows it to be used on systems with broken optical drives. The installation is keyed to the Memory Card and will only be usable on the same version consoles that it was originally installed on, unless a Multi-Install is performed. The drawback of this exploit is that it needs to be installed/compiled on each individual memory card. Simply copying the exploit is not possible. Along with this, an already modded or exploited system is required to install Free McBoot on a Memory Card. After installing an exploit, unsigned executables (Executable and Linkable Format) may be launched from a Memory Card or a USB drive. Such programs include emulators, media players, hard drive management tools, and PC-based or NAS-based file shares. The exploit is also notable for allowing the user to copy PS1/PS2 save files from a Memory Card to a USB drive, a functionality normally only possible with tools such as DexDrive.

Sony released a Linux-based operating system for the PS2 in a package that also includes a keyboard, mouse, Ethernet adapter and HDD. The North American versions went out of stock not too long afterwards, however the European version was still available. The kit boots by installing a proprietary interface (the run-time environment) which is on a region-encoded DVD, meaning that the European and North America kits would only work with a PS2 from their respective regions.

A number of homebrew emulators of older computer and gaming systems have been developed for the PS2.

GameCube
Homebrew development on the Nintendo GameCube tended to be difficult, since it uses a proprietary MiniDVD-based drive and media as opposed to the standard DVD drives of the PS2 and Xbox for piracy protection. Also, its connectivity is limited, as it does not feature a USB port or an HDD port like the PlayStation 2.

The barrier to burning Nintendo GameCube discs with a consumer DVD burner is the Burst Cutting Area, a "barcode" in the innermost ring of the disc, an area inaccessible to most burners and writeable only by very expensive disc pressing machines. For a long time the only way to run homebrew software on Nintendo GameCube was through a patching-system exploit of Phantasy Star Online Episode I & II, requiring users to find the game and a Broadband Adapter. Both of these are difficult to find because a follow-up has been released (under the name Phantasy Star Online Episode I & II Plus) and thus the original PSO was rarely sold after then, and because the Broadband Adapter was not often carried in stores due to the Nintendo GameCube's very limited selection of online games.

As of August 2019, the most common method is to use an Action Replay in conjunction with an SD card adapter inserted into the memory card slot, allowing the user to run homebrew from the SD card, or over Ethernet. Another method involves using a modchip to allow the GameCube to run homebrew from a MiniDVD-R via the disc drive. Another method uses a save game exploit which involves transferring modified game save files to a GameCube memory card that triggers arbitrary code execution when loaded by an official game, allowing custom software to be run from a memory card, SD card, or other media. As the Nintendo GameCube's case does not fit a full-size DVD-R, third party replacement cases are available.

Homebrew software for the Nintendo GameCube mainly consist of emulators for other systems, as well as several popular homebrew utilities. Swiss is an "all-in-one homebrew utility", including a file browser, and the ability to force software to use different video modes that aren't officially supported, such as progressive scan or 16:9 widescreen. The Game Boy Interface is a homebrew software frontend for the Game Boy Player peripheral, and is often used for capturing high-quality footage from Game Boy, Game Boy Color, and Game Boy Advance games.

The 16-bit top-down shooter Xeno Crisis has received a version for the Gamecube, released on physical optical disc.

Xbox

The Xbox console uses several measures, including cryptographically signed code to obfuscate firmware. The primary method of executing homebrew code required installing a mod chip which could be flashed with a modified Microsoft BIOS. This BIOS allowed the system to boot unsigned executables (XBEs) and control several hardware variables, such as region coding and video mode. With the leak of Microsoft's official development kit (XDK), homebrew coders were able to write replacement Xbox GUIs (known as dashboards), games and applications for the Xbox.

A softmod, which uses a commercial game such as 007: Agent Under Fire, Mech Assault, or Splinter Cell, had been created to execute a persistent softmod installer without modification of the hardware. This method utilizes modified font and sound files to cause the Xbox to cause a stack buffer overflow and load a homebrew dashboard. Once in this condition, the Xbox is able to execute homebrew games and applications upon boot up.

Due to the Xbox using standard PC libraries, writing homebrew games is relatively easy and the vast majority of libraries available for a PC programmer are available to an Xbox homebrew programmer.

One of the more common type of homebrew games for the Xbox are ports of PC games whose source has been publicly released or leaked. Many classic PC games have been released for Xbox, but most are created with the XDK which limits their availability. The only places to find these ports are through IRC or peer-to-peer browsers.

The Xbox system is also very adept at running emulators which have been ported from PC, given its high processing power. The Xbox is able to emulate systems up to the previous generation, including the Nintendo 64 and the PlayStation. For this reason, many different emulators have been created for or ported to the Xbox.

Game Boy Advance
Homebrew development for the Game Boy Advance handheld has been popular due to the availability of C compilers and ready-made, high-quality code libraries, and debugging features for several Game Boy Advance emulators like VisualBoyAdvance-M, mGBA, NO$GBA, John GBA and My Boy. Adding to the success of homebrew for the system is the immense Pokémon ROM hacking community, the wide availability of Flash ROM cartridges and cartridge writers for the system, as well as nostalgia for the system in general (which applies to all other retro game systems).

Seventh generation consoles

PlayStation Portable

Nintendo DS

Since the release of the Nintendo DS, a great deal of hacking has occurred involving the DS's fully rewritable firmware, Wi-Fi connection, game cards that allow SD storage, and software use.  There are now many emulators for the DS, as well as the NES, SNES, Sega Master System, Sega Mega Drive, Neo-Geo Pocket, Neo-Geo MVS (arcade), and older handheld consoles like the Game Boy Color.

There are a number of cards which either have built-in flash memory, or a slot which can accept an SD, or MicroSD (like the DSTT, R4, AceKard and ez-flash V/Vi) cards. These cards typically enable DS console gamers to use their console to play MP3s and videos, and other non-gaming functions traditionally reserved for separate devices.

In South Korea, many video game consumers exploit illegal copies of video games, including for the Nintendo DS. In 2007, 500,000 copies of DS games were sold, while the sales of the DS hardware units was 800,000.

Another modification device called Action Replay, manufactured by the company Datel, is a device which allows the user to input cheat codes that allows it to hack games, granting the player infinite health, power-ups, access to any part of the game, infinite in game currency, the ability to walk through walls, and various other abilities depending on the game and code used.

Photographer Steve Chapman, looking for other ways to continue his photography work with smaller equipment, created DS-DSLR, an application that allowed him to control his camera without his bulky laptop. When his camera was connected to the DS through the GBA cartridge slot, DS-DSLR allowed him to execute many tasks, including controlled bracketing, custom interval shots, and timed long exposures. DS-DSLR even had a noise-activated shutter control which was activated when the DS mic detected noise.

With the DSi, it too has some homebrew exploits, some of which use DSiWare apps such as Flipnote Studio (aka ugopwn), sudokuhax, using a game called Sudoku by EA Games, grtpwn, exidiahax, fieldrunhax, 4swordhax, UNO*hax, and an exploit using Petit Computer called petit-compwner. There is also systemflaaw, which uses the DSi-exclusive game System Flaw.

A user by the name of shutterbug2000 on GBAtemp has released two DSi exploits, one being called Memory Pit, an exploit using the DSi Camera app, and the other known as the Flipnote Lenny exploit (aka ugopwn), using Flipnote Studio.

Xbox 360
Microsoft has released a version of its proprietary Software Development Kit (SDK) for free, to would-be homebrew programmers. This SDK, called XNA Game Studio, is a free version of the SDK available to professional development companies and college students. However, to create Xbox 360 games one must pay for a premium membership to the XNA Creators Club. Once the games are verified, the games written with XNA Studio can be made available for 80, 240, or 400 Microsoft Points to all Xbox 360 owners (through Xbox Live). This allows creators of homebrew content access to their target audience of Xbox 360 owners. This content is available under the Indie Games section of the New Xbox Experience.

