Far-left politics, also known as the radical left or extreme left, are politics further to the left on the left–right political spectrum than the standard political left. The term does not have a single, coherent definition; some scholars consider it to represent the left of social democracy, while others limit it to the left of communist parties. In certain instances—especially in the news media—far left has been associated with some forms of authoritarianism, anarchism, communism, and Marxism, or are characterized as groups that advocate for revolutionary socialism and related communist ideologies, or anti-capitalism and anti-globalization. Far-left terrorism consists of extremist, militant, or insurgent groups that attempt to realize their ideals through political violence rather than using democratic processes.

Ideologies

The definition of the far left varies in the literature and there is not a general agreement on what it entails or consensus on the core characteristics that constitute the far left, other than being to the left of mainstream left-wing politics. As with all political alignments, the exact boundaries of centre-left versus far-left politics are not clearly defined and can vary depending on context. Far-left ideologies often include types of socialism, communism, and anarchism.

According to political scientist Luke March, far-left groups may also be defined as those to the left of social democracy. Per Richard Dunphy, "the radical left" desires fundamental changes in neoliberal capitalism and progressive reform of democracy such as direct democracy and the inclusion of marginalized communities, while per March "the extreme left" denounces liberal democracy as a "compromise with bourgeois political forces" and defines capitalism more strictly. Far-left politics is seen as radical politics because it calls for fundamental change to the capitalist socio-economic structure of society.

Socialism

Socialists seek to create a socially equal society in which everyone has access to basic necessities and in which prosperity and knowledge are shared. It is derived from ideas of egalitarianism. Socialism has historically been divided into reformist socialism  and radical or revolutionary socialism.

Modern social democracy is generally considered to be a centre-left ideology.

Democratic socialism is generally considered to be a left or radical left ideology, though historical democratic socialism has been described as centre-left. Democratic socialism is sometimes used interchangeably with social democracy in political rhetoric, but it is generally understood to be farther left. Communists may also identify as democratic socialists to contrast themselves with Stalinists. Democratic socialists reject social democracy for its association with neoliberalism, and they reject communism for its association with authoritarianism.

Communism and Marxism

Communism is an ideological group that seeks the creation of a communist society. Modern communism is a form of revolutionary socialism based on support for the communist society described  the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, known as Marxism. Offshoots of Marxism include Leninism, Marxism–Leninism (which was distinct from both of its eponymous ideologies), Maoism, Eurocommunism, anarchist communism, and others.

Anarchism

Anarchism seeks to create an alternate form of society that excludes the state entirely. Anarchism incorporates elements of both socialism and liberalism, and it was a prominent ideology among the far-left globally from 1900 to 1940. Anarchist movements include classical anarchism, anarcho-syndicalism, social anarchism, individualist anarchism,  anarcha-feminism, black anarchism, and queer anarchism, and green anarchism.

Anarcho-capitalism is generally regarded as a right-wing ideology.

Positions
Far-left politics prioritize equality of outcome over equal opportunity. Far-left groups support redistribution of income and wealth. They argue that capitalism and consumerism cause social inequality and advocate their dissolution. Some far-left groups also support the abolition of private property. Scholars, such as Luke March and Cas Mudde, propose that socio-economic rights are at the far left's core. Moreover, March and Mudde argue that the far left is to the left of the political left with regard to how parties or groups describe economic inequality on the base of existing social and political arrangements.

Far-left groups are anti-establishment, opposing existing political and economic structures. Both anarchist and statist far-left ideologies may support disestablishment of traditional sociopolitical structures. They are opposed to liberalism and liberal democracy, though some far-left movements support other forms of democracy. They may be classified as radical, supporting a total reformation of society and its functions. Most modern far-left political parties have rejected radicalism and revolutionary politics, instead seeking to enact change from within government. Post-Soviet far-left movements in Europe and the United States are associated with anti-globalism and anti-neoliberalism. Proponents of the horseshoe theory interpretation of the left–right political spectrum identify the far left and the far right as having more in common with each other as extremists than each of them has with centrists or moderates. This theory has received criticism, however, by many academics.

In Europe, the support for far-left politics comes from three overlapping groups: far-left subcultures, disaffected social democrats, and protest voters—those who are opposed to their country's European Union membership. Political scientist Luke March identifies four major subgroups within contemporary European far-left politics: communists, democratic socialists, populist socialists, and social populists. European radical-left politics share many of the values of centre-left politics, including cosmopolitanism, altruism, and egalitarianism. They overlap in some areas with radical-right politics concerning radicalism, economic nationalism, Euroscepticism, and populism. Two clear distinctions emerge: first, "education [...] tends to statistically significantly lower chances of voting for radical right but increases the chance of voting radical left"; and second, radical-left voters tend not to share the social nationalism of the radical-right, instead having a socio-tropic, or other-regarding, bias based on the ideological concern for economic egalitarianism. Other characteristics may include anti-Americanism, anti-globalization, opposition to NATO, and in some cases a rejection of European integration.

Communism has historically emphasized economics and class over social issues. In the 1970s and 1980s, far-left movements in Western Europe were increasingly defined by the new social movements, which gave prominence to issues such as environmentalism, animal rights, women's rights, the peace movement, and promoting the interests of the Third World. These ideas as a singular movement became less prominent in far-left politics as they were subsumed by green politics, but they are still disparately supported by many in the far-left.

History

Early history
Societies resembling communist society have been postulated throughout human history, and many have been proposed as the earliest socialist or communist ideas. The ideas of Plato have been described as an early type of socialism. In medieval Europe, some philosophers argued that Jesus believed in shared ownership of property and that the hierarchy of the Catholic Church was contrary to his teachings. This included the Taborites, who attempted to create a social structure that resembled a communist society. Early examples of communist societies in fiction include Utopia by Thomas More, which proposed a society without personal property, and The City of the Sun by Tommaso Campanella, which proposed a society without the family unit. Modern far-left politics can be traced to Europe and North America in the late 18th century, when industrialization and political upheaval caused discontent among the working class. Socialists were those who objected to the changing social and economic structures associated with industrialization, in that they promoted individualism over collectivism and that they created wealth for some but not for others, creating economic inequality.

The term socialism first came into use in the early 19th century to describe the egalitarian ideas of redistribution promoted by writers like François-Noël Babeuf and John Thelwall. Inspired by the French Revolution, these writers objected to the existence of significant wealth, and Babeuf advocated a dictatorship on behalf of the people that would destroy those who caused inequality. Socialism was recognized as a coherent philosophy in the 1830s with the publications of British reformer Robert Owen, who self-identified as socialist. Owen, as well as others such as Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and Étienne Cabet, developed the utopian socialist movement, and these utopian socialists established several communes to implement their ideology. Cabet responded to More's Utopia with his own novel, The Voyage to Icaria. He is credited with first using the term communism, though his usage was unrelated to the ideologies that were later known as communism.

Early anarchists emerged in the 19th century, including Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin. These anarchists endorsed many utopian ideas, but they emphasized the importance of revolution against and complete abolition of the state for a utopian society to exist. Bakunin argued that peasants rather than the working class should lead a socialist revolution, and he popularized calls to violence among the anarchist movement. Anarchist ideology spread to the Americas shortly after its development.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels introduced Marxism in the 1840s, which advocated revolutionary socialism. As the state bureaucracy was developed in the late 19th century and labor rights were increasingly recognized by national governments, socialist movements were divided on the role of the state. Some objected to the increase in the state's involvement, while others believed that the state was a stronger alternative to protect worker's rights than labor movements. Many of the former moved to anarchism, while many of the latter responded with the development of social democracy.

Early 20th century
East Asian anarchism developed in the 1900s during the Russo-Japanese War, based on the ideas of Japanese writer Kōtoku Shūsui, who was in turn inspired by Peter Kropotkin. This movement saw its greatest prominence in the 1920s in China.

Communism in early 20th century Europe often gained power in countries with significant polarization between segments of the population on an ethnic, religious, or economic basis, and in countries that were destabilized by war. It was less prominent in industrialized nations, where social democracy maintained electoral success over communist parties. The first communist revolution took place in Russia, when the Russian Revolution emerged in 1917 amid political instability caused by World War I. The Bolsheviks seized power, under the rule of Vladimir Lenin and his ideology of Leninism. The state ideology developed during the Russian Civil War from 1918 to 1921, setting the preservation of Bolshevik power as the highest priority to assure the building of socialism as well as seeking to spread communist revolution to other nations. Some additional communist governments formed in Europe, but they lasted only months. Though the Bolsheviks identified as communist, the term socialist was often used interchangeably at the time.

By 1922, as Russia transitioned into the Soviet Union, it responded to widespread hunger and poverty with the New Economic Policy, which restored market enterprise for smaller industries. After Lenin's death, a power struggle between Nikolai Bukharin, Leon Trotsky, and Joseph Stalin ended with Stalin taking power by 1928. Stalin implemented his ideology of Marxism–Leninism, which reorganized society and created a cult of personality in his favor. This also entailed the Great Purge in the late 1930s, an interpretation of Lenin's revolutionary violence that saw hundreds of thousands of Stalin's opponents killed, often to be replaced by ambitious loyalists. By this time, Marxism–Leninism was seen as the definitive implementation of communism by most communists globally, justifying the Great Purge as an effort to eradicate fascist infiltrators, with state censorship obscuring the Great Purge's extent.

Anarcho-syndicalism was developed as a form of anarchism in the late 19th century, and it grew popular around 1900. It remained relevant in far-left politics through 1940. During the Spanish Civil War in the late 1930s, anarcho-syndicalists seized control of multiple regions in Spain, but this ended when the nationalist faction won the war. This, along with the rise of communism, ended the relevance of anarchism among the far-left globally after 1940. As mass production became more common, the traditional style of labor that anarcho-syndicalists objected to ceased to exist, preventing any significant resurgence in the movement.

