Magick, Liber ABA, Book 4 is a book by 20th-century occultist Aleister Crowley. It is

Magick is a lengthy treatise on ceremonial magic (which he anachronistically refers to as 'magick'), synthesised from many sources including yoga, Hermeticism, medieval grimoires, contemporary magical theories from writers like Eliphas Levi and Helena Blavatsky,  It consists of four parts: Mysticism, Magick (Elementary Theory), Magick in Theory and Practice, and ΘΕΛΗΜΑ—the Law (The Equinox of The Gods). It also includes numerous appendices presenting many rituals and explicatory papers.

Liber ABA refers to this work being a part of Crowley's system of magical works known as libri (Latin for 'books'). In most systems such as gematria where letters are given numerical value, ABA adds up to 4, a number which represents the Four Elements, Stability and so on (thus the name Book 4).

Background
In November 1911, Crowley carried out a ritual during which he reports being commanded to write Book 4 by a discarnate entity named "Abuldiz" (sometimes spelled "Ab-ul-diz") in Crowley's incomplete record of the working, which came around the time that Liber Legis was ready to be published in The Equinox Vol I, No. VII. The writing of Book 4 was duly accomplished with the aid of his seer Soror Virakam (Mary Desti) at a villa in Posillipo near Naples, Italy, and was published in the winter of 1912–1913 in The Equinox Vol I, No. VIII.

Abuldiz appeared in Mary Desti's visions (as Crowley's seer) as an old man with a long white beard, wearing a ring which contained a white feather. Abuldiz communicated that there was a book to be given to Fra. P. (Frater Perdurabo = Crowley). The name of the book was Aba, and its number 4. Another being called Jezel was also in the room where the visions of Abuldiz were seen - he was described as a black-headed 'Turk' or 'Egyptian' wearing a "tarbush" (Fez) and a red sash; one of his hands was covered with crocodile skin. (Crowley comments in the text that Soror Virakam recognized the human counterparty of Jezel as Elias Pasha, the father of Veli Bey, a Turkish man whom Mary Desti married after she divorced Solomon Sturges.

Much of the book was dictated by Crowley to his principal A∴A∴ students of the time, who would also ask questions to get clarification. The principal collaborators were Soror Virakam (Mary Desti or D'Este 1871-1931; mother of Preston Sturges and companion of Isadora Duncan), Leila Waddell (1880-1932; also known as Laylah and Soror Agatha), and Soror Rhodon (Mary Butts, 1890-1937), all of whom were given coauthorship credit. The book was also dedicated to Soror Ouarda (Rose Edith Crowley, 1874-1932); Frater Per Ardua (Maj.-Gen. John Frederick Charles Fuller, 1878-1966); Soror Alostrael (Leah Hirsig, 1883-1951) and Frater Volo Intelligere (Gerald Yorke, 1901-1983).

Contents

Part I: Mysticism
Part I is titled "Mysticism" with the sub-title "Meditation: The way of attainment of genius or Godhead considered as a development of the human brain." The section is essentially Crowley's system of yoga, which is designed to still the mind and enable single-pointed concentration. When developing his basic yogic program, Crowley borrowed heavily from many other yogis, such as Patanjali and Yajnavalkya, keeping their fundamental techniques while jettisoning much of the attendant moral dogma.

Yoga, as Crowley interprets it in this section, involves several key components. The first is Asana, which is the assumption (after eventual success) of any easy, steady and comfortable posture. Next is Pranayama, which is the control of breath, and Mantra yoga, which is the use of mantras. Yama and Niyama are the adopted moral or behavioural codes (of the adept's choosing) that will be least likely to excite the mind. Pratyahara is the stilling of the thoughts so that the mind becomes quiet. Dharana is the beginning of concentration, usually on a single shape, like a triangle, which eventually leads to Dhyana, the loss of distinction between object and subject, which can be described as the annihilation of the ego (or sense of a separate self). The final stage is Samādhi—Union with the All.

Part II: Magick (Elementary Theory)
Part II, "Magick (Elemental Theory)," deals with the accessories of ceremonial magick in detail. Subjects include: the temple, the magick circle, the altar, the scourge, dagger, and chain, the holy oil, the wand, cup, sword, pentacle, lamp, crown, robe, book, bell, lamen, and the Magick Fire (including the crucible and incense). This section also includes an "Interlude", which is a humorous exposition on the magical interpretations of popular nursery rhymes, such as Old Mother Hubbard and Little Bo Peep.

Part III: Magick in Theory and Practice
Part III is titled "Magick in Theory and Practice", and is perhaps the most influential section within Book 4. In this part, magick (with the terminal -k) is defined in Crowley's now famous "Introduction", which is the source of many well-known statements, such as
 "Magick is the Science and Art of causing Change to occur in conformity with Will."
 "Magick is the method of science and the aim of religion."
 "Every intentional act is a Magical act."
 "Magick is the Science of understanding oneself and one's conditions. It is the Art of applying that understanding in action."
 "Magick is merely to be and to do."

It contains many influential essays on various magical formulae, such as Tetragrammaton, Thelema, Agape, AUMGN, and iao. The section also addresses fundamental magical theorems, essential components of ritual, and general practices (e.g. banishing, consecration, invocation, and divination).

Part IV: ΘΕΛΗΜΑ—the Law
Part IV is titled "ΘΕΛΗΜΑ (Thelema)—the Law." This section deals with The Book of the Law, including the book itself, a brief biography of Crowley, the events leading up to its reception, and the conditions of the three days of its writing. This part is Crowley's 1936 book Equinox of the Gods only edited under a different name.

Appendices
The appendices include many rituals and practical essays on magical practice. The most recent volume includes a reading list, One Star in Sight (which lays out the program of his teaching Order, the A∴A∴), an essay on the Astral Plane, some key correspondences from Liber 777 (his work on The Tree of Life), many of the basic rituals of A∴A∴, and another exposition on the reception of Liber Legis.

Editions

See also
 Libri of Aleister Crowley
 List of magical terms and traditions
 List of works by Aleister Crowley

References

Ceremonial magic
Thelema
Thelemic texts
Works by Aleister Crowley

Magick (Book 4)


Rifa`i is a Sufi order founded in the 12th century.

Rifa'i or Rifai or  Refai or Refaie may also refer to:

People

Refai
Abdullah Al-Refai (1937–2005), Kuwaiti academic
Kassim Al-Refai (born 1967), Jordanian artist, specialising in the plastic arts
Khemais Refai (born 1960), Tunisian boxer
Nour El-Refai (born 1987), Swedish actress and comedian
Zed Al Refai (born 1966), Kuwaiti climber

Refaie
Mohamed Refaie (born 1990), Egyptian footballer

Rifai
 Abdelmunim al-Rifai (1917–1985), Palestinian-Jordanian diplomat
 Achmad Rifa'i (1786–1870), Indonesian thinker and writer
 Achmad Rifai (born 1984), Indonesian footballer
 Ahmed al-Rifa'i (1118–1182), Iraqi founder of the Rifa'i Sufi order
 Fadi Rifai, Lebanese actor
 Ghassan al-Rifai (born 1942), Syrian economist
 Khalil Al-Rifa'i (1927–2006), Iraqi actor
 Mohamad Afa Al Rifai  (born 1988), Syrian footballer
 Muhamad Aly Rifai (born 1973), Arab-American physician
 Mustafa El-Rifai (born 1934), Egyptian businessman and politician
 Nureddine Rifai (1899–1980), Jordanian politician
 Oliver Rifai (born 1993), Dutch footballer
 Rashid al-Rifai (1929–2009), Iraqi academic and administrator
 Samir al-Rifai (1901–1965), Jordanian politician and six-time prime minister of Jordan
 Samir Rifai (born 1966), Jordanian politician and Prime Minister of Jordan
 Taleb Rifai (born 1949), Jordanian administrator and executive
 Wael Al Rifai (born 1990), Syrian footballer
 Zaid al-Rifai (born 1936), Prime Minister of Jordan, 1973–1976, 1985–1989
 Ziad Rifai (1967–2009), Syrian actor

with middle name
Ahmed Refai Taha (1954–2016) or Refa'i Ahmed Taha Musa or Ahmed Refa'i Taha, alias Abu Yasser al-Masri, an Egyptian leader of a terrorist component of al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya

Places
 Al-Rifa'i District, in the Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq
 Al-Rifa'i Mosque, in Cairo, Egypt

Rifai (disambiguation)


"Turkey in a Can" is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the animated comedy series Bob's Burgers and the overall 50th episode, and is written by Lizzie Molyneux and Wendy Molyneux and directed by Boohwan Lim and Kyounghee Lim. It aired on Fox in the United States on November 24, 2013.

Plot
Bob is excited about a three-day brine recipe for the Thanksgiving turkey, but the holiday becomes complicated for a couple of reasons:
 1.) Tina keeps insisting to sit at the adults' table this year, to Bob and Linda's refusal.
 2.) Linda's sister, Gayle, is staying with the Belchers for the holiday and she's bringing her pet cats. Bob, who's allergic to cats, begins taking allergy medication to combat his allergies.
The next morning, Bob finds his turkey dumped in the toilet. Furious, Bob scolds everyone, but the family insist that none of them did it. Meanwhile, Gene tries to write a "Thanksgiving carol" and enlists his mom and aunt to help him sing it. In an attempt to be considered adult enough to sit at the adult's table, Tina begins dressing more maturely and using what she perceives to be sophisticated catch phrases on adult topics, such as the economy and current events. The next morning, Bob is horrified to find his second turkey in the toilet again and no one steps forward.

In order to do a one-day brine, Bob goes to purchase two turkeys, one to serve as a decoy for the turkey saboteur and one to be the real turkey. The butcher mistakes Bob's return as an excuse to see him. He tells Bob that he has a boyfriend, but tells him not to let his rejection discourage him, offering to set him up with his friend, who's into "sloppy bears." As Bob prepares the two turkeys, he describes his plan to Linda: the decoy turkey will be in the apartment fridge, but the real turkey will be hidden in the restaurant fridge. He swears her to secrecy, so that the turkey "terrorist" won't know. Bob also decides to hide in the kitchen, staying up late in order to catch the culprit, but falls asleep at midnight. The next morning, Bob finds both turkeys in the toilet. Bob is convinced Linda, the only other person to know of the two turkeys, is the saboteur, but Linda swears it was not her and the family reveals that Linda blabbed about the two turkeys, making all of them potential suspects once again.

Bob is determined not to let the culprit prevent him from cooking a turkey and purchases one more at the grocery store. The butcher once again mistakes this for Bob's affection toward him, and breaks down, stating that things with his boyfriend, Tony, haven't been good for a long time and that perhaps he is indeed ready for a change. He excitedly asks Bob where he wants to go for a date, but Bob, flustered, tells him that he's "straight...well, mostly straight" and not romantically interested in him, but that even if he was, the butcher is way out of his league. Bob runs away, saying that he probably won't see him tomorrow, but that he'll call him. Tina continues to try to win her way into the adults' table, while Bob successfully cooks the turkey in time for dinner. Before dinner starts, Gayle and Linda sing their sexually euphemistic Thanksgiving carol, but Bob, exhausted from staying up late, falls asleep and begins sleepwalking with the turkey. The family follows him, where he takes the turkey into the toilet, referring to the turkey as Tina, and trying to potty train it, causing it to fall into the toilet.