On March 20, 2007, it was announced that a hack using the previously discovered hypervisor vulnerability in the Xbox 360 kernel versions 4532 and 4548 had been developed to allow users to run XeLL, a Linux bootloader. The initial hack was beyond the average user and required an Xbox serial cable to be installed and a flashed DVD Drive firmware. Felix Domke, the programmer behind XeLL, has since announced a live bootable Linux CD suitable for novice users, with the capabilities to be installed to the SATA hard drive of the Xbox 360. Despite the availability of such a distribution, the Xbox 360 still isn't considered a popular platform for homebrew development, given the dependence of the exploit on the DVD-ROM being able to load a burnt DVD game, a modified version of the game King Kong, and two older kernel revisions of the console itself.

A group independent of Microsoft is working on the means to run homebrew code, as part of the Free60 project.

Note: The hypervisor vulnerability in the Xbox 360 kernel versions 4532 and 4548 was addressed by Microsoft with the release of the NXE system and dashboard update in 2008.

Homebrew was since re-enabled on any Xbox 360 with dash 2.0.7371.0 or lower via an exploit referred to as the JTAG / SMC hack but was promptly patched again by Microsoft with the 2.0.8495.0 update.

Homebrew has now become available on most Xbox 360 consoles due to the Reset Glitch Hack (excluding the late Winchester revision, which fixed this exploit with mitigations in hardware). It works on all current dashboards. As the Reset Glitch Hack requires a modchip, soldering skills are a necessity when attempting to use this exploit.

PlayStation 3

The PlayStation 3 was designed to run other operating systems from day one. Very soon after launch, the first users managed to install Fedora Core 5 onto the PlayStation 3 via the 'Install Other OS' option in the PlayStation 3's XMB (Xross Media Bar), which also allows configuring the PlayStation 3 to boot into the other OS installed by default.

So far, several Linux flavors have been successfully installed to the PlayStation 3, such as Fedora Core 5, Fedora Core 6, Gentoo, Ubuntu and Yellow Dog Linux (YDL). The latter comes installed with the Cell SDK by default, allowing programmers a low cost entry into Cell programming. See also: Linux for PlayStation 3

Originally, graphics support was limited to framebuffer access only (no access to the PlayStation 3's graphics chip RSX), yet some access to the RSX graphics processor was achieved (but Sony blocked this with firmware release 2.10).

As of firmware release 3.21, consumers are no longer able to access the 'Other OS' due to Sony removing the facility from the software in an update. Sony said this was in response to several 'security concerns'.

Homebrew developers do have access to the Cell microprocessor, including 6 of its 7 active Synergistic Processing Elements (SPEs). The Game OS resides under a hypervisor and prevents users from taking full control of the PlayStation 3's hardware. This is a security measure which helps Sony feel secure enough to allow users to install other operating systems on the PS3.

The Sixaxis controller has also been exposed to Linux and Windows, but no driver seems to have been successfully created yet that exposes its accelerometer functionality, except for Motioninjoy. However other drivers have successfully used it as a controller for gaming and other applications.

In May 2008, a vulnerability was found in the PlayStation 3 allowing users to install a partial debug firmware on a regular console. However, the debug functionality is disabled, so neither homebrew applications nor backup games can be run yet.

Another exploit was found on August 14, 2008, allowing users to boot some backup games from the PlayStation 3's HDD, although the exact instructions on how to do this were not released at that time. However, a different person posted instructions 10 days later, which explained the exploit.

On January 6, 2009 a hacking ring known as the "Sh4d0ws" leaked the jig files needed to launch the PlayStation 3 into service mode. Although the PlayStation 3 can be triggered into service mode, it is not yet of any use because the files needed to make changes to the console have not been leaked.

On August 31, 2010, PSGroove, an exploit for the PS3 through the USB port, was released and made open source. This exploit works on all of the PS3 models released up until then.  A guide for the creation of the PSGroove is available through several online sources.

George Hotz, better known under his nickname "geohot", appeared on Attack of the Show because he released the PlayStation 3's encryption keys, therefore any homebrew or custom firmware can be signed. Once signed, homebrew can be natively run. It would be difficult for Sony to fix this because it would most likely require a voluntary recall and the most expensive parts would have to be replaced. In 2011, Sony, with help from law firm Kilpatrick Stockton, sued Hotz and associates of the group fail0verflow for their jailbreaking activities. Charges included violating the DMCA, CFAA, copyright law, and California's CCDAFA, and for breach of contract (related to the PlayStation Network User Agreement), tortious interference, misappropriation, and trespass.

Wii

In advance of the Wii's release, WiiCade was the first site to host Adobe Flash homebrew games specifically designed for the Wii and its remote, which could be played without any exploits using the Wii's Opera web browser. The Wii was hacked via a custom serial interface in December 2007. The goal of most Wii exploits is to install the Homebrew Channel, a custom channel that lets users run homebrew software on the console. The Homebrew Channel's first full release was in December 2008. Though Nintendo successfully patched various older exploits to install The Homebrew Channel, many exploits to run the channel on current firmware exist. This channel can be installed using exploits in games such as the NTSC version of Super Smash Bros. Brawl, an exploit on the Internet Channel, a DNS exploit with the EULA, or it can be installed via an exploit in the Wii's messaging system. Note that only exploits that use disc games are compatible with installing The Homebrew Channel on the vWii (virtual Wii) mode on a Wii U, with the exception of "wuphax", an exploit that installs the channel via Wii U specific system permission exploits. The Wii Opera software development kit let developers make their own games in JavaScript. The console's controller was also a popular target for modification. On August 9, 2010, Team Twiizers released an exploit called LetterBomb which uses a malformed mail letter (Buffer overflow) to load a boot.elf file into memory, which then installs The Homebrew Channel to run unsigned code.

In recent years, other methods exploiting the Internet Channel (Flashhax) and the Wii's EULA (str2hax) have been released. In 2019, an exploit using Bluetooth called BlueBomb was released. BlueBomb meant that the Wii Mini was hackable for the first time, as it was previously not possible due to the Wii Mini's Internet, Wii messaging capabilities and SD slot removed.

Eighth generation consoles

3DS

The first public homebrew exploit for the Nintendo 3DS, ninjhax, originally called ssspwn, allowed the user to scan a QR Code to exploit the game Cubic Ninja. Other ways to run The Homebrew Launcher have been discovered since then, including freakyhax, an exploit in the Deluxe edition of Freakyforms: Your Creations, Alive!; Doodlebomb, an exploit in the 1.1.1 and older versions of Swapdoodle; browserhax, broswerhax-xl, SSloth browser, and Super-Skaterhax (all of which used the 3DS' Internet Browser while the latter works only on New 3DS models); soundhax, using the Nintendo 3DS Sound app; pichaxx, using Pokémon Picross; unSAFE_MODE, which injects a corrupted WiFi profile into the SAFE_MODE firmware; kartdlphax and Kartminer7 which both utilize Mario Kart 7; ntrboot, using an NDS/DSi flash cart; and smashbroshax, a New 3DS exclusive exploit for Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS.

The majority of system updates that have "Further improvements to overall system stability and other minor adjustments have been made to enhance the user experience" in their changelog are simply to patch Homebrew Launcher (userland) exploits. Those that require a specific version of a game or application are often patched in these updates by adding exploited application versions to the "IsTitleAllowed" blacklist, which prevents outdated applications on the list from launching and forces users to update those applications to the latest version to launch the application. For example, notehax only works on outdated versions of Flipnote Studio 3D. In the 11.6.0-39 system update, all regions of Flipnote Studio version <=1.0.1 in USA, <=1.2.0 in EUR, and <=1.3.1 in JPN were blocked from launching the application, patching the exploit on current firmware.

Unsigned software can be launched from the SD card without having to install custom firmware on the device by using an exploit to run The Homebrew Launcher. The Homebrew Launcher itself can be launched on system versions 9.0-11.16 on any 3DS system. However, without installing custom firmware, the user will need to run the exploit each time they want to access The Homebrew Launcher.