Cold War
The Soviet Union's influence during and after World War II spread communism, directly and indirectly, to the rest of Eastern Europe and into Southeast Europe. New communist governments were formed in Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The onset of the Cold War brought an end to communism's political influence in most of Western Europe, and the development of post-industrial society caused many of the traditional sectors associated with communism to dissipate. Following Stalin's death, the workers of several Eastern European countries staged revolutions against communist rule, requiring the Soviet military to suppress them. Many of these countries were led by Stalinist rulers, who were forced out and replaced by the subsequent Soviet government. Yugoslavia distanced itself as a neutral communist nation, aligned with neither the East nor the West.

The New Left developed in Western Europe as an alternative to communism in the 1950s, taking positions on social issues and identity politics. Green politics developed as an offshoot of the New Left, but it was deradicalized by the end of the 20th century and became a centre-left movement. The association of Marxism–Leninism with the Soviet Union also caused Eurocommunism to be developed as a democratic communist movement in Western Europe, but it only briefly saw electoral success in the 1970s. In the Years of Lead in Italy, far-left militants, such as the Red Brigades, justified the usage of political violence as a revolutionary means and defense against far-right terrorism and neo-fascism in Italy.

The Chinese Communist Party had been active since 1921, but it did not seize power in China until its victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949. As with the Soviet Union, the newly formed People's Republic of China carried out purges of political enemies, killing millions of land owners. The peasants were not targeted, however, instead using them as a base of political support. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, China under the rule of Mao Zedong distanced itself from the Soviet Union. Maoism then grew in popularity as an alternative to Soviet-style communism. At the same time, North Korea and North Vietnam were established as communist governments, triggering the Korean War and the Vietnam War against South Korea and South Vietnam, respectively. By the late 1970s, Maoism in China was replaced by the ideology of Deng Xiaoping, which restored the private sector and market pricing.

The Cuban Revolution led to Fidel Castro becoming the ruler of Cuba in 1959. Though he was not a communist, he aligned the nation with the communist movement to seek Soviet support. Many other nations adopted socialism distinct from Marxism–Leninism during the Cold Warm particularly in Africa and Latin America.

Communism was rapidly replaced between 1979 and 1992, in which eleven of the world's sixteen communist states were disestablished. By the 1980s, the Soviet Union moved away from ideas of international communism as such efforts came to be seen as too inconvenient. By 1988, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev had effectively abandoned communism. In Europe, the far-left declined after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and it remained relatively subdued during the 1990s. In many Eastern European countries, communist parties were banned by the new governments. In others such as Moldova, they saw continued electoral success.

21st century
Of the five communist states that survived into the 21st century, three of them — China, Vietnam, and Laos — had restored private ownership and reintegrated with global capitalist markets although state and public control continued as well. For instance, Peter Nolan argues that land in China was decollectivized but not privatized, with control of land remaining in the hands of the community.  The Party of the European Left was established in 2004 as a pan-European political party for the far-left. The European far-left reemerged in the late 2000s and early 2010s as a Eurosceptic, anti-globalist response to the Great Recession. During this time, European far-left parties became frequent members of ruling coalitions. The far-left parties during this time were rarely new creations, instead descending from earlier far-left parties of the 20th century. In 2012, the autonomous region Rojava in northwestern Syria established self-governance based on an anarchist direct democracy at the local level and a one-party state at the regional level. While far-left parties were in power in the 2010s, they were often forced to put aside their strong anti-neoliberalism and accept neoliberal policies, either proposed by their larger allies or imposed due to the international context.

Far-left militants and terrorism

Many far-left militant organizations were formed by members of existing political parties in the 1960s and 1970s, among them the CPI (Maoist), Montoneros, New People's Army, Prima Linea, the Red Army Faction, and the Red Brigades. These groups generally aimed to overthrow capitalism and the wealthy ruling classes.

See also

Far-left politics
 Anti-Stalinist left
 Communitarianism
 Radical left
 Third camp

Anarchism
 Anarchism without adjectives
 Collectivist anarchism
 Contemporary anarchism
 Egoist anarchism
 Mutualism

Communism and Marxism
 Autonomism
 Centrist Marxism
 Council communism
 Left communism
 Trotskyism

References

Bibliography

Further reading

Radical left parties case studies

Radical left and radical right

Terrorism

External links

Political spectrum
Political terminology

Far-left politics


The Akron Cougars are a professional men's minor league basketball team, members of the upstart Universal Basketball League, based in Akron, Ohio.

2006 Season

The Cougars formed in 2005 as the Cuyahoga Falls Cougars (playing at Cuyahoga Falls High School (capacity: 3,300) and practicing at the Cuyahoga Falls Natatorium) and begun their inaugural IBL season in March 2006. They were led by head coach Lee Cotton, who formerly coached LeBron James at St. Vincent-St.Mary High School in Akron, Ohio; he was replaced later in the season by General Manager Tom Vilk. The team finished 6–14.

Akron Cougars/Oblivion
The team announced that they would be relocating to Akron, Ohio for the 2007 season, replacing the previously announced Akron Quakers. Soon after, the team announced a move to the Universal Basketball League. However, given the state of the Universal Basketball League today, and given the recent announcement of the Akron Energy, a new IBL team headed by Marc Cook, it appears as though the Cougars are defunct.

External links
Akron Cougars Official Site
UBL Official Web Site

Universal Basketball League teams
Basketball teams in Ohio
2005 establishments in Ohio

Akron Cougars


Paralepistopsis is a genus of fungi in the family Tricholomataceae.

Taxonomy
The Paralepistopsis genus was created in 2012 by the Italian mycologist Alfredo Vizzini to better classify two rare toxic species formerly located in the Clitocybe genus.

Clitocybe amoenolens found in Morocco and parts of South Europe and C. acromelalga from Asia were noted to have habits more similar to Paralepista flaccida (formerly Lepista flaccida) than to other Clitocybe species. Additionally the pileipellis and microscopic details of these species were distinct from others in the Clitocybe genus and related genera. Genetic sequencing placed these species close to Cleistocybe and Catathelasma genera.

The most important distinction for mushroom hunters however is the presence of toxic acromelic acids in these species which can present dangers when foraging for similar looking edible species in these locations. Acromelic acid A is a potent neurotoxin with a chemical formula of C13H14N2O7 which is associated with causing paralysis and seizures

The type species, Paralepistopsis amoenolens was previously classified as Clitocybe amoenolens and is commonly known as the paralysis funnel due to the harmful effects caused by consuming it.

Etymology
This genus name is in reference to its resemblance to Paralepista species.

Species
, Index Fungorum accepted 2 species of Paralepistopsis.

 Paralepistopsis acromelalga
 Paralepistopsis amoenolens

See also
 Clitocybe

References

Agaricales genera

Fungi described in 2012

Paralepistopsis


Jesse Giddings is a Canadian musician, designer, actor, artist and photographer born in Langley, British Columbia and went to high school at Langley Secondary School. He was formerly a VJ starting in 2009 at MuchMusic, a music television station in Canada.

Early life and career
Jesse studied at Langley Secondary School but left shortly after graduating. He then moved to San Clemente, California before settling in Sacramento, California for a while. Later Jesse moved back to Langley, British Columbia and started The Basement Venue promoting, emceeing and hosting All-Age concerts. This led Jesse to join Swingset Champion and where he met Sherwood who he later did a North American tour with The Academy Is..., Armor For Sleep, Cobra Starship, and The Rocket Summer. This led him to join We Shot The Moon for a brief stint. After touring Jesse moved to Calgary where he worked for Lakota drilling as a roughneck before jumping to Toronto to pursue a job at MuchMusic. He got back into modeling while waiting through the nine-month audition process at MuchMusic. He caught the attention of the station's producers in an open casting call where he beat out thousands for the coveted position. He started his VJ job at MuchMusic on 20 October 2009. He co-hosted regularly on MuchMusic's flagship show New.Music.Live. and when it was formerly known as Much On Demand.  Jesse co-hosted the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards with LMFAO and in 2011 with Selena Gomez.

As a musician, he has played with  indie bands such as Swingset Champion and We Shot the Moon. Jesse finished his upcoming solo album with producer Gavin Brown (Metric, Billy Talent, Three Days Grace) which he has yet to release.

Jesse co-hosted The X Factor USA Pepsi Pre-show for The X Factor USA (season 2) on The X Factor USA and Pepsi.com websites.

Jesse is a big supporter of Free The Children and has hosted more than 15 WeDay events across Canada in the last 3 years. Co-hosting with such personalities as Joe Jonas and Nina Dobrev and speakers that include Martin Sheen, Al Gore, Mikhael Gorbachev, Magic Johnson, the Dalai Lama, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Larry King, Richard Branson and Mia Farrow to name a few. WeDay is the largest non profit motivational event for youth in North America. Jesse's dedication recently took him to Kenya to assist in the hands-on building of a school for local children there.

On 7 August 2013, Giddings was named a correspondent on E! News.

Personal life
Giddings married actress Hannah Simone, who is also a former VJ at MuchMusic, in 2016. They announced that they were expecting their first child together, whom they welcomed in August 2017.

References

External links

Much (TV channel) personalities
Living people
People from Langley, British Columbia (city)
Canadian expatriate musicians in the United States
Canadian VJs (media personalities)
Year of birth missing (living people)

Jesse Giddings


Robert Justice (March 15, 1809 – October 2, 1889) was an early statesman in the U.S. state of Ohio.  He began his political career in 1840 after being elected to the position of county recorder of Holmes County.  Following the end of his term in 1843 he was elected as auditor of that same county.  He served as a state senator for Ohio representing the counties of Holmes, Wayne, Knox, and Morrow in 1866.

Robert Justice is best known for his nine consecutive terms which he served as justice of the peace in Holmes County.