The mystery is then revealed: a side-effect of the cat allergy pills is sleepwalking. Bob's accrued anxieties over Tina growing up so quickly manifested as him taking the turkeys in his sleep, and trying to relive potty training Tina when she was an infant... just as he had potty trained all the kids when they were little. Tina assures her father that even though she's getting older, she'll always be his little girl, then the entire family hugs.

The following night, Bob begins sleepwalking again, this time reliving potty training when Gene was an infant, and putting one of Gayle's cats in the toilet.

Reception
Pilot Viruet of The A.V. Club gave the episode A−, saying "While the overarching turkey mystery is funny and creative, the best parts of "Turkey In A Can" are within the smaller stories, the throwaway conversations, and bits of character growth." Robert Ham of Paste gave the episode a 9.6 out of 10, saying "This episode is as close to a perfect as this show has come up this season. The family gets plenty of time to play off of one another, the jokes are quick and sharp, and it all wraps up not with some boring lesson being imparted by one character to another, but in some simple human truth about parents and their young kids. As well, it is evidence that strengthens the case that Bob's Burgers is the best sitcom on TV right now."

The episode received a 1.9 rating and was watched by a total of 4.08 million people. This made it the fourth most watched show on Animation Domination that night, losing to American Dad!, Family Guy and The Simpsons with 6.78 million.

References

External links

2013 American television episodes
Bob's Burgers (season 4) episodes
Thanksgiving television episodes

Turkey in a Can


Emmanuel Armah Kofi Buah (born 1966) is a Ghanaian politician who served in the government of Ghana as Minister of Energy and Petroleum in the John Mahama administration from 2013 to 2016. Buah, a member of the National Democratic Congress, is the Member of Parliament of Ellembelle constituency in the Western Region. He was the Deputy Minority Leader in the Parliament of Ghana after replacing James Klutse Avedzi.

Early life and education
Emmanuel Armah Kofi Buah hails from Atuabo in the Western Region. He holds a law degree from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology and a Master of Science degree in Management from the University of Maryland, University College in the United States.

Politics
Kofi Buah was nominated by President Atta Mills in 2009 to serve as deputy Minister of Energy. On 17 January 2013, Buah was named as Minister for Energy and Petroleum. He was succeeded by Hon. Boakye Agyarko in 2017 when the New Patriotic Party won the 2016 Presidential elections. He has been the member of parliament for the Ellembelle Constituency since 2009. He serves on the Trade, Industry and Tourism committee, Members Holding Offices of Profit committee,  Privileges committee and Committee of Selection committee.

Personal life
Buah has two children. He is a Christian.

He shared his insights on top three things that leaders do in an episode of Logistics with purpose. During this podcast he also shared his early life

He explained his father was a postmaster who died when he was only seven (7) years old. As father who was the sole breadwinner of the house left them with only the government bungalow they stayed until they were asked to evacuate the building.  His mother took on the responsibility to cater for their needs and make sure the did their homework despite being uneducated.  Hon. Buah exclaimed he never knew his mother was uneducated until he was much older since his mother was so concerned about their academic performances. The struggle his mother went through to ensure their needs were met inspired him on the path of success, it was his responsibility not to fail his mother.

See also
 List of Mahama government ministers

References

External links and sources
 Profile on Ghana government website

Living people
1966 births
Energy ministers of Ghana
National Democratic Congress (Ghana) politicians
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology alumni
University of Maryland Global Campus alumni
Ghanaian MPs 2021–2025
Ghanaian MPs 2009–2013
Ghanaian MPs 2013–2017
Ghanaian MPs 2017–2021
21st-century Ghanaian politicians

Emmanuel Armah Kofi Buah


Burshtyn () is a city located in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast, Ukraine. Its population is 14,976 (2020).

It was developed significantly during the Soviet Union period due to Burshtyn Coal Power Station. The city has an old Roman Catholic Church in the center of the city.

History
The first written mention of the settlement dates back to 1554 (or in 1436 according to other sources).

In the second half of the 16th century the town belonged to the Polish nobleman Skarbek. In October 1629, a famous battle took place near the town, in which the registered Cossacks and the Polish army under the command of Stefan Khmeletsky defeated the Tatar.  The attackers were driven further, in particular, to Monastyrysk, where their remains were again destroyed.

From 1630 the owner of Burshtyn was the magnate Yablonovsky. During the Middle Ages, the city was destroyed by raids by Tatars and Turks, in particular during the Polish-Turkish wars of the XVII century (1629, 1675).

References

Cities in Ukraine

Burshtyn


The so-called Stary Buyan Republic () was a short-lived separatist movement in the Samara Governorate of the Russian Empire during the Revolution of 1905.

Origins
The village of Novaya Tsarevshchina became the cradle of the revolt, as it had been infiltrated by social revolutionaries since the 1880s. Many of these people were to become the leaders of the future "republic." In 1902, the village teachers and doctor formed a peasant revolutionary club, which began to be especially active late in 1904. At about that time the revolutionary S.I. Akramovsky arrived in Samara, where he organized the "Peasants' Union."

Early in 1905 members of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party began arriving in the gubernia, and by the summer they had incited the peasantry to begin to rally and demonstrate. Towards autumn these manifestations had grown greatly in size, with the peasants even forming their own militia by the end of October. Soon similar demonstrations were taking place in the larger village of Stary Buyan, with slogans such as "Away with autocracy" (Russian: Долой самодержавие). The local police unit refused to restore order.

Revolt and independence
Early in November, the gubernia's authorities sent their representatives to Stary Buyan to select the new village elders. Instead of a routine ceremony, they were greeted by about 200 armed villagers from Novaya Tsarevshchina who called a village meeting. There the villagers voted to expel the Imperial representatives, form a "People's Militia" to guard the forests which were an important source of income, and set up a peasants' republic, effectively seceding from the Russian Empire. The new government set up a "Provisional Law" and began to confiscate land from landowners and distribute it evenly among the peasantry.

Crushing of the revolt and aftermath
The authorities in Samara finally decided to crush the fledgling republic. The early attempts of the police and guards to put down the revolt, however, were repulsed. The government then decided to dispatch a special punitive expedition of Cossacks and gendarmes led by the vice-governor of the gubernia to Stary Buyan. On 26 November 1905 the Stary Buyan Republic was crushed, and its leaders and active participants were arrested and sentenced. The effects of the rebellion were far-reaching, as the "Provisional Law" spread among the peasant communities of the Russian Empire and helped encourage further violence that we now know as the Russian Revolution of 1905.

References
History of Middle Povolzhye

Subdivisions of the Russian Empire
1905 Russian Revolution
States and territories established in 1905
States and territories disestablished in 1905
1905 in the Russian Empire
Samara Governorate
1905 establishments in the Russian Empire

Stary Buyan Republic


The Bantu peoples are an ethnolinguistic grouping of approximately 400 distinct native African ethnic groups who speak Bantu languages. The languages are native to 24 countries spread over a vast area from Central Africa to Southeast Africa and into Southern Africa. There are several hundred Bantu languages. Depending on the definition of "language" or "dialect", it is estimated that there are between 440 and 680 distinct languages. The total number of speakers is in the hundreds of millions, ranging at roughly 350 million in the mid-2010s (roughly 30% of the population of Africa, or roughly 5% of the total world population). About 60 million speakers (2015), divided into some 200 ethnic or tribal groups, are found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo alone.

The larger of the individual Bantu groups have populations of several million, e.g., the people of Rwanda and Burundi (25 million), the Baganda people of Uganda (5.5 million as of 2014), the Shona of Zimbabwe (17.6 million as of 2020), the Zulu of South Africa (14.2 million ), the Luba of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (28.8 million ), the Sukuma of Tanzania (10.2 million ), the Kikuyu of Kenya (8.1 million ), the Xhosa people of Southern Africa (9.6 million as of 2011), or the Pedi of South Africa (7 million as of 2018).

Etymology

Abantu is the Xhosa and Zulu word for people. It is the plural of the word 'umuntu', meaning 'person', and is based on the stem '--ntu', plus the plural prefix 'aba'.

In linguistics, the word Bantu, for the language families and its speakers, is an artificial term based on the reconstructed Proto-Bantu term for "people" or "humans". It was first introduced into modern academia (as Bâ-ntu) by Wilhelm Bleek in 1857 or 1858 and popularised in his Comparative Grammar of 1862. The name was said to be coined to represent the word for "people" in loosely reconstructed Proto-Bantu, from the plural noun class prefix *ba- categorizing "people", and the root *ntʊ̀ - "some (entity), any" (e.g. Xhosa umntu "person" abantu "people", Zulu  "person",  "people").

There is no native term for the people who speak Bantu languages because they are not an ethnic group. People speaking Bantu languages refer to their languages by ethnic endonyms, which did not have an indigenous concept prior to European contact for the larger ethnolinguistic phylum named by 19th-century European linguists. Bleek's coinage was inspired by the anthropological observation of groups self-identifying as "people" or "the true people". That is, idiomatically the reflexes of *bantʊ in the numerous languages often have connotations of personal character traits as encompassed under the values system of ubuntu, also known as hunhu in Chishona or botho in Sesotho, rather than just referring to all human beings.

The root in Proto-Bantu is reconstructed as *-ntʊ́. Versions of the word Bantu (that is, the root plus the class 2 noun class prefix *ba-) occur in all Bantu languages: for example, as  bantu in Kikongo, Kituba, Tshiluba and Kiluba; watu in Swahili; ŵanthu in Tumbuka; anthu in Chichewa; batu in Lingala; bato in Duala; abanto in Gusii; andũ in Kamba and Kikuyu; abantu in Kirundi, Lusoga, Zulu, Xhosa, Runyoro and Luganda; wandru in Shingazidja; abantru in Mpondo and Ndebele; bãthfu in Phuthi; bantfu in Swati and Bhaca; banhu in kisukuma; banu in Lala; vanhu in Shona and Tsonga; batho in Sesotho, Tswana and Sepedi; antu in Meru; andu in Embu; vandu in some Luhya dialects; vhathu in Venda and bhandu in Nyakyusa.

History

Origins and expansion

Bantu languages derive from the Proto-Bantu reconstructed language, estimated to have been spoken about 4,000 to 3,000 years ago in West/Central Africa (the area of modern-day Cameroon). They were supposedly spread across Central, East and Southern Africa in the so-called Bantu expansion, comparatively rapid dissemination taking roughly two millennia and dozens of human generations during the 1st millennium BC and the 1st millennium AD.

Bantu expansion

Scientists from the Institut Pasteur and the CNRS, together with a broad international consortium, retraced the migratory routes of the Bantu populations, which were previously a source of debate. The scientists used data from a vast genomic analysis of more than 2,000 samples taken from individuals in 57 populations throughout Sub-Saharan Africa to trace the Bantu expansion. During a wave of expansion that began 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, Bantu-speaking populations – some 310 million people as of 2023 – gradually left their original homeland of West-Central Africa and travelled to the eastern and southern regions of the African continent.

