Bioethics is both a field of study and professional practice, interested in ethical issues related to health (primarily focused on the human, but also increasingly includes animal ethics), including those emerging from advances in biology, medicine, and technologies. It proposes the discussion about moral discernment in society (what decisions are "good" or "bad" and why) and it is often related to medical policy and practice, but also to broader questions as environment, well-being and public health. Bioethics is concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, theology and philosophy. It includes the study of values relating to primary care, other branches of medicine ("the ethics of the ordinary"), ethical education in science, animal, and environmental ethics, and public health.

Etymology
The term bioethics (Greek , "life"; , "moral nature, behavior") was coined in 1927 by Fritz Jahr in an article about a "bioethical imperative" regarding the use of animals and plants in scientific research. In 1970, the American biochemist, and oncologist Van Rensselaer Potter used the term to describe the relationship between the biosphere and a growing human population. Potter's work laid the foundation for global ethics, a discipline centered around the link between biology, ecology, medicine, and human values. Sargent Shriver, the spouse of Eunice Kennedy Shriver, claimed that he had invented the term "bioethics" in the living room of his home in Bethesda, Maryland, in 1970. He stated that he thought of the word after returning from a discussion earlier that evening at Georgetown University, where he discussed with others a possible Kennedy family sponsorship of an institute focused around the "application of moral philosophy to concrete medical dilemmas".

Purpose and scope

The discipline of bioethics has addressed a wide swathe of human inquiry; ranging from debates over the boundaries of lifestyles (e.g. abortion, euthanasia), surrogacy, the allocation of scarce health care resources (e.g. organ donation, health care rationing), to the right to refuse medical care for religious or cultural reasons. Bioethicists generally fail to agree among themselves over the precise limits of their discipline, debating whether the field should concern itself with the ethical evaluation of all questions involving biology and medicine, or only a subset of these questions. Some bioethicists would narrow ethical evaluation only to the morality of medical treatments or technological innovations, and the timing of medical treatment of humans. Others would increase the scope of moral assessment to encompass the morality of all moves that would possibly assist or damage organisms successful of feeling fear.

The scope of bioethics has expanded beyond biotechnology, and while including topics such as cloning, gene therapy, life extension, human genetic engineering, it can also include astroethics and life in space, and manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA, XNA and proteins. These (and other) developments may affect future evolution and require new principles that address life at its core, such as biotic ethics that values life itself at its basic biological processes and structures, and seeks their propagation. Moving beyond the biological, issues raised in public health such as vaccination and resource allocation have also encouraged the development of novel ethics frameworks to address such challenges. A study published in 2022 based on the corpus of full papers from eight main bioethics journals demonstrated the heterogeneity of this field by distinguishing 91 topics that have been discussed in these journals over the past half a century.

Principles

One of the first areas addressed by modern bioethicists was human experimentation. According to Declaration of Helsinki published by the World Medical Association, the essential principles in medical research involving human subjects are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice.
The autonomy of individuals to make decisions while assuming responsibility for them and respecting the autonomy of others must be respected.
For people unable to exercise their autonomy, special measures must be taken to protect their rights and interests.

In USA, the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was initially established in 1974 to identify the basic ethical principles that should underlie the conduct of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects.  However, the fundamental principles announced in the Belmont Report (1979)—namely, respect for persons, beneficence and justice—have influenced the thinking of bioethicists across a wide range of issues.  Others have added non-maleficence, human dignity, and the sanctity of life to this list of cardinal values.
Overall, the Belmont Report has guided lookup in a course centered on defending prone topics as properly as pushing for transparency between the researcher and the subject. Research has flourished within the past 40 years and due to the advance in technology, it is thought that human subjects have outgrown the Belmont Report, and the need for revision is desired.

Another essential precept of bioethics is its placement of cost on dialogue and presentation. Numerous dialogue based totally bioethics corporations exist in universities throughout the United States to champion precisely such goals. Examples include the Ohio State Bioethics Society and the Bioethics Society of Cornell. Professional level versions of these organizations also exist.

Many bioethicists, in particular scientific scholars, accord the easiest precedence to autonomy. They trust that every affected person ought to decide which direction of motion they think about most in line with their beliefs. In other words, the patient should always have the freedom to choose their own treatment.

Medical ethics
Medical ethics is a utilized department of ethics that analyzes the exercise of clinical medicinal drug and associated scientific research. Medical ethics is based totally on a set of values that gurus can refer to in the case of any confusion or conflict. These values consist of the appreciation for autonomy, beneficence, and justice.

Ethics affects medical decisions made by healthcare providers and patients. Medical ethics is the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine. The four main moral commitments are respect for autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. Using these four principles and thinking about what the physicians' specific concern is for their scope of practice can help physicians make moral decisions. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.

Medical ethics tends to be understood narrowly as applied professional ethics; whereas bioethics has a more expansive application, touching upon the philosophy of science and issues of biotechnology. The two fields often overlap, and the distinction is more so a matter of style than professional consensus. Medical ethics shares many principles with other branches of healthcare ethics, such as nursing ethics. A bioethicist assists the health care and research community in examining moral issues involved in our understanding of life and death, and resolving ethical dilemmas in medicine and science. Examples of this would be the topic of equality in medicine, the intersection of cultural practices and medical care, ethical distribution of healthcare resources in pandemics, and issues of bioterrorism.

Medical ethical concerns frequently touch on matters of life and death. Patient rights, informed consent, confidentiality, competency, advance directives, carelessness, and many other topics are highlighted as serious health concerns.

The proper actions to take in light of all the circumstances are what ethics is all about. It discusses the difference between what is proper and wrong at a certain moment and a particular society. Medical ethics is concerned with the duties that doctors, hospitals, and other healthcare providers have to patients, society, and other health professionals.

The health profession has a set of ethical standards that are relevant to various organizations of health workers and medical facilities. Ethics are never stagnant and always relevant. What is seen as acceptable ethics now may not be so one hundred years ago. The hospital administrator is required to have a thorough awareness of their moral and legal obligations.

Medical sociology
The practice of bioethics in clinical care have been studied by medical sociology. Many scholars consider that bioethics arose in response to a perceived lack of accountability in medical care in the 1970s. Studying the clinical practice of ethics in medical care, Hauschildt and Vries found that ethical questions were often reframed as clinical judgments to allow clinicians to make decisions. Ethicists most often put key decisions in the hands of physicians rather than patients.

Communication strategies suggested by ethicists act to decrease patient autonomy. Examples include, clinicians discussing treatment options with one another prior to talking to patients or their family to present a united front limited patient autonomy, hiding uncertainty amongst clinicians. Decisions about overarching goals of treatment were reframed as technical matters excluding patients and their families. Palliative care experts were used as intermediaries to guide patients towards less invasive end-of-live treatment. In their study, Hauschild and Vries found that 76% of ethical consultants were trained as clinicians.

Studying informed consent, Corrigan found that some social processes resulted in limitations to patients choice, but also at times patients could find questions regarding consent to medical trials burdensome.

The most prevalent subject is how social stratification (based on SES, gender, class, ethnicity, and age) affects patterns of behavior related to health and sickness, illness risk, disability, and other outcomes related to health care. The study of health care organization and provision, which encompasses the evolving organizational structures of health care organizations and the social psychology of health and health care, is another important approach. These latter research cover topics including connections between doctors and patients, coping mechanisms, and social support. The description of other important fields of medical sociology study emphasizes how theory and research have changed in the twenty-first century.

Perspectives and methodology
Bioethicists come from a wide variety of backgrounds and have training in a diverse array of disciplines.
The field contains individuals trained in philosophy such as Baruch Brody of Rice University, Julian Savulescu of the University of Oxford, Arthur Caplan of NYU, Peter Singer of Princeton University, Frances Kamm of Rutgers University, Daniel Callahan of the Hastings Center, and Daniel Brock of Harvard University; medically trained clinician ethicists such as Mark Siegler of the University of Chicago and Joseph Fins of Cornell University; lawyers such as Nancy Dubler of Albert Einstein College of Medicine or Jerry Menikoff of the federal Office for Human Research Protections; political scientists like Francis Fukuyama; religious studies scholars including James Childress; and theologians like Lisa Sowle Cahill and Stanley Hauerwas.

The field, formerly dominated by formally trained philosophers, has become increasingly interdisciplinary, with some critics even claiming that the methods of analytic philosophy have harmed the field's development. Leading journals in the field include The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, the Hastings Center Report, the American Journal of Bioethics, the Journal of Medical Ethics, Bioethics, the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, Public Health Ethics, and the Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics. Bioethics has also benefited from the process philosophy developed by Alfred North Whitehead.

Another discipline that discusses bioethics is the field of feminism; the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics has played an important role in organizing and legitimizing feminist work in bioethics.

Many religious communities have their histories of inquiry into bioethical issues and have developed rules and guidelines on how to deal with these issues from within the viewpoint of their respective faiths. The Jewish, Christian and Muslim faiths have each developed a considerable body of literature on these matters.  In the case of many non-Western cultures, a strict separation of religion from philosophy does not exist.  In many Asian cultures, for example, there is a lively discussion on bioethical issues.  Buddhist bioethics, in general, is characterized by a naturalistic outlook that leads to a rationalistic, pragmatic approach. Buddhist bioethicists include Damien Keown. In India, Vandana Shiva is a leading bioethicist speaking from the Hindu tradition.

