Richard "Dick" Ira Bong (September 24, 1920 – August 6, 1945) was a United States Army Air Forces major and Medal of Honor recipient in World War II. He was one of the most decorated American fighter pilots and the country's top flying ace in the war, credited with shooting down 40 Japanese aircraft, all with the Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter. He died in California while testing a Lockheed P-80 jet fighter shortly before the war ended. Bong was posthumously inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1986 and has several commemorative monuments named in his honor around the world, including an airport, two bridges, a theater, a veterans historical center, a recreation area, a neighborhood terrace, and several avenues and streets, including the street leading to the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio.

Early life
Bong was born September 24, 1920, in Superior, Wisconsin, the first of nine children born to Carl Bong, an immigrant from Sweden, and Dora Bryce, who was an American of Scotch-English descent. Known by the common nickname "Dick", he grew up on a farm in Poplar, Wisconsin, where he became interested in aircraft at an early age while watching planes fly over the farm carrying mail for President Calvin Coolidge's summer White House in Superior, and was an avid model builder.

Bong entered Poplar High School in 1934, where he played the clarinet in the marching band and participated in baseball, basketball, and hockey. Because Poplar was a three-year school at the time, Bong transferred to Central High School in Superior for his senior year, graduating in 1938.

He began studying at Superior State Teachers College (the current-day University of Wisconsin–Superior) in 1938. While there, Bong enrolled in the Civilian Pilot Training Program and also took private flying lessons. On May 29, 1941, he enlisted in the Army Air Corps Aviation Cadet Program. One of his flight instructors was Captain Barry Goldwater (later a U.S. Senator from Arizona).

United States Army Air Forces
Bong's ability as a fighter pilot was recognized while he was training in northern California. He was commissioned a second lieutenant and awarded his pilot wings on January 19, 1942. His first assignment was as an instructor (gunnery) pilot at Luke Field, Arizona, from January to May 1942. His first operational assignment was on May 6 to the 49th Fighter Squadron (FS), 14th Fighter Group at Hamilton Field, California, where he learned to fly the twin-engine Lockheed P-38 Lightning.

On June 12, 1942, Bong flew very low ("buzzed") over a house in nearby San Anselmo, the home of a pilot who had just been married. He was cited and temporarily grounded for breaking flying rules, along with three other P-38 pilots who had looped around the Golden Gate Bridge on the same day. For looping the Golden Gate Bridge, flying at a low level down Market Street in San Francisco, and blowing the clothes off of an Oakland woman's clothesline, Bong was reprimanded by General George C. Kenney, commanding officer of the Fourth Air Force, who told him, "If you didn't want to fly down Market Street, I wouldn't have you in my Air Force, but you are not to do it any more and I mean what I say." Kenney later wrote, "We needed kids like this lad."

In all subsequent accounts, Bong denied flying under the Golden Gate Bridge. Nevertheless, Bong was still grounded when the rest of his group was sent without him to England in July 1942. Bong then transferred to another Hamilton Field unit, 84th Fighter Squadron of the 78th Fighter Group. From there, Bong was sent to the Southwest Pacific Area.

Bong was then flown overseas as a passenger aboard a B-24 Liberator from Hawaii via Hickam Field to Australia. Upon arrival Bong was assigned to a newly formed P-38 fighter unit, the 17th Fighter Squadron (Provisional). By November 1942, Bong was transferred to the 49th Fighter Group (49th FG), 9th Fighter Squadron (9th FS). "The Flying Knights" were flying the P-40 Warhawk and were famous for their aerial defense of Darwin from March 1942 until August 1942. Afterwards, the 9th Fighter Squadron was one of two units in the 5th Air Force selected for conversion to the P-38 Lightning. Bong was among a group of new pilots in the South-West Pacific Area (SWPA) with experience flying the new twin engine fighter, and they helped these pilots convert from the P-40 Warhawk and P-39 Airacobra to the P-38 Lightning.

In November, while the squadron waited for delivery of the scarce P-38s, Bong and other 9th FS pilots were reassigned temporarily to fly missions and gain combat experience with the 39th Fighter Squadron, 35th Fighter Group, based in Port Moresby, New Guinea. On December 27, Bong claimed his initial aerial victory, shooting down a Mitsubishi A6M "Zero", and a Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar" over Buna (during the Battle of Buna-Gona). For this action, Bong was awarded the Silver Star.

Bong rejoined the 9th FS, by then equipped with P-38s, in January 1943; the 49th FG was based at Schwimmer Field near Port Moresby. In April, he was promoted to first lieutenant. On July 26, Bong claimed four Japanese fighters over Lae, in an action that earned him the Distinguished Service Cross. In August, he was promoted to captain.

While on leave to the United States the following November and December, Bong met Marjorie Vattendahl at a Superior State Teachers' College homecoming event and began dating her.

After returning to the southwest Pacific in January 1944, he named his P-38 "Marge" and adorned the nose with her photo. On April 12, Captain Bong shot down his 26th and 27th Japanese aircraft, surpassing Eddie Rickenbacker's American record of 26 credited victories in World War I. Soon afterwards, he was promoted to major by General Kenney and dispatched to the United States to see General "Hap" Arnold, who gave him a leave.

After visiting training bases and going on a 15-state bond promotion tour, Bong returned to New Guinea in September. He was assigned to the V Fighter Command staff as an advanced gunnery instructor with permission to go on missions but not to seek combat. Bong continued flying from Tacloban, Leyte, during the Philippines campaign; by December 17, he had increased his air-to-air victory claims to 40.

Bong considered his gunnery accuracy to be poor, so he compensated by getting as close to his targets as possible to make sure he hit them. In some cases he flew through the debris of exploding enemy aircraft, and on one occasion collided with his target, which he claimed as a "probable" victory.

On the recommendation of General Kenney, the Far East Air Force commander, Bong received the Medal of Honor from General Douglas MacArthur in a special ceremony in December 1944. Bong's Medal of Honor citation says that he flew combat missions despite his status as an instructor, which was one of his duties as standardization officer for V Fighter Command. His rank of major would have qualified him for a squadron command, but he always flew as a flight (four-plane) or element (two-plane) leader.

In January 1945, Kenney sent America's ace of aces home for good. Bong married Vattendahl on February 10, 1945. He participated in numerous PR activities, such as promoting the sale of war bonds.

Death

Bong then became a test pilot assigned to Lockheed's plant in Burbank, California, where he flew P-80 Shooting Star jet fighters at the Lockheed Air Terminal.  On August 6, 1945, he took off to perform the acceptance flight of P-80A 44-85048. It was his 12th flight in the P-80; he had a total of four hours and fifteen minutes of flight time in the jet.

The plane's primary fuel pump malfunctioned during takeoff. Bong either forgot to switch to the auxiliary fuel pump, or for some reason was unable to do so. Bong ejected from the aircraft, but was too low for his parachute to deploy. The plane crashed into a narrow field at Oxnard Street and Satsuma Avenue, North Hollywood. His death was front-page news across the country, sharing space with the first news of the bombing of Hiroshima.

The I-16 fuel pump had been added to P-80s after an earlier fatal crash. Captain Ray Crawford, a fellow  P-80 test/acceptance flight pilot who flew on August 6, later said Bong had told him that he had forgotten to turn on the I-16 pump on an earlier flight.