During the Bantu expansion, Bantu-speaking peoples extirpated and displaced many earlier inhabitants, with only a few modern peoples such as Pygmy groups in Central Africa, the Hadza people in northern Tanzania, and various Khoisan populations across southern Africa remaining in existence into the era of European contact. Archaeological evidence attests to their presence in areas subsequently occupied by Bantu speakers. Researchers have demonstrated that the Khoisan of the Kalahari are remnants of a huge ancestral population that may have been the most populous group on the planet prior to the Bantu expansion.  Biochemist Stephan Schuster of Nanyang Technological University in Singapore and colleagues found that the Khoisan population began a drastic decline when the Bantu farmers spread through Africa 4,000 years ago. Bantu violence and racism toward Pygmy and Khoisan indigenous populations is still a frequent occurrence in modern times, according to UN reports.

Hypotheses of early Bantu expansion

Before the Bantu expansion had been definitively traced starting from their origins in the region between Cameroon and Nigeria, two main scenarios of the Bantu expansion were hypothesized: an early expansion to Central Africa and a single origin of the dispersal radiating from there, or an early separation into an eastward and a southward wave of dispersal, with one wave moving across the Congo Basin toward East Africa, and another moving south along the African coast and the Congo River system toward Angola.

Genetic analysis shows a significant clustered variation of genetic traits among Bantu language speakers by region, suggesting admixture from prior local populations. Bantu speakers of South Africa (Xhosa, Venda) showed substantial levels of the SAK and Western African Bantu AACs and low levels of the East African Bantu AAC (the latter is also present in Bantu speakers from the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda). The results indicate distinct East African Bantu migration into southern Africa and are consistent with linguistic and archeological evidence of East African Bantu migration from an area west of Lake Victoria and the incorporation of Khoekhoe ancestry into several of the Southeast Bantu populations ~1500 to 1000 years ago.

Bantu-speaking migrants would have also interacted with some Afro-Asiatic outlier groups in the southeast (mainly Cushitic), as well as Nilotic and Central Sudanic speaking groups.

According to the early-split scenario as hypothesized in the 1990s, the southward dispersal had reached the Congo rainforest by about 1500 BC and the southern savannas by 500 BC, while the eastward dispersal reached the Great Lakes by 1000 BC, expanding further from there as the rich environment supported dense populations. Possible movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region could have been more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, because of comparatively harsh farming conditions in areas farther from water. Recent archeological and linguistic evidence about population movements suggests that pioneering groups would have had reached parts of modern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa sometime prior to the 3rd century AD along the coast and the modern Northern Cape by AD 500.

Cattle terminology in use amongst the relatively few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests that the acquisition of cattle may have been from Central Sudanic, Kuliak and Cushitic-speaking neighbors. Linguistic evidence also indicates that the customs of milking cattle were also directly modeled from Cushitic cultures in the area. Cattle terminology in southern African Bantu languages differs from that found among more northerly Bantu-speaking peoples. One recent suggestion is that Cushitic speakers had moved south earlier and interacted with the most northerly of Khoisan speakers who acquired cattle from them and that the earliest arriving Bantu speakers, in turn, got their initial cattle from Cushitic-influenced Khwe-speaking people. Under this hypothesis, larger later Bantu-speaking immigration subsequently displaced or assimilated that southernmost extension of the range of Cushitic speakers.

Based on dental evidence, Irish (2016) concluded: Proto-Bantu peoples may have originated in the western region of the Sahara, amid the Kiffian period at Gobero, and may have migrated southward, from the Sahara into various parts of West Africa (e.g., Benin, Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria, Togo), as a result of desertification of the Green Sahara in 7000 BCE. From Nigeria and Cameroon, agricultural Proto-Bantu peoples began to migrate, and amid migration, diverged into East Bantu peoples (e.g., Democratic Republic of Congo) and West Bantu peoples (e.g., Congo, Gabon) between 2500 BCE and 1200 BCE. Irish (2016) also views Igbo people and Yoruba people as being possibly back-migrated Bantu peoples.

Later history

Between the 9th and 15th centuries, Bantu-speaking states began to emerge in the Great Lakes region and in the savanna south of the Central African rainforests. The Monomotapa kings built the Great Zimbabwe complex, a civilisation ancestral to the Shona people. Comparable sites in Southern Africa include Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique.

From the 12th century onward, the processes of state formation amongst Bantu peoples increased in frequency. This was the result of several factors such as a denser population (which led to more specialized divisions of labor, including military power while making emigration more difficult); technological developments in economic activity; and new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualisation of royalty as the source of national strength and health. Examples of such Bantu states include: the Kingdom of Kongo, Anziku Kingdom, Kingdom of Ndongo, the Kingdom of Matamba the Kuba Kingdom, the Lunda Empire, the Luba Empire, Barotse Empire, Kazembe Kingdom, Mbunda Kingdom, Yeke Kingdom, Kasanje Kingdom, Empire of Kitara, Butooro, Bunyoro, Buganda, Busoga, Rwanda, Burundi, Ankole, the Kingdom of Mpororo, the Kingdom of Igara, the Kingdom of Kooki, the Kingdom of Karagwe, Swahili city states, the Mutapa Empire, the Zulu Kingdom, the Ndebele Kingdom, Mthethwa Empire, Tswana city states, Mapungubwe, Kingdom of Eswatini, the Kingdom of Butua, Maravi, Danamombe, Khami, Naletale, Kingdom of Zimbabwe   and the Rozwi Empire.

On the coastal section of East Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, Zanzibar being an important part of the Indian Ocean slave trade. The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Zanzibar, Kenya, and Tanzania – a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast – the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loanwords as a result of these interactions. The Bantu migrations, and centuries later the Indian Ocean slave trade, brought Bantu influence to Madagascar, the Malagasy people showing Bantu admixture, and their Malagasy language Bantu loans. Toward the 18th and 19th centuries, the flow of Zanj slaves from Southeast Africa increased with the rise of the Sultanate of Zanzibar. With the arrival of European colonialists, the Zanzibar Sultanate came into direct trade conflict and competition with Portuguese and other Europeans along the Swahili Coast, leading eventually to the fall of the Sultanate and the end of slave trading on the Swahili Coast in the mid-20th century.

According to the corpus of documents on the mission that the resident magistrate and civil commissioner of Namaqualand, Louis Anthing, undertook in 1862 to investigate reports of massacres of San bands in Bushmanland, Bantu and mixed-Bantu groups such as the Baster, Griqua, and Khoi had heavy involvement in the destruction of the San hunter-gatherer bands in the 19th century. The case study of Louis Anthing's mission to Bushmanland proves that there was indeed genocide in Bushmanland in the second half of the nineteenth century and an engagement with archival sources is essential to grasp the tragedy of the San in all its complexity.

Bantu violence and racism toward Pygmy and Khoisan indigenous populations are still prevalent in the 21st century, according to UN reports.  The pygmy population has been a target of the Bantu, especially during the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the Congo war. Of the 30,000 Pygmies in Rwanda, an estimated 10,000 were killed and another 10,000 were displaced. They have been described as "forgotten victims" of the genocide. From the end of 2002 through January 2003 around 60,000 Pygmy civilians and 10,000 combatants were killed and often cannibalized by Bantu populations in an extermination campaign known as "Effacer le tableau" during the Second Congo War. Systematic rape of Pygmy women as an act of genocide by Bantu men was widespread, according to reports by the NGO Observatoire congolais des droits de l'homme (OCDH). According to the report, significant numbers of indigenous women were the victims of rape by Bantu men. As an example, it cited the village of Ngoua 2, some 200 km outside of Dolisie, capital of the southern department of Niari, where on average a Bantu man raped one indigenous woman each week. Human rights activists have made demands for these actions to be recognized as genocide.

List of Bantu groups by country

Use in South Africa

In the 1920s, relatively liberal South Africans, missionaries, and the native African intelligentsia began to use the term "Bantu" in preference to "Native". After World War II, the National Party governments adopted that usage officially, while the growing African nationalist movement and its liberal allies turned to the term "African" instead, so that "Bantu" became identified with the policies of apartheid. By the 1970s this so discredited "Bantu" as an ethnic-racial designation that the apartheid government switched to the term "Black" in its official racial categorizations, restricting it to Bantu-speaking Africans, at about the same time that the Black Consciousness Movement led by Steve Biko and others were defining "Black" to mean all non-European South Africans (Bantus, Khoisan, Coloureds and Indians). In modern South Africa, the word's connection to apartheid has become so discredited that it is only used in its original linguistic meaning.

Examples of South African usages of "Bantu" include:

 One of South Africa's politicians of recent times, General Bantubonke Harrington Holomisa (Bantubonke is a compound noun meaning "all the people"), is known as Bantu Holomisa.
 The South African apartheid governments originally gave the name "bantustans" to the eleven rural reserve areas intended for nominal independence to deny indigenous Bantu South Africans citizenship. "Bantustan" originally reflected an analogy to the various ethnic "-stans" of Western and Central Asia. Again association with apartheid discredited the term, and the South African government shifted to the politically appealing but historically deceptive term "ethnic homelands". Meanwhile, the anti-apartheid movement persisted in calling the areas bantustans, to drive home their political illegitimacy.
 The abstract noun ubuntu, humanity or humaneness, is derived regularly from the Nguni noun stem -ntu in Xhosa, Zulu and Ndebele. In Swati the stem is -ntfu and the noun is buntfu.
 In the Sotho–Tswana languages of Southern Africa, batho is the cognate term to Nguni abantu, illustrating that such cognates need not actually look like the -ntu root exactly. The early African National Congress had a newspaper called Abantu-Batho from 1912 to 1933, which carried columns written in English, Zulu, Sotho, and Xhosa.

See also

References

Bibliography
 Christopher Ehret, An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400, James Currey, London, 1998
 Christopher Ehret and Merrick Posnansky, eds., The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1982
 April A. Gordon and Donald L. Gordon, Understanding Contemporary Africa, Lynne Riener, London, 1996
 John M. Janzen, Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1992
 James L. Newman, The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1995. .
 Kevin Shillington, History of Africa, 3rd ed. St. Martin's Press, New York, 2005
 Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1990
 Jan Vansina, "New linguistic evidence on the expansion of Bantu", Journal of African History 36:173–195, 1995

External links

Bantu peoples


Adelbrecht was a speaking, interactive robot in the form of a ball, designed by Martin Spanjaard (born 1952 in Haarlem, Netherlands).

A first, simple version of Adelbrecht was presented in 1985.
Starting 1988, a second, more powerful version was developed. The successor was able to detect several different 'situations': rolling, bumping, being stuck, being petted etc. Moreover, Adelbrecht was now capable of displaying different states of nature: sleep or awake. Combined with variables nicknamed 'lust' and 'fatigue', the situations and states of nature enabled Adelbrecht to interact with, and respond to its immediate and past environment. In 1992 Adelbrecht received an honourable mentioning at the Prix Ars Electronica. Its last performance, planned at New Year's Eve 2000, never took place because of serious hardware failure. From then on, Spanjaard proclaimed Adelbrecht a 'dead robot'.

Etymology
The name "Adelbrecht" consists of two Middle Dutch words, Adel (Good) and Brecht (Nice). Modern versions of this name are Albert or Elbert.