In Africa, and partly also in Latin America, the debate on bioethics frequently focuses on its practical relevance in the context of underdevelopment and geopolitical power relations. In Africa, their bioethical approach is influenced by and similar to Western bioethics due to the colonization of many African countries. Some African bioethicists are calling for a shift in bioethics that utilizes indigenous African philosophy rather than western philosophy. Some African bioethicists also believe that Africans will be more likely to accept a bioethical approach grounded in their own culture, as well as empower African people.

Masahiro Morioka argues that in Japan the bioethics movement was first launched by disability activists and feminists in the early 1970s, while academic bioethics began in the mid-1980s. During this period, unique philosophical discussions on brain death and disability appeared both in the academy and journalism. In Chinese culture and bioethics, there is not as much of an emphasis on autonomy as opposed to the heavy emphasis placed on autonomy in Western bioethics. Community, social values, and family are all heavily valued in Chinese culture, and contribute to the lack of emphasis on autonomy in Chinese bioethics. The Chinese believe that the family, community, and individual are all interdependent of each other, so it is common for the family unit to collectively make decisions regarding healthcare and medical decisions for a loved one, instead of an individual making an independent decision for his or her self.

Some argue that spirituality and understanding one another as spiritual beings and moral agents is an important aspect of bioethics and that spirituality and bioethics are heavily intertwined with one another. As a healthcare provider, it is important to know and understand varying world views and religious beliefs. Having this knowledge and understanding can empower healthcare providers with the ability to better treat and serve their patients. Developing a connection and understanding of a patient's moral agent helps enhance the care provided to the patient. Without this connection or understanding, patients can be at risk of becoming "faceless units of work" and being looked at as a "set of medical conditions" as opposed to the storied and spiritual beings that they are.

Islamic bioethics
Bioethics in the realm of Islam differs from Western bioethics, but they share some similar perspectives viewpoints as well. Western bioethics is focused on rights, especially individual rights. Islamic bioethics focuses more on religious duties and obligations, such as seeking treatment and preserving life. Islamic bioethics is heavily influenced and connected to the teachings of the Qur'an as well as the teachings of Prophet Muhammad. These influences essentially make it an extension of Shariah or Islamic Law. In Islamic bioethics, passages from the Qur'an are often used to validate various medical practices. For example, a passage from the Qur'an states "whosoever killeth a human being ... it shall be as if he had killed all humankind, and whosoever saveth the life of one, it shall be as if he saved the life of all humankind." This excerpt can be used to encourage using medicine and medical practices to save lives, but can also be looked at as a protest against euthanasia and assisted suicide. A high value and worth are placed on human life in Islam, and in turn, human life is deeply valued in the practice of Islamic bioethics as well. Muslims believe all human life, even one of poor quality, needs to be given appreciation and must be cared for and conserved.

The Islamic education on sensible problems associated to existence in normal and human lifestyles in unique can be sought in Islamic bioethics. As we will see later, due to the fact of interconnectedness of the Islamic regulation and the Islamic ethics, the Islamic bioethics has to reflect onconsideration on necessities of the Islamic regulation (Shari'ah) in addition to ethical considerations.

To react to new technological and medical advancements, informed Islamic jurists regularly will hold conferences to discuss new bioethical issues and come to an agreement on where they stand on the issue from an Islamic perspective. This allows Islamic bioethics to stay pliable and responsive to new advancements in medicine. The standpoints taken by Islamic jurists on bioethical issues are not always unanimous decisions and at times may differ. There is much diversity among Muslims varying from country to country, and the different degrees to which they adhere by Shariah. Differences and disagreements in regards to jurisprudence, theology, and ethics between the two main branches of Islam, Sunni, and Shia, lead to differences in the methods and ways in which Islamic bioethics is practiced throughout the Islamic world. An area where there is a lack of consensus is brain death. The Organization of Islamic Conferences Islamic Fiqh Academy (OIC-IFA) holds the view that brain death is equivalent to cardiopulmonary death, and acknowledges brain death in an individual as the individual being deceased. On the contrary, the Islamic Organization of Medical Sciences (IOMS) states that brain death is an "intermediate state between life and death" and does not acknowledge a brain dead individual as being deceased.

Islamic bioethicists look to the Qur'an and religious leaders regarding their outlook on reproduction and abortion. It is firmly believed that the reproduction of a human child can only be proper and legitimate via marriage. This does not mean that a child can only be reproduced via sexual intercourse between a married couple, but that the only proper and legitimate way to have a child is when it is an act between husband and wife. It is okay for a married couple to have a child artificially and from techniques using modern biotechnology as opposed to sexual intercourse, but to do this out of the context of marriage would be deemed immoral.

Islamic bioethics is strongly against abortion and strictly prohibits it. The IOMS states that "from the moment a zygote settles inside a woman's body, it deserves a unanimously recognized degree of respect." Abortion may only be permitted in unique situations where it is considered to be the "lesser evil".

Islamic bioethics may be used to find advice on practical matters relating to life in general and human life in particular. As we will see later, Islamic bioethics must take into account both moral concerns and the requirements of the Islamic law (Shari'ah) due to the interdependence of Islamic law and Islamic ethics. In order to avoid making a mistake, everything must be thoroughly examined, first against moral criteria and then against legal ones. It appears that many writers on Islamic bioethics have failed to distinguish between the two.

Despite the fact that Islamic law and morality are completely in agreement with one another, they may have distinct prescriptions because of their diverse ends and objectives. One distinction, for instance, is that Islamic ethics seeks to teach those with higher desires how to become more perfect and closer to God, but Islamic law seeks to decrease criteria for perfection or pleasure in both realms that are doable for the average or even lower than average.

So whatever is deemed essential or required by Islamic law is undoubtedly viewed the same way by Islamic ethics. However, there may be situations where something is not against Islamic law but is nonetheless condemned by Islamic ethics. Or there can be circumstances that, while not required by Islamic law, are essential from an ethical standpoint. For instance, while idle conversation is not strictly forbidden by Islamic law, it is morally unacceptable since it wastes time and is detrimental to one's spiritual growth. The night prayers are another illustration (which should be performed after midnight and before dawn).

Islamic bioethics's first influences Islamic bioethics is founded on the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and reason (al-'aql), much like any other inquiry into Islam. Sunni Muslims may use terms like ijmaa' (consensus) and qiyas in place of reason (analogy). Ijmaa' and qiyas as such are not recognized by Shi'a since they are insufficient proofs on their own.

Christian bioethics
In Christian bioethics it is noted that the Bible, especially the New Testament, teaches about healing by faith. Healing in the Bible is often associated with the ministry of specific individuals including Elijah, Jesus and Paul. The largest group of miracles mentioned in the New Testament involves cures, the Gospels give varying amounts of detail for each episode, sometimes Jesus cures simply by saying a few words, at other times, he employs material such as spit and mud.

Christian physician Reginald B. Cherry views faith healing as a pathway of healing in which God uses both the natural and the supernatural to heal. Being healed has been described as a privilege of accepting Christ's redemption on the cross. Pentecostal writer Wilfred Graves Jr. views the healing of the body as a physical expression of salvation. , after describing Jesus exorcising at sunset and healing all of the sick who were brought to him, quotes these miracles as a fulfillment of the prophecy in : "He took up our infirmities and carried our diseases".

Jesus endorsed the use of the medical assistance of the time (medicines of oil and wine) when he told the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), who "bound up [an injured man's] wounds, pouring on oil and wine" (verse 34) as a physician would. Jesus then told the doubting teacher of the law (who had elicited this parable by his self-justifying question, "And who is my neighbor?" in verse 29) to "go, and do likewise" in loving others with whom he would never ordinarily associate (verse 37).

The principle of the sacredness of human life is at the basis of Catholic bioethics. On the subject of abortion, for example, Catholics and Orthodox are on very similar positions. Catholic bioethics insists on this concept, without exception, while Anglicans, Waldensians and Lutherans have positions closer to secular ones, for example with regard to the end of life.

In 1936, Ludwig Bieler argued that Jesus was stylized in the New Testament in the image of the "divine man" (Greek: theios aner), which was widespread in antiquity. It is said that many of the famous rulers and elders of the time had divine healing powers.

Contemporary bioethical and health care policy issues, including abortion, the distribution of limited resources, the nature of appropriate hospital chaplaincy, fetal experimentation, the use of fetal tissue in treatment, genetic engineering, the use of critical care units, distinctions between ordinary and extraordinary treatment, euthanasia, free and informed consent, competency determinations, the meaning of life, are being examined within the framework of traditional Christian moral commitments.

Feminist bioethics
Feminist bioethics critiques the fields of bioethics and medicine for its lack of inclusion of women's and other marginalized group's perspectives. This lack of perspective from women is thought to create power imbalances that favor men. These power imbalances are theorized to be created from the androcentric nature of medicine. One example of a lack of consideration of women is in clinical drug trials that exclude women due to hormonal fluctuations and possible future birth defects. This has led to a gap in the research on how pharmaceuticals can affect women. Feminist bioethicists call for the necessity of feminist approaches to bioethics because the lack of diverse perspectives in bioethics and medicine can cause preventable harm to already vulnerable groups.