In his autobiography, Chuck Yeager writes that part of the culture of test flying at the time, due to its fearsome mortality rates, was anger toward pilots who died in test flights, to avoid being overcome by sorrow for lost comrades. Bong's brother Carl, who wrote his biography, questions whether Bong repeated the mistake so soon after mentioning it to another pilot. Carl's book – Dear Mom, So We Have a War (1991) – contains numerous reports and findings from the crash investigations.

Legacy

In the mid-1950s, construction on a new USAF installation commenced south of Milwaukee that was to be named Richard I. Bong Air Force Base.  The base, intended to be an Air Defense Command fighter base for the Chicago and Milwaukee areas, was conceived in the early 1950s with construction commencing in the mid-1950s. Construction had barely begun when the base was transferred to the Strategic Air Command as a prospective base for the supersonic B-58 Hustler bomber.  Prior to completion, the base was considered obsolete as it had become apparent to USAF officials that the base would be redundant with installations nearby that would soon have space for more units. The base was abandoned in 1959 and disposed of the following year.  Today, the former base site is known as the Richard Bong State Recreation Area.

This base is not to be confused with the planned renaming of Spokane Air Force Base, Washington, as Bong Air Force Base, which was the planned name of that facility until General Muir Fairchild died on active duty in 1950, cementing "Fairchild" onto the name of the current Fairchild Air Force Base.

Bong is buried at Poplar Cemetery in Poplar, Wisconsin.

Aerial victory credits

Military awards
Bong's military decorations and awards include:

Medal of Honor citation

Rank and organization: Major, United States Army Air Forces
Place and date: Over Borneo and Leyte, October 10 to November 15, 1944
Entered service at: Poplar, Wisconsin
Birth: Poplar, Wisconsin
G.O. No.: 90, December 8, 1944

Commemoration
 Richard Bong State Recreation Area on the site of what was to be Bong Air Force Base in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
 Richard I. Bong Memorial Bridge along US Route 2 in the Twin Ports of Duluth, Minnesota and Superior, Wisconsin
 Richard I. Bong Airport in Superior, Wisconsin
 Bong Barracks of the Aviation Challenge program
 Major Richard I. Bong Bridge on Macarthur Drive, Annandale, Townsville, Australia ()
 Major Richard Ira Bong Squadron of the Arnold Air Society at the University of Wisconsin
 Richard Bong Theatre in Misawa, Japan and the 613th Air and Space Operations Center, Thirteenth Air Force, Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii.
 Bong Avenues on the former site of the decommissioned Richards-Gebaur Air Force Base, on Lackland AFB in San Antonio, Texas, on Luke AFB in Glendale, Arizona, on Elmendorf AFB in Anchorage, Alaska, Fairchild AFB in Spokane WA and on Kadena AFB in Okinawa, Japan. Bong Blvd on Barksdale AFB in Bossier City, Louisiana.
 Bong Terrace, Mount Holly Township, New Jersey (Mount View neighborhood, built 1956–1957).
 Bong Street, Dayton, Ohio, leading to the National Museum of the United States Air Force, and on Holloman AFB near Alamogordo, NM.
 National Aviation Hall of Fame (1986)
 Wisconsin Aviation Hall of Fame (1987).
Bong was named as the class exemplar at the United States Air Force Academy for the Class of 2003.
International Air and Space Hall of Fame (2018)

Richard I. Bong Veterans Historical Center
The Richard I. Bong Veterans Historical Center in Superior, Wisconsin is housed in a structure intended to resemble an aircraft hangar, and contains a museum, a film screening room, and a P-38 Lightning restored to resemble Bong's plane.

See also
List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II
Thomas McGuire, American combat pilot with the second-most enemy planes shot down, World War II

Notes

References

Bong, Carl & O'Connor, Mike.  1985. "Ace of Aces, The Dick Bong Story." 2nd Edition;

External links

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1920 births
1945 deaths
Accidental deaths in California
American people of Swedish descent
American World War II flying aces
United States Army Air Forces Medal of Honor recipients
Aviators from Wisconsin
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in the United States
People from Superior, Wisconsin
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Air Medal
U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School alumni
United States Army Air Forces officers
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
University of Wisconsin–Superior alumni
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor
Military personnel from Wisconsin
Burials in Wisconsin
People from Door County, Wisconsin
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1945

Richard Bong


False titles of nobility are titles of nobility which are fake. They have been invented or taken by a person or family. They are not recognised by the present or past government of the country.

There are a number of schemes that pretend to confer or sell such titles. They have flourished by use of the internet.

Self-styled titles
In monarchies, genuine titles do exist. But they may no longer be recognised by a successor state (such as a republic). Such is the case with French titles, for example. Formerly noble families often still use their old titles, and this is generally acceptable in that society. The title is borne or claimed by a hereditary heir. That is different from an invented or falsely-attributed noble title which is claimed without any historic basis.

Self-assumption of a title is not necessarily illegal. It depends on the law in the particular country. The bearers of some self-assumed titles do not claim that the titles have been recognized by any nation at any time.

Some individuals, associations or companies pretend to give a legal or official right to a title, to an individual or family. Naturally, this requires a remittance or donation, and hence the transaction may be illegal. Also, pretending to be a titled person with intent to deceive also may be an offence.

References

Titles

False titles of nobility


In electronics, doping is the process of adding certain chemical elements to a semiconductor in order to change its electric conductivity. These elements are tiny impurities. This is done to create diodes that make electricity go in one direction, or to make transistors and semiconductor switches.

When the element boron is added to silicon, the boron "dopant" is called an "acceptor" because it likes accepting electrons. When the element phosphorous is added to silicon, the phosphorous is called a "donor" because it does not like electrons.

There are two types of doping: (1) n-type(negative type) doping (2) p-type(positive type) doping

(1) n–type doping: In this, element with five valence electrons are added as impurity(pentavalent impurity or donor impurity) in the semiconductor. Semiconductor has four valence electrons, when it is doped with pentavalent impurity the four valence electron makes covalent bond and the remaining one is now free to move, this is how n-type doping increases conductivity of the semiconductor. Due to excess of electron (e-) in the n-type semiconductor it generates an overall negative charge and thus the name n-type semiconductor.

(2) p-type doping: In this, element with three valence electron are added as impurity (trivalent impurity or acceptor impurity) in the semiconductor. The three electron in the semiconductor bonds with the three electrons of the dopant. The one electron could not make bond and thus the vacant space where electron should be there is created. This vacant space is know as holes. Electron from another atom jumps in these hole to fill it and a hole is created there, and then the same thing continues. Thus, by this way conductivity is  increased in p-type doping.

The impurities are added to the silicon through multiple processes, including "Spin Coating".  A thin layer of phosphorus or boron, usually mixed with a liquid to help it spread out, is spun at high speeds on the silicon.  The mixture spreads out the phosphorous or boron, and then is baked.

Another process involves a scaled down particle accelerator that smashes atoms of the chosen "dopant" into the silicon, which adds the impurity, called "Ion Implantation".
Materials science
Physical chemistry

Electronic components

Doping (semiconductor)


Charles Michel (; born 21 December 1975) is a Belgian politician serving as the president of the European Council since 2019. He previously served as the prime minister of Belgium between 2014 and 2019.