See also
Robotic art

References

External links
 Article by Francisco van Jole in the Dutch magazine Blvd (1994)
 Article by Dirk van Weelden in Mediamatic
 Article about Atos Origin on the Dutch Wikipedia
 Ars Electronica Linz, Honorable mentioning  (1992)
 Page about Adelbrecht in the Catalogue of the NIMK (Netherlands Media Art Institute)
 Short bio of Martin Spanjaard at V2, Institute of the unstable media, the Netherlands
 Video registration at YouTube (3'40")

Individual robots
1985 robots
Robots of the Netherlands
Spherical orb robots

Adelbrecht


Delphin Strungk (or Strunck) (1600 or 1601 – 12 October 1694) was a German composer and organist associated with the North German school.

The first that is known of him is in 1630, when he became organist of the Marienkirche in Wolfenbüttel; this was followed by an appointment at the court in Celle from 1632 to 1637. In May 1637, he moved to Brunswick, where he was to remain until his death, to take up the post of organist of the St. Martini church; he also played at other local churches.

His surviving compositions include six pieces of church music for voices and instruments, now in the collection of the Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel and the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Preussischer Kulturbesitz. There are also surviving organ works; six chorale preludes and fantasias of a high quality survive in tablature, and are now in the collection of the Ratsbücherei, Lüneburg. These have been published in Die Orgel, II/12 (Lippstadt, 1960); Alte Meister des Orgelspiels, ed. K. Straube (Leipzig, 1904); Seasonal Chorale Preludes with Pedals I, ed. C. H. Trevor (London, 1963); and Corpus of Early Keyboard Music XXIII (1973).

His son Nicolaus Adam Strungk was an opera composer.

References
Gwilym Beechey, "Strungk [Strunck], Delphin", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 2007-06-08), http://www.grovemusic.com/
M. Seiffert: Zur Biographie Delphin Struncks, Archiv für Musikwissenschaft, II (1920)

Scores

1600s births
1694 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Musicians from Braunschweig
People from Brunswick-Lüneburg
German Baroque composers
German classical organists
Organists and composers in the North German tradition
German male organists
17th-century classical composers
German male classical composers
17th-century male musicians
Male classical organists

Delphin Strungk


Founder could mean:
 Entrepreneur, in the sense of one who founds (starts) a company
 Laminitis, a horse illness in which "foundering" is a common symptom
 Founder Group, China's second-largest personal computer vendor
 Founder effect, a biological idea used to explain genetics in a small isolated population

Founders could mean:
 Founding Fathers, often called the "Founders", people who are important in starting an institution
 Founding Fathers of the United States, the political leaders who participated in the American Revolution as leaders of the Patriots
 Founders, a race of beings in the fictional Star Trek universe

Founder


Vaalbara is the name of Earth's first supercontinent, in the Archaean era.

Vaalbara started to form about 3,600 million years ago (mya). It formed by about 3,100 mya and broke up by 2,500 mya. The name Vaalbara comes from the South African Kaapvaal craton and the West Australian Pilbara craton. These cratons were combined in the Vaalbara supercontinent.

South Africa's Kaapvaal craton and Western Australia's Pilbara craton are two of the best-preserved Archaean cratons on Earth. They have remarkably similar early Precambrian rocks. Identical radiometric ages of 3,470 ±2 mya have been got from rocky material thrown out by meteorite strikes. Similar structures from these two cratons have been dated between 3,500 to 2,700 mya. Similar greenstone belts are found at the edges of the Superior craton of Canada, and across the cratons of the former Gondwana and Laurasia continents.

Palaeomagnetic data from rocks in the cratons showed that at 3,870 mya the two cratons could have been part of the same supercontinent. Both the Pilbara and Kaapvaal cratons show extensional faults which were active about the same time during volcanism at the same time as the impact layers were formed.

Continental plates have periodically collided and assembled in periods of orogeny (mountain building) to form supercontinents. The cycle of supercontinent formation, breakup, dispersal and reformation by plate tectonics occurs every 450 million years or so.

Related pages
Supercontinent

References

Supercontinents
Archaean

Vaalbara


Marius Charl Joubert (born 10 July 1979 in Paarl, Western Cape) is a South African rugby union player who played as a centre for Stormers in Super Rugby. He has previously played for the Boland Cavaliers, Free State Cheetahs, ASM Clermont Auvergne and Western Province in the Currie Cup and the Stormers and the Cheetahs in Super Rugby. Joubert was educated at Paarl Gimnasium, alongside current Springboks and former Western Province and Stormers teammates De Wet Barry and Jean de Villiers. A few years later, the same school produced another current Springbok star in Schalk Burger.

Joubert started his career at the Boland Cavaliers where he played from 1999 to 2001 when he joined Western Province from 2002 to 2006. He made his debut for South Africa against New Zealand in 2001 and in that very game, picked up a serious knee injury. Despite several injury setbacks (one of which, a badly damaged shoulder, kept him out of the 2003 World Cup), Joubert continued to develop into a world-class centre.

He was a member of the 2004 Springbok squad that won the Tri-Nations. In the Boks' home match at Ellis Park in Johannesburg against the All Blacks, he became only the second Springbok in history (after Ray Mordt in 1981) to score a hat-trick of tries against the All Blacks. Joubert was also for a time South Africa's leading try scorer in Tri Nations play, with six tries, before being overtaken by Breyton Paulse.

During the 2006 Super 14 season. Joubert's form dipped dramatically due to several injury problems. Firstly he struggled with a back injury that kept him from playing in the Currie Cup. He then sustained a back injury that kept him out of the Currie Cup and the Springboks' year-end tour to Argentina, Wales and France. He returned to play for the Stormers in the Super 14, only to break his hand in their final fixture. On 11 September 2006, the Cheetahs announced that Joubert had signed for them for the upcoming 2007 season, thus ending Joubert's 5-year association with the Stormers and Western Province Rugby Union.

Joubert won the 2007 Currie Cup with the Free State Cheetahs and the 2010 French Championship with ASM Clermont Auvergne.

Joubert is 6'3"/1.91 m and weighs 202 lb/91.5 kg.

Honours
 2004 Tri-Nations winner (Springboks)
 2007 Currie Cup winner (Free State Cheetahs)
2010 French Champions: ASM Clermont Auvergne

References

External links

itsrugby.co.uk Profile

1979 births
Living people
Rugby union players from Paarl
Afrikaner people
Rugby union centres
South African rugby union players
South Africa international rugby union players
Cheetahs (rugby union) players
Free State Cheetahs players
ASM Clermont Auvergne players
Sharks (Currie Cup) players
Sharks (rugby union) players
Stormers players
Western Province (rugby union) players
Boland Cavaliers players
Alumni of Paarl Gimnasium
South African expatriate rugby union players

Marius Joubert


Charles Harrison (1830 – 11 May 1888) was a British businessman and Liberal politician.

He was the younger son of Benjamin Harrison of Liverpool and his wife, Hannah King of Stourbridge. Harrison entered business with Mr B Devey, a wharfinger at Stourport-on-Severn. Among the goods that were dealt with on the wharf were locally produced carpets of George Harris. On Harris's retirement Harrison purchased his carpet manufacturing business, and continued to actively run the company until shortly before his death.

Apart from his business activities, Harrison was a magistrate for Worcestershire and a member of the Stourport local board and a number of other institutions in the area. In 1874 he was invited to stand as Liberal candidate for the parliamentary borough of Bewdley in place of Augustus Anson who had retired from parliament. Harrison held the seat for the Liberals, defeating his Conservative opponent Stanley Leighton by 514 votes to 405. At the ensuing general election in 1880 Harrison was re-elected, defeating K E Webster by 598 votes to 530. However, Harrison was unseated on petition, and retired from parliamentary politics.

Harrison made his home at Areley Court, Areley Kings, near Stourport. He married Elizabeth Augusta Kempson of Edgbaston, Birmingham in 1858. He died at his home in May 1888 after a long illness.

References

External links

Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
1830 births
1888 deaths
UK MPs 1874–1880

Charles Harrison (Bewdley MP)


James Stewart "Jim" Thayer (born May 25, 1949) is an American author of thriller novels and an attorney. His first six novels were written under his full name, but since then his middle name is not used.

Early life
Thayer was born in Eugene, Oregon. His father was a farmer. He is a graduate of Washington State University where he was inducted into the honors fraternity Phi Beta Kappa. Subsequently he graduated from the University of Chicago Law School.

Career
He is a member of the Washington State Bar Association. He has also been a creative writing instructor at the University of Washington. He is a regular contributor to Author magazine.

Personal life
Thayer resides in Seattle, Washington. He is married and has two daughters, Alex and Annemarie. He also has two other brothers living in Seattle, Joe and John, and one sister, Connie.

Written works
 The Hess Cross,  Putnam, 1977
 The Stettin Secret,  Putnam, 1979
 The Earhart Betrayal,  Putnam, 1980
 Pursuit, Crown Publishers, 1986
 Ringer,  Crown Publishers, 1988
 S-Day: A Memoir of the Invasion of England,  St. Martin's Press, 1990
 White Star  Published in the (USA) by Simon & Schuster 1995 and also published by Macmillan (UK) in the same year in paperback
 Five Past Midnight,  Simon & Schuster, 1997
 Man of the Century,  Donald I. Fine Books, 1997
 Terminal Event,  Simon & Schuster, 1999
 Force 12,  Simon & Schuster, 2001
 The Gold Swan,  Simon & Schuster, 2003
 "Fatty and Duke", The Weekly Standard, 21 July 2006.
 The Boxer and the Poet: Something of a Romance, Black Lyon Publishing, March 2008
 House of Eight Orchids, Thomas & Mercer, 2016

References

 Anderson, Patrick. "What Goes Up", Washington Post, November 11, 2002, p. CO2.
 Callendar, Newgate. "Spies and Thrillers", New York Times Book Review, March 26, 1995, p. 27.

External links
  Official website
 Fantastic Fiction's page on Thayer

20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
Writers from Seattle
1949 births
Writers from Eugene, Oregon
Living people
Lawyers from Seattle
Lawyers from Eugene, Oregon
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Washington (state)
Novelists from Oregon

James Thayer (author)


The brown-headed thrush (Turdus chrysolaus), sometimes known as the brown thrush, is a species of bird in the family Turdidae.

This bird breeds in Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and Japan. It winters in the south, toward the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, Hainan and the northern Philippines. Its natural habitat is temperate forests.

It is 23–24 cm long and weighs around 64–90 g. The body color of the male and female is almost the same and black on the head and distinct bright orange feathers from chest to side of abdomen. The male has slaty-brown face and throat, shading through brown on hindcrown and neck to russet-tinged brown upperparts; chestnut-orange breast.

They prefer to live in bright needle-leaved forests with larches from flatlands to mountains.

References

Other websites

Thrushes
Birds of Japan

Brown-headed thrush


Borshchovychi (, ) is a village in Lviv Raion of Lviv Oblast in Ukraine. It belongs to Novyi Yarychiv settlement hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. First mentioned in 1442 in court documents of the nearby city of Lviv.