This study first gained prevalence in the field of reproductive medicine as it was viewed as a "woman's issue". Since then, feminist approaches to bioethics has expanded to include bioethical topics in mental health, disability advocacy, healthcare accessibility, and pharmaceuticals. Lindemann notes the need for the future agenda of feminist approaches to bioethics to expand further to include healthcare organizational ethics, genetics, stem cell research, and more.

Notable figures in feminist bioethics include Carol Gilligan, Susan Sherwin, and the creators of the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics, Mary C. Rawlinson and Anne Donchin. Sherwin's book No Longer Patient: Feminist Ethics in Health Care (1992) is credited with being one of the first full-length books published on the topic of feminist bioethics and points out the shortcomings in then-current bioethical theories. Sherwin's viewpoint incorporates models of oppression within healthcare that intend to further marginalize women, people of color, immigrants, and people with disabilities. Since created in 1992, the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics has done much work to legitimize feminist work and theory in bioethics.

By pointing out the male marking of its purportedly generic human subject and the fact that the tradition does not see women's rights as human rights, feminist bioethics challenges bioethics. This article explores how the other gender becomes mute and invisible as a result of this unseen gendering of the universal. It demonstrates how the dehumanization of "man" is a root cause of illness on a social and personal level. Finally, it makes many recommendations for how representations of women's experience and bodies could help to constructively reconsider fundamental ethical principles.

Environmental bioethics
Bioethics, the ethics of the life sciences in general, expanded from the encounter between experts in medicine and the laity, to include organizational and social ethics, environmental ethics. As of 2019 textbooks of green bioethics existed.

Ethical issues in gene therapy
Gene therapy involves ethics, because scientists are making changes to genes, the building blocks of the human body. Currently, therapeutic gene therapy is available to treat specific genetic disorders by editing cells in specific body parts. For example, gene therapy can treat hematopoietic disease. There is also a controversial gene therapy called "germline gene therapy", in which genes in a sperm or egg can be edited to prevent genetic disorder in the future generation. It is unknown how this type of gene therapy affects long-term human development. In the United States, federal funding cannot be used to research germline gene therapy.

Professional practice
Bioethics as a subject of expert exercise (although now not a formal profession) developed at the beginning in North America in the Nineteen Eighties and Nineteen Nineties, in the areas of clinical / medical ethics and research ethics. Slowly internationalizing as a field, since the 2000s professional bioethics has expanded to include other specialties, such as organizational ethics in health systems, public health ethics, and more recently Ethics of artificial intelligence. Professional ethicists may be called consultants, ethicists, coordinators, or even analysts; and they may work in healthcare organizations, government agencies, and in both the public and private sectors. They may also be full-time employees, unbiased consultants, or have cross-appointments with educational institutions, such as lookup centres or universities.

Learned societies and professional associations
The field of bioethics has developed national and international learned societies and professional associations, such as the American Society for Bioethics and Humanities, the Canadian Bioethics Society, the Canadian Association of Research Ethics Boards, the Association of Bioethics Program Directors, the Bangladesh Bioethics Society and the International Association of Bioethics.

Education
Bioethics is taught in courses at the undergraduate and graduate level in different academic disciplines or programs, such as Philosophy, Medicine, Law, Social Sciences. It has become a requirement for professional accreditation in many health professional programs (Medicine, Nursing, Rehabilitation), to have obligatory training in ethics (e.g., professional ethics, medical ethics, clinical ethics, nursing ethics). Interest in the field and professional opportunities have led to the development of dedicated programs with concentrations in Bioethics, largely in the United States, Canada (List of Canadian bioethics programs) and Europe, offering undergraduate majors/minors, graduate certificates, and master's and doctoral degrees.

Training in bioethics (usually clinical, medical, or professional ethics) are part of core competency requirements for health professionals in fields such as nursing, medicine or rehabilitation. For example, every medical school in Canada teaches bioethics so that students can gain an understanding of biomedical ethics and use the knowledge gained in their future careers to provide better patient care. Canadian residency training programs are required to teach bioethics as it is one of the conditions of accreditation, and is a requirement by the College of Family Physicians of Canada and by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada.

Criticism
As a field of study, bioethics has also drawn criticism. For instance, Paul Farmer noted that bioethics tends to focus its attention on problems that arise from "too much care" for patients in industrialized nations while giving little or no attention to the ethical problem of too little care for the poor. Farmer characterizes the bioethics of handling morally difficult clinical situations, normally in hospitals in industrialized countries, as "quandary ethics". He does not regard quandary ethics and clinical bioethics as unimportant; he argues, rather, that bioethics must be balanced and give due weight to the poor.

Additionally, bioethics has been condemned for its lack of diversity in thought, particularly concerning race. Even as the field has grown to include the areas of public opinion, policymaking, and medical decision-making, little to no academic writing has been authored concerning the intersection between race–especially the cultural values imbued in that construct–and bioethical literature. John Hoberman illustrates this in a 2016 critique, in which he points out that bioethicists have been traditionally resistant to expanding their discourse to include sociological and historically relevant applications. Central to this is the notion of white normativity, which establishes the dominance of white hegemonic structures in bioethical academia and tends to reinforce existing biases.

These points and critiques, along with the neglect of women's perspectives within bioethics, have also been discussed amongst feminist bioethical scholars.

However, differing views on bioethics' lack of diversity of thought and social inclusivity have also been advanced. For example, one historian has argued that the diversity of thought and social inclusivity are the two essential cornerstones of bioethics, albeit they have not been fully realized.

In order to practice critical bioethics, bioethicists must base their investigations in empirical research, refute ideas with facts, engage in self-reflection, and be skeptical of the assertions made by other bioethicists, scientists, and doctors. A thorough normative study of actual moral experience is what is intended.

Issues
Research in bioethics is conducted by a broad and interdisciplinary community of scholars, and is not restricted only to those researchers who define themselves as "bioethicists": it includes researchers from the humanities, social sciences, health sciences and health professions, law, the fundamental sciences, etc. These researchers may be working in specialized bioethics centers and institutes associated with university bioethics training programs; but they may also be based in disciplinary departments without a specific bioethics focus. Notable examples of research centers include, amongst others, The Hastings Center, the Kennedy Institute of Ethics, the Yale Interdisciplinary Center for Bioethics, the Centre for Human Bioethics.

Areas of bioethics research that are the subject of published, peer-reviewed bioethical analysis include:

See also

 List of bioethics journals
 List of Canadian bioethics programs
 Biotechnology risk
 Cytoplasmic transfer
 The Hastings Center
 Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics
 Medical law
 Neuroethics
 Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
 Resources for clinical ethics consultation
 The Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine

References

Further reading

External links

 Bioethics entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
 "Feminist Bioethics" at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 "MyBioethics" a free online resource (app) for learning bioethics through real cases.

Applied ethics
Philosophy of biology

Bioethics


August Marian Kowalczyk (15 August 1921 – 29 July 2012) was a Polish actor, theatre, television and film director who was the last survivor of a breakout of prisoners from Auschwitz Concentration Camp on 10 June 1942.

Born in Tarnawa Góra, he was arrested on 4 December 1940 whilst trying to cross the border with Czechoslovakia to join the Polish Army in France and was then sent to Auschwitz where he laboured for I.G.Farben. After escaping from the camp with 9 other prisoners (13 died and 20 were recaptured), he hid in the forest and was sheltered in the attic of a house for 7 weeks in the village of Bojszowy. He then travelled under false documents to Silesia and Kraków, before becoming a soldier in the Armia Krajowa, which was the main resistance movement in Poland.

On 9 November 1945 he made his debut as a stage actor in Kraków, performing with the Polish Theatre from Warsaw. He died of cancer, at age 90, on 29 July 2012 in Oświęcim, in a hospice he founded.

He was married four times. He has two children, son Marek (born 1950), from his first marriage and son Marcin (born 1957), from his second marriage.

References

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August Kowalczyk


J. W. "Jay" Porter (January 17, 1933 – October 11, 2020) was a Major League Baseball player who appeared with the St. Louis Browns (1952), Detroit Tigers (1955–1957), Cleveland Indians (1958), Washington Senators (1959), and St. Louis Cardinals (1959).

Porter played in 229 major league games, 91 as a catcher, 62 as an outfielder, 16 as a first baseman, 3 at third base and was a career .228 hitter who had his best season in 1957 when he hit .250 in 58 games while with the Detroit Tigers.

Porter was born in Shawnee, Oklahoma, and was signed as an 18-year-old "bonus baby" in 1951.  Bobby Mattick was scouting Porter, when he noticed another prospect, Frank Robinson.  Mattick wound up signing both Porter and Robinson, "with Porter signing for a much higher bonus."  (John Eisenberg, "From 33rd Street to Camden Yards" (McGraw-Hill 2001), p. 161.)

Despite showing the early promise Porter played in only 33 games for the St. Louis Browns in 1952.

On December 4, 1952, Porter was traded by the Browns with Owen Friend and Bob Nieman to the Tigers for Virgil Trucks (who threw two no-hitters in 1952), Hal White, and Johnny Groth. Porter did not make it to the Tigers' big league team until 1955 and played only 92 games for the Tigers from 1955 to 1957.

Though he never became a starter in Detroit, he was selected by Sports Illustrated in October 2006 as one of the "10 Greatest Characters in Detroit Tigers History", along with Mark Fidrych, Norm Cash, Boots Poffenberger, and Herbie Redmond.