To directly install custom software onto the 3DS home menu, custom firmware is needed. There are several custom firmware releases available, the most popular being Luma3DS. Requirements to install custom firmware involve using various exploits to run a boot ROM exploit called boot9strap, which executes custom code before boot ROM lockout.

In December 2020, an exploit was released that used an oversight in DSiWare, which can run custom code from the DSiWare menu in the 3DS settings app to install the 3DS hacks. As of system software version 11.17.0-50 (which released in May 2023), many of the software homebrew exploits that were used to install custom firmware have been patched. Despite this, other methods of exploiting the 3DS for homebrew are still available, such as the aforementioned Super-Skaterhax for New 3DS models and ntrboot for all other models.

PlayStation 4
In 2015, an exploit for the PlayStation 4 was released for firmware 1.76 and below which grants kernel access. The userland exploit was WebKit via the PS4 Web Browser. This opened the door for unsigned code on the system and a homebrew community began to emerge.

Over time, further exploits have been found that grant kernel level modifications to the system. The firmware versions for these are 4.05, 4.74, 5.05/5.07, 6.72, 7.02, 7.55, and 9.00. All of these use the PS4 Web Browser as the entry point.

Homebrew on the PS4 includes being able to boot the PS4 into a Linux distribution, although this is not permanent and the console will revert to Orbis OS on reboot. Some payloads can patch games on the fly, such as 60 FPS for games that were never given official patches, character mods, and removal of intros and cutscenes. These patches can even work on physical retail discs inserted into the console; they are done at runtime in RAM and such leave the physical disc data intact.

PlayStation Vita

In 2016, an exploit for the PlayStation Vita was released named "HENkaku".  This exploit used a bug found on the 3.60 system firmware, allowing users to run unsigned software. It was installed by visiting a website and clicking on the install button on the PlayStation Vita web browser. This had to be done every time the user turned the system on, and was patched in firmware version 3.61. However, in 2018, computer science student TheFloW (Andy Nguyen) found a kernel bug in firmware versions 3.65, 3.67, and 3.68 that allowed unsigned code to be run. Eventually, he developed an exploit called "h-encore" which allowed one to install the HENkaku hack on later PS Vita versions. The kernel bug was patched in firmware version 3.69, but the userland bug still works. Because HENkaku needs to be reinstalled every time the device is turned on again, an optional flasher program named ensō can be used alongside HENkaku to flash it into the system, making the plugin stay permanently even after shutdown and reboot, until uninstalled through the ensō installer.

On February 13, 2019, TheFloW released a downgrader tool that can downgrade any Vita console to an older firmware down to its factory firmware.

On December 26, 2022, TheFloW released HENlo, a WebKit-based exploit chain for developers and security researchers on his GitHub page; a working implementation of the exploit which can be used on all Vita firmware versions was released by SKGleba.

Wii U

The most common way to execute code on the Wii U for 5.5.6 and below is through vulnerabilities in the Wii U's built in web browser. one method of launching homebrew was called Haxchi which launches homebrew directly (such as the Wii U Homebrew Launcher) using an exploit installed in the game's file location. There is also an additional, optional, part of Haxchi called "Coldboot Haxchi" or CBHC. CBHC allows custom firmware to be enabled automatically each time the system is turned on by running the Virtual Console game directly on boot, whereas other exploits have to be run every time manually. However, CBHC has an increased risk of rendering the system inoperable as deleting the Virtual Console game, among other things, will brick the console, rendering it unusable.

In January 2022, Tiramisu and the EnvironmentLoader were released. Tiramisu allows custom firmware to be automatically loaded on boot like CBHC but uses the systems built in Health and Safety Information app  to run the exploit instead of a VC game. since Tiramisu uses a system app instead of a VC game there is no Brick risk from deleting/moving the app. Tiramisu allows users to change the Boot Title of the system after installation

Later in September 2022 the first public beta for the new Aroma environment was released. Aroma used the same exploit and EnvironmentLoader as Tiramisu enabling easy migration between the two. Aroma introduced Modules , new Plugin System, and a new Homebrew app format .wuhb. Aroma dropped support of .elf homebrew application in favor of .rpx and .wuhb. Aroma was the first Homebrew method/Environment to drop support for the Homebrew Launcher in favor of Launching Homebrew from the Wii U Menu directly

Many homebrew applications that run via the Homebrew Launcher (or Wii U Menu on Aroma) have been collected and hosted on fortheusers.org. These hosted applications can be downloaded directly on the Wii U using The Homebrew App Store app in the repository.

The Wii U's built-in emulated Wii environment (often nicknamed vWii or Wii Mode) is capable of running Wii homebrew, such as The Homebrew Channel. However, vWii is much more fragile than a real Wii console and has a higher chance of being rendered inoperable if dangerous software is used. Also, due to changes made to the Wii operating system in vWii mode, previous exploits that utilized the Wii Menu itself to load the HackMii Installer, such as Letterbomb, do not work on vWii. The only ways to hack vWii without one of the exploit games is by using applications called wuphax or Compat Installer. Wuphax uses the public Wii U IOSU exploit to temporarily inject the HackMii installer into the Mii Channel so that The Homebrew Channel can be installed without an exploit game. Compat Installer uses the public IOSU exploit to install the Open-Source Homebrew Channel from Wii U Mode.

Nintendo Switch

The Nintendo Switch was first exploited by a team called ReSwitched. On March 14, 2017, about 11 days after the console's release, the team released their exploit to the public. This exploit was called PegaSwitch. It did not allow true homebrew to run on the system at the time, but it did let developers look for other security bugs in the system. Later that year on October 1, ReSwitched announced new exploits and tools that allowed homebrew developers to start working on homebrew programs for the system before they could be launched. At the 34th Chaos Communication Congress, hackers Plutoo, Derrek, and Naehrwert announced a kernel exploit for the system (which they said would not be released) and said that a homebrew launcher was coming soon.

On January 7, 2018, Twitter user fail0verflow uploaded a video showing a simple side-scrolling text program before booting the system, which shows that there was a way to run unsigned code before boot-up, opening up possibilities for new programs focused on development. On March 29, 2018, SciresM, a respected developer in the homebrew community, announced that a custom firmware called "Atmosphere" would be released for all available firmware versions at the time. Firmware above and including 1.0.0 are hackable via a cold boot exploit known as Fusée Gelée, developed by the ReSwitched team. This exploit takes advantage of a bug in the boot ROM on the Tegra X1 chip used by the Nintendo Switch. The exploit was also independently discovered by fail0verflow under the name ShofEL2. Firmware version 1.0.0 is hackable via a TrustZone exploit known as Jamais Vu. Atmosphere released its first public build in October 2018.

Currently, the Nintendo Switch has both a homebrew launcher and custom firmware. Access to a Japanese copy of Puyo Puyo Tetris is needed to install CFW on version 1.0.0. The ability to install homebrew on the Nintendo Switch is also dependent on the version of the console. As consoles that were released after June 2018 with version 4.1.0 shipped have their boot ROMs patched against the full control TrustZone exploit that would allowed for homebrew to be installed, it is currently not possible to install homebrew to the HAC-001(-01) revision of the Nintendo Switch, the Nintendo Switch Lite, and the Nintendo Switch – OLED Model without the purchase and installation of a specialized modchip which replicates the vulnerability of the Tegra X1 chip.

Xbox One, Series X, and Series S

The Xbox One and Series X/S have a Dev Mode which, though intended to be used for retail game development, can be used to run unsigned homebrew software. It can be enabled on any retail Xbox console. Dev Mode disables retail games and software while enabled. Homebrew software can be developed as Universal Windows Platform applications, allowing many programs designed to run on desktop editions of Windows 10 to run on the console including console emulators. In order to activate developer mode, one has to first register for an app developer account, which has a fee of $19.