History

According to a 1564 census, the village was inhabited by 20 peasants and 3 innkeepers. Decimated by three successive Tartar raids in the 17th century, by 1665 the population dropped to merely 8 inhabitants. In 1721, the village was bought by Adam Mikołaj Sieniawski who intended to rebuild the village, however a severe famine in 1726 and 1727 forces him to cede the village to the mighty Potocki family in 1729. According to the 1765 census the village was inhabited by 64 families, there are numerous weavers shops, two distilleries, a brewery and an inn. Twenty years later the population of Barszczowice includes 108 peasants and 7 artisans.

Following the Partitions of Poland, the village along with the surrounding region became part of Austro-Hungarian Galicia. The 1820 census lists 127 houses in Barszczowice, including 15 in a nearby colony named Hołodówka and 7 in a colony named Chałupki. Around that time the village was acquired by Jan Maszkowski, a noted Polish painter, better known as the tutor of Juliusz Kossak, Artur Grottger and Henryk Rodakowski. His manor was often visited by some of the most notable Polish artists of the epoch.

On 12 July 1869 a train station of the Galician Railway of Archduke Charles Louis was opened in the village, bolstering its growth. Initially the village belonged to the Roman Catholic parish of Jaryczów with local Greek Catholics attending masses in nearby Pikułowice. However, in 1898 Zofia Siemieńska-Lewicka financed a construction of St. Mary's church, consecrated later the same year. According to the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census the village was inhabited by 2129 people, including 1705 Polish speakers, 424 Ukrainian speakers and 79 Jews. In the course of the brief Polish-Ukrainian War, the village was captured by Polish forces on 29 December 1918. Since then the village was part of Poland. In 1923 local Ukrainians built a small wooden Holy Trinity Church. Until 1928 the number of inhabitants rose to over 2400.

During World War II the village shared the history of nearby city of Lwów: it was first annexed by the Soviet Union as part of its pact with Nazi Germany, then captured by the Nazis during the Operation Barbarossa. Although far from Ukrainian-populated areas, the village was targeted by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army raids during the Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, which started an exodus of local inhabitants. In 1945 most remaining Poles are forcibly evicted and resettled further west, while the village was repopulated with Ukrainians.

After the war the village was annexed by the Soviet Union, renamed to its modern Ukrainian name and attached to the Ukrainian SSR. The church was confiscated by the communist authorities and turned into a branch of the Lviv Historical Museum. Since the dissolution of the USSR it is part of independent Ukraine. In the early 1990s the church was refurbished and donated to the Greek Catholic community.

Until 18 July 2020, Borshchovychi belonged to Pustomyty Raion. The raion was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Lviv Oblast to seven. The area of Pustomyty Raion was merged into Lviv Raion.

Notable people

Among the people born in the village are:
 Edmund Cieczkiewicz, Polish painter (born 1872)
 Jan Bukowski, Polish artist (born 1873)
 Stasiv Ostap, Ukrainian physicist (born 1903)
 Bohdan Stashynsky, Soviet assassin (born 1931)

References

Villages in Lviv Raion

Borshchovychi


Philipp II of Hanau-Lichtenberg (born 31 May 1462 in Hanau; died: 22 August 1504 in Babenhausen) ruled the County of Hanau-Lichtenberg from 1480 until his death.

Early life
Philipp II was born on 31 May 1462 between 21:00 and 22:00, as the second son of the Count Philipp I, the Elder of Hanau-Babenhausen and his wife, Anna of Lichtenberg. He was baptized three days after the birth, in the St. Mary's Church in Hanau. His godparents were Konrad Brelle, abbot of Selbold Abbey, Wenceslaus of Cleves and Meze of Gemmingen, the widow of Eber-hard Waißen.

His older brother, Johann, died young, so that Philipp succeeded his father as Count of Hanau-Babenhausen.

Family

Marriage and issue
He married on 9 September 1480 with Anna of Isenburg-Büdingen (d. 1522). A papal dispensation had been necessary for this marriage because they were related to each other in the fourth degree. They had the following children:
 Philipp III (18 October 1482 – 15 May 1538).
 Anna (1485 – 11 October 1559), a nun in the Marienborn Abbey
 Margaret (1486 – 6 August 1560 in Babenhausen), also nun in the Marienborn Abbey, interned for life at Babenhausen Castle, because of a "slip". She was buried in the St. Nikolaus church in Babenhausen.
 Ludwig (born: 5 October 1487 in Buchsweiler; died: 3 December 1553 in Willstätt; buried in the St. Adelphi church in Neuweiler), unmarried clergyman
 Maria (born: ; died: probably 1526), abbess of Klarenthal Abbey from 1512 to 1525
 Amalia (born: 7 June 1490 in Buchsweiler; died 11 March 1552 in Pfaffenhoffen; buried in the St. Adelphi church in Neuweiler), a nun
 Reinhard (born: 19 February 1494 in Klingenberg am Main; died in Buchsweiler; buried in the St. Adelphi in Neuweiler), joined the clergy

Ancestors

References
 M. Goltzené: Aus der Geschichte des Amtes Buchsweiler, in: Pay d'Alsace, vol. 111/112, p. 64 ff
 Hatstein, hand-written chronicle in the archives of the Hanauer Geschichtsverein
 E. Haug: Groß-Arnsburg bei Baerental, in: Wasgaublick, vol. 19, issue 10, 1991, p. 364-419.
 Bernhard Herzog: Chronicon Alsatiae. Elsasser Chronick unnd außführliche beschreibung des unteren Elsasses am Rheinstrom, Strasbourg, 1592
 J. G. Lehmann: Urkundliche Geschichte der Grafschaft Hanau-Lichtenberg im unteren Elsasse, two vols., 1862, reprinted: Pirmasens, 1970
 Eckhard Meise: Bernhard Hundeshagen - kein Denkmalschutz im Hanau des frühen 19. Jahrhunderts, in: Neues Magazin für Hanauische Geschichte, 2006, p. 3-62.
 Wilhelm Morhardt: Hanau alt's - in Ehren b'halt's - Die Grafen von Hanau-Lichtenberg in Geschichte und Geschichten = Babenhausen einst und jetzt, vol. 10, Babenhausen, 1984
 Reinhold Röhricht and Heinrich Meisner: Deutsche Pilgerreisen nach dem Heiligen Lande, Berlin, 1880
 Sebastian Scholz: Die Inschriften der Stadt Darmstadt und des Landkreises Darmstadt-Dieburg und Groß-Gerau = Die deutschen Inschriften vol. 49, series Mainze, vol. 6. ed. by Akademie der Wissenschaften Mainz, Wiesbaden, 1999
 Reinhard Suchier: Genealogie des Hanauer Grafenhauses, in: Festschrift des Hanauer Geschichtsvereins zu seiner fünfzigjährigen Jubelfeier am 27. August 1894, Hanau, 1894
 Georg Wittenberger: Stadtlexikon Babenhausen, Babenhausen, 1995
 Ernst J. Zimmermann: Hanau Stadt und Land, 3rd ed., Hanau 1919, reprinted: 1978

Footnotes

1462 births
1504 deaths
15th-century German people
Counts of Hanau-Lichtenberg

Philipp II, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg


Death Hawks is a Finnish psychedelic rock band formed in 2011.

History

Death Hawks was put together in the spring of 2010 to arrange and record songs by singer Teemu Markkula, but it soon metamorphosed into a solid band. Death Hawks played its first show with a complete lineup in April 2011.

Death Hawks' intense live shows, with their psychedelic meanderings, soon created an organic hype around the band. Death Hawks recorded their debut album "Death & Decay" in the summer of 2011 and it was released in February 2012 through Tampere-based GAEA records.
Death & Decay received generally good reviews and the music media noticed the new and young psychedelic rock band singing about dark subjects (usually addressed by heavier bands) combining e.g. blues and krautrock to a folkier songwriting with their psychedelic way.  Media started to talk about the band as a future Finnish music export name. Death & Decay reached number 10 on Finnish album charts.

After the record release the band continued to do shows with a more frequent pace touring all over Finland and from January 2013 on touring across Europe too. In January the band did a week long Swedish tour and some shows in The Netherlands. In April 2013 Death Hawks did a small Finnish tour with Graveyard (band) from Sweden and in May participated in Fullsteam Ahead Tour (organised together by Makia Clothing and Lapin Kulta) which featured selected Finnish bands touring with a steamboat in the Finnish archipelago. A document film was released from the tour.
In the winter and spring of 2013 Death Hawks also started the recording of their sophomore album.

The self-titled second album came out September 2013 from GAEA Records.  The album "Death Hawks" reached number 15 on Finnish album charts.
After some shows in Finland Death Hawks joined the German hard rock band Kadavar for their tour in Germany and Austria in October 2013. January 2014 Death Hawks did a short Scandinavian tour followed by two gigs in Oslo, Norway where the album "Death Hawks" was among the top 10 finalists nominated for Nordic Music Prize 2013 (an annual award for the Best Nordic Album Of The Year).
Death Hawks' second album got also nominated in Emma gala 2014 (the "Finnish Grammys") and it was chosen as the best album of 2013 by Soundi magazine.

In May 2014 the band did their first longer European tour including Sweden, Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Croatia. In summer they performed near every weekend playing the biggest festivals in Finland and also stopping by in Sweden and Russia.
October 2014 Death Hawks toured Germany and later that year performed in UK, Poland and France.

In the beginning of 2015 Death Hawks started to write new material for their third studio album. In April they had a brief break from studio work to play at Roadburn Festival in Netherlands. In May the band headed to Suomenlinna Studios with producer Janne Lastumäki and engineer Ilari Larjosto. By the end of the summer the album was ready to be sent to press. In that summer Death Hawks also did some shows in Finland, Germany and Sweden. On November 13, 2015 the album Sun Future Moon was released through Svart Records. In November and December the band also did a vast tour of Finland and a smaller tour in Norway. In Finland they toured with the experimental rock band Circle (band).

The year 2016 was all about playing shows and touring for Death Hawks. They played close to a hundred shows and did three wider tours that year. In March they did a Finnish tour and in April Death Hawks embarked on a month long European Tour called Cobra Run 2016. After that the band played a lot of summer festivals and in September they headed back to Central Europe and Scandinavia for a couple of weeks. The rest of the year Death Hawks continued playing shows and did a couple also with the Swedish Blues Pills.

The members of Death Hawks also had a previous band together in 2005-2007 called Genzale.
This band featured all of the members from Death Hawks plus a second guitarist Niko Matiskainen.
Genzale recorded one promotional album in 2006 which consisted of eight songs and was never released officially.

Discography

Albums
 Death & Decay (Gaea Records) (2012)
 Death Hawks (Gaea Records) (2013)
 Sun Future Moon (Svart Records) (2015)
 Psychic Harmony (Svart Records) (2019)

EP's and Singles
 Humanoids - single" (Digital single Gaea Records) (2013)
 Death Hawks / Kiki Pau - Split 7" (Promotional release by Music Finland) (2013)
 The song "Buddiman" by Death Hawks was released on Vähän multaa päälle compilation album (Fonal Records) (2012)

Band members
Current members
Teemu Markkula – vocals, guitar
Riku Pirttiniemi – bass, vocals
Tenho Mattila – keyboards, synthesizers, saxophone
Miikka Heikkinen – drums, percussion

References

External links
Death Hawks in Alt Agency & Management's roster
http://www.deathhawks.com/
Death Hawks in last.fm
Death Hawks album review on The Line Of Best Fit

Finnish rock music groups
Finnish musical quartets
2011 establishments in Finland

Death Hawks (band)


Tami Nichole Farrell (born October 5, 1984) is an American actress, TV host and beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss Oregon Teen USA 2003, Miss Teen USA 2003, and Miss California USA 2009.