Michel became the minister of development cooperation in 2007 at age thirty-one, and remained in this position until elected the leader of the Francophone liberal Reformist Movement (MR) in February 2011. He led MR to the 2014 federal election, where they emerged as the third-largest party in the Chamber of Representatives. After coalition negotiations, Michel was confirmed as Prime Minister of a MR-N-VA-OVLD-CD&V government. He was sworn in on 11 October 2014, becoming the youngest Belgian prime minister since Jean-Baptiste Nothomb in 1841.

In December 2018, the government collapsed following internal disagreements over the handling of the Global Compact for Migration, with the N-VA withdrawing from the cabinet. Michel subsequently tendered his resignation and remained in office in a caretaker capacity. At the 2019 federal election shortly afterwards, MR lost a number of seats, although Michel remained in office as interim prime minister during coalition negotiations. Weeks after the federal election, on 2 July 2019, the European Council voted to appoint Michel as its new president. He took over from Donald Tusk at a ceremony on 29 November 2019, formally beginning his term on 1 December 2019. He is pursuing a liberal economic policy combining privatization of public services, cuts in public spending, pension reform and deregulation of the labor market.

Early life and education
Charles Michel was born in Namur, Wallonia, on 21 December 1975. He is the son of Louis Michel, a former European Commissioner, and Martine Pierre.

Michel began his political career at the age of 16 when he joined the Young Liberal Reformers of Jodoigne (Jeunes Réformateurs Libéraux de Jodoigne), affiliated to the MR. In 1994, at the age of 18, he was elected provincial councilor in Walloon Brabant. He graduated in law at the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) and the University of Amsterdam in 1998, after which he became lawyer at the Brussels Bar. He is fluent in Dutch and English in addition to his native French.

Early political career
Shortly after finishing university, while his father was Belgium's Minister of Home Affairs, Michel was elected to the federal Chamber of Representatives in 1999 (age 23), representing Walloon Brabant, a stronghold of the liberal MR.

In 2000, he became Minister of Home Affairs in the Walloon Government aged 25, making him the youngest regional minister in Belgian history. At the same time, his father was minister of Home Affairs at the national level. At the local level, he was elected city councillor in Wavre in 2000, and in 2006 became mayor of the city.

In December 2007, Michel became the Minister of Development Cooperation in the Verhofstadt III Government and subsequently in the Leterme I, Van Rompuy I and Leterme II governments.

After poor results in the 2009 regional elections, Michel was part of a group demanding the MR leader Didier Reynders resign. After the party suffered further losses in the 2010 federal election, Reynders resigned, and Michel announced his candidacy to replace him. In January 2011, he was elected President of MR, and resigned from the cabinet.

Prime Minister of Belgium

After the 2014 federal election, Michel became co-formateur in the ensuing coalition negotiations. Initially, CD&V Leader Kris Peeters was expected to be Prime Minister. However CD&V also insisted on Marianne Thyssen being appointed as European Commissioner, and Michel's MR refused to allow the two most important political posts to be held by a single party.

Ultimately, the parties agreed to appoint Thyssen as European Commissioner, with an understanding that the prime ministership would go to either MR or OVLD. As Michel was serving as co-formateur, he quickly won internal support from other parties to lead the next government. On 7 October 2014, an overall agreement was reached between the four parties to form a new government, with Michel proposed as Prime Minister, and Peeters as one of four Deputy Prime Ministers. Michel became the youngest Belgian Prime Minister in 173 years since Jean-Baptiste Nothomb in 1841, and was only the second Francophone liberal to become Prime Minister.

In the Ministry of Security and the Interior, many tasks of the federal police are being privatized (securing public buildings, supervising detainees, etc.), while the departments concerned with international crime (especially computer and financial crime) are being decentralized. In defence, while the budget for investment in equipment has been increased at the request of NATO, the number of personnel is to be reduced by 19.5 per cent. Federal cultural and scientific institutions have been hit by budget cuts of 20 per cent. The budget allocated to the functioning of the judiciary is also depleted, leading Belgium's highest magistrate to accuse the "logic of economy" of being responsible for a "pathology of the entire judicial system that endangers the rule of law."

On January 1, 2016, the tax shift began to take effect. This includes increasing the take-home pay of the lowest income earners through a decrease in social security contributions. The expected increase is €80 net for an employee earning €1,500; €70 for those earning €2,100; and €60 for those earning €2,800. Finance Minister Johan Van Overtveldt says "the tax shift will be a tax cut", although the value-added tax on electricity will rise from 6% to the standard rate of 21% and excise duties on alcohol, diesel, tobacco and soft drinks will increase. A liberal orientation was also adopted in the area of pensions (Bacquelaine law, which reduced the pensions of the formerly unemployed) and labour law (Peeters law, which deregulated the use of overtime, part-time contracts and flexible hours).

In December 2018, a political crisis emerged over whether to sign the Global Compact for Migration. Michel's coalition partner N-VA, which originally supported the Compact, reversed course to oppose it whereas the other three parties continued to support it. Michel subsequently announced the formation of a minority government, with CD&V, MR and OVLD backing the compact.

On 18 December, he presented his government's resignation to the King. The King accepted Michel's resignation on 21 December after consulting party leaders. He remained in office as caretaker Prime Minister during the 2019 federal election, and the ensuing coalition negotiations.

President of the European Council

On 2 July 2019, Michel was elected President of the European Council, one of the most prominent leadership positions of the European Union.

On 20 July 2020, Michel announced a historical deal on the recovery package Next Generation EU and the EU 2021–2027 budget to support member states hit by the COVID-19 pandemic.

In August 2020, Michel expressed "full solidarity" with Greece and Cyprus in their conflict with Turkey, which has occupied the northern part of Cyprus since July 1974. The Aegean dispute between Turkey and Greece escalated when Ankara resumed gas exploration in contested areas of the eastern Mediterranean.

On 27 September 2020, Michel expressed deep concern over the escalation of hostilities in the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh and called on Armenia and Azerbaijan to immediately halt fighting and progress towards a peaceful resolution.

After French-U.S. and French-Australia relations suffered a period of tension in September 2021 due to fallout from the AUKUS defense pact between the U.S., the United Kingdom, and Australia. The security pact is directed at countering Chinese power in the Indo-Pacific region. As part of the agreement, the U.S. agreed to provide nuclear-powered submarines to Australia. After entering into AUKUS, the Australian government canceled an agreement that it had made with France for the provision of French conventionally powered submarines. Von der Leyen called the way France was treated "unacceptable" and demanded an explanation. The EU called the way France was treated "unacceptable" and demanded an explanation. Michel denounced a "lack of transparency and loyalty" by the United States.

During his tenure, there were internal expressions of discontent, including from a Prime Minister and diplomats from different EU countries to Michel's administration. The EU summits, for which he is responsible as president, were criticized for being not well organized. During his tenure, he ignored the decisions of the European Commission instead of remaining solution-oriented like his predecessors in office. A diplomatic fauxpas known as the "Sofagate" was described as a symbol of the strained working relationship between Commission President Ursula von der Leyen and Michel.

Following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, sanctions against Russia also included asset freezes on the Russian Central Bank, which holds $630 billion in foreign-exchange reserves, to prevent it from offsetting the impact of sanctions. On 5 May, Charles Michel said: "I am absolutely convinced that this is extremely important not only to freeze assets but also to make possible to confiscate it, to make it available for the rebuilding" of Ukraine.

In September 2022, he met with Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman at his palace in Jeddah to discuss strengthening cooperation between the EU and Saudi Arabia.