The Xbox One and Series X/S have had limited exploits found, but very few have allowed homebrew, and all known exploits have been patched as of October 2022.

See also
Fangame
Hacking of consumer electronics
Mod (video gaming)
Modchip
ROM hacking
Jailbreaking
Softmod

References

External links
 Retro Video Gamer - publisher of Homebrew Heroes book
 SSEGA Sega Genesis Homebrew section
 gbadev.org
 Skeetendo
 VGB
 Main Page - N64Brew Wiki, which provides accurate documentation of the Nintendo 64, its peripherals, and related software.
 Awesome N64 Development - A maintained list of N64 development resources, toolchains, and N64 homebrew-related programs.
 Libdragon - Official website for the Nintendo 64 opensource SDK, known as LibDragon.

Custom firmware

Video game development
Dedicated consoles

Homebrew (video games)


Safety is a feeling that no bad things will happen. Security avoids things to happen that you don't want to. The police keep public safety, which helps stop crimes from happening. Safety hats protect the head from injury. Houses provide safety from the weather.

The opposite of safety is danger.

Measures
Safety measures are activities and precautions taken to improve safety. Here are list of common safety measures include:

 Chemical analysis
 Geological surveys to determine whether land or water sources are polluted, how firm the ground is at a potential building site, etc.
 Destructive testing of samples
 Road safety measures

Related pages
Security

Safety

Safety


Veronica Lazăr (6 October 1938 – 8 June 2014) was a Romanian-born Italian actress.

Biography
Lazăr was born in Bucharest in 1938. She graduated from the Caragiale Academy of Theatrical Arts and Cinematography (where she also obtained a degree in psychology, which she practiced until 1994, dealing mainly in couples therapy) and subsequently played roles in Romanian theatre [notably a run of Right You Are (if you think so) in 1963-64]. She fled her home country to escape communism and eventually settled in Italy in 1965. She managed to learn the Italian language in only a few weeks and had planned to move on to the United States or Israel, but became entranced with Rome. There, she met and married Italian actor Adolfo Celi with whom she had two children, director Leonardo Celi and actress Alessandra Celi.

She made her screen debut as Marlon Brando's deceased wife in Bernardo Bertolucci's Last Tango in Paris (1972), and also appeared in some of the director's subsequent films, La Luna (1979), The Sheltering Sky (1990), and Besieged (1998).

Lazăr is probably best known internationally for her role as the demonic Mater Tenebrarum in Dario Argento's Inferno (1980), as well as the ill-fated Martha in Lucio Fulci's The Beyond (1981). She later appeared in Argento's The Stendhal Syndrome (1996) in a role that was removed from the North American version (though she is still billed in the end credits). Her other films included Michelangelo Antonioni's Identification of a Woman (1982), My Sister and I (1987), Towards Evening (1990), The Prince's Manuscript (2000) and Ginostra (2002). She had an extensive career in (mostly) Italian television, where she was often the lead or one of the lead characters. Lazăr headlined the 1978 adaptation of The Elective Affinities, Giacinta (1980) and was a big part of the 1989 BBC miniseries Summer's Lease. Her last role was that of the main character Lorenzo's loving grandmother in Bertolucci's Me and You (2012).

Veronica Lazăr was a renowned woman of culture and a cultural ambassador between Italian and Romanian cinema (the latter, a position she began in 1989). She was a linguistic interpreter and was seen as a symbolic figure with a protective aura by her countrymen in both Italy and Romania. She was also president of the Itaro Art Foundation and was instrumental in its 2007 retrospective on Romanian cinema held in Rome and Pisa. She was heavily involved with the acting students at Teatro Valle and often would cook meals for them at her home and bring them to the theatre. The students there nicknamed her "Nonna Veronica."

Lazăr also coordinated the construction of a hospital in Mali over the course of a year, on orders of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. When she returned to Italy, she brought with her African fabrics, statues, and carpets, many of which were still in her home when she died. Lazăr loved to play cards, share with her friends, and had a special affinity for the sea. At her funeral, she wanted her 18-year-old niece, a career musician already, to play the theme from Schindler's List throughout the Jewish cemetery in Prima Porta where she was laid to rest.

References

External links

1938 births
2014 deaths
Italian film actresses
Italian stage actresses
Italian television actresses
Actresses from Bucharest
Romanian emigrants to Italy
Naturalised citizens of Italy

Veronica Lazăr


Louis Francois Marie Aleno de Saint Aloüarn (25 July 173827 October 1772) was a French Navy officer and explorer who claimed French Western Australia.

St Aloüarn made the first formal European claim of sovereignty — on behalf of France — over the west coast of Australia, which was known at the time as "New Holland". Much of this west coast had already been charted by other mariners from the Netherlands, following a landing by Dirk Hartog in 1616, who left a commemorative plaque recording his visit. James Cook, in 1770, had charted and claimed the east coast for Britain. When St Aloüarn visited New Holland in 1772, neither British nor Dutch officials had issued a formal claim over this western part of New Holland. However, the French claim over Western Australia was never secured by a permanent settlement.

Early life and military career
St Aloüarn's parents were François Marie Guénolé Pantaléon d'Aleno and Marie Josèphe Pélagie de Quillien, both members of the aristocracy. He was born at Saint-Aloüarn, near Guengat, Brittany.

The family, including St Aloüarn's father, had a history of service in the French Navy, and St Aloüarn joined the Gardes de la Marine in 1754. As a naval cadet, he joined his uncle, René de Rosmadec St Aloüarn, on the 74-gun warship Espérance. In November 1755, as it returned from a campaign off Canada, Espérance was attacked and captured by  and .  St Aloüarn and his uncle became prisoners of war and were held in England for two years, before they were returned to France. Because of his bravery under fire, St Aloüarn was promoted to ensign.

The war continued and St Aloüarn was posted to Martinique on the 74-gun Défenseur. His father and uncle were both killed when the Juste was destroyed in 1759, at the Battle of The Cardinals (also known as the Battle of Quiberon Bay). During 1759–62, St Aloüarn served in France on smaller vessels and on shore. Between 1762 and 1767, St Aloüarn served on the 116-gun Royal Louis and the frigate Infidèle, at Martinique and Brest. He was promoted in 1763 to lieutenant. St Aloüarn took command of the storeship Ecluse in 1767, followed by the Aber Wrac'h in 1770.

In 1761, he married Marie Jeanne Corentine Drouallen, with whom he had a daughter and three sons. He was a Freemason, member of the Loge Parfaite Union of Quimper.

Career as an explorer
In 1771, shortly after the death of his wife, St Aloüarn was approached by a colleague, Yves de Kerguelen, who asked him join an expedition to New Holland. This reflected a broader French drive to annex territories adjoining the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Kerguelen and St Aloüarn first travelled to Port Louis, Isle de France (now Mauritius). On 30 April 1771, they left Port Louis in two small vessels: Kerguelen on board the 24-gun fluyt Fortune and St Aloüarn commanding the 16-gun storeship Gros Ventre.

On 11 February 1772, in the southern Indian Ocean, the expedition sighted a large mountainous island that Kerguelen took for Australia. (The island was later named after him.) The two ships lost sight of each other during bad weather. After a party from Fortune had made a brief visit to the island, Kerguelen returned to France.

After also landing a party on the island, St Aloüarn continued towards Australia and a rendezvous point at Cape Leeuwin, arranged earlier with Kerguelen. On 17 March he arrived off a bay (later Flinders Bay), near the cape. With no sign of Kerguelen, St Aloüarn followed the coast northward.

At Baie de Prise de Possession ("Bay of Taking Possession"; later Turtle Bay), Dirk Hartog Island on 30 March 1772, officer Jean Mengaud de la Hage claimed French Western Australia, the first formal European claim in Western Australia, on behalf of King Louis XV while St Aloüarn remained aboard the ship. Members of Mengaud's ceremonial team raised the white ensign on the island and buried a bottle containing a document stating what had occurred, alongside two silver écu coins, worth six Livres tournois (Francs). This occurred in sight of Cape Inscription, where in 1696 the Dutch mariner Willem de Vlamingh had also left a commemorative plate recording his visit and that of Dirk Hartog in 1616.