Personal life

Robert Justice was born in Hookstown in Beaver County, Pennsylvania on March 15, 1809.  He was the son of Joseph Justice and his wife Elizabeth Catherine Ball.  Elizabeth was an immigrant from County Donegal in Ireland. Shortly after his birth, Robert, his parents, and his older sister, Catherine, moved to Columbiana County, Ohio, where they lived for the rest of his childhood.

In 1833 he moved to Millersburg, Holmes County, Ohio where he began work as a schoolteacher and later served for six years as a school examiner.

On May 14, 1833, Robert married Martha Robeson the daughter of Charles Robeson.  They were married in Washington Township in Holmes County.  The couple had two daughters: Virginia and Elizabeth C.  Virginia married Dr. William Morrison Ross a prominent member of the Millersburg community who had also served in the American Civil War as a captain.  Martha died in 1866.

Virginia and her husband had five children, of whom only one survived to adulthood.  Her surviving daughter married the grandson of Daniel Parkhurst Leadbetter making Robert Justice, Leadbetter, and McCormick related through marriage.

Death
Robert Justice died on October 2, 1889, in Holmes County.  He was survived by his two daughters and by one granddaughter.  He was buried in Oak Hill Cemetery in Millersburg.

Sources
Commemorative Biographical of the Counties of Wayne and Holmes, Ohio 1889
Dickinson, Marguerite "Obituaries Abstracted From Holmes County, Ohio Office Papers in Farmer HUB Office"  (Holmes County Historical Society and Western Reserve Historical Society).
Birth and Death Records for Holmes County 1878–1893 in Probate Court in Millersburg.
1870 U.S. Federal Census
Records extracted from Oak Hill Cemetery, Millersburg, Holmes County, Ohio
McNamara, Walter L. and Elizabeth Ross McNamara "Baby's Record of Virginia McNamara." 1902.
Letter by David R. McNamara to his son Walter, June 8, 1904
Will of Mary Leadbetter
Will of Robert Justice
Walmer, Margaret B. "100 Years at Warrington, York County, Pennsylvania Quakers." (1989 Heritage Books Inc.).

1809 births
1889 deaths
People from Beaver County, Pennsylvania
People from Millersburg, Ohio
Ohio state senators
19th-century American politicians

Robert Justice


Myrica cerifera is a small evergreen tree or large shrub native to North and Central America and the Caribbean. Its common names include southern wax myrtle, southern bayberry, candleberry, bayberry tree, and tallow shrub. It has uses in the garden and for candlemaking, as well as a medicinal plant.

Description
Myrica cerifera is a small tree or large shrub, reaching up to 14m tall. It is adaptable to many habitats, growing naturally in wetlands, near rivers and streams, sand dunes, fields, hillsides, pine barrens, and in both coniferous and mixed-broadleaf forests. M. cerifera can weather coastal storms, long droughts, and tropical high temperatures.

In nature, it ranges from Central America, northward into the southeastern and south-central United States. Wax Myrtle can be successfully cultivated as far north as the New York City area and southern Ohio Valley. It also grows in Bermuda and the Caribbean. In terms of succession, M. cerifera is often one of the first plants to colonize an area.

M. cerifera is an evergreen. The glandular leaves are long, have a leathery texture and serrated edges, and contain aromatic compounds. The plant is dioecious, with male and female flowers borne in catkins on separate plants.  Male flowers have three or four stamens, and are surrounded by short bracts. The female flowers develop into fruit, which are globular and surrounded by a natural wax-like coating. The species flowers from late winter to spring, and bear fruit in late summer or fall. No endosperm is present on the seeds. M. cerifera can also reproduce clonally through runners.

This species occurs in two forms, but there is no clear dividing line between them, many intermediate forms occurring. Specimens in drier and sandier areas are shrub-like, have rhizomes and smaller leaves. Those growing in damper situations with richer soil are more tree-like with bigger leaves.

Ecology
The fruit is a source of food for many bird species, including the northern bobwhite quail and the wild turkey. In winter, the seeds are important foods for the Carolina wren and species of tree sparrow. To a point, M. cerifera will also provide habitat for the northern bobwhite quail. Birds' digestive systems remove the wax from the fruit, a prerequisite for germination.

This plant's roots possess root nodules, which harbor a symbiotic genus of the actinorhizal bacteria, Frankia which fixes nitrogen gas at a faster rate than do legumes.

The above-ground growth of M. cerifera is often killed by wildfires unless the fire is very small or transient. In the latter situation, only the most recent primary growth may be incinerated. Because the leaves, stem, and branches contain flammable aromatic compounds, a specimen of M. cerifera is in fact a fire hazard. In contrast to the flammability of its top growth, M. cerifera'''s root system is fire-resistant. By 1991, no known fire had killed this plant's roots. However, this plant will not survive repeated destruction of its top growth indefinitely. Three consecutive years of burning may kill all plants affected.

After less damaging fires, new shoots will regrow from below ground. This regrowth is most rapid in the first season after a fire.M. cerifera has exhibited aggressive behavior in both native and non-native habitat. On the Virginia barrier islands within it's native range, the shrub has been documented rapidly expanding into grasslands impacting ecosystem function and landscape-level resistance to disturbance. While climate change plays a large role in this, the mechanism responsible is the shrubs ability to alter its own microclimate. On the other side of the US, in Hawai'i, M. cerifera's ability to partner with nitrogen-fixing bacteria makes it a significant threat to native Hawai'ian forests.

 Taxonomy
This plant is one of several Myrica species that are sometimes split into the genus Morella, e.g. in the Integrated Taxonomic Information System. This species also has several synonyms aside from the Myrica/Morella split: Cerothamnus pumilus, C. ceriferus, Myrica cerifera var. pumila, and Myrica pusilla. Myrica cerifera is similar to M. pensylvanica and M. caroliniensis. These plants' scent or fruits can distinguish them.

The generic name Myrica comes from a Greek word myrike, which refers to some fragrant plant (possibly tamarisk). The specific name means "wax-bearing".

Uses

Food
The leaves can be washed, dried, and used to season stews or cooking sauces. The berries can also be used as seasoning.

OrnamentalMyrica cerifera finds use in gardening and horticulture. It has been commonly grown in American hardiness zones of 11 to 7. M. pensylvanica substitutes for M. cerifera in areas colder than zone 6. Since the species is adaptable, it will tolerate many conditions, although it has a need for frequent pruning. It can handle abuse from bad pruning, however. The species has at least four cultivars. Those dubbed Fairfax, Jamaica Road, and Don's Dwarf differ from the "typical" specimen in habit and form. The latter two are also resistant to leaf spot. Var. pumila is a dwarf cultivar.

Herbalism
Bayberry root bark has a history of use in herbalism. The plant contains several organic compounds, including: triterpenes such as myricadiol, taraxerol, and taraxerone, as well as chemicals such as different flavonoids, tannins, resins, gums, and phenols. Myricadiol has a slight impact on levels of potassium and sodium, while a substance called myricitrin has antibiotic properties.

The Choctaw boiled bayberry and used the result as a treatment for fevers. In 1722, it was reported that colonists in Louisiana drank a mixture of wax and hot water to treat severe dysentery. Bayberry was reported in an account from 1737 as being used to treat convulsions, colic, palsy, and seizures. Starting in the early 19th century, the herbalist Samuel Thomson recommended this plant for producing "heat" within the body and as a treatment for infectious diseases and diarrhea. That use of bayberry waned later in the 19th century, in favor of using it for a variety of ailments, including a topical use for bleeding gums. For twenty years starting in 1916, bayberry root bark was listed in the American National Formulary.

Use of bayberry in herbalism has declined since its peak in popularity in the 19th century. The plant is still used today in the treatment of fever, diarrhea, and a few other ailments. The chemical myricitrin has anti-fever properties. In addition, that chemical, along with the tannins, has anti-diarrheal properties. Myricitrin works as an antibiotic, while the tannins have astringent properties.

In general, either a decoction or a tincture is used. Infusions and a topical paste have also been used.

Pregnant women should not use bayberry. In addition, tannin action relating to cancer is unclear, with studies indicating both pro and anti-cancer effects. Bayberry, just like any other medicinal plant, should only be used under the supervision of a physician.

Candles
Southern bayberry's fruits are a traditional source of the wax for old-fashioned Christmas decorations called bayberry candles. The wax was extracted by boiling the berries, and skimming off the floating hydrocarbons. The fats were then boiled again and then strained. After that the liquid was usable in candle making, whether through dipping or molding. Southern bayberry is not the only plant usable for making bayberry candles, however. Its close relatives are also usable.

Southern bayberry and its relatives have largely been supplanted in candlemaking by substitutes made from paraffin. The substitute candles have artificial colors and scents that create candles that look and smell similar to natural ones.

Soap
Wax extracted from boiling the fruit of Myrica cerifera'' was also used to make scented bayberry soap by early North-American settlers.

References

cerifera
Plants used in traditional Native American medicine
Trees of the United States
Flora of Northern America
Flora of Central America
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Flora of the Caribbean
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN

Myrica cerifera


Major-General Hardy Nelson Ganong CBE, VD, ED (Apr 18, 1890 - February 24, 1963) was a Canadian sportsman and a military commander who served in both World War I and II.

Early life
The son of Edward Morrison Ganong and Margaret A. Lunn, Hardy Ganong was born and educated in St. Stephen, New Brunswick. He was a cousin to the family that founded Ganong Bros. chocolate makers and after completing his schooling went to work in this business.

World War I
In 1909, Hardy Ganong joined the Canadian Militia, then following the outbreak of World War I enlisted in the Canadian Expeditionary Force. He was sent overseas as part of the Canadian Expeditionary Force where he served on the battlefields of France as a member of the 5th Battalion Canadian Mounted Rifles. He was wounded in February 1917, suffering a gunshot wound to the left shoulder during a routine period with his unit in the trenches. He was discharged from hospital and was subsequently returned to duty in November 1917. Demobilized in 1919, he returned home where, in 1920, he married schoolteacher Mildred Viola Thomas of Calais, Maine with whom he had three children.