In February 2023, Michel met with Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed in Addis Ababa to normalize EU-Ethiopia relations that had been damaged by the Tigray War.

In September 2023, Michel condemned Azerbaijan's offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh and urged the country to immediately stop its military activities and return to dialogue. In October, he said that Russia "betrayed the Armenian people" after Azerbaijan regained control of the disputed zone from Armenian separatists.

Crisis in Georgia

Following the 2020 Georgian parliamentary election, Georgia experienced a political crisis. The ruling Georgian Dream party was deemed the winner, but the opposition parties said that the election was marred by irregularities and violations, they boycotted the results of the elections and refused to enter the parliament. After Georgian authorities arrested opposition politician Nika Melia, the chairman of the opposition United National Movement (UNM), the country's prime minister resigned and mass street protests ensued.

In March 2021, Michel visited Georgia and participated in talks between Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili and the opposition. Michel and the EU's High Representative Josep Borrell appointed Swedish diplomat Christian Danielsson as the EU envoy to mediate political crisis talks in the country. Michel also met Georgian Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili in Brussels later that month, and met political leaders in Tbilisi in April 2021, after an agreement was signed after several weeks of mediation brokered by Michel and the EU. The agreement was welcomed as a success by the international community and local civil society organizations such as the Europe-Georgia Institute, and Michel hailed the agreement as being in "a truly European spirit" that takes Georgia towards a "Euro-Atlantic future."
Later the largest opposition party in Tbilisi did not accept the agreement and the ruling party withdrew from it.

Honours
 Grand Officer in the Order of Leopold (21 May 2014)
 Minister of State (31 October 2019)
 Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class (2021)

Personal life
Michel and his wife Amélie Derbaudrenghien Michel (née Derbaudrenghien) have two children. Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the couple postponed their wedding, which was supposed to take place in France in August 2020, to avoid quarantine upon return to Belgium. In October 2021, Derbaudrenghien Michel and Michel's spokesman confirmed that the couple discreetly married over the summer of 2021 with a small celebration.

Michel also has a son from a previous relationship.

Ancestry

References

External links

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1975 births
21st-century Belgian politicians
Université libre de Bruxelles alumni
Government ministers of Belgium
Living people
Reformist Movement politicians
People from Namur (city)
Presidents of the European Council
Prime Ministers of Belgium
University of Amsterdam alumni
Walloon politicians
Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class

Charles Michel


Byz (Jorma Andreas Byström, born 27 May 1984) is a Swedish hip-hop musician from Sala. His artist-name is inspired by his last name. Over the years from 1999 to 2000, he started his career as a musician with the group Inte helt oskyldiga. But not until 2003 did he release his first solo album There Is Still A Party Going On.  In 2004, Byz had planned to end his music career, but ultimately decided against it. He released his second solo album, From Here To Somewhere, during the summer of that year. The album was sold in limited edition, just like his first 100 records, mainly for friends and family. In recent years, with the help of the Internet, his music has spread rapidly.

In 2005 Byz released his first Swedish album, which came to be called Når botten i toppen av en sjuttis. The single "Karatefylla" on the last album Fett av dig. He quickly became popular among many young people.

In 2008 Byz initiated closer cooperation with his former companion, Headline. This collaboration was to result in the joint album Does it look like I care? released in the second quarter of 2009 via their website.  Unlike the previous albums, it was made available for free.

Personal life
Byz's father is Finnish. In December 2010, Byström's wife, Juumi Aleksis Byström, gave birth to the couple's second child in Hanover, Germany.

Discography

Albums
Ser det ut som jag bryr mig, 2009
Fett av dig, 2007
Når botten i toppen av en sjuttis, 2005
From here to somewhere, 2004
There is still a party going on, 2003
Vadå (with Inte helt oskyldiga), 2001

Singles
2004 - "The party is in you"
2006 - "Karatefylla"
2007 - "Hey där"
2011 - "Ölbrillor" (Erik og Kriss feat. Byz)
2012 - "Tjena Tjena Tjena" ( feat. Kriss & Robin Bengtsson)
2012 - "Min dealer" (feat. Sibel)
2012 - "Pusha den hårt" (feat. KADE)
2015 - "Tusen smällar sen " (feat. Sara Varga)

References

External links
 Official Web Site

Swedish rappers
Swedish male musicians
Living people
1984 births
Swedish people of Finnish descent

Byz


Bidasoaldea (, ) is one of the eight eskualdeak or comarcas of Gipuzkoa, Basque Autonomous Community, corresponding to the basin of the lower Bidasoa extending in Gipuzkoan soil and named after the river, in Spain. The region comprises two municipalities, i.e. Hondarribia and Irun. This is the most easterly land strip of Gipuzkoa, bordering on the east with the region of Labourd (France), on the south with the Bortziriak (Navarre), on the west with Oarsoaldea and on the north with the Bay of Biscay.

See also
Bidasoa-Txingudi

Bidasoaldea

Bidasoaldea


The history of the Jews in Namibia (formerly South West Africa and before that German South West Africa) goes back a little more than one and a half centuries. Non-existent in Namibia before the 19th century, Jews played an important if minor role in the history of Namibia since that point in time, despite their continuous small population. The most famous Namibian Jew was "businessman, philanthropist and Jewish communal leader" Harold Pupkewitz (1915–2012).

History (19th century-1965)

In the mid-19th century, Jewish merchants from Cape Town named the De Pass brothers became the first Jews in what is now Namibia when they established a trading post on the Namaqualand coast. The De Pass brothers began the Pomona Copper Company in Pomona, Namibia in 1861. After Namibia became a German colony in the late 19th century, more Jews established connections (such as business ventures) in Namibia. However, under German rule, only about 100 Jews lived in Namibia, most of whom lived in Swakopmund. After the German defeat in World War I, the newly created League of Nations gave South Africa a mandate over Namibia. The Jewish population of Namibia (which had close relations with the Jews in South Africa) began increasing after this point, and there were 400 to 500 Jews living in Namibia (mostly in Windhoek) in 1965 (Jews were still less than one percent of the total White population in Namibia during this time, though).

History (1965–present)
Because the League of Nations mandate for Namibia was cancelled by the United Nations and the fact that Namibia became independent, the Jewish population in Namibia dramatically declined since 1965, with only 60 to 100 Jews living in Namibia today. Despite this extremely low number of Jews, Windhoek "has a Hebrew congregation dating from 1917, a synagogue built in 1925, a Talmud Torah, a communal hall, an active Zionist movement supported by generous contributions, and the only Jewish minister in the territory." Other than at Windhoek, the only other place in Namibia today where Jews live in is Keetmanshoop, where about twelve Jewish families currently live.

See also
 History of the Jews in Southern Africa
 History of the Jews in South Africa
 Israel–Namibia relations
 Religion in Namibia

References

External links
 Community in Namibia - World Jewish Congress
 Namibia -Jewish Virtual Library

Jews
Namibia
Namibia
History
Namibia

History of the Jews in Namibia


Sandra M. Gilbert (born December 27, 1936) is an American literary critic and poet who has published in the fields of feminist literary criticism, feminist theory, and psychoanalytic criticism. She is best known for her collaborative critical work with Susan Gubar, with whom she co-authored, among other works, The Madwoman in the Attic (1979). Madwoman in the Attic is widely recognized as a text central to second-wave feminism. She is Professor Emerita of English at the University of California, Davis.