Aftermath
By the time of the annexation, many of the crew of Gros Ventre were exhausted and suffering from scurvy. St Aloüarn made for Portuguese Timor, where he and his crew recuperated for a short period. Gros Ventre then visited Batavia (Jakarta) in the Dutch East Indies, where St Aloüarn and some of his crew contracted "tropical diseases". On 5 September, they arrived at Port Louis, where they had been given up as lost. St Aloüarn was hospitalised and dictated a letter to Kerguelen, advising that he had taken possession of western New Holland. St Aloüarn failed to recover from his illness and died on 27 October.

In 1788, Captain Arthur Phillip established a British colony on the east coast of Australia, at Sydney. However, other French expeditions followed St Aloüarn to Western Australia. In 1792, Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux named the St Alouarn Islands, south east of Cape Leeuwin after St Aloüarn. In 1800, Nicolas Baudin was the first to map the Western coast and a part of the Southern coast of Australia.

By 1826, following an expedition to the south coast of Western Australia by Jules Dumont d'Urville, British authorities were seeking to forestall French settlement in Australia. A British Army force, under Major Edmund Lockyer, was despatched from Sydney, establishing a permanent British settlement at King George Sound, named Frederick Town (or Frederickstown), later known as Albany.

Searches for the annexation site
During the late 20th century, historian Leslie Marchant, one of whose specialities was the French exploration of Australia, and others, led expeditions that attempted to find the site of St Aloüarn's proclamation. However, the site was not located until January 1998, when an expedition, led by amateur archaeologists Philippe Godard and Max Cramer, visited Dirk Hartog Island and located an écu coin in a lead capsule, at Turtle Bay. The site was inspected and the find confirmed by staff of the Western Australian Maritime Museum.

Searches continued for a bottle reportedly buried by St Aloüarn's crew, containing a document proclaiming France's annexation of Western Australia. In April 1998, a WA Maritime Museum expedition, including archaeologists and remote sensing specialists, located a bottle, capped with a lead seal surrounding another écu; however, the bottle contained only sand. A comprehensive excavation of the site failed to locate any further artefacts.

There is anecdotal evidence that the proclamation was found decades earlier by a stock worker, was kept at the homestead of a sheep station operating on Dirk Hartog Island at the time and was later destroyed by fire.

The proclamation site was later protected by law and a commemorative plaque was placed at the spot.

See also
 European and American voyages of scientific exploration

Footnotes

Bibliography

 John Dunmore, French Explorers in the Pacific. I., The Eighteenth Century, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965.

 Philippe Godard & Tugdual de Kerros, Louis de Saint Aloüarn: lieutenant des vaisseaux du roy: un marin breton à la conquête des terres australes, Saint-Jacques-de-la-Lande, Portes du larges, 2002.
 Philippe Godard, Tugdual de Kerros, Sue Baxter, Odette Margot & Myra Stanbury,  1772 – The French Annexation of New Holland: The Tale of Louis de Saint Alouarn, Fremantle, Western Australian Maritime Museum, 2009.
 Leslie Marchant, France Australe, Perth, Artlook Books, 1982.
 Mike McCarthy, Disturbances at the French Annexation site on Dirk Hartog Island: a report in readiness for the 2006 fieldwork (monograph) Fremantle, Western Australian Maritime Museum, 2006. Access date: 6 July 2010.

 Myra Stanbury, De Saint Aloüarn and the French Annexation of Western Australia, 1772 (monograph) Fremantle, Western Australian Maritime Museum, 1999. Access date: 6 July 2010.
 Western Australian Museum, de Kerguelen & de Saint Aloüarn (web page), 2008. Access date: 6 July 2010.

1738 births
1772 deaths
French explorers
French Navy officers
French navigators
Maritime exploration of Australia
People from Finistère

Louis Aleno de St Aloüarn


Andrew Bridge is a Broadway and West End lighting designer, who has worked on many Broadway productions, including The Phantom of the Opera. He has won the Tony Award for Best Lighting Design three times: in 1988 for The Phantom of the Opera, 1995 for Sunset Boulevard, and in 1999 for Fosse.

In December 2010 he became the 12th ever 'Fellow of the ALD'. This was awarded to him for his outstanding contribution to the art of lighting design.

References

External links

American lighting designers
Tony Award winners
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people

Andrew Bridge (lighting designer)


Baltimore City Community College (BCCC) is a public community college in Baltimore, Maryland. It is the only community college in the city and the only state-sponsored community college in the state. It is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE). It was founded in 1947 and has about 5,000 students enrolled in one of its campuses.

History
Baltimore City Community College dates its origins to the "Baltimore Junior College" (BJC), founded as part of the Baltimore City Public Schools system in 1947 to provide post-high school education for returning World War II (1939/1941-1945) veteran soldiers and officers known as the Veterans Institute and was the inspiration of Harry Bard, its later dominant president and alumnus of the BCC. It was also one of the earliest examples of the growing "junior college" (also with some known as "city colleges" especially in California) an educational advancement  movement which had roots in several early public high schools /secondary schools and small colleges and institutes in the post-Civil War (1861–1865) era and regained popularity at the beginning of the 20th century and has resulted in the growth of present-day "community colleges" in numerous cities/towns and counties all across America. This new type of college comprising the first two years of freshmen and sophomores with awarding an associate's instead of a bachelor's degree/diploma, was designed to serve and meet the academic and especially vocational and trade/job training of the intermediate needs between the high schools and large colleges and universities.

The BJC for its first decade of the late 1940s and 1950s was located on the third floor of the Baltimore City College, third oldest public high school in America located at 33rd Street and The Alameda in the northeast city in its landmark 1926–1928 "Castle on the Hill" massive stone structure of Collegiate Gothic style architecture surmounted by a distinctive 150 feet high tower. The symbolic gray stone tower besides providing a sight-seeing observation level of the surrounding residential neighborhoods and five mile distant downtown skyline and harbor to the south, also coincidentally housed the first studio and transmitting antenna for the school's public radio radio station WBJC-FM broadcasting programs across the metro area. BCC (also known as "City"), was a specialized academic magnet secondary school for the arts, humanities and social sciences, and had acquired its distinctive name as a result of its late 19th century curriculum of 5 and 6 years encompassing an early program combining both high school and early college education.

By 1959, the Baltimore Junior College had outgrown its sharing of the BCC "castle" and campus on 33rd Street and  had relocated to a park-like campus of its own in the northwest city along Liberty Heights Avenue nearby the newly constructed huge popular Mondawmin Mall which both had replaced the former George Brown estate and mansion, one of the last  open spaces in northwestern Baltimore. Around the same time, BJC was separated from the Baltimore City Public Schools and became a distinct entity of the City of Baltimore municipal government structure and with an independent president of the Junior College who was not also the principal of the Baltimore City College (high school) such as previously Chester H. Katzenkamp. In 1967, the name of the school was changed as the title of "Baltimore Junior College" was dropped and was renamed as the "Community College of Baltimore" (CCB) in order to not be confused with the older City College, now exclusively a secondary school and acquire the new name increasingly being used across the nation by similar growing numbers of institutions known for several decades as junior colleges or city colleges but now as Community College. By the middle of the 1970s, Harry Bard's ideal of a second additional campus on a tight city block in a high-rise tower in the envisioning of a revitalized downtown surrounding the  former "Basin" of the Northwest Branch of the Patapsco River and Baltimore Harbor and Port facilities which were gradually moving further downstream along shores with greater spaces and anchorage depths. This industrial movement left the basin with its piers, docks, warehouses, cranes etc. of port facilities more unused and declining which were adjacent to center city skyscrapers, office buildings and commercial businesses along the streets. The newly renamed Inner Harbor in the late 1950s was eventually added with Bard's dream of an educational institution closer to the residential areas of East and Southeast Baltimore and was realized later with the construction of two buildings along East Lombard Street by Market Place, to the north across East Pratt Street from Piers 5 and 6. These were later named the Bard and Lockwood Buildings.