World War II
During peacetime, Ganong remained as a member of the militia, and, by the time World War II broke out, he had risen to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Made commander of the Carleton and York Regiment, he led the regiment as the first Canadian military unit to ship to England for battle duty. In March 1941, Ganong took command of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade and in July 1942 was promoted to major general. Sent back to Canada on the advice of Bernard Montgomery, he was appointed general officer to organize and command the 8th Canadian Infantry Division of the Home Service Divisions. Stationed for a time at Prince George, British Columbia, in October 1943 he was placed in command of the 6th Canadian Infantry Division headquartered on Vancouver Island, where he was in charge of preparations for participation in the invasion of Japan.

Ganong was awarded the Efficiency Decoration for his years of voluntary military service and in 1944 was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In December 1944, with Canadian participation in the invasion of Japan cancelled and a Pacific coastal defence no longer deemed necessary, he was assigned to command the Allied troops in Newfoundland, where he remained until his retirement in 1945. His son, Russell Edward Ganong, also served during the war with his father's old Carleton and York Regiment. He was killed during the Italian Campaign on March 18, 1944. He was survived by his wife, Mary Mackenzie, and an infant son, Hardy MacKenzie Ganong, born September 29, 1943.

Later life
Out of the army, Ganong served as honorary aide-de-camp to Governor Generals the Earl of Athlone, Vincent Massey and Georges Vanier. From 1955 to 1962 he was the full-time civil defence co-coordinator with responsibility for the organizing and training of all civil defence forces for the Province of New Brunswick.

Politics
A St. Stephen town councilor for two years, Ganong was the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada candidate in the 1949 Canadian federal election for the riding of New Brunswick Southwest. Of the 12,336 ballots cast, he lost by 58 votes to the Liberal incumbent, A. Wesley Stuart. He ran unsuccessfully against Stuart a second time in 1953.

Sporting and business interests
Ganong was also an active member of the executive committee of the New Brunswick Boy Scouts Association and served as the provincial movement's president. Among his other activities, he was vice-president of the N.B. Division, Canadian Red Cross, president, N.B. Boy Scouts Association, director, Charlotte County Board of Trade, Board member, Connors Bros. Ltd., and president of the New Brunswick Fish and Game Protective Association.

An avid curler, Ganong was president of the St. Stephen Curling Club for thirty-five years and president of the New Brunswick branch of the Royal Canadian Caledonia Curling Club. He was also voted president of the New Brunswick Curling Association for 1935–1936 term, and made its honorary president from 1941 to 1945. As a player, Ganong was 2nd stone on the St. Stephen team that won the 1930 Ganong Cup, a trophy donated by cousin Arthur Ganong given annually to the winner of the provincial curling championship. His team's win earned them the right to compete for the national title in the 1930 Macdonald Brier.

As much as he was enthusiastic about the sport of curling, Ganong was equally as passionate about harness racing. St. Stephen had a racetrack and he wrote a column on the sport for the local Saint Croix Courier weekly newspaper. He was also a racing judge at meets throughout New Brunswick and Maine and for two seasons was a judge at Exhibition Park Raceway in Saint John, New Brunswick.

Death
Ganong and his wife died in February 1963 as a result of an auto accident during a winter snow storm on Route 1 in Charlotte County, New Brunswick while returning home from the city of Saint John. They are buried at the St. Stephen Rural Cemetery.

References

Sources
New Brunswick Sports Hall of Fame - 1930 curling champions
 Saint Croix Courier obituary for Hardy Ganong, February, 1963
 Telegraph-Journal obituary for Hardy Ganong, February 25, 1963
 Folster, David. The Chocolate Ganongs of St. Stephen, New Brunswick (1991) Goose Lane Editions
 Craigs, Melodie. Ganong, The Candy Family (1984) Literacy Council of Fredericton

Generals of World War II

1890 births
1963 deaths
Canadian generals
Road incident deaths in Canada
Canadian military personnel from New Brunswick
Canadian Expeditionary Force officers
New Brunswick candidates for Member of Parliament
Curlers from New Brunswick
Canadian male curlers
People from St. Stephen, New Brunswick
Hardy
Accidental deaths in New Brunswick
Canadian Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Canadian Army generals of World War II
Canadian Militia officers
Carleton and York Regiment

Hardy N. Ganong


Lightolier is a company that manufactures and sells a wide array of lighting fixtures. It was founded in 1904 by Bernhard Blitzer under the name of New York Gas and Appliance Co. When electric lighting started to be more widely accepted, the name was changed to Lightolier, a contraction of the words light and chandelier. In 2007, Philips Royal Electronics announced that it would acquire the Genlyte Group which would make Lightolier a part of Philips.

In its early years, the company specialized in fancy decorative chandeliers, then made a shift to the high-end design and architectural markets in the 1920s.  In the 1960s Lightolier introduced the first track lighting system, designed by the late Anthony C. Donato (a vertically integrated track, unlike the horizontal tracks of today). During this same period Lightolier began importing European designs, including that of Gaetano Sciolari. Also notable is the success of the Lytegem series, designed by Michael Lax, that has a place in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art.  Lightolier is also known for its advanced reflector designs, and was the first lighting company to introduce digital lighting systems in the early 1990s.  The company is also Sustaining Member of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, a founding member of the American Lighting Association, an ally of the EPA Green Lights program, and a Partner of the Lighting Research Center.

The company currently has manufacturing operations in:
Fall River, MA (Track and Recessed Downlights, also Corporate Headquarters)(closed Down)
Wilmington, MA (Fluorescent fixtures) (Closed as of November, 2012)
Edison, NJ (Downlights/Distribution)
Fontana, CA (Fluorescent and Recessed Linear fixtures)
Camargo, Mexico (Track and Recessed Downlights)

And Distribution Centers in:
Norwich, CT
Atlanta, GA
Elgin, IL
Carrollton, TX
Compton, CA

Divisions of Lightolier
Translite Sonoma - maker of decorative lighting fixtures.
Exceline - maker of decorative glass and metal lighting fixtures.
Ardee Lighting - maker of architectural accent lighting fixtures.

References

External links
Lightolier

Fall River, Massachusetts
Companies based in Massachusetts
Lighting brands
American companies established in 1904

Lightolier


Harpers Ferry Armory, more formally known as the United States Armory and Arsenal at Harpers Ferry, was the second federal armory commissioned by the United States government.  It was located in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia (then part of Virginia). It was also called the "mother arsenal", a term coined in 1797 by the first Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert. The first federal armory was the Springfield Armory located in Springfield, Massachusetts. In many books the town is called "Harper's Ferry" with an apostrophe. The national armory has been associated with many historical events throughout the history of the United States.

History

Harpers Ferry
In 1751, Robert Harper purchased  of land at "The Hole", a name at the time for the place where the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers meet. He set up a ferry service for travelers who needed to cross the Shenandoah River. In 1763, the Virginia General Assembly established the town of "Shenandoah Falls" at "Mr. Harper's Ferry." Soon it just became known as Harpers Ferry. The town grew and became a transportation hub as more new businesses came here.

The national armory
In 1794, the United States Congress passed a bill calling "for the erecting and repairing of Arsenals and Magazines". President George Washington, given wide latitude in carrying out this order, selected Harpers Ferry, then a part of Virginia, for the location of the Harpers Ferry National Armory. In 1796, the United States government purchased a  parcel of land from the heirs of Robert Harper. In 1799, construction began on the national armory. Three years later, mass production of military arms started.

When it opened, the armory's size seemed to be too small for its workforce. It consisted of only one room. There were 25 workers. Nevertheless, the armory produced many muskets, rifles, and later pistols for the United States. By 1810 the armory was producing about ten thousand weapons per year. The building relied on river power to drive the armory's machinery.

Most of the guns for the 1804 Lewis and Clark Expedition were made at Harpers Ferry. In 1811 the M1819 Hall rifle was designed by Captain John Hall. In 1819 it was adopted by the U.S. Army and produced at Harpers Ferry.

Expansion and upgrades
The 1830s and 1840s saw a number of changes in the design of the basic musket produced at the armory. More powerful gunpowder was developed and weapons changed from flintlock to percussion cap operation. By 1855 the armory was producing rifled muskets by the thousands with ''HARPERS FERRY'' stamped on them.

The upgrades of the arsenal began in 1845-1854 with the construction of seven brand new workshops and the installation of 121 new machines. The new workshops had a brick superstructure with iron framing and sheet metal roofing. These reconstructed arsenal buildings became collectively known as the "U.S. Musket Factory". The armory canal was enlarged so that more water could get to the armory, which meant it would receive more power.

In addition, more people were employed to work at the armory than before: the labor force increased from 25 in 1802 to about 400 workers in 1859. The working conditions improved, but only slightly.

John Brown's Raid

In 1859, the armory became the site of the famous raid by abolitionist John Brown. While unsuccessful in inciting a slave revolt, it did raise Southern fears and increased the tension between North and South prior to the American Civil War.

During the Civil War
On April 17, 1861, Virginia seceded from the Union. At this point the arsenal became a prime military target. the governor of Virginia planned to take the valuable armory for the South. He knew that no Southern arsenal could match the quality of the arms being produced at Harpers Ferry. He sent his militia to take the arsenal before the Union Army could send enough troops to hold it. When the Virginia militia was four miles away, army Lieutenant Roger Jones sent an urgent message to Washington, DC explaining the danger they were in and to send them thousands of troops to defend Harpers Ferry. When he received no reply he decided he had to act. On the night of April 18, 1861, Jones ordered his men to set fire to the arsenal and the over 15,000 muskets and all the ammunition stored there. Then they quickly retreated across the bridge to Maryland. But the approaching Virginia militia put out the flames. They were able to save 4,000 muskets and all the machinery. The Confederates held the armory for the next three months. During this time they transported the machinery to the Confederate armory at Fayetteville, North Carolina. Then the Confederates set fire to the buildings when they retreated in July. The armory was destroyed and never rebuilt.