She lives in Berkeley, California, and lived, until 2008, in Paris, France. Her husband, Elliot L. Gilbert, was chair of the Department of English at University of California, Davis, until his death in 1991. She also had a long-term relationship with David Gale, mathematician at University of California, Berkeley, until his death in 2008.

Academia

Gilbert received her B.A. from Cornell University, her M.A. from New York University, and her Ph.D. in English literature from Columbia University in 1968. She has taught at California State University, Hayward, Williams College, Johns Hopkins University, Stanford University, and Indiana University. She held the C. Barnwell Straut Chair of English at Princeton University from 1985 until 1989.

According to reports in The New York Times, Gilbert, along with Emory Elliott, Valerie Smith, and Margaret Doody all resigned from Princeton in 1989. The reports suggest that the four were unhappy with the leniency shown to Thomas McFarland after he was accused of sexual misconduct. McFarland was initially put on a one-year suspension, but eventually took early retirement after these resignations and threats of student boycotts.

She was named the inaugural M. H. Abrams Distinguished Visiting Professor at Cornell University for spring 2007, and the Lurie Distinguished Visiting Professor in the Creative Writing MFA program at San Jose State University in 2009.

Awards

Gilbert was president of the Modern Language Association in 1996. She has been a recipient of Guggenheim, Rockefeller, NEH, and Soros Foundation fellowships and has held residencies at Yaddo, MacDowell, Bellagio, Camargo, and Bogliasco. In 1988 she was awarded a D. Litt. by Wesleyan University. In 1990 she was a co-recipient (with Karl Shapiro) of the International Poetry Forum's Charity Randall Award. More recently, she has won a Patterson Prize (for Ghost Volcano), an American Book Award (for Kissing the Bread), the John Ciardi Award for Lifetime Achievement in Poetry (from the Italian-American Foundation), the Premio Lerici Pea awarded by the Liguri nel Mondo association, and several awards from Poetry magazine. In 2004 she was awarded the degree of Doctor Philosophiae Honoris Causa by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 2012, she and her longtime collaborator Susan Gubar were awarded the Ivan Sandrof Lifetime Achievement Award of the National Book Critics Circle. In 2017 she received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from Harvard University.

Collaboration with Susan Gubar

Gilbert and Gubar met in the early 1970s at Indiana University. In 1974, they collaborated to co-teach a course on literature in English by women; their lectures led to the manuscript for Madwoman in the Attic. They have continued to co-author and co-edit, and have been jointly awarded several academic distinctions. Notably, they were jointly named Ms. magazine's "Woman of the Year" in 1986 for their work as head editors of The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: The Traditions in English.

Because of the success of their joint publications, Gilbert and Gubar are often cited together in the fields of Feminist literary criticism and Feminist theory.

Feminist literary criticism and theory

Gilbert's critical and theoretical works, particularly those co-authored with Susan Gubar, are generally identified as texts within the realm of second-wave feminism. As such, they represent part of a concerted effort to move beyond the simple assimilationist theories of first-wave feminism, either by rejecting entirely the given, oppressive, patriarchal, male-dominated order of society, or by seeking to reform that order. Gilbert's texts, in turn, lay themselves open to many of the criticisms levelled by third-wave feminism, or thinkers who regard patriarchy not as an integrated and foundational system, but a set of repeated practices which may vary over time and space.

Gilbert is often said to have found her theoretical roots in the earlier 1970s works of Ellen Moers and Elaine Showalter, as the basic premise of her thought is that women writers share a set of similar experiences and that male oppression or patriarchy is everywhere essentially the same.

"The Anxiety of Authorship"

In The Madwoman in the Attic, Gilbert and Gubar take the Oedipal model of the anxiety of influence developed by literary critic Harold Bloom, centred around writers' Oedipal fear and jealousy for their perceived literary "fore-fathers", and adapt it to their own purposes as feminist critics. According to Bloom's theory, the developing writer must struggle to break free from his most immediate, direct influences, to form his own voice, and to break away from identification to find his own imaginative space. Gilbert and Gubar extend this male-oriented model to incorporate a female "Anxiety of Authorship", whereby lack of predecessors makes the very act of writing problematic.

Where Bloom wonders how the male author can find a voice that is his own, Gilbert and Gubar – building on Virginia Woolf's analysis of the "difficulty...that they had no tradition behind them" – emphasise the problem a woman writer may have in seeing herself as possessing a literary voice at all, given the absence of a maternal precursor. Where Bloom finds aggression and competition between male literary figures in terms of self-consciously feeling influenced and desiring to be influential, the "anxiety of authorship" identifies a "secret sisterhood" of role models within the Western tradition who show that women can write, the recuperation of the tradition of which becomes a feminist project. However, these models too may be "infected" with a lack of confidence, and with internal contradiction of ambition, hampered by the culturally induced assumption of "the patriarchal authority of art."

In later works, the pair explore "the 'double bind' of the woman poet...the contradictions between her vocation and her gender" (Shakespeare's Sisters), as well as the development (in the wake of Sylvia Plath) of a new genre of 'mother poets'.

Critical works

 Acts of Attention: The Poems of D.H. Lawrence (Cornell University Press, 1972)

Co-authored with Susan Gubar

 A Guide to The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: The Tradition in English (W.W. Norton, 1985; revised second edition 1996)
 The War of the Words, Volume I of No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century (Yale University Press, 1988)
 Sexchanges, Volume II of No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century (Yale University Press, 1989)
 Letters from the Front, Volume III of No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century (Yale University Press, 1994)
 Masterpiece Theatre: An Academic Melodrama (Rutgers University Press, 1995)
 The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (Yale University Press, 1979

Poetry

 In the Fourth World (University of Alabama Press, 1979)
 The Summer Kitchen (Heyeck Press, 1983)
 Emily's Bread (W. W. Norton, 1984)
 Blood Pressure (W. W. Norton, 1989)
 Ghost Volcano (W. W. Norton, 1997)
 Kissing the Bread: New and Selected Poems 1969-1999 (W. W. Norton, 2000)
 The Italian Collection (Depot Books, 2003)
 Belongings (W. W. Norton, 2006)
 Aftermath: Poems (W. W. Norton, 2011)

Non-fiction
 Wrongful Death: A Medical Tragedy (W. W. Norton, 1995)
 Death's Door: Modern Dying and The Ways We Grieve (W. W. Norton, 2006)
 Rereading Women: Thirty Years of Exploring Our Literary Traditions (W. W. Norton, 2011)
 The Culinary Imagination: From Myth to Modernity (W. W. Norton, 2014)

Other publications

Gilbert has edited a collection of elegies:
 Inventions of Farewell (W. W. Norton, 2001)

With Susan Gubar, she has edited several collections:
 Shakespeare's Sisters: Feminist Essays on Women Poets (Indiana University Press, 1981)
 The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: The Traditions in English (W.W. Norton, 1985, 1990, 1996, 2007)
 Women Poets, Special Double Issue of Women's Studies (1980)
 The Female Imagination and the Modernist Aesthetic (Gordon and Breach, 1986)

With Susan Gubar and Diana O'Hehir, she has edited a collection of poetry:
 MotherSongs: Poetry by, for, and about Mothers (W.W. Norton, 1995)

With Wendy Barker, she has edited a collection of essays on the work of Ruth Stone:
 The House is Made of Poetry (Southern Illinois University Press, 1996)