Biography
Farrell is the daughter of a freight driver and a special education assistant. She suffers from Vasovagal syncope.

Farrell graduated from Phoenix High School in 2003. She has supported Sparrow Clubs USA and American Heart Association since she was a student, continuing her associations throughout her reigns as Miss Teen USA and Miss California USA.

After holding the Miss Teen USA title Farrell spent the summer of 2005 in New York City, attending the summer intensive program of the New York Conservatory for Dramatic Arts in New York City and then moved to Los Angeles, California to pursue a career in the entertainment industry.

Farrell has judged a number of state pageants, including Miss Washington USA 2006 and Miss California USA 2006.

Miss Teen USA 2003
Tami Farrell won her first title, Miss Oregon Teen USA in 2002 and went on to win the Miss Teen USA 2003 pageant in Palm Springs, California on August 12, 2003. She also won the Miss Congeniality award at the same pageant. Farrell was the third representative of Oregon to win the pageant.

As Miss Teen USA, Farrell represented the Miss Universe Organization. Her "sister" 2003 titleholders were Amelia Vega (Miss Universe, of the Dominican Republic) and Susie Castillo (Miss USA, of Massachusetts). She gave up her title to Shelley Hennig of Louisiana in Palm Springs on August 6, 2004.

Miss California USA 2009

In the summer of 2008, she won the title of Miss Malibu USA 2009 and competed at the 2009 Miss California USA Pageant where she finished as first runner up to the winner Carrie Prejean.

On June 10, 2009, she became Miss California USA 2009 after Prejean was sacked by Donald Trump. Prejean had created controversy by saying marriage should be reserved for a man and a woman during the interview portion of the Miss USA 2009 pageant.

When asked about the controversy in 2009, Farrell, who is a Christian, stated that she believes that marriage is between a man and a woman but added "I don't think that I have the right or anybody has a right to tell somebody who they can or can't love. And I think that this is a civil rights issue. And I think that the right thing to do is let the voters decide."

References

External links

Tami Farrell's Miss California USA profile

1984 births
Living people
People from Phoenix, Oregon
2003 beauty pageant contestants
21st-century Miss Teen USA delegates
Miss Teen USA winners

Tami Farrell


Wayne is an unincorporated community centered in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States, on the Main Line, a series of highly affluent Philadelphia suburbs located along the railroad tracks of the Pennsylvania Railroad and one of the wealthiest areas in the nation. While the center of Wayne is in Radnor Township, Wayne extends into both Tredyffrin Township in Chester County and Upper Merion Township in Montgomery County. The center of Wayne was designated the Downtown Wayne Historic District in 2012.  Considering the large area served by the Wayne post office, the community may extend slightly into Easttown Township, Chester County, as well.

The center of the Wayne business district is the intersection of Lancaster Avenue and Wayne Avenue, its main street. The historic Wayne station is located one block north of this intersection.  The Wayne business district also includes a post office, a cinema, a hotel, a library, the new Radnor Middle School, and several banks, stores, restaurants, cafes, bars and other commercial establishments. Other institutions and attractions in Wayne include the Wayne Hotel, Chanticleer Garden, and the Valley Forge Military Academy and College.

As of the 2020 U.S. Census, there is a Wayne census-designated place, entirely in Radnor Township.

History

Wayne's development began when a railroad stop called Cleaver's Landing was established.  It was renamed Wayne Station after General Anthony Wayne.  Parcels in the area totaling  were bought by banker J.H. Askin, where he built a mansion named "Louella" after his daughters Louisa and Ella. "Louella" was described as an 80-room stone building with a large porch overlooking manicured lawn. His and surrounding land were bought in 1880 by banker A.J. Drexel and newspaper editor G.W. Childs, to form a larger development they called Wayne Estate.  More homes and a hotel were then built. In a brochure from 1887 about their development they noted they had provided Wayne with "water, light and drainage — the three great conveniences of a large city — by the most approved modern methods." They described Wayne Estate as follows:

The suburban village known as Wayne, on the Pennsylvania Railroad, fourteen miles from Philadelphia, differs so much from the ordinary town allowed to grow up hap-hazard and to develop conveniences as population increases, that it is necessary, in describing it as it appears, to keep in mind some facts about its history.

Wayne is not an accidental aggregation of cottages; it is a town built by design, and provided at the start with all the conveniences to which residents of cities are accustomed and which they are so apt to miss and long for when they go into the country or even into the suburbs of a great city. The scheme of the town was well thought out and planned before any of the new cottages were built, and, as it was undertaken by liberal gentlemen of abundant means, no expense was spared in the preliminary municipal work.

The Chanticleer Garden, Downtown Wayne Historic District, North Wayne Historic District, Pennsylvania Railroad Station at Wayne, South Wayne Historic District and Wayne Hotel are all located on the National Register of Historic Places.

Geography
Wayne is located on the Main Line (the Paoli/Thorndale Line on SEPTA Regional Rail).  The central business district of Wayne is located at the intersection of Lancaster and Wayne Avenues in Radnor Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania.  The area served by the Wayne ZIP code (19087) is large and encompasses areas both in Radnor Township, Delaware County and in the neighboring adjacent municipalities of Upper Merion in Montgomery County and Tredyffrin in Chester County, including the communities of Radnor, Strafford, St. Davids, and Chesterbrook.

Transportation
St. Davids station, Wayne station, and Strafford station on the Paoli/Thorndale SEPTA Line are in Wayne.

Demographics

Since, prior to 2020 Wayne is neither an incorporated area nor a census-designated place, all the data was for the ZIP code 19087. As of the census of 2010, there were 32,225 people and 12,754 households residing in the community. The median age was 40.8. The racial makeup of the community was 85.5% White, 7.9% Asian and 5.3% African American, while 3.7% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. The median income for a household in the community was $118,801, and 5.1% of the population was below the poverty line.

Economy
Teleflex, Kenexa, and DLL Group (U.S.) are based in Wayne.

Education

Elementary and high school

Public schools

Pupils in the Radnor Township portion of Wayne attend schools in Radnor Township School District, while pupils in the Tredyffrin portion attend schools in Tredyffrin/Easttown School District. Those in the northeastern portion of the community in Upper Merion Township attend the Upper Merion Area School District.

Students in Radnor Township attend Radnor High School.  Students in Tredyffrin Township attend Conestoga High School. Students in Upper Merion Township attend Upper Merion Area High School.

Catholic schools

The St. Katharine of Siena School is a Catholic K-8 grade school located in downtown Wayne operated by the Archdiocese of Philadelphia. Catholic students who live in Radnor Township as well as other towns in the Delaware Valley may choose to attend Archbishop John Carroll High School, located in the nearby community of Radnor.

Private schools
Many private schools are also located nearby including the Quaker-affiliated Shipley School in Bryn Mawr, all-boys Haverford School in Haverford and all-girls Agnes Irwin School in Rosemont, all located east of Wayne.  Another private school, Episcopal Academy, opened in 2008 to the south in Newtown Square.

The Valley Forge Military Academy and College is also located in Wayne.

Post-secondary
Nearby post-secondary institutions include Villanova University, Cabrini University and Eastern University. Valley Forge Military Academy is also a junior college.

YSC Academy

The Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer opened its own private school called YSC Academy on September 3, 2013. The Wayne-based academy is designed for student-athletes the club aims to groom for professional soccer. The initial 32 pupils already had experience playing for one of the Union's academy and junior teams.

Notable people

Diane Meredith Belcher, concert organist, teacher, church musician
Robert Elmore, organist, composer, teacher
William Gilmore, Olympic rower
Mark Herzlich, football player
P.T. Ricci, lacrosse player
Kasie Hunt, journalist
Abbi Jacobson, comedian, writer, actress, illustrator and producer
Karl Kirchwey, poet
Daylin Leach, state senator for the 17th district
Ned Martin, sportscaster
Anna Moffo, opera singer
Lisa Raymond, tennis player
Rafael Robb, economist
Jerry Spinelli, author
Larri Thomas, actress and dancer
Thomas F. Wilson, actor
Harold Wright, clarinetist
Joshua Wurman, scientist
Eric Bazilian, musician

Points of interest

Chanticleer Garden
St. Davids Church
Wayne Hotel
Radnor Trail System
Anthony Wayne Theater - art deco-style movie theater
Eagle Village Shops
Farmer's Market
Downtown Wayne
Ardrossan Estate
Old Eagle School
Wayne Art Center, established in 1931
The Finley House

References

External links

The Suburban and Wayne Times
Chesterbrook retells the story of Wayne for the 20th century
On the History of Radnor Township and Wayne
Anthony Wayne Theatre

Philadelphia Main Line
Radnor Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Census-designated places in Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Unincorporated communities in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
Unincorporated communities in Chester County, Pennsylvania
Unincorporated communities in Pennsylvania

Wayne, Pennsylvania


The Liverpool  Blitz was the heavy and sustained bombing of the English city of Liverpool and its surrounding area, during the Second World War by the German Luftwaffe.

Liverpool was the most heavily bombed area of the country, outside London, due to the city having, along with Birkenhead, the largest port on the west coast and being of significant importance to the British war effort. Descriptions of damage were kept vague to hide information from the Germans, and downplayed in the newspapers for propaganda purposes; many Liverpudlians thus felt that their suffering was overlooked compared to other places. Around 4,000 people were killed in the Merseyside area during the Blitz. This death toll was second only to London, which suffered over 40,000 by the end of the war.

Liverpool, Bootle and the Wallasey Pool complex were strategically very important locations during the Second World War. The Port of Liverpool had for many years been the United Kingdom's main link with North America, and proved to be a key part in the British participation in the Battle of the Atlantic. As well as providing anchorage for naval ships from many nations, the port's quays and dockers handled over 90 per cent of all the war materiel brought into Britain from abroad with some 75 million tons passing through its  of quays. Liverpool was the eastern end of a Transatlantic chain of supplies from North America. Other industries were also heavily concentrated in Liverpool and across the Mersey in Birkenhead.

Preparations for war
The evacuation of children (Operation Pied Piper) at the start of the war, in September 1939, was a pre-emptive measure to save the population of urban or military areas from German aerial bombing. Between 1–6 September the evacuations, organised by Liverpool Corporation, saw 8,500 children, parents and teachers moved from the city to rural areas and small towns in Lancashire, Wales, Cheshire, Shrewsbury and Shropshire.

As months went by with no signs of an air-raid by the Luftwaffe, many parents brought their children back to Liverpool and, by January 1940, 40% of the evacuated children were back in the city.

Beginning of the Blitz
The first major air raid on Liverpool took place in August 1940, when 160 bombers attacked the city on the night of 28 August.

This assault continued over the next three nights, then regularly for the rest of the year. There were 50 raids on the city during this three-month period. Some of these were minor, comprising a few aircraft, and lasting a few minutes, with others comprising up to 300 aircraft and lasting over ten hours. On 18 September, 22 inmates at Walton Gaol were killed when high-explosive bombs demolished a wing of the prison.