Porter's favorite meal was "two dozen (eggs) over light", which he would eat all at once.  This became a "favorite meal" when his teammates encouraged him to compete against the world champion for eating the most eggs in one sitting and Porter began his "training."   A date was set for the contest; however, the current world champion failed to arrive.

On February 18, 1958, the Tigers traded Porter to the Cleveland Indians with Hal Woodeshick for Jim Hegan and Hank Aguirre.  Porter learned of the trade while driving to Spring Training in Florida, driving from his home in Oregon, down the West Coast, stopping in Tucson, Arizona to visit friends in the Indians training camp. Later on, when he was an hour outside Lakeland, Porter heard on the car radio he had been traded to the Indians, made a U-turn and headed right back to Arizona.  (Van Dusen, Ewald & Hawkins, "The Detroit Tigers Encyclopedia (Sports Publishing 2003), p. 94).

While playing for Cleveland, Porter had the task of catching Baseball Hall of Fame knuckleballer Hoyt Wilhelm at which he was, reportedly, so baffled by Wilhelm's knuckleball he used a first baseman's glove.

After his playing career ended, he served as a minor league manager in the Montreal Expos organization, including a stint with the West Palm Beach Expos in 1970 and also managed the Expos entry in the 1969 Florida Instructional League.

At the date of his death, Porter was the youngest living former member of the remaining eight St. Louis Browns players who are still alive.

His initials of J. W. do not represent any actual given names and he is referred to by all as either JW or Jay.

He died on October 11, 2020, in Jupiter, Florida, from respiratory difficulties.

References

External links

Sports Illustrated 10 Greatest Characters in Detroit Tigers History
BaseballLibrary.com Profile
Baseball-Almanac Profile
Porter's 1959 Baseball Card

1933 births
2020 deaths
Detroit Tigers players
Cleveland Indians players
St. Louis Cardinals players
St. Louis Browns players
Major League Baseball catchers
Baseball players from Oklahoma
Baseball players from Oregon
Sportspeople from Shawnee, Oklahoma

Jay Porter


Lloque District is one of eleven districts of the province General Sánchez Cerro in Peru.

Ethnic groups
The people in the district are mainly indigenous citizens of Quechua descent. Quechua is the language which the majority of the population (53.67%) learnt to speak in childhood, 45.72% of the residents started speaking using the Spanish language (2007 Peru Census).

See also
 Pachakutiq

References

Lloque District


Jenny Craig, Inc., often known simply as Jenny Craig, was an American weight loss, weight management, and nutrition company. The company had more than 700 weight management centers in Australia, the United States, Canada, and New Zealand. The program combined individual weight management counseling with a menu of frozen meals and other foods which were distributed through its centers or shipped directly to clients. On 4 May 2023, the company announced that it was going out of business after 40 years.

History

Jenny Craig and her husband, Sidney Craig, founded Jenny Craig, Inc. on 21 March 1983 in Melbourne, Australia and began operations in the United States in 1985. The company expanded rapidly after entering the U.S., opening 46 locations by 1987 as well as 114 in other countries. In 1991, the company underwent an IPO, generating $73.5 million in funding.

By 1998 Jenny Craig was operating in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Puerto Rico and US. The revenues had fallen from $401 million in 1996 to $352 million.

Throughout the 1990s, the company's share price declined as it ran into a series of financial troubles involving weight loss drugs, employee training, and costly leases before eventually being delisted from the New York Stock Exchange in August 2001. Jenny Craig stock then traded over the counter.

In 2002, Jenny Craig, Inc., was acquired by MidOcean Partners, a New York and London-based private equity investment firm, and ACI Capital, a New York–based private investment firm. On 19 June 2006, they announced the signing of a definitive agreement to sell the company to Nestlé in a transaction valued at approximately $600 million. The company was operated as part of Nestlé Nutrition. On 19 November 2013, Jenny Craig Inc. was purchased by North Castle Partners for an undisclosed amount. In April 2019, H.I.G. Capital acquired the Jenny Craig weight management business from North Castle Partners.

In 2008, YouTube personality Shane Dawson and approximately six other Jenny Craig employeesincluding his mother and brotherwere fired from their jobs for uploading a sketch to his YouTube channel. In 2013, Dawson wrote a comedy pilot about his experiences there and sold the script to NBC.

In March 2018, the company reportedly pulled its advertisements from The Ingraham Angle as a result of host Laura Ingraham's portrayal of David Hogg.

In 2019, H.I.G. Capital, a global private equity firm, acquired Jenny Craig for an undisclosed amount. In October 2019, Walgreens announced that it would begin offering Jenny Craig weight loss services at approximately 100 locations beginning in January 2020.

On 2 May 2023, Jenny Craig announced to employees via email that the company will wind down operations, lay off all employees, and possibly switch to an e-commerce model. The company had been pursuing a sale for some time. Two days later, on 4 May, the company announced via its official Facebook page that it was going out of business. On 5 May, Jenny Craig filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy.

On 9 May, its Australian and New Zealand operations were placed into voluntary administration. On 7 June 2023, it ceased all operations in both countries after failing to find a buyer, selling its online capacity to health startup Eucalyptus.

The company's intellectual property was sold to Wellful, Inc. (the parent company of Nutrisystem), who plans to relaunch Jenny Craig as an e-commerce store in fall 2023.

Diet effectiveness
According to a systematic review, overweight and obese adults enrolled in Jenny Craig after 12 months had 4.9% more weight loss than subjects in a control/education group (receiving no intervention, printed materials only, health education curriculum, or three sessions with a provider) or behavioral counseling group.

See also
 List of diets

References

External links

Companies based in Carlsbad, California
Brand name diet products
Weight loss companies
Australian companies established in 1983
Companies that filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in 2023
Companies that have filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy
2002 mergers and acquisitions
2006 mergers and acquisitions
2013 mergers and acquisitions

Jenny Craig, Inc.


The  Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI) is a technical standard defined by Intel that specifies the register-level interface of Serial ATA (SATA) host controllers in a non-implementation-specific manner in its motherboard chipsets.

The specification describes a system memory structure for computer hardware vendors to exchange data between host system memory and attached storage devices. AHCI gives software developers and hardware designers a standard method for detecting, configuring, and programming SATA/AHCI adapters. AHCI is separate from the SATA 3 Gbit/s standard, although it exposes SATA's advanced capabilities (such as hot swapping and native command queuing) such that host systems can utilize them. For modern solid state drives, the interface has been superseded by NVMe.

The current version of the specification is 1.3.1.

Operating modes
Many SATA controllers offer selectable modes of operation: legacy Parallel ATA emulation (more commonly called IDE Mode), standard AHCI mode (also known as Native Mode), or vendor-specific RAID (which generally enables AHCI in order to take advantage of its capabilities). Intel recommends choosing RAID mode on their motherboards (which also enables AHCI) rather than AHCI/SATA mode for maximum flexibility. Legacy mode is a software backward-compatibility mechanism intended to allow the SATA controller to run in legacy operating systems which are not SATA-aware or where a driver does not exist to make the operating system SATA-aware.

When a SATA controller is configured to operate in IDE Mode, the number of storage devices per controller is usually limited to four (two IDE channels, master device and slave device with up to two devices per channel), compared to the maximum of 32 devices/ports when configured in AHCI mode. But the chipset SATA interfaces may emulate more than one "IDE controller" when configured in IDE Mode.

Operating system support
AHCI is supported out of the box on Windows Vista and later, Linux-based operating systems (since version 2.6.19 of the kernel), OpenBSD (since version 4.1), NetBSD (since version 4.0), FreeBSD (since version 8.0), macOS, GNU Mach, ArcaOS, eComStation (since version 2.1), and Solaris 10 (since version 8/07). DragonFlyBSD based its AHCI implementation on OpenBSD's and added extended features such as port multiplier support. Older versions of operating systems require hardware-specific drivers in order to support AHCI. Windows XP and older do not provide AHCI support out of the box.

System drive boot issues
Some operating systems, notably Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 8.1 and Windows 10, do not configure themselves to load the AHCI driver upon boot if the SATA controller was not in AHCI mode at the time the operating system was installed.  Although this is an easily rectifiable condition, it remains an ongoing issue with the AHCI standard.

The most prevalent symptom for an operating system (or systems) that are installed in IDE mode (in some BIOS firmware implementations otherwise called 'Combined IDE mode'), is that the system drive typically fails to boot, with an ensuing error message, if the SATA controller (in BIOS) is inadvertently switched to AHCI mode after OS installation.  In Microsoft Windows the symptom is a boot loop which begins with a Blue Screen error, if not rectified.

Technically speaking, this is an implementation bug with AHCI that can be avoided, but it has not been fixed yet.  As an interim resolution, Intel recommends changing the drive controller to AHCI or RAID before installing an operating system. (It may also be necessary to load chipset-specific AHCI or RAID drivers at installation time, for example from a USB flash drive).

On Windows Vista and Windows 7, this can be fixed by configuring the msahci device driver to start at boot time (rather than on-demand). Setting non-AHCI mode (i.e. IDE or Combined mode) in the BIOS will allow the user to boot into Windows, and thereby the required registry change can be performed.  Consequently, the user then has the option of continuing to use the system in Combined mode or switching to AHCI mode.
Inter alia with Windows 10 and 8, this can be fixed by forcing the correct drivers to reload during Safe Mode.