Notes

References
 The Dictionary of Literary Biography, vol. 120, ed. R.S. Gwynn (1992)
 UCDavis Academic Profile
 The Norton Anthology of Literary Criticism, ed. Vincent B. Leitch et al. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001)
 Making Feminist History: The Literary Scholarship of Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, ed. William E. Cain (1994)
 Toril Moi, Sexual/Textual Politics (1985)
 "Interview with Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar", Critical Texts 6.1, Elizabeth Rosdeitcher (1989)
 "Literary critic Sandra Gilbert named M.H. Abrams Distinguished Visiting Professor", Cornell Chronicle (17 October 2006)

External links
 Gilbert's personal webpage
 UCDavis academic profile
 Indiana University's academic profile of Susan Gubar

American academics of English literature
American literary critics
American women literary critics
Wesleyan University people
Cornell University alumni
New York University alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Cornell University faculty
Williams College faculty
Stanford University Department of English faculty
Johns Hopkins University faculty
San Jose State University faculty
Princeton University faculty
Indiana University faculty
1936 births
Living people
University of California, Davis faculty
California State University, East Bay faculty
American feminist writers
Postmodern feminists
American writers of Italian descent
American Book Award winners
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Presidents of the Modern Language Association

Sandra Gilbert


The Belle Ainsworth Jenkins Estate, located near Beaverton, Oregon, United States, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Built starting in 1912, the main house on the property was intended as a summer home. The entire  estate is owned by the Tualatin Hills Park & Recreation District (THPRD). The estate has eight buildings, including the main home and a farmhouse built in 1880.

History
Ralph and Belle Jenkins purchased the property for $7,000 in 1912 for what was intended to be their summer home. Belle was the daughter of John C. Ainsworth, a founder of the Oregon Steam Navigation Company, while Ralph had been a teacher. The Jenkins began construction on a large estate that year as an escape from the city. The English hunting lodge-style main home took three years to complete, and was in addition to the original farmhouse on the property. Other facilities on the estate included fine equestrian facilities, as well as gardens, a greenhouse, an ornamental pool, a tea house, a carriage house, and a water tower.

Ralph Jenkins died in the 1950s; Belle died in 1963. Burt Muir inherited the property, but sold it to developers for what was planned to be a retirement community. Once the project failed due to a lack of water and sewer access, the developers put the estate up for sale. The Tualatin Hills Park & Recreation District purchased the Jenkins estate in 1976 for $525,000. In 1978, the estate was added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Belle Ainsworth Jenkins Estate.

The Tualatin Valley Chapter of the American Rhododendron Society started working with THPRD in 1982 to restore the rhododendron garden on the property. The park district restored the property in 1989 at a cost of $178,000. Camp Rivendale, a camp for adults and children with disabilities, was created in the 1980s. Due to operating losses at the property, THPRD decided to outsource management of the events at the estate in 2013; Elephants Delicatessen was selected to manage the events at what it calls the Jenkins Estate.

Details

Jenkins Estate covers  and contains  of gardens. The structures on the property are the main house, stable, carriage house, greenhouse, tea house, water tower, pump house, and the farmhouse. The  main house is L shaped with a full basement. THPRD rents out the buildings for business meetings, weddings, and other events. The Herb Garden was created in 1985 with help from the Oregon School of the Blind and contains a Braille Garden planted with fragrant herbs.

See also

 Maud and Belle Ainsworth House
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington County, Oregon

References

External links

1880 establishments in Oregon
Houses in Washington County, Oregon
National Register of Historic Places in Washington County, Oregon
Jenkins Estate
Houses completed in 1880

Belle Ainsworth Jenkins Estate


Hyappatsu hyakuchu (100発100中, IronFinger) is a 1965 Japanese action adventure comedy film directed by Jun Fukuda and produced by Toho. The film was shot in color and cinemascope (TohoScope). When Akira Takarada appeared in "Godzilla Final Wars", released in 2004, he said "This is still a man who was said to be 100 out of 100 shots in the past. The line is about this work (by director Ryuhei Kitamura's plan).

The story is about an ordinary vacationer takes up the mission of a dead Interpol agent and finds himself caught between two rival gangs who are fighting over an arms shipment.

Plot
On board the Air France plane ready to leave the Orly Airport in Paris, there are two passengers on that plane. One is a second generation born in England who wears a dark sunglasses and an ordinary vacationer who speak French and Japanese. The vacationer began having a conversation with the sunglasses man and he began writing a letter to his mother while holding a picture of makuṭa dancers, telling her that he and his friend are going to Bangkok to have a chat over there. The two traveled with Bangkok and Hong Kong without revealing their surnames, began to have conversation while smoking a cigarettes. Suddenly, two motorcycle assassins ambushed the two only for the sunglasses man get caught with a rope and dragged on the street. The vacationer take out the first assassin while pulling out his Luger to kill the second.

The sunglasses man died in front of him and revealed to be an Interpol agent named Andrew Hoshino according to his passport ID. The vacationer, now named Andrew Hoshino, arrived at Haneda Airport using his passport and plan to find out who killed the agent. A strange incident happened at the crowded airport as Andrew witness a stripper's makeup bag exploded at the customs and a Chinese man escaped in the turmoil as if he was looking for an opportunity. Andrew chases after him only to lose site of him as he get in the car and leave. Meanwhile he meet Yumi Sawada, a beautiful woman who offered him a drive, is a fashionable female bomb expert who sells plastic explosives in Southeast Asia. Guided by Yumi, Andrew arrived at the base of the Akatsuki Gang (赤月組, Akatsuki-gumi), a Yakuza crime syndicate led by Jyosuke Akatsuki and was taken as prisoner. The Chinese man was actually a weapons dealer named Huang Changkang, who had been smuggling 100 CRS pistols (a re-modeled version of Mauser C96 pistols) from Hong Kong with his stripper in order to annihilate their competitors the Aonuma Gang (青沼組,Aonuma-gumi) under the leadership of yakuza boss Takeshi Aonuma. But Yumi had a more powerful weapon that she personally designed it on her own, a plastic explosive that can explode anytime, anywhere with an ultrasonic whistle.

Eventually, a agent from the International Secret Police was dispatched from Paris, and Tezuka, a bumbling over confident police detective from the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department, sneaked into the Akatsuki base to investigate an illegal weapon smuggling. But he ended up getting captured by Akatsuki's henchmen and taken to the basement where Andrew was tied up. The Akatsuki Gang, who was having problem with the two, moved them in a freezing box truck and headed for the Tokai region with Yumi as the lookout. However, Tezuka flirts and teasing with the hot exchange between Hoshino and Yumi as lovers. On the other hand, Huang, who was angry about not getting half of the money from Jyosuke, sold 100 guns to the Akatsuki Gang and went to Takeshi where he sells 200 guns to the Aonuma Gang in exchange for telling about a deal with the Akatsuki's. In addition, Huang was told by Aonuma that Hoshino was a hitman dispatched from the Swiss trafficking kingpin de Balmeyer, and came to Japan in aiming for Huang with a French crime boss named Hubert Lebois, who was actually the leader of the weapon smuggling ring.