The armory's location
In spite of the armory's strategic importance, it was nearly impossible to defend. The town and arsenal were surrounded on sides by thousand-foot high cliffs. To defend Harpers Ferry required the placement of artillery on all high points over the city. Soldiers stationed at Harpers Ferry during the war described it as a "godforsaken, stinking hole". The location of Harpers Ferry proved to be a poor choice militarily.

After the Civil War
After the Civil War, John Brown's Fort was the only building to survive the destruction by both the Confederates and the Union. The building was named after John Brown for his notorious raid on the Harpers Ferry Armory in 1859. The building was the armory's fire engine and guardhouse.

References

Other websites
 Harpers Ferry Armory Guns
 Armory Quarters B, Harpers Ferry Vacation Rentals

American Civil War
18th-century establishments in Virginia
Harpers Ferry, West Virginia
1797 establishments in the United States

Harpers Ferry Armory


Kaju katli (literally "cashew slice"), also known as  kaju barfi, is an Indian dessert, originating in the Deccan, and is popularly consumed throughout north India. Kaju means cashew; barfi is often made by thickening milk with sugar and other ingredients (such as dry fruits and mild spices). Kesar kaju katli includes saffron. It is similar to a Barfi.

The dish is prepared with cashew nuts soaked in water for a considerable period of time (usually overnight), which are then ground to a paste. Sugar solution is boiled down until a single thread forms when two fingers are dipped into it and pulled apart, after which it is added to the ground cashews. Ghee, saffron (kesar), and dried fruits may also be added. The paste is then spread and flattened in a shallow, flat-bottomed dish and cut into bite-sized rhombus-shaped pieces. The pieces are usually decorated with edible silver foil. The finished sweet is usually white or yellow in color depending on the ingredients used for the paste and the proportions of each used. Kaju Katli is traditionally eaten during the Hindu festival of Diwali.

History and cultural significance

Kaju Katli or Kaju Barfi has a long history in India, originating in the Deccan region of Southern India. It has now spread throughout the country and became a beloved sweet across the country. Kaju Katli is said to have been invented in the 16th century by a famous chef named Bhimrao, who worked for the royal family of the Maratha Empire. The Marathas were known for their love of sweets, and Bhimrao was tasked with creating a new dessert that would impress the royal family.

According to legend, Bhimrao was inspired by a Persian sweet called "Halwa-e-Farsi," which was made with ground almonds and sugar. He decided to create his own version using cashews, which were abundantly available in the region.

Bhimrao's creation was an instant hit with the Maratha royals, who named the sweet "Kaju Katli" in honor of its two primary ingredients – "Kaju" meaning cashews and "Katli" meaning thin slices.

Over time, Kaju Katli became a popular sweet not just in Maharashtra, but in other parts of India as well. It is now considered to be one of the most iconic Indian sweets and is an essential part of every celebration, from weddings to festivals.

References

External links

Indian desserts
Indian confectionery
Cashew dishes

Kaju katli


Michael Schrom is an American racing driver from Ghent, New York.

Schrom was a full-time competitor in Porsche Carrera Cup series who also drove a Porsche 911 in the 24 Hours of Daytona in 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003. In 2003, The Racer's Group Porsche driven by Schrom, team owner Kevin Buckler, Timo Bernhard, and Jörg Bergmeister was the surprise overall winner of the race.  In 2002, Schrom and Buckler  were honored as the two most successful private Porsche racing drivers in the world for finishing 1st and 2nd in the Porsche Carrera Cup.

Michael Schrom is also owner of Michael Schrom and Company.  He has shot over 1600 television commercials for a diverse, wide-ranging client roster which includes, but not exclusively, such prominent companies as Wendy's International, Carlson Food Group (owner of the T.G. I. Friday's restaurant chain), McDonald's, Maybelline, Stouffers, L'Oreal, and Lean Cuisine. Michael Schrom has a Bachelor of Fine Arts Degree in Film from The Tisch School of the Arts at New York University.

References

Living people
People from Ghent, New York
Tisch School of the Arts alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
Rolex Sports Car Series drivers
24 Hours of Daytona drivers
Racing drivers from New York (state)

Michael Schrom


Equine nutrition is the feeding of horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, and other equines. Correct and balanced nutrition is a critical component of proper horse care.

Horses are non-ruminant herbivores of a type known as a "hindgut fermenter." Horses have only one stomach, as do humans.  However, unlike humans, they also need to digest plant fiber (largely cellulose) that comes from grass or hay. Ruminants like cattle are foregut fermenters, and digest fiber in plant matter by use of a multi-chambered stomach, whereas horses use microbial fermentation in a part of the digestive system known as the cecum (or caecum) to break down the cellulose.

In practical terms, horses prefer to eat small amounts of food steadily throughout the day, as they do in nature when grazing on pasture lands. Although this is not always possible with modern stabling practices and human schedules that favor feeding horses twice a day, it is important to remember the underlying biology of the animal when determining what to feed, how often, and in what quantities.

The digestive system of the horse is somewhat delicate. Horses are unable to regurgitate food, except from the esophagus.  Thus, if they overeat or eat something poisonous, vomiting is not an option. They also have a long, complex large intestine and a balance of beneficial microbes in their cecum that can be upset by rapid changes in feed.  Because of these factors, they are very susceptible to colic, which is a leading cause of death in horses.  Therefore, horses require clean, high-quality feed, provided at regular intervals, plus water or they may become ill if subjected to abrupt changes in their diets. Horses are also sensitive to molds and toxins.  For this reason, they must never be fed contaminated fermentable materials such as lawn clippings.  Fermented silage or "haylage" is fed to horses in some places; however, contamination or failure of the fermentation process that allows any mold or spoilage may be toxic.

The digestive system

Horses and other members of the genus Equus are adapted by evolutionary biology to eating small amounts of the same kind of food all day long. In the wild, horses ate prairie grasses in semi-arid regions and traveled significant distances each day in order to obtain adequate nutrition. Therefore, their digestive system was made to work best with a small but steady flow of food that does not change much from day to day.

Chewing and swallowing
Digestion begins in the mouth.  First, the animal selects pieces of forage and picks up finer foods, such as grain, with sensitive, prehensile, lips.  The front teeth of the horse, called incisors, nip off forage, and food is ground up for swallowing by the premolars and molars.

The esophagus carries food to the stomach. The esophagus enters the stomach at an acute angle, creating a one-way valve, with a powerful sphincter mechanism at the gastroesophageal junction, which is why horses cannot vomit.  The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from choke. (see Illnesses related to improper feeding below)

The stomach and small intestine
Horses have a small stomach for their large size, which limits the amount of food that can be taken in at one time.  The average sized horse has a stomach with a capacity of only , and works best when it contains about . One reason continuous foraging or several small feedings per day are better than one or two large meals is because the stomach begins to empty when it is two-thirds full, whether the food in the stomach is processed or not.

The small intestine is  long and holds  to . This is the major digestive organ where 50 to 70 percent of all nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. Bile from the liver acts here, combined with enzymes from the pancreas and small intestine itself.  Equids do not have a gall bladder, so bile flows constantly, an adaptation to a slow but steady supply of food, and another reason for providing fodder to horses in several small feedings.

The cecum and large intestine
The cecum is the first section of the large intestine. It is also known as the "water gut" or "hind gut." It is a blind-ended pouch, about  long that holds  to . The small intestine opens into the cecum, and the cellulose plant fiber in the food is fermented by microbes for approximately seven hours.  The fermented material leaves the cecum through another orifice and passes to the large colon. The microbes in the cecum produce vitamin K, B-complex vitamins, proteins, and fatty acids.  The reason horses must have their diets changed slowly is so the microbes in the cecum are able to modify and adapt to the different chemical structure of new feedstuffs. Too abrupt a change in diet can cause colic, because new materials are not properly digested.

The large colon, small colon, and rectum make up the remainder of the large intestine. The large colon is   long and holds up to  of semi-liquid matter.  Its main purpose is to absorb carbohydrates which were broken down from cellulose in the cecum. Due to its many twists and turns, it is a common place for a type of horse colic called an impaction.  The small colon is also   long, holds about , is the area where the majority of water is absorbed, and where fecal balls are formed. The rectum is about one foot long, and acts as a holding chamber for waste, which is then expelled from the body via the anus.

Nutrients
Like all animals, equines require five main classes of nutrients to survive: water, energy (primarily in the form of fats and carbohydrates), proteins, vitamins, and minerals.

Water

Water makes up between 62-68% of a horse's body weight and is essential for life.  Horses can only live a few days without water, becoming dangerously dehydrated if they lose 8-10% of their natural body water. Therefore, it is critically important for horses to have access to a fresh, clean, and adequate supply of water.

An average  horse drinks  of water per day, more in hot weather, when eating dry forage such as hay, or when consuming high levels of salt, potassium, and magnesium.  Horses drink less water in cool weather or when on lush pasture, which has a higher water content. When under hard work, or if a mare is lactating, water requirements may be as much as four times greater than normal. In the winter, snow is not a sufficient source of water for horses. Though they need a great deal of water, horses spend very little time drinking; usually 1–8 minutes a day, spread out in 2-8 episodes.

Water plays an important part in digestion. The forages and grains horses eat are mixed with saliva in the mouth to make a moist bolus that can be easily swallowed.  Therefore, horses produce up to  or 85 lb. of saliva per day.

Energy nutrients and protein
Nutritional sources of energy are fat and carbohydrates.  Protein is a critical building block for muscles and other tissues. Horses that are heavily exercised, growing, pregnant or lactating need increased energy and protein in their diet. However, if a horse has too much energy in its diet and not enough exercise, it can become too high-spirited and difficult to handle.