In Windows 8, Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012, the controller driver has changed from msahci to storahci, and the procedures to upgrade to the AHCI controller is similar to that of Windows 7. On Windows 8, 8.1 and Windows Server 2012, changing from IDE mode to AHCI mode without first updating the registry will make the boot drive inaccessible (i.e. resulting in a recurring boot loop, which begins with a Blue Screen error).

In Windows 10, after changing the controller to AHCI mode, if the OS is allowed to reboot a couple of times after the start of the boot loop, which starts with an INACCESSIBLE_BOOT_DEVICE BSOD, Windows presents recovery options. Out of the Advanced options, if Startup Repair option is selected, Windows attempts to fix the issue and the PC begins to function normally.

A similar problem can occur on Linux systems if the AHCI driver is compiled as a kernel module rather than built into the kernel image, as it may not be included in the initrd (initial RAM disk) created when the controller is configured to run in Legacy Mode. The solution is either to build a new initrd containing the AHCI module, or to build the AHCI driver into the kernel image.

Power management
Power management is handled by the Aggressive Link Power Management (ALPM) protocol.

See also

 Open Host Controller Interface (OHCI)
 Universal Host Controller Interface (UHCI)
 Enhanced Host Controller Interface (EHCI)
 Extensible Host Controller Interface (XHCI)
 Wireless Host Controller Interface (WHCI)
 Host controller interface (USB, Firewire)

References

External links
"AHCI Specification". Intel.
"AHCI". OSDev Wiki

Serial ATA

Advanced Host Controller Interface


The Muur van Geraardsbergen (English: Wall of Geraardsbergen/Grammont, French: Mur de Grammont) is a steep, narrow road with cobblestones in Geraardsbergen, Belgium. It is also known as Kapelmuur, Muur-Kapelmuur or simply Muur. The hill starts near the river Dender at 18 m and reaches the top of the Oudenberg at 110 m after 1,075 m at 9.3 per cent. This climb is often part of the Tour of Flanders professional cycling race.

Tour of Flanders

The Muur van Geraardsbergen has often been a climb in the Tour of Flanders. It has been used since 1950, although not consistently until 1970. The "Muur" was the final climb in 1973 and 1974, before the finish in Meerbeke. An extra stretch to the chapel ('kapel' in Dutch) at the summit was added in 1981 and climb became known as the "Muur-Kapelmuur". It was a regular feature from 1981 until 2011.

From 1988 until 2011 it was the penultimate, and often decisive, climb and always followed by the Bosberg before the finish in Meerbeke. The Muur was removed from the 2012 race. With the finish in Oudenaarde, instead of Meerbeke, it was no longer possible to include it while the race was starting from Bruges. When the start was moved to Antwerp for the 2017 race, the Muur was returned to the course, albeit as the eighth climb of the day, approximately 95km from the finish.

Other cycling races

The Muur was climbed in the 1960 Gent–Wevelgem and in 49 editions of Omloop Het Nieuwsblad. Since 2019, the Muur is the penultimate climb in Omloop Het Nieuwsblad.

The Tour de France visited the Muur in 2004 but did not climb the actual Muur of Geraardsbergen.

After omission of the Muur from the Tour of Flanders, it was announced that the climb would be in the 2012 E3 Prijs Vlaanderen, although not in the final.

The Muur was announced as the centerpiece of the final stage of the Eneco Tour for 2012, 2013, 2014. Geraardsbergen and possibly the Muur will be in a stage for the next five years.

The Muur has been used as the start of the Transcontinental Race.

In 2019, it was used as the first climb of the Tour de France

References

External links

Photos and profile on rvv.be
Profile on climbbybike.com

Climbs in cycle racing in Belgium
Tour of Flanders
Mountains and hills of East Flanders
Cobbled streets
Geraardsbergen

Muur van Geraardsbergen


Archibald Charles Barrington (8 May 1906 – 4 March 1986) was a New Zealand clerk, secretary and pacifist. He was born in Wellington on 8 May 1906.

Along with Ormond Burton, he was one of the founders of the Christian Pacifist Society of New Zealand.

Wellington based, he was tried and convicted multiple times for anti-war activism during the second world war, spending a year in prison during which he kept an illicit diary.

After the war he moved to the Riverside Community in Moutere outside Motueka, where he "work[ed] actively to build a good society and a more peaceful world", farming, campaigning and rising in the ranks of the Methodist Church of New Zealand.

He died in Nelson on 4 March 1986.

Works
 Trials of a pacifist. Christian Pacifist Society, 1970, 22 pages.
 The Prison Diary of A.C. Barrington. John Pratt (Ed.) 2016,

References

1906 births
1986 deaths
New Zealand pacifists
New Zealand Methodists
People from Wellington City

Archibald Charles Barrington


Devid Striesow (born 1 October 1973 in Bergen auf Rügen, East Germany) is a German actor.

After his school education, he moved to Berlin to start an apprenticeship as a goldsmith but the goldsmith's business went bankrupt before Striesow could start. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 changed his life plans, so he went back to school to take his Abitur. Initially, he studied jazz guitar. He then applied to the Ernst Busch Academy of Dramatic Arts, Berlin. His graduating class of 1999 included Nina Hoss and Fritzi Haberlandt.

He performs in theatre, film (since 2000) and television (since 1999). He starred as "Sturmbannführer Herzog" (Bernhard Krüger) in Stefan Ruzowitzky's 2007 film The Counterfeiters, which was awarded the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for that year.
Striesow is also a speaker for audiobooks.

Striesow has been married to his manager Ines Ganzberger since 2018. They are parents to a son (born 2016) and live in Berlin. His son Ludwig Simon (born 1996) from a previous relationship is also an actor. There are three other children from a previous marriage.

Selected filmography

References

External links

1973 births
German male television actors
German male film actors
21st-century German male actors
Living people
Ernst Busch Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
People from Bergen auf Rügen

Devid Striesow


An astrolabe ( , ;  ;  ) is an astronomical instrument dating to ancient times. It serves as a star chart and physical model of visible heavenly bodies. Its various functions also make it an elaborate inclinometer and an analog calculation device capable of working out several kinds of problems in astronomy. In its simplest form it is a metal disc with a pattern of wires, cutouts, and perforations that allows a user to calculate astronomical positions precisely. Historically used by astronomers, it is able to measure the altitude above the horizon of a celestial body, day or night; it can be used to identify stars or planets, to determine local latitude given local time (and vice versa), to survey, or to triangulate. It was used in classical antiquity, the Islamic Golden Age, the European Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery for all these purposes.

The astrolabe is effective for determining latitude on land or calm seas. Although it is less reliable on the heaving deck of a ship in rough seas, the mariner's astrolabe was developed to solve that problem.

Applications

A 10th-century astronomer deduced that there were around 1000 applications for the astrolabe's various functions, and these ranged from the astrological, the astronomical and the religious, to seasonal and daily time-keeping and tide tables. At the time of their use, astrology was widely considered as much of a serious science as astronomy, and study of the two went hand-in-hand. The astronomical interest varied between folk astronomy (of the pre-Islamic tradition in Arabia) which was concerned with celestial and seasonal observations, and mathematical astronomy, which would inform intellectual practices and precise calculations based on astronomical observations. In regard to the astrolabe's religious function, the demands of Islamic prayer times were to be astronomically determined to ensure precise daily timings, and the qibla, the direction of Mecca towards which Muslims must pray, could also be determined by this device. In addition to this, the lunar calendar that was informed by the calculations of the astrolabe was of great significance to the religion of Islam, given that it determines the dates of important religious observances such as Ramadan.

Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary gives the translation "star-taker" for the English word astrolabe and traces it through medieval Latin to the Greek word ἀστρολάβος : , from ἄστρον :  "star" and λαμβάνειν :  "to take".

In the medieval Islamic world the Arabic word  (i.e., astrolabe) was given various etymologies.
In Arabic texts, the word is translated as  (, ), a direct translation of the Greek word.

Al-Biruni quotes and criticises medieval scientist Hamza al-Isfahani who stated: "asturlab is an arabisation of this Persian phrase" (, meaning "taker of the stars"). In medieval Islamic sources, there is also a folk etymology of the word as "lines of lab", where "Lab" refers to a certain son of Idris (Enoch). This etymology is mentioned by a 10th-century scientist named al-Qummi but rejected by al-Khwarizmi.

History

Ancient world

An early astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic civilization by Apollonius of Perga between 220 and 150 BC, often attributed to Hipparchus. The astrolabe was a marriage of the planisphere and dioptra, effectively an analog calculator capable of working out several different kinds of problems in astronomy. The earliest known depiction of an astrolabe is a mosaic in the Casa di Leada at Soluntum in Sicily, which may have been imported from Alexandria in Egypt.

Theon of Alexandria ( – ) wrote a detailed treatise on the astrolabe, and Lewis argues that Ptolemy used an astrolabe to make the astronomical observations recorded in the Tetrabiblos. The invention of the plane astrolabe is sometimes wrongly attributed to Theon's daughter Hypatia (; died 415 AD), but it is, in fact, known to have already been in use at least 500 years before Hypatia was born. The misattribution comes from a misinterpretation of a statement in a letter written by Hypatia's pupil Synesius ( – ), which mentions that Hypatia had taught him how to construct a plane astrolabe, but does not state anything about her having invented it herself.