On July 1, 1990, the Maryland General Assembly created a new public college, New Community College of Baltimore. It was renamed Baltimore City Community College in 1992.

In the 2000s, BCCC began to experience significant difficulties. Problems began to surface in 2004 when faculty held a public protest over issues related to remedial courses and governance. In 2010, faculty gave BCCC president Williams a vote of no-confidence and the state legislature held back funding. These troubles worsened in 2011. BCCC's regional accreditor, the Middle States Commission on Higher Education, placed BCCC on probation because of "concerns about the school's ability to evaluate student learning." To address these problems, Maryland governor Martin O'Malley replaced the majority of BCCC's board of trustees with new members.  In 2012, two years after the faculty's initial vote of no confidence, the board of trustees removed Carolane Williams as president of the college. The interim president was Dr Carolyn Hull Anderson, followed by president and CEO, Gordon F. May.

In the summer of 2014 BCCC was warned by the Middle States Commission that the college's accreditation was in jeopardy.  MSCHE reaffirmed its accreditation on June 25, 2015.

In 2015 NASA selected BCCC and four other higher education institutions to share in $6 million as part of its Minority University Research and Education Project (MUREP), an initiative that aims to provide educator training and expand science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) course offerings.

Campuses
BCCC has five major locations.

Liberty Heights Campus
The main campus of BCCC is on Liberty Heights Avenue, located west of The Maryland Zoo in Baltimore. In addition to classes and student services, the Liberty Main Campus provides services including childcare, a library, and a fitness center.

Downtown Harbor Campus
The Downtown Harbor campus is located on Market Place in the Inner Harbor. This campus holds the Business and Continuing Education division.

Reisterstown Plaza Campus
The Reisterstown Road Plaza Campus houses additional classroom space.

Life Sciences Institute
The Life Sciences Institute started in 1987, is one of the nation's oldest and foremost community college biotechnology training programs. In 2009, it was moved to one of the nation's top research campuses at University of Maryland's BioPark.

National Weatherization Training Center
There is also a National Weatherization Training Center is located in East Baltimore on East Preston Street. The center is one of only 26 U.S. Department of Energy National Weatherization Training Centers and the only one in Maryland.

Radio station
Since 1951, the college has operated WBJC radio station.  It is an FM, non-commercial, station at 91.5 MHz that broadcasts classical music and arts information programming nearly 24 hours daily all week. The station studios and office is located in northwest Baltimore, Maryland and the antenna is near the junction of I-695 and Reisterstown Road. The station's 50,000 watt signal reaches more than 180,000 listeners weekly across Maryland, Washington, DC and portions of the surrounding states.

Athletics
BCCC is a member of the Maryland Junior College Athletic Conference which belongs to Region XX (20) of the National Junior College Athletic Association.  BCCC athletes compete in men's and women's basketball, men's and women's cross country.

Granville T. Woods Scholars Program
Exclusive to BCCC students, the Granville T. Woods (GTW) Scholars Program awards select students with a full scholarship to pay for tuition, fees, and books. A state-of-the-art notebook computer is loaned to scholars to keep during their participation in the program. Upon completion, the computer is awarded to the graduates. During the summer, scholars are given the opportunity to study abroad and participate in internships.

The program is designed to attract and prepare high-achieving students primarily from Baltimore City Public Schools. Scholars who are selected for the program are expected to transfer to a four-year college or university to pursue, at a minimum, a bachelor's degree in any discipline. Once they graduate from BCCC, scholars may receive a full or partial scholarship to attend Morgan State University.

The purpose of the GTW program is to challenge students at a higher level and to create an environment of interdependence which should lead to greater successful outcomes.

Applicants must be residents of Baltimore City and have at least a 3.0 cumulative grade point average based on a 4.0 scale. Applicants should also have at least a combined total SAT score of 1000 (Math and Writing only) or at least a composite score of 21 on the ACT.

Notable alumni
 Wayne Clark (politician), member of the West Virginia House of Delegates for the 65th and 99th districts
 Leroy Loggins – Professional Basketball Player, Olympian
 Dave Johnson – Former Pitcher, Baltimore Orioles
 Kweisi Mfume – an American politician and the former President/CEO of the NAACP, as well as a five-term Democratic Congressman from Maryland's 7th congressional district, serving in the 100th through 104th Congress
 Moses Ingram – actor and writer, Emmy Award nominee
 Barry Levinson – screenwriter, Academy Award-winning film director, actor and producer of film and television
 Joan Carter Conway – politician who represents district 43 in the Maryland State Senate
 Robert W. Curran – member of the Baltimore City Council representing the Third Council District
 Carolyn J. Krysiak – politician who represented the 46th legislative district in the Maryland House of Delegates
 Elizabeth Habte Wold – an Ethiopian artist known for her mixed-media work.
 Johan Hegg – singer of the Swedish Melodic-Death metal band, Amon Amarth
 Bernard C. Young - Mayor of Baltimore

References

External links
Official site

Downtown Baltimore
Two-year colleges in the United States
Universities and colleges in Baltimore
Community and junior colleges in Maryland
Universities and colleges established in 1947
1947 establishments in Maryland
Baltimore City Community College alumni
NJCAA athletics

Baltimore City Community College


The Spirit of Houston was planned to be a 555-foot statue in Houston, Texas. The project was abandoned after the architect, Doug Michels, died. The planners felt that the city had an image problem in response to Houston not being chosen for the 2012 Olympics. The ambitious design was meant to be a multicolored reflective statue representing friendship, the origin of the name of the state of Texas. It would have been the largest statue in the world and twice the height of the Statue of Liberty.   Doug Michels is commonly known for being the architect behind Cadillac Ranch.

References

Culture of Houston
History of Houston

The Spirit of Houston


Fire () is a Pakistani Urdu-language film which stars Meera, Reema, Nirma, Saud (actor) and Moammar Rana.

Plot summary
Fire is a story about Momi (Zeeshan) who lives with his younger brother and mother. He works in an office and he has a very thick friendship with Noman Masood (Bilal) who works with him in the office. Momi's younger brother who is engaged to Noman's sister, studies in a college. One day he has a bet with his fiancée and he kisses the hand of Meera who also studies there. Meera feels insulted and she goes to her brother Saud who is the "badmash" of the film.

Saud takes his men and goes to Momi's house and kills his brother and sets his house on fire. And then he kills Noman's sister as well. Since Meera thinks that she was responsible for making Momi's brother kiss her hand, Momi and Noman tries to file case against Saud but Saud hires a police officer who that police officer files a fake case of terrorism against Momi and his mother. In the jail Momi meets lady police officer, Reema, who gets harsh with his mother and slaps his mother on her face. Momi gets mad and he by chance takes out revolver from Reema's belt and takes her to a deserted place.

On the other side Saud also gets Noman and tortures him and kills his sister in front of him. In return, Noman kidnaps Meera (Saud's sister). Momi and Noman decide on a meeting place and they take along Reema and Meera with them. Both of the protagonists run from there and take Reema and Meera with them. They reach a hilly area that is owned by a tribe. The son takes all four to the master of the tribe and there Momi and Noman tell their stories. Reema and Meera believe them and fall in love with them.

Cast
 Reema
 Moammar Rana
 Meera
 Nirma
 Noman Masood
 Saud
Raza

Accolades

External links

Fire Review

2000s Urdu-language films
Pakistani action films
2002 films
Pakistani films about revenge
Pakistani romance films

Fire (2002 film)


Squawks, or short wheezes, are brief, "squeaky" sounds; they are also referred to as squeaks. Their waveforms show a sinusoidal pattern with a duration 10 to 100 ms and a frequency between 200 and 800 Hz.