However, Huang was relieved to know that Hoshino was captured by the Akatsuki Gang. Huang then informed about the location of where the Akatsuki's would unload 100 guns. However, at that time, Andrew and Tezuka managed to escape while avoid being caught by the two gangs. Yumi, who saw that 100 crates full of CRS pistols were unlikely, started to fell in love with Andrew and saved them by setting up explosives around the beach catching the two gangs by suprise. Hoshino and Tezuka then began to search for Huang and Lubois. The trio began searching for Lebois, who had undergone plastic surgery in Italy, but suddenly learned of a stripper left behind by her manager, and Andrew and Tezuka were the same person as Lebois. Tezuka and his colleagues, who migrated to the CRS Special Investigation Headquarters, flew to Manila and started an investigation with the cooperation of the Manila City Police. However, Andrew was confronted and captured by Komori, a hitman for Aonuma, who came from Tokyo, and was placed on a Cessna 172 plane driven by Huang Changkang. Tezuka and Yumi immediately chased after the plane, but Huang Changkang descended with a parachute alone when Hoshino was tied up, unable to grabbed on to the control stick when Tezuka passed out. Huang was brutally killed when he went to the wrong direction and getting cut by a spinning propeller. The two managed to help Andrew escaped as the plane crashed into the jungle.

Once they have landed in Manila, the three where surrounded by Filipinos and foreign guards led by Lebois and was taken to his weapons factory. Lebois, who first appeared in front of the three, said that a sunglasses man named Andrew Hoshino should have killed Huang in Hong Kong, and was suspicious of the fake ICPO agent. He was imprisoned in the room by Lebois, who tried to torture Andrew and Tezuka for more information, but was saved by Yumi after she planed the explosives plastic behind the cellar. On the contrary, Hoshino, who carries his pistol against Lebois and his minions, contacted the Manila City Police, and weapon smuggler Lebois was defeated in a final battle with Andrew, finally avenging his friend's death and completed his mission as an official Interpol agent. The movie ends with Andrew took a speedboat and leave Manila to Tokyo while Tezuka remained with the Manila police. Then out of nowhere, Yumi chased after Andrew and asked for a date.

Staff
 Producers: Tomoyuki Tanaka, Kenichirô Tsunoda
 Director: Jun Fukuda
 Screenwriters: Michio Tsuzuki (screenplay), Kihachi Okamoto
 Composer: Masaru Sato
 Cinematographers: Kazuo Yamada (uncredited), Shinsaku Uno
 Editors: Ryôhei Fujii, Yoshitami Kuroiwa
 Production Designer: Kazuo Ogawa
 Assistant Director: Yoshimitsu Banno
 Sound Recordist: Fumio Yanoguchi
 Synthesis: Izumi Minoru
 Stunt Coordinator: Shigeru Nakamura
 Photographer: Goichi Araki
 Lighting Technician: Hiromitsu Mori

Cast
 Akira Takarada as Andrew Hoshino
 Mie Hama as Yumi Sawada
 Ichirō Arishima as Detective Tezuka
 Jun Tatara as Huang Changkang
 Akihiko Hirata as Komori
 Sachio Sakai as Jyosuke Akatsuki
 Susumu Kurobe as Man of sunglasses
 Tôru Ibuki (Matsuki), Chôtarô Tôgin (Ken) as Akatsuki's henchmen
 Naoya Kusakawa as Takeshi Aonuma
 Koji Iwamoto, Tsune Sunagam, Yukihiko Gondo, Hiroshi Sekita, Yoshio Katsube, Yasuo Araki as Akatsuki's henchmen
 Shigeki Ishida as Inspector Tamai
 Yasuzo Okawa as Doorman
 Hatsue Tonooka as Stripper
 Mike Daneen as Hubert Lebois (as Mike Danning)
 Haruya Sakamoto as Police detective
 Jun Kuroki as Man on the national highway (for Aonuma Gang)
 Sachiko Mori as Hostess
 Minoru Ito, Hideki Furukawa, Seishirō Kuno as Aonuma's henchmen
 Keiichi Morishita as Taxi driver
 Hideo Shibuya, Masaki Shinohara, Haruo Suzuki as Lebois's subordinates

※ Uncredit performers
 Ryutaro Amami, Masaaki Tachibana, Haruo Nakajima as Detectives
 Yasumasa Onishi, Keiichiro Katsumoto, Saburo Kadowaki, Keiji Sakakida, Jiro Mitsuaki as Men at the Haneda Airport
 Yoshie Kihira, Fumiko Takano, Takashi Narita as Airline passengers
 Midori Uchiyama, Kazuko Tani as Bowling alley guests
 Daisuke Inoue as Haneda Airport staff / bowling alley guest (2 roles)
 Hiroshi Akitsu as Haneda Airport Man / Blue Swamp Customer (2 roles)
 Eisaburo Komatsu as National highway man (for Aonuma Gang) / bowling alley guest (2 roles)
 Ryoji Shimizu as Lebois's subordinate / bowling alley guest (2 roles)
 Gerd Bisinoski as Lookout Man
 Shigeo Suzuki (Otsu), Narunobu Yanagi (Ko) as Motorcycle assassins in Hong Kong
 Osman Yusuf, Kuniyoshi Kashima as Lebois's subordinates
 Kazuo Imai, Sôji Ubukata as Blue Swamp guests
 Wakako Tanabe as Blue Swamp hostess
 Ansulmo Garsha as Inspector Morales
 Jimmy Scander as Boy

Song
『100 Shot, 100 Killed』(100発100中, Hyappatsu hyakuchu)
Lyrics: Tokiko Iwatani
Composer: Masaru Sato
Artist: Akira Fuse

Simultaneous screening
『Baka To Hasami』 (馬鹿と鋏, Stupid Scissors)
Writer: Yasuo Tanami / Director: Senkichi Taniguchi / Starring: Junzaburō Ban

Hyappatsu hyakuchu


The failure of the Yên Bái mutiny by Vietnamese soldiers in the French colonial army on February 10, 1930, caused the French authorities to engage in a reform of military policies which were aimed at preventing future uprisings. French trust in the Vietnamese soldiers' loyalty as colonised subjects who were simultaneously enforcers of colonial order had never been high, and the mutiny resulted in increased safeguards against Vietnamese soldiers in an attempt to prevent future incidents. Around 80% of the Vietnamese soldiers in Tonkin were transferred to other districts in order to disrupt any secret plots that may have been in progress, and some soldiers who had returned from foreign service were discharged in the fear that their overseas experiences made them less likely to accept colonial subjugation. The internal reform saw the rules for expelling Vietnamese soldiers from the army were liberalised and an inquiry into military intelligence resulted in closer cooperation between military intelligence and their French colonial civilian counterparts, while French officers were ordered to improve their Vietnamese language skills. The French authorities decreed that the proportion of ethnic Vietnamese soldiers was too high and reduced the proportion of Vietnamese by replacing them with European, Cambodian, Lao and ethnic minority Montagnard people.

Military reforms precipitated by the mutiny

The mutiny refocused attention on the long term tension over the use of Indochinese soldiers, and on the ways in which it could be resolved. The tension could be traced back to the creation of French Indochina. Cochinchina, the European term for southern Vietnam, had been colonized in 1867 and the remaining parts of Vietnam, Tonkin and Annam, the northern and central regions were conquered in 1883. Nominally, only Cochinchina was a colony, while Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia and Laos were protectorates which together comprised French Indochina. The problem centred around the French reliance on native soldiers to maintain colonial control. This need was problematic because Indo-Chinese soldiers were both enforcers of colonial order and colonial subjects. This created constant French concerns about their loyalty. Despite several attempts to deal with the issue, the basic tension between the need for and suspicion of native troops could never be entirely resolved. The need for forces to pacify the countryside was too pressing to do without them. As a result, the tension resurfaced at regular intervals, either due to proposals to improve the position of Indochinese soldiers in the army, or after a mutiny had raised question marks about the loyalty of the soldiers.