Astrolabes continued in use in the Greek-speaking world throughout the Byzantine period. About 550 AD, Christian philosopher John Philoponus wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the earliest extant treatise on the instrument. Mesopotamian bishop Severus Sebokht also wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in the Syriac language in the mid-7th century. Sebokht refers to the astrolabe as being made of brass in the introduction of his treatise, indicating that metal astrolabes were known in the Christian East well before they were developed in the Islamic world or in the Latin West.

The first Renaissance treatises dealing with scientific problems were based on earlier classical works and were often concerned with Ptolemaic doctrines.

Medieval era
Astrolabes were further developed in the medieval Islamic world, where Muslim astronomers introduced angular scales to the design, adding circles indicating azimuths on the horizon. It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an aid to navigation and as a way of finding the Qibla, the direction of Mecca. Eighth-century mathematician Muhammad al-Fazari is the first person credited with building the astrolabe in the Islamic world.

The mathematical background was established by Muslim astronomer Albatenius in his treatise Kitab az-Zij (c. 920 AD), which was translated into Latin by Plato Tiburtinus (De Motu Stellarum). The earliest surviving astrolabe is dated AH 315 (927–928 AD). In the Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers (salat). In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, prayer, Salat, Qibla, etc.

The spherical astrolabe was a variation of both the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, invented during the Middle Ages by astronomers and inventors in the Islamic world.
The earliest description of the spherical astrolabe dates to Al-Nayrizi (fl. 892–902). In the 12th century, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī invented the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which was "a simple wooden rod with graduated markings but without sights. It was furnished with a plumb line and a double chord for making angular measurements and bore a perforated pointer". The geared mechanical astrolabe was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.

The first known metal astrolabe in Western Europe is the Destombes astrolabe made from brass in the eleventh century in Portugal. Metal astrolabes avoided the warping that large wooden ones were prone to, allowing the construction of larger and therefore more accurate instruments. Metal astrolabes were heavier than wooden instruments of the same size, making it difficult to use them in navigation.

Herman Contractus of Reichenau Abbey, examined the use of the astrolabe in Mensura Astrolai during the 11th century. Peter of Maricourt wrote a treatise on the construction and use of a universal astrolabe in the last half of the 13th century entitled Nova compositio astrolabii particularis. Universal astrolabes can be found at the History of Science Museum in Oxford. David A. King, historian of Islamic instrumentation, describes the universal astrolobe designed by Ibn al-Sarraj of Aleppo (aka Ahmad bin Abi Bakr; fl. 1328) as "the most sophisticated astronomical instrument from the entire Medieval and Renaissance periods".

English author Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400) compiled A Treatise on the Astrolabe for his son, mainly based on a work by Messahalla or Ibn al-Saffar. The same source was translated by French astronomer and astrologer Pélerin de Prusse and others. The first printed book on the astrolabe was Composition and Use of Astrolabe by Christian of Prachatice, also using Messahalla, but relatively original.

In 1370, the first Indian treatise on the astrolabe was written by the Jain astronomer Mahendra Suri, titled Yantrarāja.

A simplified astrolabe, known as a balesilha, was used by sailors to get an accurate reading of latitude while at sea. The use of the balesilha was promoted by Prince Henry (1394–1460) while navigating for Portugal.

The astrolabe was almost certainly first brought north of the Pyrenees by Gerbert of Aurillac (future Pope Sylvester II), where it was integrated into the quadrivium at the school in Reims, France, sometime before the turn of the 11th century. In the 15th century, French instrument maker Jean Fusoris (c. 1365–1436) also started remaking and selling astrolabes in his shop in Paris, along with portable sundials and other popular scientific devices of the day. Thirteen of his astrolabes survive to this day. One more special example of craftsmanship in early 15th-century Europe is the astrolabe designed by Antonius de Pacento and made by Dominicus de Lanzano, dated 1420.
In the 16th century, Johannes Stöffler published Elucidatio fabricae ususque astrolabii, a manual of the construction and use of the astrolabe. Four identical 16th-century astrolabes made by Georg Hartmann provide some of the earliest evidence for batch production by division of labor. In 1612, Greek painter Ieremias Palladas incorporated a sophisticated astrolabe in his painting depicting Catherine of Alexandria. The painting was entitled Catherine of Alexandria and featured a device called the System of the Universe (Σύστημα τοῦ Παντός). The device featured the planets with the names in Greek: Selene (moon), Hermes (Mercury), Aphrodite (Venus), Helios (Sun), Ares (Mars), Zeus (Jupiter), and Chronos (Saturn). The device also featured celestial spheres following the Ptolemaic model and Earth was depicted as a blue sphere with circles of geographic coordinates. A complex line representing the axis of the Earth covered the entire instrument.

Astrolabes and clocks

Mechanical astronomical clocks were initially influenced by the astrolabe; they could be seen in many ways as clockwork astrolabes designed to produce a continual display of the current position of the sun, stars, and planets. For example, Richard of Wallingford's clock (c. 1330) consisted essentially of a star map rotating behind a fixed rete, similar to that of an astrolabe.

Many astronomical clocks use an astrolabe-style display, such as the famous clock at Prague, adopting a stereographic projection (see below) of the ecliptic plane. In recent times, astrolabe watches have become popular. For example, Swiss watchmaker Dr. Ludwig Oechslin designed and built an astrolabe wristwatch in conjunction with Ulysse Nardin in 1985. Dutch watchmaker Christaan van der Klauuw also manufactures astrolabe watches today.

Construction
An astrolabe consists of a disk, called the mater (mother), which is deep enough to hold one or more flat plates called tympans, or climates. A tympan is made for a specific latitude and is engraved with a stereographic projection of circles denoting azimuth and altitude and representing the portion of the celestial sphere above the local horizon. The rim of the mater is typically graduated into hours of time, degrees of arc, or both.

Above the mater and tympan, the rete, a framework bearing a projection of the ecliptic plane and several pointers indicating the positions of the brightest stars, is free to rotate. These pointers are often just simple points, but depending on the skill of the craftsman can be very elaborate and artistic. There are examples of astrolabes with artistic pointers in the shape of balls, stars, snakes, hands, dogs' heads, and leaves, among others. The names of the indicated stars were often engraved on the pointers in Arabic or Latin. Some astrolabes have a narrow rule or label which rotates over the rete, and may be marked with a scale of declinations.

The rete, representing the sky, functions as a star chart. When it is rotated, the stars and the ecliptic move over the projection of the coordinates on the tympan. One complete rotation corresponds to the passage of a day. The astrolabe is, therefore, a predecessor of the modern planisphere.

On the back of the mater, there is often engraved a number of scales that are useful in the astrolabe's various applications. These vary from designer to designer, but might include curves for time conversions, a calendar for converting the day of the month to the sun's position on the ecliptic, trigonometric scales, and graduation of 360 degrees around the back edge. The alidade is attached to the back face. An alidade can be seen in the lower right illustration of the Persian astrolabe above. When the astrolabe is held vertically, the alidade can be rotated and the sun or a star sighted along its length, so that its altitude in degrees can be read ("taken") from the graduated edge of the astrolabe; hence the word's Greek roots: "astron" (ἄστρον) = star + "lab-" (λαβ-) = to take.

A shadow square also appears on the back of some astrolabes, developed by Muslim astrologists in the 9th Century, whereas devices of the Ancient Greek tradition featured only altitude scales on the back of the devices. This was used to convert shadow lengths and the altitude of the sun, the uses of which were various from surveying to measuring inaccessible heights.

Devices were usually signed by their maker with an inscription appearing on the back of the astrolabe, and if there was a patron of the object, their name would appear inscribed on the front, or in some cases, the name of the reigning sultan or the teacher of the astrolabist has also been found to appear inscribed in this place. The date of the astrolabe's construction was often also signed, which has allowed historians to determine that these devices are the second oldest scientific instrument in the world. The inscriptions on astrolabes also allowed historians to conclude that astronomers tended to make their own astrolabes, but that many were also made to order and kept in stock to sell, suggesting there was some contemporary market for the devices.

Parts of the astrolabe consisted of a circular disk, a sighting tube, an alidade, and arms that held graduated scales. The circular disk is the main part of the astrolabe. It was mainly used to view figures in the sky. The sighting tube is placed on top of the circular disk and was used to observe stars or planets. The alidade had vertical and horizontal cross-hairs which plots locations on an azimuthal ring called an almucantar (altitude-distance circle). An arm called a radius connects from the center of the astrolabe to the optical axis which is parallel with another arm also called a radius. The other radius contains graduations of altitude and distance measurements.

Mathematical basis
The construction and design of astrolabes are based on the application of the stereographic projection of the celestial sphere. The point from which the projection is usually made is the South Pole. The plane onto which the projection is made is that of the Equator.

Designing a tympanum through stereographic projection

The tympanum captures the celestial coordinate axes upon which the rete will rotate. It is the component that will enable the precise determination of a star's position at a specific time of day and year.

Therefore, it should project:

 The zenith, which will vary depending on the latitude of the astrolabe user.
 The horizon line and almucantar or circles parallel to the horizon, which will allow for the determination of a celestial body's altitude (from the horizon to the zenith).
 The celestial meridian (north-south meridian, passing through the zenith) and secondary meridians (circles intersecting the north-south meridian at the zenith), which will enable the measurement of azimuth for a celestial body.
 The three main circles of latitude (Capricorn, Equator, and Cancer) to determine the exact moments of solstices and equinoxes throughout the year.