Fat exists in low levels in plants and can be added to increase the energy density of the diet. Fat has  per kilogram of energy, which is 2.25 times that of any carbohydrate source. Because equids have no gall bladder to store large quantities of bile, which flows continuously from the liver directly into the small intestine, fat, though a necessary nutrient, is difficult for them to digest and utilize in large quantities. However, they are able to digest a greater amount of fat than can cattle.  Horses benefit from up to 8% fat in their diets, but more does not always provide a visible benefit.  Horses can only have 15-20% fat in their diet without the risk of developing diarrhea.

Carbohydrates, the main energy source in most rations, are usually fed in the form of hay, grass, and grain. Soluble carbohydrates such as starches and sugars are readily broken down to glucose in the small intestine and absorbed. Insoluble carbohydrates, such as fiber (cellulose), are not digested by the horse's own enzymes, but are fermented by microbes in the cecum and large colon to break down and release their energy sources, volatile fatty acids.

Soluble carbohydrates are found in nearly every feed source; corn has the highest amount, then barley and oats. Forages normally have only 6-8% soluble carbohydrate, but under certain conditions can have up to 30%. Sudden ingestion of large amounts of starch or high sugar feeds can cause at the least an indigestion colic, and at the worst potentially fatal colitis or laminitis.

Protein is used in all parts of the body, especially muscle, blood, hormones, hooves, and hair cells.  The main building blocks of protein are amino acids. Alfalfa and other legumes in hay are good sources of protein that can be easily added to the diet.  Most adult horses only require 8-10% protein in their diet; however, higher protein is important for lactating mares and young growing foals.

Vitamins and minerals

Horses that are not subjected to hard work or extreme conditions usually have more than adequate amounts of vitamins in their diet if they are receiving fresh, green, leafy forages.  Sometimes a vitamin/mineral supplement is needed when feeding low-quality hay, if a horse is under stress (illness, traveling, showing, racing, and so on), or not eating well. Grain has a different balance of nutrients than forage, and so requires specialized supplementation to prevent an imbalance of vitamins and minerals.

Minerals are required for maintenance and function of the skeleton, nerves, and muscles. These include calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, and chloride, and are commonly found in most good-quality feeds.  Horses also need trace minerals such as magnesium, selenium, copper, zinc, and iodine. Normally, if adult animals at maintenance levels are consuming fresh hay or are on pasture, they will receive adequate amounts of minerals in their diet, with the exception of sodium chloride (salt), which needs to be provided, preferably free choice. Some pastures are deficient in certain trace minerals, including selenium, zinc, and copper, and in such situations, health problems, including deficiency diseases, may occur if horses' trace mineral intake is not properly supplemented.

Calcium and phosphorus are needed in a specific ratio of between 1:1 and 2:1.  Adult horses can tolerate up to a 5:1 ratio, foals no more than 3:1.  A total ration with a higher ratio of phosphorus than calcium is to be avoided. Over time, imbalance will ultimately lead to a number of possible bone-related problems such as osteoporosis.

Foals and young growing horses through their first three to four years have special nutritional needs and require feeds that are balanced with a proper calcium:phosphorus ratio and other trace minerals. A number of skeletal problems may occur in young animals with an unbalanced diet. Hard work increases the need for minerals; sweating depletes sodium, potassium, and chloride from the horse's system.  Therefore, supplementation with electrolytes may be required for horses in intense training, especially in hot weather.

Types of feed

Equids can consume approximately 2–2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a  adult horse could eat up to  of food. Foals less than six months of age eat 2-4% of their weight each day.

Solid feeds are placed into three categories:  forages (such as hay and grass), concentrates (including grain or pelleted rations), and supplements (such as prepared vitamin or mineral pellets). Equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should be forages.  If a horse is working hard and requires more energy, the use of grain is increased and the percentage of forage decreased so that the horse obtains the energy content it needs for the work it is performing.  However, forage amount should never go below 1% of the horse's body weight per day.

Forages

Forages, also known as "roughage," are plant materials classified as legumes or grasses, found in pastures or in hay. Often, pastures and hayfields will contain a blend of both grasses and legumes. Nutrients available in forage vary greatly with maturity of the grasses, fertilization, management, and environmental conditions. Grasses are tolerant of a wide range of conditions and contain most necessary nutrients.  Some commonly used grasses include timothy, brome, fescue, coastal Bermuda, orchard grass, and Kentucky bluegrass. Another type of forage sometimes provided to horses is beet pulp, a byproduct left over from the processing of sugar beets, which is high in energy as well as fiber.

Legumes such as clover or alfalfa are usually higher in protein, calcium, and energy than grasses. However, they require warm weather and good soil to produce the best nutrients. Legume hays are generally higher in protein than the grass hays. They are also higher in minerals, particularly calcium, but have an incorrect ratio of calcium to phosphorus. Because they are high in protein, they are very desirable for growing horses or those subjected to very hard work, but the calcium:phosphorus ratio must be balanced by other feeds to prevent bone abnormalities.

Hay is a dried mixture of grasses and legumes. It is cut in the field and then dried and baled for storage.  Hay is most nutritious when it is cut early on, before the seed heads are fully mature and before the stems of the plants become tough and thick.  Hay that is very green can be a good indicator of the amount of nutrients in the hay; however, color is not the sole indicator of quality—smell and texture are also important. Hay can be analyzed by many laboratories and that is the most reliable way to tell the nutritional values it contains.

Hay, particularly alfalfa, is sometimes compressed into pellets or cubes.  Processed hay can be of more consistent quality and is more convenient to ship and to store.  It is also easily obtained in areas that may be suffering localized hay shortages.  However, these more concentrated forms can be overfed and horses are somewhat more prone to choke on them. On the other hand, hay pellets and cubes can be soaked until they break apart into a pulp or thick slurry, and in this state are a very useful source of food for horses with tooth problems such as dental disease, tooth loss due to age, or structural anomalies.

Haylage, also known as Round bale silage is a term for grass sealed in airtight plastic bags, a form of forage that is frequently fed in the United Kingdom and continental Europe, but is not often seen in the United States. Because haylage is a type of silage, hay stored in this fashion must remain completely sealed in plastic, as any holes or tears can stop the preservation properties of fermentation and lead to mold or spoilage. Rodents chewing through the plastic can also spoil the hay introducing contamination to the bale. If a rodent dies inside the plastic, the subsequent botulism toxins released can contaminate the entire bale.

Sometimes, straw or chaff is fed to animals. However, this is roughage with little nutritional value other than providing fiber.  It is sometimes used as a filler; it can slow down horses who eat their grain too fast, or it can provide additional fiber when the horse must meet most nutritional needs via concentrated feeds. Straw is more often used as a bedding in stalls to absorb wastes.

Concentrates

Grains
Whole or crushed grains are the most common form of concentrated feed, sometimes referred to generically as "oats" or "corn" even if those grains are not present, also sometimes called straights in the UK.

Oats are the most popular grain for horses. Oats have a lower digestible energy value and higher fiber content than most other grains. They form a loose mass in the stomach that is well suited to the equine digestive system. They are also more palatable and digestible than other grains.

Corn (USA), or maize (British English), is the second most palatable grain. It provides twice as much digestible energy as an equal volume of oats and is low in fiber. Because of these characteristics, it is easy to over-feed, causing obesity, so horses are seldom fed corn all by itself. Nutritionists caution that moldy corn is poisonous if fed to horses.

Barley is also fed to horses, but needs to be processed to crack the seed hull and allow easier digestibility. It is frequently fed in combination with oats and corn, a mix informally referred to by the acronym "COB" (for Corn, Oats and Barley).

Wheat is generally not used as a concentrate.  However, wheat bran is sometimes added to the diet of a horse for supplemental nutrition, usually moistened and in the form of a bran mash.  Wheat bran is high in phosphorus, so must be fed carefully so that it does not cause an imbalance in the Ca:P ratio of a ration.  Once touted for a laxative effect, this use of bran is now considered unnecessary, as horses, unlike humans, obtain sufficient fiber in their diets from other sources.

Mixes and pellets
Many feed manufacturers combine various grains and add additional vitamin and mineral supplements to create a complete premixed feed that is easy for owners to feed and of predictable nutritional quality.  Some of these prepared feeds are manufactured in pelleted form, others retain the grains in their original form. In many cases molasses is used as a binder to keep down dust and for increased palatability. Grain mixes with added molasses are usually called "sweet feed" in the United States and "coarse mix" in the United Kingdom. Pelleted or extruded feeds (sometimes referred to as "nuts" in the UK) may be easier to chew and result in less wasted feed. Horses generally eat pellets as easily as grain. However, pellets are also more expensive, and even "complete" rations do not eliminate the necessity for forage.

Supplements
The average modern horse on good hay or pasture with light work usually does not need supplements; however, horses subjected to stress due to age, intensive athletic work, or reproduction may need additional nutrition. Extra fat and protein are sometimes added to the horse's diet, along with vitamin and mineral supplements. There are hundreds, if not thousands of commercially prepared vitamin and mineral supplements on the market, many tailored to horses with specialized needs.

Soybean meal is a common protein supplement, and averages about 44% crude protein. The protein in soybean meal is high-quality, with the proper ratio of dietary essential amino acids for equids.  Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, and peanut meal are also used, but are not as common.

Feeding practices

Most horses only need quality forage, water, and a salt or mineral block. Grain or other concentrates are often not necessary.  But, when grain or other concentrates are fed, quantities must be carefully monitored. To do so, horse feed is measured by weight, not volume.  For example,  of oats has a different volume than  of corn. When continuous access to feed is not possible, it is more consistent with natural feeding behavior to provide three small feedings per day instead of one or two large ones.  However, even two daily feedings is preferable to only one. To gauge the amount to feed, a weight tape can be used to provide a reasonably accurate estimate of a horse's weight.  The tape measures the circumference of the horse's barrel, just behind the withers and elbows, and the tape is calibrated to convert circumference into approximate weight.