28 November saw a heavy raid on the city, and the most serious single incident, when a hit on an air-raid shelter in Durning Road caused 166 fatalities. Winston Churchill described it as the "single worst incident of the war".

The air assault in 1940 came to a peak with the Christmas Blitz, a three-night bombardment from 20–22 December.

Christmas Blitz
A series of heavy raids took place in December 1940, referred to as the Christmas Blitz, when 365 people were killed between 20–22 December. The raids saw several instances of direct hits on air raid shelters; on 20 December, 42 people died when a shelter was hit, while another 40 died when a bomb struck railway arches on Bentinck Street, where local people were sheltering. On 21 December, another hit on a shelter which killed 74 people.

In her memoir Lime Street at Two, Helen Forrester described trying to get home from her job at Bootle during the Christmas Blitz:

The bombing decreased in severity after the new year.

May Blitz

May 1941 saw a renewal of the air assault on the region; a seven-night bombardment that devastated the city. The first bomb landed upon Seacombe, Wallasey, Wirral, at 22:15 on 1 May. The peak of the bombing occurred from 1–7 May 1941. It involved 681 Luftwaffe bombers; 2,315 high explosive bombs and 119 other explosives such as incendiaries were dropped. The raids put 69 out of 144 cargo berths out of action and inflicted 2,895 casualties.

Liverpool Cathedral was hit by a high explosive bomb which pierced the roof of the south-east transept before being deflected by an inner brick wall and exploding mid-air, damaging many stained glass windows. Another landed on the front steps without exploding but incendiaries destroyed equipment in the contractor's yard at the west end.

One incident on 3 May involved the , a ship carrying munitions which was berthed in the Huskisson Dock. Although its eventual explosion is often attributed to a burning barrage balloon, this fire was put out. However flames from dock sheds that had been bombed spread to the Malakand, and this fire could not be contained. Despite valiant efforts by the fire brigade to extinguish the flames, they spread to the ship's cargo of 1,000 tons of bombs, which exploded a few hours after the raid had ended. The entire Huskisson No. 2 dock and the surrounding quays were destroyed and four people were killed. The explosion was so violent that some pieces of the ship's hull plating were blasted into a park over  away. It took seventy-four hours for the fire to burn out.

The seven night bombardment resulted in over 6,500 homes being completely demolished by aerial bombing and a further 190,000 damaged leaving 70,000 people homeless. 500 roads were closed to traffic as well as railways and tram lines being destroyed. 700 water mains and 80 sewers were damaged alongside gas, electricity and telephone services.
9,000 workers from outside the city and 2,700 troops helped to remove debris from streets. On the night of the 3rd and 4th of May alone, 400 fires were attended to by the fire brigade.

Bootle, to the north of the city, suffered heavy damage and loss of life. One notable incident here was a direct hit on a Co-op air raid shelter on the corner of Ash Street and Stanley Road. The exact total of casualties is unclear, though dozens of bodies were recovered and placed in a temporary mortuary which itself was later destroyed by incendiaries with over 180 corpses inside.

The Times on 5 May 1941 carried the following report: "The Germans stated that Saturday night's attack on Liverpool was one of the heaviest ever made by their air force on Britain. Several hundred bombers had been used, visibility was good and docks and industrial works, storehouses and business centres, had been hit. In addition to many smaller fires, one conflagration, it was claimed, was greater than any hitherto observed during a night attack."

End of the Blitz
After the raids in May 1941, the German air assault diminished, as Hitler's attention turned towards attacking the Soviet Union.
The last German air raid on Liverpool took place on 10 January 1942, destroying several houses on Upper Stanhope Street. By a quirk of fate one of the houses destroyed was number 102, which had been the home of Alois Hitler, Jr, half brother of Adolf Hitler and the birthplace of Hitler's nephew, William Patrick Hitler. The house was never rebuilt and the whole site was eventually cleared of housing and grassed over.

By the end German bombs had killed 2,716 people in Liverpool, 442 people in Birkenhead, 409 people in Bootle and 332 people in Wallasey.

Aftermath

Today one of the most vivid symbols of the Liverpool Blitz is the burnt outer shell of St Luke's Church, located in the city centre, which was destroyed by an incendiary bomb on 5 May 1941. The church was gutted during the firebombing but remained standing and, in its prominent position in the city, was a stark reminder of what Liverpool and the surrounding area had endured. It eventually became a garden of remembrance to commemorate the thousands of local men, women and children who died as a result of the bombing of their city and region.

Other architectural casualties of the Blitz included the Custom House, Bluecoat Chambers, and Liverpool Museum. However, many buildings were restored after the War, while the Custom House was controversially demolished.

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in May 1941 said after visiting Liverpool and the surrounding area,
"I see the damage done by the enemy attacks, but I also see ... the spirit of an unconquered people."

Notable victims
 Mary Lawson, film and stage actress
 Francis William Lionel Collings Beaumont, heir to the Seigneur of Sark and RAF officer

See also

 History of Liverpool
 The Blitz

References

Notes

Citations

External links
History of Liverpool Blitz
St Luke's Bombed Out Church Official Website
Photographs
The May Blitz on YouTube
Liverpool Museums, further information
BBC website with further information
Additional information on the SS Malakand
Timeline
 Some details of the Liverpool blitz from first hand accounts and the reason why Edge Hill was a particular target.

Battle of Britain
Battle of the Atlantic
The Blitz
History of Liverpool
Liverpool
1940s in Liverpool
England in World War II

Liverpool Blitz


Usha Timothy is a veteran Bollywood playback singer. Referred to as a "Singer with a difference" She began her career in the film Himalay Ki Godmein (1965). She has sung 5,000 songs in multiple Indian languages such as Hindi, Malayalam, Punjabi, Bhojpuri and Marathi etc.

Early life
Usha Timothy was born in Nagpur, Maharashtra, India in a Christian family. Her father worked for the CBI. She was the youngest of the eleven siblings. Her elder brother, Madhusudan Timothy was inclined to music and often organized musical jalsas (gatherings) at home. Usha took her early musical lessons from Pt Laxman Prasad. She also learnt Tappas and Thumris from Nirmala Devi.

Career
Usha was discovered by Kalyanji Anandji. In 1956–57, a musical concert was held. It was called Kalyanji Anandji Night and prominent male singers like Mohammed Rafi, Manna Dey, Hemant Kumar, Mukesh performed songs composed by Kalyanji Anandji. The event was organized by Usha's father. Since there was no female singer to perform, Madhusudan suggested eight-year-old Usha's name to Kalyanji Anandji. She performed "Rasik Balma" from Chori Chori (1956) before the audience. Her performance pleased the audience as well as Kalyanji Anandji, who made her a part of their troupe. She did what was considered her first playback for them in Himalay Ki Godmein (1965). In that film, her duet with Mohammed Rafi "Tu Raat Khadi Thi Chhat Pe" was well received, but many thought it to be Asha Bhosle's voice. However, the first playback she gave was for a song in the 1962 film Durga Puja. Her major work was with Kalyanji Anandji for whom she sang many hit songs in the 1970s most of them duets with Mohammed Rafi.

In 1967, Laxmikant Pyarelal gave her two songs in the film Taqdeer. The songs were "Jab Jab Bahar Aayi" and "Papa Jaldi Aa Jana", both songs became popular. She was greatly inspired by Mohammed Rafi. She used to ask newcomers to follow the singing style of Rafi. She has also sung with Kishore Kumar in the song "Are Rafta Rafta Dekho Aankh Meri Ladi Hai".

Popular Songs
Some of her popular songs in Bollywood films include:
 "Natkhat Pare Hat Chhod" (Maharani Padmini) (1964)
 "Taqdeer Ne Kya Angdaai Li" (Sunehre Qadam) (1966)
 "Jab Jab Bahaar Aayi" (Taqdeer) (1967)
 "London Paris Ghoom Ke Dekhen" (Parivaar) (1968)
 "Dhol Baja Dhol Dhol Jaaniya" (Vishwas) (1969)
 "Honthon Pe Inkaar Thoda Thoda" (Raat Ke Andhere Mein) (1969)
 "Ae Sapnon Ke Raja" (Nateeja) (1969)
 "Jo Mama Mera Aayega" (Heer Ranjha) (1970)
 "Main Hoon Saamne Tu Mere Saamne" (Kaanch Aur Heera) (1972)
 "Are Rafta Rafta Dekho" (Kahani Kismat Ki) (1973)
 "Ho Bairi Saiyaan Ki Nazariya" (Uljhan) (1975)
 "Kali Kali Zulfon Mein" (Farishta Ya Qaatil) (1977)
 "Honolulu Se Aayi Hoon Main" (Khanjar) (1979)
 "Meri Jaan Tumse Mohabbat Hai" (Mera Salaam) (1980)
 "Ja Pori Ja" (Rahem Dil Jallad) (1985)

Collaborations

Kalyanji Anandji
Usha Timothy has sung over a hundred songs in her collaboration with Kalyanji Anandji. Kalyanji Anandji were the very first to trace Usha's musical talent, incidental in a musical soiree. Impressed, they aimed at  making her a prominent singer in Bollywood. They gave her "Tu Raat Khadi Thi" with Mohammed Rafi to sing in the 1965 film Himalay Ki Godmein starring Mala Sinha.. She was nervous singing with the legendary singer. The song proved to be a major hit and was a turning point of her career.  This, however, was not her debut work, she sang in a few films before it. Her major body of work is credited with Kalyanji Anandji. She has also worked with other composers like Bulo C Rani, Roshan, Hansraj Behl, S.N. Tripathi, S. Mohinder, Sardar Malik, Usha Khanna, Sonik-Omi, Babul, Lala Sattar and Jagdish Khanna.

Mohammed Rafi
Usha was a great fan of Mohammed Rafi since her childhood. She had grown up listening to Lata Mangeshkar and Mohammed Rafi songs. She recorded her first hit track "Tu Raat Khadi Thi" in Himalay Ki Godmein. The popularity of this song made them a successful pair. She has sung with other major playback singers including Mukesh, Kishore Kumar, Shamshad Begum, Suman Kalyanpur, Hemlata and Krishna Kalle. Remembering Shamshad Begum, she says, "Shamshad ji had a very attractive and loving personality. She used to treat me like her own Child. Her voice had that "Khanak" and openness which I have never seen in any other singer's. During recording, She used to say, Beta Dum (power) Ke Saath Gaao and I used to laugh, Shamshad ji aapke jaisi power to kisi ki voice mein nahin hai!". Usha Timothy was also a regular participant in the shows of C. Ramchandra also. She says, "I used to be part of his shows regularly. In fact, the famous Pradeep song, 'Aye Mere Watan Ke Logon' was initially sung as a duet by me with C. Ramchandra sahab for a show."