Many birds have made sounds which are onomatopoeically described as "squawk". Squawks have been described in bird fancier's disease and other forms of hypersensitivity pneumonitis.

In humans, squawks are also heard in a variety of conditions in which alveolitis is present. In one study they were found in 10% of patients with pneumonia.

References

Symptoms and signs: Respiratory system
Bird sounds
Onomatopoeia

Squawk (sound)


The University of Yangon (also Yangon University; , ; formerly Rangoon College, Rangoon University and Rangoon Arts and Sciences University), located in Kamayut, Yangon, is the oldest university in Myanmar's modern education system and the best known university in Myanmar. The university offers mainly undergraduate and postgraduate degrees (Bachelor's, Master's, Post-graduate Diploma, and Doctorate) programs in liberal arts, sciences and law. Full-time bachelor's degrees were not offered at the university's main campus after the student protests of 1996. The bachelor's degree was re-offered from 2014 on. Today degrees in Political Science are offered to undergraduate students, as well as postgraduate diplomas in areas such as social work and geology.

Initially most major universities in the country depended on Yangon University. Until 1958 when Mandalay University became an independent university, all institutions of higher education in Myanmar were under Yangon University. After the University Education Act of 1964, all professional colleges and institutes of the university such as the Institute of Medicine 1, Rangoon Institute of Technology and Yangon Institute of Economics became independent universities, leaving the Yangon University with liberal arts, sciences and law. In Myanmar, responsibility for higher education depends on various ministries. The University of Yangon depends from the Ministry of education.

Yangon University has been at the centre of civil discontent throughout its history. All three nationwide strikes against the British administration (1920, 1936 and 1938) began at Rangoon University. Leaders of the Burmese independence movement such as General Aung San, U Nu, Ne Win and U Thant are some of the notable alumni of the university. The tradition of student protest at the university continued in the post-colonial era—in 1962, 1974, 1988 and in 1996.

History
Established in 1878 as an affiliated college of the University of Calcutta, the Rangoon College was operated and managed by the Education Syndicate set up by the British colonial administration. The college was renamed Government College in 1904, and University College in 1920. Rangoon University was founded in 1920, when University College (Rangoon College - secular) and Judson College (Baptist-affiliated) were merged by the University of Rangoon Act. The American Baptist Mission decided to recognize Judson College (formerly Baptist College) as a separate institution within Rangoon University. Rangoon University modelled itself after University of Cambridge and University of Oxford. All subsequent institutions of higher learning founded by the British were placed under Rangoon University's administration: Mandalay College in Mandalay in 1925, Teachers Training College and Medical College in Yangon in 1930, and Agriculture College in Mandalay in 1938.

Although it was attended only by the elites of the day, the university was at the centre of the Burmese independence movement. Students protested against the British administration's control of the university and the Rangoon Act which placed the governor as chancellor of the University of Rangoon. All three nationwide strikes against the British colonial government (1920, 1936 and 1938) began at the university. National Day in fact commemorates the rebellion of Burmese students at Rangoon University in 1920. By the 1930s the university was the hotbed of Burmese nationalism, producing a number of future senior Burmese politicians, including General Aung San, U Nu, Ba Maw, Kyaw Nyein, Ba Swe, U Thant and Thein Pe Myint.

Rangoon University became one of the most prestigious universities in Southeast Asia and one of the top universities in Asia, attracting students from across the region. The Japanese occupied the university during the Second World War, but it recovered and flourished after Burma gained independence in 1948. This golden period ended in 1962.

After the military coup of 1962 under General Ne Win, and under the Burmese Way to Socialism, Rangoon University was put directly under the control of the Directorate of Higher Education, a central government agency, whereas previously it was run by a council of professors, scholars and government officials. In addition, the medium of instruction was changed to Burmese, a radical departure from English, which had been the university's medium of instruction since its founding. Educational standards began to decline markedly, and international bodies ceased to recognize degrees issued or obtained at the university. The university was also renamed the Rangoon Arts and Sciences University (abbreviated RASU), after certain departments and faculties (medicine, economics, education, etc.) were separated from the university in 1964.

Rangoon University students staged a peaceful demonstration and protest on campus against 'unjust university rules' on 7 July 1962. Ne Win sent his troops to disperse the students. Dozens of students were killed and the historic Rangoon University Student Union (RUSU) was reduced to rubble the next morning.

In November 1974 the former UN Secretary General U Thant died, and on the day of his funeral on 5 December 1974, Rangoon University students snatched his coffin on display at the Kyaikkasan Race Course, and erected a makeshift mausoleum on the grounds of the RUSU in protest against the government for not honouring their famous countryman with a state funeral. The military stormed the campus on 11 December killing some of the students, recovered the coffin, and buried U Thant at the foot of the Shwedagon Pagoda.

Student protests against protest against General Ne Win's socialist government culminated in 1988. Student protest in March 1988 was met with a violent response from the government. This did not stop the protests. On 8 August 1988, students around the country came together to protest against the military regime. The protest was supported by hundreds of thousands of people who went into the street in protest against the military rule. This is today remembered at the 8888 uprising. The movement was crushed by the army Chief of Staff General Saw Maung who took over and instated the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC or na wa ta). It is estimated that more than 300 students died in the protests. In the months and years that followed, many more were imprisoned.

In 1989, the military junta changed place names throughout Myanmar; the university was renamed the University of Yangon. The university was closed for most of the 1990s, because of fears of a repeat of the 8888 Uprising. To prevent students from congregating, the government dispersed the existing institutions and departments that made up Yangon University into separate learning institutions scattered throughout the city. Till 2013 only graduate studies, certain professional courses, and a few diploma courses were conducted at the university's main campus. Newer universities such as Dagon University, University of East Yangon and University of West Yangon were created to cater for undergraduates.

Yangon University celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in a week-long celebration, which began on 1 December 1995. The Jubilee marked the school's formal establishment of 75 years. For its commemoration, the government built the Diamond Jubilee Hall, a four-storied building in the university's grounds, which cost Ks.63,00,00,000. A new set of postage stamps was also produced. Once-affiliated institutes and departments (e.g., the Institute of Economics, Yangon which began life as a department at Yangon University), which had already separated, also celebrated.

The transition to a new government in 2011 Myanmar was followed by a renewed focus on education. In 2013, Aung San Suu Kyi was named head of the Yangon University Upgrading and Restoration Committee. In December 2013, the university re-opened for undergraduate students. Initially only 50 undergraduate students were accepted. A controversial National Education Law was enacted in 2014. Under the law the university is managed by the Ministry of Education, who also appoints the university rector.

Campus

Yangon University is located in Yangon, along the southwestern bank of Inya Lake, the largest lake in the city. It is on the corner of Pyay Road and University Avenue Road in Kamayut Township, north of downtown Yangon. The modern campus of Yangon University completed construction in 1920. There are two campuses, namely Main Campus and Hlaing Campus, the former being the most well-known. Judson Church, inside the main campus of the university, is a Baptist church, and like Judson College, named after Adoniram Judson, a 19th-century American missionary who compiled the first Burmese-English dictionary. The main campus also contains a convocation hall.

Housing
The accommodation in Burma is not mixed and the availability is limited. Women's halls have many limited rules whilst men's a few.

Other important buildings
 Arts Building
 Convocation Hall
 Judson Church
 Recreation Centre
 Science Building
 Universities' Central Library
 Universities' Dhamma Hall
 Universities' Sanatorium
 University Diamond Jubilee Hall
 Universities' Hospital
 University of Yangon Library
 University Post Office
 Painters' House

Main Departments
Department of Anthropology
Department of Archaeology
Department of Botany
Department of Chemistry
Department of Computer Studies
Department of English
Department of Geography
Department of Geology
Department of History
Department of Industrial Chemistry
Department of International Relations
Department of Law
Department of Library and Information Studies
Department of Mathematics
Department of Myanmar
Department of Oriental Studies
Department of Philosophy
Department of Physics
Department of Psychology
Department of Zoology.
Department of Biology
Each department offers an undergraduate degree programme. The Department of International Relations offers two: the Bachelor of Arts (international relations) and the Bachelor of Arts (political science).