The tropics and the equator define the tympanum

On the right side of the image:

  The blue sphere represents the celestial sphere.
  The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the North Star).
  The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).
  The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the projection pole.
  The equatorial plane serves as the projection plane.
 Three parallel circles represent the projection in the sky of Earth's main circles of latitude:
  In orange, the Tropic of Cancer.
  In purple, the equator.
  In green, the Tropic of Capricorn.

When projecting onto the equatorial plane, three concentric circles correspond to Earth's three circles of latitude (left side of the image). The largest of these, the Tropic of Capricorn, defines the size of the astrolabe's tympanum. The center of the tympanum (and the center of the three circles) is actually the north-south axis around which Earth rotates, and therefore, the rete of the astrolabe will rotate around this point as the hours of the day pass (due to Earth's rotational motion).

The three concentric circles on the tympanum are useful for determining the exact moments of solstices and equinoxes throughout the year: if one knows the sun's position on the rete and its position coincides with the outer circle of the tympanum (Tropic of Capricorn), it signifies the winter solstice (the sun will be at the zenith for an observer at the Tropic of Capricorn, meaning summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern hemisphere). If, on the other hand, its position coincides with the inner circle (Tropic of Cancer), it indicates the summer solstice. If its position is on the middle circle (equator), it corresponds to one of the two equinoxes.

The horizon and the measurement of altitude

On the right side of the first image:

  The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the North Star).
  The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).
  The black arrow represents the zenith direction for the observer (which would vary depending on the observer's latitude).
  The black circle represents the horizon surrounding the observer, which is perpendicular to the zenith vector and defines the portion of the celestial sphere visible to the observer.
  The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the projection pole.
  The equatorial plane serves as the projection plane.

When projecting the horizon onto the equatorial plane, it transforms into an upward-shifted ellipse relative to the north-south axis (the center of the tympanum). This implies that a portion of the celestial sphere will fall outside the outer circle of the tympanum (the Tropic of Capricorn) and, therefore, won't be represented.

Additionally, when drawing circles parallel to the horizon up to the zenith (almucantar), a grid of consecutive ellipses is constructed, allowing for the determination of a star's altitude when the rete overlaps with the designed tympanum (as observed in the second image).

The meridians and the measurement of azimuth

On the right side of the image:

 The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the North Star).
  The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).
  The black arrow represents the zenith direction for the observer (which would vary depending on the observer's latitude).
  The black circle represents the horizon surrounding the observer, which is perpendicular to the zenith vector and defines the portion of the celestial sphere visible to the observer.
  The red dots represent the zenith and nadir (the point on the celestial sphere opposite the zenith with respect to the observer).
 The orange circle represents the celestial meridian (or meridian that goes, for the observer, from the north of the horizon to the south of the horizon passing through the zenith).
 The red circle represents a secondary meridian with an azimuth of 40° East relative to the observer's horizon, and like all secondary meridians, it intersects the principal meridian at the zenith and nadir.
  The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the projection pole.
  The equatorial plane serves as the projection plane.

When projecting the celestial meridian, it results in a straight line that overlaps with the vertical axis of the tympanum, where the zenith and nadir are located. However, when projecting the 40° E meridian, another circle is obtained that passes through both the zenith and nadir projections, so its center is located on the perpendicular bisection of the segment connecting both points. In deed, the projection of the celestial meridian can be considered as a circle with an infinite radius (a straight line) whose center is on this bisection and at an infinite distance from these two points.

If successive meridians that divide the celestial sphere into equal sectors (like "orange slices" radiating from the zenith) are projected, a family of curves passing through the zenith projection on the tympanum is obtained. These curves, once overlaid with the rete containing the major stars, allow for determining the azimuth of a star located on the rete and rotated for a specific time of day.

See also
 Mariner's astrolabe
 Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
 List of astronomical instruments
 Philippe Danfrie, designer and maker of mathematical instruments, globes and astrolabes
 Sextant

References
Footnotes

Notes

Bibliography
 .

 .

 .
 .

External links

Interactive digital astrolabe by Alex Boxer
A digital astrolabe (HTML5 and javascript)
Astrolabe Tech Made ... Not So Easy
paper astrolabe generator, from the ESO
"Hello World!" for the Astrolabe: The First Computer Video of Howard Covitz's Presentation at Ignite Phoenix, June 2009. Slides for Presentation Licensed as Creative Commons by-nc-nd.
Video of Tom Wujec demonstrating an astrolabe.  Taken at TEDGlobal 2009. Includes clickable transcript. Licensed as Creative Commons by-nc-nd.
Archive of James E. Morrison's extensive website on Astrolabes
A working model of the Dr. Ludwig Oechslin's Astrolabium Galileo Galilei watch
Ulysse Nardin Astrolabium Galilei Galileo: A Detailed Explanation
Fully illustrated online catalogue of world's largest collection of astrolabes
Mobile astrolabe and horologium
 Medieval equal hour horary quadrant

Analog computers
Ancient Greek astronomy
Greek inventions
Ancient Greek technology
Astrometry
Astronomical instruments
Historical scientific instruments
Inclinometers
Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
Technology in the medieval Islamic world
Mechanical calculators
Navigational equipment
Marine navigation

Astrolabe


Gerard II (Girard in French and Gerard in Catalan, Gerardo in Spanish) was the last de facto independent count of Roussillon from 1164 to his death in 1172. He was the son and heir of Gausfred III.

As his father before him, he affirmed treaties of peace with the counts of Ampurias. He inherited a weakened county and was made to do homage to the king of Aragón and count of Barcelona, Alfonso II, to whom he ceded the county when he died without heirs.

References

Counts of Roussillon
1172 deaths
Year of birth unknown
12th-century Catalan people

Girard II of Roussillon


The Hollomon–Jaffe parameter (HP), also generally known as the Larson–Miller  parameter, describes the effect of a heat treatment at a temperature for a certain time.
This parameter is especially used to describe the tempering of steels, so that it is also called tempering parameter.

Effect
The effect of the heat treatment depends on its temperature and its time. The same effect can be achieved with a low temperature and a long holding time, or with a higher temperature and a short holding time.

Formula
In the Hollomon–Jaffe parameter, this exchangeability of time and temperature can be described by the following formula:

This formula is not consistent concerning the units; the parameters must be entered in a certain manner. T is in degrees Celsius. The argument of the logarithmic function has the unit hours. C is a parameter unique to the material used. The Hollomon parameter itself is unitless and realistic numeric values vary between 15 and 21.

where T is in kilokelvins, t is in hours, and C is the same as above.

Holloman  and  Jaffe  determined  the  value  of  C  experimentally  by  plotting  hardness  versus  tempering  time  for  a  series  of  tempering  temperatures  of  interest  and  interpolating the data to obtain the time necessary to yield a number of different hardness values.  This  work  was  based  on  six  different  heats  of  plain  carbon  steels  with  carbon  contents varying from 0.35%–1.15%. The value of C was found to vary somewhat for different steels and decrease linearly with the carbon content of a steel grade. Holloman and Jaffe proposed that C = 19.5 for carbon and alloy steels with carbon contents of 0.25%–0.4%; and C = 15 for tool steels with carbon contents of 0.9%–1.2%.

See also
 Zener–Hollomon parameter

References

Metal heat treatments

Hollomon–Jaffe parameter


Aizoanthemum is a small genus of plant in the family Aizoaceae, native to Namibia and Angola. It has only 5 species. Before being given their own genus, these species were considered a subgenus of Aizoon. The genus name comes from the Greek "anthemon" (flowering) and for the similarity to the genus Aizoon.

See also
 Kurt Dinter

References

Aizoaceae
Aizoaceae genera

Aizoanthemum


The Röntgen Memorial Site in Würzburg, Germany, is dedicated to the work of the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923) and his discovery of X-rays, for which he was granted the Nobel Prize in physics. It contains an exhibition of historical instruments, machines and documents.

Location

The Röntgen Memorial Site is in the foyer, corridors and two laboratory rooms of the former Physics Institute of the University of Würzburg in Röntgenring 8, a building that is now used by the University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt. The road, where the building lies, was renamed in 1909 from Pleicherring to Röntgenring.

History
On the late Friday evening of 8. November 1895 Röntgen discovered for the first time the rays which penetrate through solid materials and gave them the name X-rays. He presented this in a lecture and publication On a new type of rays - Über eine neue Art von Strahlen on 23 January 1896 at the Physical Medical Society of Würzburg.

During the discussion of this lecture, the anatomist Albert von Kölliker proposed to call these rays Röntgen radiation after their inventor, a term that is still being used in Germany.

Exhibition

The Röntgen Memorial Site gives an insight into the particle physics of the late 19th century. It shows an experimental set-up of cathodic rays beside the apparatus of the discovery. An experiment of penetrating solid materials by X-rays is shown in the historic laboratory of Röntgen. A separate room shows various X-ray tubes, a medical X-ray machine of Siemens & Halske from 1912 and several original documents. In the foyer a short German movie explains the purpose of the Memorial Site and the life of Röntgen. In the corridor some personal belongings of Röntgen are displayed to give some background information on his personal and historical circumstances.

After remodeling in 2015 the tables and captures of the exhibition are now in English and German language.

Society
The site is managed by the non-profit organisation Kuratorium zur Förderung des Andenkens an Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in Würzburg e.V.. It offers guided tours to Röntgen's lab.