Actual amounts fed vary by the size of the horse, the age of the horse, the climate, and the work to which the animal is put.  In addition, genetic factors play a role.  Some animals are naturally easy keepers (good doers), which means that they can thrive on small amounts of food and are prone to obesity and other health problems if overfed.  Others are hard keepers (poor doers), meaning that they are prone to be thin and require considerably more food to maintain a healthy weight.

Veterinarians are usually a good source for recommendations on appropriate types and amounts of feed for a specific horse.  Animal nutritionists are also trained in how to develop equine rations and make recommendations. There are also numerous books written on the topic.  Feed manufacturers usually offer very specific guidelines for how to select and properly feed products from their company, and in the United States, the local office of the Cooperative Extension Service can provide educational materials and expert recommendations.

Feeding forages
Equids always require forage.  When possible, nutritionists recommend it be available at all times, at least when doing so does not overfeed the animal and lead to obesity.  It is safe to feed a ration that is 100% forage (along with water and supplemental salt), and any feed ration should be at least 50% forage. Hay with alfalfa or other legumes has more concentrated nutrition and so is fed in smaller amounts than grass hay, though many hays have a mixture of both types of plant.

When beet pulp is fed, a ration of  to  is usually soaked in water for 3 to 4 hours prior to feeding in order to make it more palatable, and to minimize the risk of choke and other problems.  It is usually soaked in a proportion of one part beet pulp to two parts water.  Beet pulp is usually fed in addition to hay, but occasionally is a replacement for hay when fed to very old horses who can no longer chew properly. It is available in both pelleted and shredded form, pellets must be soaked significantly longer than shredded beet pulp.

Some pelleted rations are designed to be a "complete" feed that contains both hay and grain, meeting all the horse's nutritional needs.  However, even these rations should have some hay or pasture provided, a minimum of a half-pound of forage for every  of horse, in order to keep the digestive system functioning properly and to meet the horse's urge to graze.

When horses graze under natural conditions, they may spend up to 18 hours per day doing so.  However, on modern irrigated pastures, they may have their nutritional needs for forage met in as little as three hours per day, depending on the quality of grass available.

Recent studies address the level of various non-structural carbohydrates (NSC), such as fructan, in forages.  Too high an NSC level causes difficulties for animals prone to laminitis or equine polysaccharide storage myopathy (EPSM).  NSC cannot be determined by looking at forage, but hay and pasture grasses can be tested for NSC levels.

Feeding concentrates
Concentrates, when fed, are recommended to be provided in quantities no greater than 1% of a horse's body weight per day, and preferably in two or more feedings of no more than 0.5% of body weight each.  If a ration needs to contain a higher percent of concentrates, such as that of a race horse, bulky grains such as oats should be used as much as possible; a loose mass of feed helps prevent impaction colic. Peptic ulcers are linked to a too-high concentration of grain in the diet, particularly noticed in modern racehorses, where some studies show such ulcers affecting up to 90% of all race horses.

In general, the portion of the ration that should be grain or other concentrated feed is 0-10% grain for mature idle horses; between 20-70% for horses at work, depending on age, intensity of activity, and energy requirements. Concentrates should not be fed to horses within one hour before or after a heavy workout. Concentrates also need to be adjusted to level of performance. Not only can excess grain and inadequate exercise lead to behavior problems, it may also trigger serious health problems that include Equine Exertional Rhabdomyolysis, or "tying up," in horses prone to the condition. Another possible risk are various forms of horse colic. A relatively uncommon, but usually fatal concern is colitis-X, which may be triggered by excess protein and lack of forage in the diet that allows for the multiplication of clostridial organisms, and is exacerbated by stress.

Access to water
Horses normally require free access to all the fresh, clean water they want, and to avoid dehydration, should not be kept from water longer than four hours at any one time. However, water may need to be temporarily limited in quantity when a horse is very hot after a heavy workout. As long as a hot horse continues to work, it can drink its fill at periodic intervals, provided that common sense is used and that an overheated horse is not forced to drink from extremely cold water sources.  But when the workout is over, a horse needs to be cooled out and walked for 30–90 minutes before it can be allowed all the water it wants at one time. However, dehydration is also a concern, so some water needs to be offered during the cooling off process.  A hot horse will properly rehydrate while cooling off if offered a few swallows of water every three to five minutes while being walked.  Sometimes the thirst mechanism does not immediately kick in following a heavy workout, which is another reason to offer periodic refills of water throughout the cooling down period.

Even a slightly dehydrated horse is at higher risk of developing impaction colic. Additionally, dehydration can lead to weight loss because the horse cannot produce adequate amounts of saliva, thus decreasing the amount of feed and dry forage consumed. Thus, it is especially important for horse owners to encourage their horses to drink when there is a risk of dehydration; when horses are losing a great deal of water in hot weather due to strenuous work, or in cold weather due to horses' natural tendency to drink less when in a cold environment. To encourage drinking, owners may add electrolytes to the feed, additives to make the water especially palatable (such as apple juice), or, when it is cold, to warm the water so that it is not at a near-freezing temperature.

Special feeding issues for ponies

Ponies and miniature horses are usually easy keepers and need less feed than full-sized horses.  This is not only because they are smaller, but also, because they evolved under harsher living conditions than horses, they use feed more efficiently.  Ponies easily become obese from overfeeding and are at high risk for colic and, especially, laminitis. Fresh grass is a particular danger to ponies; they can develop laminitis in as little as one hour of grazing on lush pasture.

Incorrect feeding is also as much a concern as simple overfeeding. Ponies and miniatures need a diet relatively low in sugars and starches and calories, but higher in fibers.   Miniature horses in particular need fewer calories pound for pound than a regular horse, and are more prone to hyperlipemia than regular horses, and are also at higher risk of developing equine metabolic syndrome.

It is important to track the weight of a pony carefully, by use of a weight tape.  Forages may be fed based on weight, at a rate of about  of forage for every .  Forage, along with water and a salt and mineral block, is all most ponies require.  If a hard-working pony needs concentrates, a ratio of no more than 30% concentrates to 70% forage is recommended. Concentrates designed for horses, with added vitamins and minerals, will often provide insufficient nutrients at the small serving sizes needed for ponies. Therefore, if a pony requires concentrates, feed and supplements designed specially for ponies should be used.  In the UK, extruded pellets designed for ponies are sometimes called "pony nuts".

Special feeding issues for mules and donkeys

Like ponies, mules and donkeys are also very hardy and generally need less concentrated feed than horses.  Mules need less protein than horses and do best on grass hay with a vitamin and mineral supplement. If mules are fed concentrates, they only need about half of what a horse requires. Like horses, mules require fresh, clean water, but are less likely to over-drink when hot.

Donkeys, like mules, need less protein and more fiber than horses. Although the donkey's gastrointestinal tract has no marked differences in structure to that of the horse, donkeys are more efficient at digesting food and thrive on less forage than a similar sized pony. They only need to eat 1.5% of their body weight per day in dry matter. It is not fully understood why donkeys are such efficient digestors, but it is thought that they may have a different microbial population in the large intestine than do horses, or possibly an increased gut retention time.

Donkeys do best when allowed to consume small amounts of food over long periods, as is natural for them in an arid climate. They can meet their nutritional needs on 6 to 7 hours of grazing per day on average dryland pasture that is not stressed by drought. If they are worked long hours or do not have access to pasture, they require hay or a similar dried forage, with no more than a 1:4 ratio of legumes to grass.  They also require salt and mineral supplements, and access to clean, fresh water.  Like ponies and mules, in a lush climate, donkeys are prone to obesity and are at risk of laminitis.

Treats
Many people like to feed horses special treats such as carrots, sugar cubes, peppermint candies, or specially manufactured horse "cookies."  Horses do not need treats, and due to the risk of colic or choke, many horse owners do not allow their horses to be given treats.  There are also behavioral issues that some horses may develop if given too many treats, particularly a tendency to bite if hand-fed, and for this reason many horse trainers and riding instructors discourage the practice.

However, if treats are allowed, carrots and compressed hay pellets are common, nutritious, and generally not harmful.  Apples are also acceptable, though it is best if they are first cut into slices.  Horse "cookies" are often specially manufactured out of ordinary grains and some added molasses.  They generally will not cause nutritional problems when fed in small quantities.   However, many types of human foods are potentially dangerous to a horse and should not be fed.  This includes bread products, meat products, candy, and carbonated or alcoholic beverages.

It was once a common practice to give horses a weekly bran mash of wheat bran mixed with warm water and other ingredients.  It is still done regularly in some places.  While a warm, soft meal is a treat many horses enjoy, and was once considered helpful for its laxative effect, it is not nutritionally necessary.  An old horse with poor teeth may benefit from food softened in water, a mash may help provide extra hydration, and a warm meal may be comforting in cold weather, but horses have far more fiber in their regular diet than do humans, and so any assistance from bran is unnecessary. There is also a risk that too much wheat bran may provide excessive phosphorus, unbalancing the diet, and a feed of unusual contents fed only once a week could trigger a bout of colic.

Feed storage

All hay and concentrated feeds must be kept dry and free of mold, rodent feces, and other types of contamination that may cause illness in horses. Feed kept outside or otherwise exposed to moisture can develop mold quite quickly.  Due to fire hazards, hay is often stored under an open shed or under a tarp, rather than inside a horse barn itself, but should be kept under some kind of cover.  Concentrates take up less storage space, are less of a fire hazard, and are usually kept in a barn or enclosed shed.  A secure door or latched gate between the animals and any feed storage area is critical.  Horses accidentally getting into stored feed and eating too much at one time is a common but preventable way that horses develop colic or laminitis.  (see Illnesses related to improper feeding below)

It is generally not safe to give a horse feed that was contaminated by the remains of a dead animal.  This is a potential source of botulism. This is not an uncommon situation.  For example, mice and birds can get into poorly stored grain and be trapped; hay bales sometimes accidentally contain snakes, mice, or other small animals that were caught in the baling machinery during the harvesting process.