Filmography
List of Hindi films:
Durga Puja (1962)
Birju Uystad (1964)
Maharani Padmini (1964)
Char Chakram (1965)
Himalay Ki Godmein (1965)
Sati Nari (1965)
Sunehre Kadam (1966)
Veer Bajarang (1966)
Vidyarthi (1966)
Johar in Bombay (1967)
Mera Munna (1967)
Ram Rajya (1967)
Taqdeer (1967)
Fareb (1968)
Har Har Gange (1968)
Parivar (1968)
Apna Khoon Apna Dushman (1969)
Mahua (1969)
Nateeja (1969)
Raat Ke Andhere Mein (1969)
Vishwas (1969)
Gunahon Ke Raste (1970)
Heer Raanjha (1970)
Truck Driver (1970)
Khandan De Ohle (1970) [Punjabi]
Ek Din Aadhi Raat (1971)
Johar Mehmood in Hong Kong (1971)
Ladki Pasand Hai (1971)
Shri Krishna Leela (1971)
Kanch Aur Heera (1972)
Chattan Singh (1974)
Hamrahi (1974)
Aaja Sanam (1975)
Anokha (1975)
Do Thug (1975)
Jaan Hazir Hai (1975)
Uljhan (1975)
Zorro (1975)
Farishta Ya Qatil (1977)
Atithee (1978)
Besharam (1978)
Kal Subah (1978)
Nasbandi (1978)
Khanjar (1980)
Mera Salaam (1981)
Pyar Ke Rahi (1982)
Pyar Bada Nadan (1984)
Rahemdil Jallad (1985)
Sone Ka Pinjara (1986)
Saat Ladkiyaan (1989)
Aakhri Chetawani (1993)
Pardesi (1993)

Television reality shows
She appeared as a contestant in the third season of Rising Star and was eliminated in the fifth episode.

References

External links
 Official website

Living people
Bollywood playback singers
Indian women playback singers
Musicians from Nagpur
20th-century Indian singers
20th-century Indian women singers
Singers from Maharashtra
Women musicians from Maharashtra
21st-century Indian women singers
21st-century Indian singers
1948 births

Usha Timothy


The Battle of Yehuling, literally the Battle of Wild Fox Ridge, was a major decisive battle fought between the Mongol Empire and Jurchen-led Jin dynasty during the first stage of the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty. The battle was fought between August and October 1211 at Yehuling (野狐嶺; lit. "Wild Fox Ridge"), which is located northwest of present-day Wanquan District, Zhangjiakou, Hebei Province. The battle concluded with a total Mongol victory that allowed them to overrun and conquer the northern part of the Jin. It also hastened the weakening and decline of the Jin dynasty.

Background
In 1206, Temüjin had united all the tribes on the Mongolian Plateau under his rule and received the title "Genghis Khan". The Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in northern China became a major obstacle to the Mongol Empire's quest for world domination. In the past, the Jin dynasty had adopted a divide-and-rule strategy to break up the various Mongol tribes and keep them under control. However, after realising that this strategy no longer worked, they began to actively prepare for war with the aim of eliminating the Mongol threat in a single campaign. Starting in the reign of Emperor Zhangzong, the Jin dynasty had constructed a line of structural defences about 300 kilometres long along its northern border; this line is sometimes loosely referred to as the "Jin dynasty's Great Wall".

Earlier in 1204, Genghis Khan had subdued the Ongud, a Mongol tribe helping the Jin dynasty guard its northern border. At the same time, Genghis Khan also formed an alliance with the Ongud by marrying his daughter to the Ongud chief's son. The Mongols controlled the area north of the Yin Mountains and started stockpiling resources in preparation for a military campaign against the Jin dynasty. Moreover, the Mongols had also been actively luring and inducing some Jurchens to defect or surrender. The Jin emperor Xingsheng underestimated the Mongol threat and had been gradually neglecting the defences against the Mongols. He was also delusional in his belief that the Jin dynasty was far more powerful than the Mongols.

In 1210, Genghis Khan insulted Emperor Xingsheng of the Jin by publicly stating that he was cowardly and unfit to be a leader. He also added, "The emperor should be a man from the sky like me." When the Jin emperor received news of this, he was so enraged that he executed the Mongol ambassador. Tensions between the Mongols and Jin dynasty started to escalate. In March 1211, the Mongols rallied 100,000 troops for a campaign against the Jin dynasty, leaving behind only about 2,000 men to guard their base in Mongolia. This meant that well over 90% of the Mongol forces had been mobilized for the campaign. Before embarking, Genghis Khan prayed to the sky deity Tengri along the Kherlen River to bless the Mongols with victory, and made a symbolic vow to avenge his ancestor, Ambaghai, who was executed by crucifixion in 1146 at the order of Emperor Xizong of the Jin dynasty.

Prelude
The Mongol horse army led by Genghis Khan, with their preparations for war now complete, sped out towards the Great Wall by late March 1211, which was the border between the Mongol Empire and Jin China, finally beginning the Mongol war of conquest against the Jin. The Great Wall, backed up with numerous castles and towers, was defended by nearly a million Jin imperial soldiers which was composed of 800,000 infantry and 150,000 elite cavalry whom Emperor Xingsheng earlier sent as a defensive measure to counter the Mongol threat. The Jin general Wanyan Chenyu, sent by the Jin emperor under direct orders to stop and if possible crush the Mongol incursion, was the one leading the Jin army in the Great Wall.

Although the Jin imperial army outnumbered the invading Mongol forces nearly ten times its own, Wanyan Chenyu ordered them to be spread out throughout the Wall in an attempt to block the Mongol approach, meaning in any one place several sections and ramparts of the wall have only a few defenders on them. The Wall itself is not a continuous defensive wall but a system of fortifications with many walls not connected towards each other but are supported and reinforced by castles and fortresses. This is a fact that Genghis Khan recognized, having his scouts keep watch on much of the Wall before he could engage his forces. Having gained intelligence from his scouts, he thus recognized that the least defended portion of the Wall's defensive system was at the Wusha Fortress, which leads to a desert ridge called Yehuling, inhabited by wild foxes hence the name of the area which in Chinese literally means the "Wild Fox Ridge". The ridge of Yehuling is northwest of the Juyong Pass, which was the gateway towards the Jin capital of Zhongdu (中都, lit. "central capital"; present-day Beijing); it was also at the plain at the foot of the ridge that the main force of the Jin army, numbering 400,000 troops, was also encamped.

Campaign
The battle was fought in three stages between March and October 1211, as soon as the Mongol army went past through the Great Wall with little opposition.

Battle of Wusha Fortress
The Jin chancellor, Duji Sizhong (獨吉思忠), led the bulk of the Jin army to the northwestern frontline. The Jin could not match the numbers of Mongol horsemen, and had only 30,000–50,000 troops. The chancellor sent troops to reinforce the defenses along the Jin dynasty's Great Wall and prevent the Mongols from advancing further south. Genghis Khan ordered his third son, Ögedei to lead a separate force to attack the Jin western capital, Xijing (西京; present-day Datong, Shanxi), and block enemy reinforcements. The Khan himself led the main Mongol army to attack Wusha Fortress (烏沙堡) and capture Wuyue Camp (烏月營), thus destroying the Jin army's defence lines. Duji Sizhong was killed in action and most of the Jin army was wiped out. This battle took place between March and the end of June 1211. The Mongols then rested for about a month before moving towards Yehuling and sending an ambassador to meet the Jin imperial court.

Battle of Yehuling and Huan'erzui
Wanyan Chengyu (完顏承裕), who succeeded Duji Sizhong as chancellor, was put in charge of the Jin army. He ordered his men to abandon the three cities of Hengzhou (恆州; in present-day Zhenglan Banner, Inner Mongolia, Changzhou (昌州; north of present-day Jiuliancheng Town, Guyuan County, Hebei), Fuzhou (撫州; present-day Zhangbei County, Hebei), and move towards Yehuling. His aim was to make use of the mountainous terrain in Yehuling to obstruct the Mongol cavalry.

Mountainous terrain was a challenge for the Mongolian cavalry.  However it was also a difficult area to fight in for the bigger Jin forces. The vast Jin forces were scattered among the mountains and the valley choke points.  The difficult terrain and far distances made communication and coordination of troops difficult.  This would prove fatal for the Jin forces, when the Mongols executed a focused and concentrated attack.

The Jin imperial court sent Shimo Ming'an (石抹明安), an official of Khitan descent, to meet Genghis Khan and start peace negotiations. However, Genghis Khan managed to induce Shimo Ming'an to surrender and defect to his side. Shimo Ming'an even provided the Mongols with military intelligence about the Jin army.

Genghis Khan sent his general Muqali to lead the Balu Unit (八魯營) to launch a surprise cavalry charge on the enemy via a passage at Huan'erzui (獾兒嘴; lit. "Badger Mouth"). Before the battle, Muqali promised Genghis Khan, "I will not return alive if I do not defeat the Jin army!" The Mongol army's morale surged. Because of the mountainous terrain, the Mongols were unable to deploy their superior cavalry to its full advantage, hence they dismounted and fought on foot. High on morale, the Mongols defeated the central Jin forces and fought their way towards Wanyan Chengyu's main camp. Due to poor communications, the Jin forces on the sides were not able to reinforce the central Jin positions.

Eventually, the Jin army became disorganized, lost its morale, and started to break. The Jin army's field commander, Wanyan Jiujin (完顏九斤), was killed in action. With the collapse of the central Jin forces, the other Jin forces nearby soon routed and a massacre followed.  The entire Jin army was destroyed, leaving dead corpses for over a hundred miles. This battle took place in August 1211.

Battle of Huihe Fortress
Wanyan Chengyu managed to rally the scattered Jin forces after the Battle of Huan'erzui and Yehuling and gather at Huihe Fortress (澮河堡). However, they soon came under attack by pursuing Mongol forces around October 1211. The Mongols swiftly surrounded the Jin forces and engaged them in fierce battle for three days. Genghis Khan then personally led 3,000 horsemen on a cavalry charge towards the enemy while the remaining Mongol forces followed behind. The entire Jin army was destroyed while Wanyan Chengyu barely escaped alive. Wanyan Chengyu was replaced by Tushan Yi (徒單鎰) as chancellor.

Aftermath
After the battle, Emperor Xingsheng of the Jin was assassinated in the central capital, Zhongdu (中都; present-day Beijing), by one of his generals, Hushahu (胡沙虎), who then took control of the city. The Mongols pressed on and besieged Zhongdu for about four years. During the siege, the residents of Zhongdu were forced to resort to cannibalism to survive, before they finally decided to surrender. The Mongols allowed the Jin dynasty to retain control of Zhongdu but forced them to pay a tribute of 500 men, 500 women, and 3,000 horses. In the summer of 1212, Emperor Xuanzong of the Jin dynasty abandoned Zhongdu and relocated the capital to Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng, Henan) in the south.  This display of weakness and fear only encouraged the Mongols to continue their attack to conquer the rest of Jin.

The forces of the Jin dynasty were defeated in detail in the Yehuling Campaign. Roughly ten Jin cities were plundered by the Mongols. While the Jin dynasty managed to retain power for the next two decades or so, its core was severely weakened. In spite of the defeat, the Jin dynasty prioritised conquering the Southern Song dynasty in southern China over defending its borders against future Mongol incursions and invasions. This led to increasing enmity between the Southern Song dynasty and the Jin dynasty. Eventually, the Southern Song dynasty allied with the Mongols against the Jin dynasty and destroyed the latter in 1234.

References

Mongol conquest of Jin China
Battles involving the Mongol Empire
Conflicts in 1211
1211 in the Mongol Empire
History of Zhangjiakou

Battle of Yehuling