References

External links
* Website of the  Röntgen Memorial Site in Würzburg (page written in English and German)

Wilhelm Röntgen
Experimental particle physics
Projectional radiography
University of Würzburg
X-rays

Röntgen Memorial Site


MacKenzie Scott (née Tuttle, formerly Bezos; April 7, 1970) is an American novelist and philanthropist. As of December 2022, she has a net worth of US$27 billion, owing to a 4% stake in Amazon, the company founded by her ex-husband Jeff Bezos. As such, Scott is the third-wealthiest woman in the United States and the 47th-wealthiest individual in the world. Scott was named the world's most powerful woman by Forbes in 2021 and one of Times 100 most influential people in 2020.

In 2006, Scott won an American Book Award for her 2005 debut novel, The Testing of Luther Albright. Her second novel, Traps, was published in 2013.  She has been executive director of Bystander Revolution, an anti-bullying organization, since she founded it in 2014. Committed to give at least half of her wealth to charity, as a signatory to the Giving Pledge, Scott made US$5.8 billion in charitable gifts in 2020, one of the largest annual distributions by a private individual to working charities. She donated a further $2.7 billion in 2021. As of mid-December 2022, Scott has given a total of $14 billion to over 1600 charitable organizations.

Early life and education
MacKenzie Scott Tuttle was born on April 7, 1970, in San Francisco, California, to Holiday Robin (née Cuming), a homemaker, and Jason Baker Tuttle, a financial planner. She has two brothers. She was named after her maternal grandfather, G. Scott Cuming, who worked as an executive and general counsel at El Paso Natural Gas. She remembers seriously writing at the age of six, when she wrote The Book Worm, a 142-page book, which was destroyed in a flood.

In 1988, she graduated from the Hotchkiss School in Lakeville, Connecticut. In 1992, Tuttle earned her bachelor's degree in English from Princeton University, where she studied under Nobel Laureate in Literature Toni Morrison, who described Tuttle as "one of the best students I've ever had in my creative writing classes".

Career
After graduating from college, Tuttle worked as a research assistant to Morrison for the 1992 novel Jazz. She also worked in an administrative role for hedge fund D. E. Shaw in New York City, where she met Jeff Bezos.

Amazon
In 1993, Scott and Bezos married, and in 1994, they left D. E. Shaw, moved to Seattle, and started Amazon. Scott was one of Amazon's first employees and was heavily involved in Amazon's early days, working on the company's name, business plan, accounts, and shipping early orders. She also negotiated the company's first freight contract. After 1996, Scott took a less involved role in the business, preferring to focus on her family and literary career.

Literary career
In 2005, Scott wrote her debut novel, The Testing of Luther Albright, for which she won an American Book Award in 2006. She said that it took her ten years to write as she was helping Bezos build Amazon, giving birth to three children, and raising them. Toni Morrison, her former teacher, reviewed the book as "a rarity: a sophisticated novel that breaks and swells the heart". Her second novel, Traps, was published in 2013. According to NPD BookScan, sales of her books were modest.

Personal life

Scott was married to Jeff Bezos. She met him while working as an administrative assistant at D.E. Shaw in 1992; after three months of dating, they married and moved from Manhattan to Seattle, Washington, in 1994. They have four children: three sons, and an adopted daughter from China.

Their community property divorce in 2019 left Scott with US$35.6 billion in Amazon stock while her former husband retained 75% of the couple's Amazon stock. She became the third-wealthiest woman in the world and one of the wealthiest people overall in April 2019. In July 2020, Scott was ranked the 22nd-richest person in the world by Forbes with a net worth estimated at $36 billion. By September 2020, Scott was named the world's richest woman, and by December 2020, her net worth was estimated at $62 billion.

After her divorce from Jeff Bezos, MacKenzie Bezos changed her name to MacKenzie Scott, with the surname derived from her middle name.

In 2021, Scott married Seattle high school science teacher Dan Jewett. The marriage was revealed in Jewett's Giving Pledge letter posted on March 6, 2021. She filed for divorce from him in September 2022, and the divorce was finalized in January 2023.

Philanthropy
In May 2019, Scott signed the Giving Pledge, a charitable-giving campaign in which she undertook to give away most of her wealth to charity over her lifetime or in her will; despite its name, the pledge is not legally binding.

In a July 2020 Medium post, Scott announced that she had donated $1.7 billion to 116 non-profit organizations, with a focus on racial equality, LGBTQ+ equality, democracy, and climate change. Her gifts to HBCUs, Hispanic-serving institutions, tribal colleges and universities, and other colleges surpass $800 million. In December 2020, less than six months later, Scott stated that she had donated a further $4.15 billion in the previous four months to 384 organizations, with a focus on providing support to people affected by the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and addressing long-term systemic inequities. She said that after July, she wanted her advisory team to give her wealth away faster as the United States struggled with the unprecedented impact of COVID-19 while billionaires' wealth continued to climb. Her team's focus was on "identifying organizations with strong leadership teams and results, with special attention to those operating in communities facing high projected food insecurity, high measures of racial inequity, high local poverty rates, and low access to philanthropic capital". Scott's 2020 charitable giving totaled $5.8 billion, one of the biggest annual distributions by a private individual to working charities.

On June 15, 2021, Scott announced another $2.7 billion in giving to 286 organizations. Forbes reported that Scott donated $8.5 billion across 780 organizations in one year (July 2020 to July 2021). In June 2021, Scott and Melinda French Gates launched the Equality Can't Wait Challenge, a contest to promote gender equality and expanding women's power and influence in the United States by 2030. The four winners received $10 million each and additional $8 million was split between two finalists. In February 2022, nine organizations announced gifts from Scott totaling $264.5 million. On March 23, 2022, more gifts were announced including $436 million to Habitat for Humanity and $275 million to Planned Parenthood. In May 2022, The Big Brothers Big Sisters foundation reported a $122.6 million donation from Mackenzie Scott. Scott has also made donations to organizations in Kenya, India, Brazil, Micronesia and Latin America. In April 2022, The New York Times reported that Scott donations since 2019 have exceeded $12 billion. In September 2022, Scott donated two of her Beverly Hills homes — worth a combined $55 million — to the California Community Foundation (CCF), which provides grants to mission-based nonprofits in Los Angeles. The organization intends to sell both homes and use 90% of the earnings to fund affordable housing initiatives and the other 10% to an immigrant integration program.
In October 2022, Scott donated $84.5 million to Girl Scouts of the USA and its 29 local councils, making it the largest donation from an individual in the organization's history. As of November 2022, Scott had donated almost $14 billion to 1500 organizations. In March 2023, Scott announced an "open call" for community-focused nonprofits that Scott can fund. Scott plans to make unrestricted $1 million donations to 250 nonprofits selected in the process.

A significant portion of these unsolicited, unrestricted gifts has gone to organizations working for major changes in support for domestic early childhood development. The Chronicle of Philanthropy reported major gifts to the Ericson Institute ($8 million to advance advocacy training for early childhood policy leaders), Parents as Teachers ($7 million to expand voluntary home visiting), the Early Childhood Funders Collaborative ($3 million to be regranted to organizations advocating for child care reform), and the Alliance for Early Success ($10 million to advance coalition-building in state-level early childhood policy advocacy). Many of these gifts have a clear racial equity component. The Alliance for Early Success grant, for example, will fund a new "Power Equity Initiative," which will focus on elevating power of marginalized voices in early childhood policy advocacy.

Forbes reported, "the unrestricted and ultimately more trusting nature of Scott's philanthropy is the exception, not the norm in their world." The New York Times noted that "Ms. Scott has turned traditional philanthropy on its head... by disbursing her money quickly and without much hoopla, Ms. Scott has pushed the focus away from the giver, and onto the nonprofits, she is trying to help." Scott stated she believed "teams with experience on the front lines of challenges will know best how to put the money to good use." According to a report from the Center for Effective Philanthropy, slightly more than half of the 277 nonprofit organizations surveyed stated that their grant from Scott has made fundraising easier, with some saying they are able to use it as leverage with other donors and the large gift "has enabled organizations to focus funds where they were most needed to achieve their mission." In December 2021, Scott faced backlash for a Medium post when she stated she would not reveal how much money she has donated or to whom. She subsequently announced that her team would build a website to share details of her philanthropy. In December 2022, she posted the link to her donation database.

Yield Giving
In December 2022, Scott posted a database with her gifts on a website called Yield Giving.
Per its website, "Yield is named after a belief in adding value by giving up control." As of June 2023, Yield Giving's network of staff and advisors has yielded over $14,000,000,000 to 1,600+ non-profit teams.

Bibliography

See also
 List of Princeton University alumni

References

Further reading

1970 births
21st-century American novelists
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American philanthropists
Amazon (company) people
American billionaires
American Book Award winners
American women novelists
American women philanthropists
Female billionaires
Hotchkiss School alumni
Living people
Princeton University alumni
Writers from San Francisco
21st-century women philanthropists
Bezos family

MacKenzie Scott


Thule is the name of the island which Pytheas, the ancient Greek explorer, discovered in the fourth century B.C. Pytheas reported that this island was located in the north of Britain. So it is believed that Thule is probably Iceland or the Shetland Islands or the Faroe Islands or the coasts of Norway. Today, a village in the north of Greenland is called  Thule which is also called Qaanaaq.

Related pages
279 Thule

Arctic
Iceland

Thule