Programmes
Yangon University offers undergraduate and postgraduate degree programmes. The undergraduate programmes are subdivided into three categories: Arts (B.A.), Sciences (B.Sc.), and Law(LL.B). The choice of different fields of learning takes place in upper secondary school where students choose particular subjects directed towards their tertiary education. Postgraduate degrees are separated into three groups: Doctorates, Master's, and diplomas. Although YU no longer offered the undergraduate degrees owing to the uprising in 1996, it now was reopened for the undergraduate degrees with the name of (COE) what literally means Center of Excellence in 2014 and accepted only 50 selectively excellent students for each field of studies. (Although undergraduate and postgraduate programmes are still available to current days, the recognition of status of international COE of the university has been discontinued.)

Notable alumni

Academia
 Benjamin Peary Pal: the first Director of Indian Council of Agricultural Research and one of the foremost scientists in Wheat genetics and breeding.
 Hla Pe: Linguist, Professor of Burmese language and culture at the University of London (1966– 1980) and one of the compilers of a Burmese-English dictionary
 Hla Myint: Economist and one of the pioneers of development economics
 Htin Aung: one of the founding fathers of the Association of Southeast Asian Institutions of Higher Learning (ASAIHL)
 Mi Mi Khaing: Scholar and Writer
 Muhammad Siddiq Khan: Bangladeshi librarian, and the founder of Department of Library Science of  the University of Dhaka
 Nanda Thein Zan : Writer of texts on philosophy and Buddhism
 Sao Saimong: Scholar and linguist, well known for reformed Shan script
 Sein Tu: Psychologist
 Pessie Madan: Indian leader of the high-technology research and development sector
 Pe Maung Tin: Scholar on Pali and Buddhism
 Pho Kyar: Novelist and education reformist
 Ronald Findlay: Ragnar Nurkse Professor of Economics at Columbia University.
 Sir Taw Sein Ko (1864–1930): Burma's first recorded archaeologist and an interlocutor between King Thibaw and the British administration
 Than Tun: Historian
 Thaw Kaung: Librarian and a well-known expert in Asian library science
 U Myint: Economist
 U Nyun: Economist and Executive Secretary of United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific from 1959 – 1973
 Kyaw Thet: Historian
 Winston Set Aung : Economist and Deputy Governor of the Central Bank of Myanmar
 Yin Yin Nwe: Geologist and Myanmar's Chief Education Adviser to Myanmar President Thein Sein
 Yoshio Nishi: Japanese scholar of Tibeto-Burman linguistics

Arts and literature
 Ba Gale: Cartoonist
 Kyi Aye : Burmese psychiatrist, poet, novelist, and short story writer
 Collegian Ne Win: Film actor and footballer
 Khin Myo Chit: Writer and journalist
 Kyi Soe Tun: Film director
 Than E : Singer
 Ludu Daw Amar:  Leader of the Rangoon University students strike of 1936, writer and journalist
 Min Thu Wun:Mon-Burmese scholar and poet
 Mya Than Tint : Novelist, Translator
 Saya Zawgyi: Writer and part of the Khit-San literary movement (did not complete degree)
 Thein Pe Myint: Writer, journalist and secretary general of Communist Party of Burma
 Theippan Maung Wa: Writer and part of the Khit-San literary movement in the 1930s
 Maung Htin: Writer and part of Khit-San literary movement
 Myo Min (Ngwe Soe): Writer and part of Khit-San literary movement
 Tin Maung: Film actor and director
 Wah Wah Win Shwe: Actress
 Nwe Yin Win: Singer
 Kyaw Thu: Actor and chairman of Free Funeral Service Society

Business
 Ezra Solomon:  US economist and Economic Adviser of US President Richard Nixon
 Khin Maung Aye: Chairman of CB Bank and Chairman of Myanmar Banks Association
 Lim Chin Tsong: A tycoon in the early 20th century and a member of the Legislative Council of Burma
 Michael Moe Myint: Founder of Myint & Associates and Myanmar Petroleum Resources Limited (MPRL)
 Zaw Zaw: Founder of Max Myanmar and vice president of Asian Football Confederation (AFC)

Politics and government
 Aung San: National independence figure of Burma and founder of the Armed forces of Myanmar, 5th Prime Minister of British Burma
 B. R. Ambedkar: one of the architects of the Indian Constitution
 Ba Cho: Minister of Information 1946–1947
 Ba Maw: Premier of Burma from 1937 to 1939 and Prime Minister 1943–1945 (during WWII)
 Ba Swe: 2nd Prime Minister of Burma
 Ba Win: Minister of Trade 1946–1947
 Khin Nyunt: Burmese spy chief and 9th Prime Minister of Burma
 Kyaw Nyein: Deputy Prime Minister of Burma from 1948 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1958, 1st Burmese Home Affairs Minister
Ma Saw Sa (Judson College), first Burmese woman physician, suffragist, member of parliament
 Maung Khin: 1st Burmese Chief Justice (1921–1924)
 Maung Maung: Chief justices of Burma, Attorney General of Burma, and 7th President of Burma
 Maung Maung Kha: Prime minister of Burma 1977–1988
 Ne Win: Chairman of Revolutionary Council, 4th President and 3rd Prime Minister of Burma
 Pe Khin: Chief architect of the Panglong Agreement
 Shawkat Ali Khan: a framer of the Constitution of Bangladesh
 Thakin Mya: Minister of Home Affairs 1946–1947
 U Nu: 1st Prime Minister of Burma
 U Razak: Minister of Education
 U Thant: the third Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1961 to 1971
 Usha Narayanan: First Lady of India from 1997 to 2002
 Win Maung: the third President of the Union of Burma
 Win Myint:  the tenth president of Myanmar

See also

References

External links

Educational institutions established in 1878
Universities and colleges in Yangon
Arts and Science universities in Myanmar
ASEAN University Network
1878 establishments in Burma

University of Yangon


Brites de Almeida, known as the Baker of Aljubarrota (), is a legendary figure and Portuguese heroine whose name is associated with the victory of the Portuguese, against Castilian forces, at the Battle of Aljubarrota in 1385. The battle resulted in a decisive victory for the Portuguese, putting an end to Castilian ambitions to take over the Portuguese throne.

The legend
Brites de Almeida is said to have been born in Faro, Algarve, in 1350, to poor parents. According to the legend she had six fingers on each hand.  After both of her parents died, she sold her few possessions and began to travel. There are many stories about her life after she left home in her twenties. One says that she became a muleteer and that she killed a suitor in a fight. Another that she was on a boat attacked by Algerian pirates who sold her as a slave to the Imperial Harem in Algiers, from which she escaped. It is also said that she travelled in Portugal disguised as a man. She ended up settling in Aljubarrota, where she became a bakery owner and married a local farmer. Her bread was supposed to be the best in the country.

After their defeat in the Battle of Aljubarrota, the Castilian soldiers in flight were attacked and killed by the local inhabitants.  According to the story, seven or eight of them found shelter at Brites' bakery, which was empty because she had gone out to help to kill the soldiers. On her return she found the door closed and suspected the presence of enemies. She found the men hiding in her baker's oven and killed them with a shovel. She then cooked them in the oven along with the bread.

Although it is undeniable that the story was a legend, Brites de Almeida came to be celebrated by the Portuguese in their songs and traditional stories and her deeds have remained as a symbol of Portugal's independence. She was commemorated in a 1927 Portuguese postage stamp.

References

Portuguese folklore
Medieval legends
Portuguese legends
People with polydactyly
Legendary Portuguese people
National symbols of Portugal
Bakers

Brites de Almeida