Feeding behavior
Horses can become anxious or stressed if there are long periods of time between meals. They also do best when they are fed on a regular schedule; they are creatures of habit and easily upset by changes in routine.  When horses are in a herd, their behavior is hierarchical; the higher-ranked animals in the herd eat and drink first.  Low-status animals, who eat last, may not get enough food, and if there is little available feed, higher-ranking horses may keep lower-ranking ones from eating at all.  Therefore, unless a herd is on pasture that meets the nutritional needs of all individuals, it is important to either feed horses separately, or spread  feed out in separate areas to be sure all animals get roughly equal amounts of food to eat.  In some situations where horses are kept together, they may still be placed into separate herds, depending on nutritional needs; overweight horses are kept separate from thin horses so that rations may be adjusted accordingly.  Horses may also eat in undesirable ways, such as bolting their feed, or eating too fast.  This can lead to either choke or colic under some circumstances.

Dental issues

Horses' teeth continually erupt throughout their life, are worn down as they eat, and can develop uneven wear patterns that can interfere with chewing.  For this reason, horses need a dental examination at least once a year, and particular care must be paid to the dental needs of older horses. The process of grinding off uneven wear patterns on a horse's teeth is called floating and can be performed by a veterinarian or a specialist in equine dentistry.

Illnesses related to improper feeding
Colic, choke, and laminitis can be life-threatening when a horse is severely affected, and veterinary care is necessary to properly treat these conditions.  Other conditions, while not life-threatening, may have serious implications for the long-term health and soundness of a horse.

Colic

Horse colic itself is not a disease, but rather a description of symptoms connected to abdominal pain.  It can occur due to any number of digestive upsets, from mild bloating due to excess intestinal gas to life-threatening impactions. Colic is most often caused by a change in diet, either a planned change that takes place too quickly, or an accidental change, such as a horse getting out of its barn or paddock and ingesting unfamiliar plants. But colic has many other possible triggers including insufficient water, an irregular feeding schedule, stress, and illness.  Because the horse cannot vomit and has a limited capacity to detoxify harmful substances, anything upsetting to the horse must travel all the way through the digestive system to be expelled.

Choke

Choke is not as common as colic, but is nonetheless commonly considered a veterinary emergency.  The most common cause of choke is horses not chewing their food thoroughly, usually because of eating their food too quickly, especially if they do not have sufficient access to water, but also sometimes due to dental problems that make chewing painful. It is exceedingly difficult for a horse to expel anything from the esophagus, and immediate treatment is often required. Unlike choking in humans, choke in horses does not cut off respiration.

Laminitis

Horses are also susceptible to laminitis, a disease of the lamina of the hoof.  Laminitis has many causes, but the most common is related to a sugar and starch overload from a horse overeating certain types of food, particularly too much pasture grass high in fructan in early spring and late fall, or by consuming excessive quantities of grain.

Growth disorders
Young horses that are overfed or are fed a diet with an improper calcium:phosphorus ratio over time may develop a number of growth and orthopedic disorders, including osteochondrosis (OCD), angular limb deformities (ALD), and several conditions grouped under the popular term "contracted tendons."  If not properly treated, damage can be permanent.  However, they can be treated if caught in time, given proper veterinary care, and any  improper feeding practices are corrected.  Young horses being fed for rapid growth in order to be shown or sold as yearlings are at particularly high risk.  Adult horses with an improper diet may also develop a range of metabolic problems.

Heaves
Moldy or dusty hay fed to horses is the most common cause of Recurrent airway obstruction, also known as COPD or "heaves." This is a chronic condition of horses involving an allergic bronchitis characterized by wheezing, coughing, and labored breathing.

"Tying up"

Equine exertional rhabdomyolysis, also known as "tying up" or azoturia, is a condition to which only some horses are susceptible and most cases are linked to a genetic mutation.  In horses prone to the condition, it usually occurs when a day of rest on full grain ration is followed by work the next day.  This pattern of clinical signs led to the archaic nickname "Monday morning sickness". The condition may also be related to electrolyte imbalance.  Proper diet management may help minimize the risk of an attack.

See also
Easy keeper (US) Good doer (UK)
Fodder
Forage
Geriatric horses
Grain
Hard keeper (US)  Poor doer (UK)
Hay
Henneke horse body condition scoring system
 Horse body mass
 Horse tongue
Horse care
List of plants poisonous to equines

Footnotes and other references

 "Horse Nutrition - Table of Contents." Bulletin 762-00, Ohio State University.  Web site accessed February 9, 2007.
Mowrey, Robert A. "Horse Feeding Management - Nutrient Requirements for Horses." from North Carolina Cooperative Extension Center (PDF) Web site accessed July 4, 2009.

Horse management
Animal nutrition

Equine nutrition


A bona fide purchaser (BFP)referred to more completely as a bona fide purchaser for value without notice is a term used predominantly in common law jurisdictions in the law of real property and personal property to refer to an innocent party who purchases property without notice of any other party's claim to the title of that property. A BFP must purchase for value, meaning that they must pay for the property rather than simply be the beneficiary of a gift. Even when a party fraudulently conveys property to a BFP (for example, by selling to the BFP property that has already been conveyed to someone else), that BFP will, depending on the laws of the relevant jurisdiction, take good (valid) title to the property despite the competing claims of the other party. As such, an owner publicly recording their own interests (which in some types of property must be on a court-recognised Register) protects themselves from losing those to an indirect buyer, such as a qualifying buyer from a thief, who qualifies as a BFP. Moreover, so-called "race-notice" jurisdictions require the BFP to record (depending on the type of property by public notice or applying for registration) to enforce their rights. In any case, parties with a claim to ownership of the property will retain a cause of action (a right to sue) against the party who made the fraudulent conveyance.

In England and Wales and other jurisdictions following the 20th century oft-repeated precedent, the BFP will not be bound by equitable interests of which they do not have actual, constructive, or imputed notice, as long as they have made "such inspections as ought reasonably to have been made".

BFPs are also sometimes referred to as "equity's darling". However, jurist Hackney explains that the portrayal is inaccurate. In cases where legal title is passed to a bona fide purchaser for value without notice, equity does not show the purchaser any great affection in accepting the transfer. Rather, it recognises that it has no jurisdiction over the question of legal title, which belongs to the common law. The relationship between the courts of equity and the BFP is at root characterised as, geared toward the BFP, with benign neglect of the old owner(s). However, equity allows a proven BFP to claim for a full legal conveyance from former legal owner, failing which the court itself will convey title.

In the United States, the patent law codifies the bona fide purchaser rule, . Unlike the common law, the statute cuts off both equitable and legal claims to the title.

See also
 Market overt
 Nemo dat quod non habet
 Title insurance in the United States

Footnotes

Property law
Property law legal terminology
Common law legal terminology

fr:Contrat de vente en France#Vente de la chose d.27autrui
sr:Nemo plus iuris

Bona fide purchaser


Ulusaba Private Game Reserve, owned by Sir Richard Branson as part of the Virgin Limited Edition luxury property portfolio, consists of about 13,500 ha of land set in the heart of the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve. This private game reserve borders on the sprawling Kruger National Park in South Africa's Mpumalanga province and is home to an abundance of wildlife. Ulusaba means fearful in the local Tsonga (Shangaan) language and it was a name given to the Sabie River by the Shangaan people. The Sabie River was originally called Ulusaba (fearful river) by the Shangaan simply because there was once a large concentration of dangerous Nile crocodile in the river. Before the establishment of the Kruger National Park, Ulusaba was once a home of Tsonga-Shangaan people, the Shangaan were evicted from this land when the Kruger National Park was established and were relocated in nearby villages adjacent Ulusaba Private Game Reserve.

One of a handful of private game lodges in the Sabi Sand area, it benefits from the recent removal of fences between private reserves and the greater Kruger National Park. This creates a much larger contiguous body of land available to wildlife in the area.

In 2007, the Nxumalo community made a land restitution claim involving 700 km² of nature reserve land. The claimants hope to settle the claim with a joint venture between Virgin Limited Edition and the newly registered Nxumalo Conservation Trust.

Wildlife

Wildlife species include the Big five game: African bush elephant, lion, African leopard, rhinoceros (southern white rhinoceros as well as south-central black rhinoceros), and African buffalo. In addition to the "Big Five", a multitude of other mammals such as the African wild dog, South African giraffe, blue wildebeest, spotted hyena, hippopotamus, plains zebra, cheetah roam in this reserve.

See also
 Associated Private Nature Reserves

References

External links
 Ulusaba Private Game Lodge
 Ulusaba Game Reserve on Sabi Sand website

Protected areas of Mpumalanga
Virgin Limited Edition

Ulusaba Private Game Reserve


Mound Builder is a general term referring to certain cultures of pre-Columbian American Indians. These cultures built various styles of earthen mounds. There were burial, residential and ceremonial purposes. The cultures cover a long period of time. This is from about 3500 BCE to the 16th century CE. This includes the Archaic, Woodland and Mississippian periods. Notable cultures were the Adena, Hopewell, Plaquemine, Fort Ancient, Coles Creek and Mississippian cultures. These groups were around the Great Lakes, the Ohio River Valley, and the Mississippi River.

The mounds were flat structures with layers. They usually were pyramids. Some mounds were like domes. Some mounds were effigy mounds. They had shapes of animals. One famous one is the Serpent Mound in Ohio. The oldest mound is probably the Watson Brake in Louisiana. Usually, elite made workers build the mounds. Some mounds were burial sites for elite people of the tribes.

There were several records of these mounds. Hernando de Soto was one of the earliest to see and record these mounds. The French artist Jacques le Moyne made paintings of these mounds. All of the mounds today are from the Woodland and Mississippian periods.

The mounds started to disappear with colonization. Disease decreased the population sizes of American Indians. Mound building ended after the 17th century.

Related pages
Cahokia

References

Native Americans

Mound builders