Background of Vietnamese troops in the French colonial army

The demand for Indochinese soldiers, auxiliaries first, and then regular troops, had been present since the beginning of the French conquest. French troops were never numerically sufficient to assert control of the populace and then maintain Pax Gallica in the colony, thus requiring local reinforcements. Home grown French troops were lacking because they were too expensive for Paris and Hanoi, in contrast to the substantially cheaper native troops. A lack of manpower back in Europe caused by other imperial programs and the demographic trough caused by mass casualties in World War I on the Western Front further caused a need for the recruitment of Indochinese troops. Because French Indochina was a domination and exploitation colony rather than a settler colony, the pool of local Frenchmen was far too small to build a settler-army. Native troops generally knew the land and people much better, could be used in terrain on which foreign troops were disadvantaged. They were far more abundant than French born troops, whose deployment to Indochina was time-consuming, expensive and risky. Aside from the risks associated with the closure of sea lanes, the emergency dispatch of metropolitan troops from Paris could not be taken for granted. Particularly after 1915, French Indochina was expected to financially contribute to the defence of the colony and even to send native troops to France.

The native soldiers fulfilled a number of different purposes. Initially they were collaborators in the conquest of Indochina, helping to defeat the forces of the Nguyễn dynasty and then in its pacification. After the pacification campaign was officially completed in 1897, the two main functions of the colonial army were the maintenance of internal peace and external security. Both these tasks were fulfilled in conjunction with other armed institutions, such as the Garde indigène (later indochinoise), the Gendarmerie, the police, and the partisans in the border regions. The Garde indigène, a paramilitary force, was primarily responsible for dealing with disturbances of the peace and thus played an important role in the repression of public demonstrations and popular unrest.

In the areas bordering China, the military had a much more active role in securing the frontier against incursions by smugglers, bandits, and politically motivated militants.

The participation of native soldiers in the colonial forces was used as political symbolism, proof that the Union's five territories were rightfully under French tutelage, as evidenced by the populace's contribution of soldiers to a common army under French command. This was the "blood toll" to be paid for the Pax Gallica. In their position as colonizers and colonial subjects, the native colonial troops were also buffers between the French and the unarmed populace. Their sheer presence demonstrated French control and power to the ordinary population, posing a considerable obstacle to those who intended to overthrow French rule using violence.

The dilemma was that the French needed local soldiers to maintain the Union's internal and external peace, but could not rely on them too deeply because of an innate distrust. French concerns about disloyalty resulted from a fear that the colonialised soldiers would turn their weapons on their masters, or desert them in an emergency situation. Such fears were deeply institutionalised in the army in the form of "safe" ratios of "white" and "yellow" soldiers, the segregation of the army into its various Indochinese constituencies, and the establishment of racialised access to command hierarchies that excluded natives from becoming officers until 1929. The mutiny triggered the long existing fears about the loyalty of native soldiers, as well as many traditional French responses.

Transfer of soldiers

In addition to the individual military punishments, the army took further internal measures to lower the risk of another insurrection. According to Maurice Rives, 10,000 Vietnamese troops were given transfers to different zones. This meant that more than 80% of Tonkin's approximately 12,000 Tirailleurs Tonkinois (Tonkinese Rifles) were moved, a transfer of enormous proportions, indicating the extent of insecurity among French commanders towards Vietnamese troops, and the extent to which they were willing to go to make future Yên Báis impossible. One possible rationale for this measure was to break up any undiscovered VNQDD cells and to sever personal ties, within units and between soldiers and civilians in their local district. The mass transfer of soldiers also had the effect of creating a state of constant mobilisation, denying troops the time and opportunity for anti-colonial organisation. In the words of a French officer who wrote in his diary under the pseudonym Bôn Mat, the measures would also force French officers to be more watchful, as "[t]roops which do not work sufficiently and which are not looked after properly, lose their spirit of discipline; or rather, unoccupied troops cannot be disciplined."

Aside from measures in Vietnam, 2,000 Indochinese soldiers returning from service in France were sent on indefinite leave and were not replaced with new recruits from Vietnam. The reason is put down by historians to be because military discipline in France was less regimented than in Indochina and other colonial garrisons. In colonial units, the colonial military and social order with Frenchmen above their indigenous troops was more easily reproduced. The French home services lacked officers specialising in commanding colonial troops; this was one of the main reasons of the disorder, as they unlike their colleagues posted to the colonies, did not know how to lead Vietnamese soldiers. Metropolitan officers also treated their Vietnamese subordinates on a more equitable basis, thereby subverting the colonial hierarchy of racial inequality under which the Vietnamese had been trained. As an example, Indochinese warrant officers had the right to command and be saluted in the metropolitan services, whereas in Vietnam only French soldiers had such rights.

Away from the discipline and the colonial hierarchy they were used to, the Vietnamese soldiers could become so alienated with their experiences that they became soft targets for communist propaganda. Upon returning home to Vietnam, they attempt to indoctrinate other troops with their Marxist doctrine. This train of thought further reinforced French perception that subversive ideas came from the outside rather than domestically: of the 57 soldiers involved in the mutiny, 17 had served abroad. On the other hand, according to the Thiry report, the proportion of soldiers with foreign service at Yên Bái did not exceed that in other garrisons, so this was not abnormal.

Military intelligence reforms

In addition to punishing soldiers, tightening dismissal regulations and reducing the number of Vietnamese servicemen in France, the French decided to improve the military intelligence service. This was to be achieved by strengthening military intelligence through closer coordination with the Sûreté, and by raising internal standards. In terms of coordination, an inquiry into the mutiny at Yên Bái showed that cooperation between Resident Massimi and Commandant Le Tacon did not exist despite multiple requests, and that this was partly responsible for the failure to prevent the uprising. Although the relationship between the civilian authorities in Tonkin and the military were traditionally marked by rivalry, Yên Bái stood out in the total lack of military–civilian cooperation. Further VNQDD conspiracies to foment mutinies in other garrisons, such as Kien An, were detected and scotched at late notice. Although the performance of the intelligence service was regarded as being substandard at Yên Bái, the army command in Vietnam realised, under criticism from civil authorities who claimed they had not been sufficiently cooperative in the past, that the teamwork with the Sûreté had to be raised to greater heights to prevent future Yên Bái style rebellions. For such reasons, Patrice Morlat wrote that the mutiny at Yên Bái allowed the Sûreté to "penetrate indirectly into the military sector which had till then been inaccessible".

However, this indirect penetration in the aftermath of the Yên Bái mutiny seems to have been the evolution of a process that had begun at least six months earlier. Several sources indicate that this was triggered by the French crackdown on the VNQDD and other revolutionary independence organisations in early 1929. The crackdown had uncovered the extent of the VNQDD's systematic infiltration of the army, and had prompted a military crackdown on troops with connections to such organisations. By October 1929, after heavy civilian criticism of the military's information policy in July, army authorities had realised the need to systematically gather intelligence to deal with the threat from new forms of anti-colonial organisation. As such information could be collected only by the Sûreté, the implication was that the military had to work more closely with the colonial political police. Three weeks before Yên Bái, Governor General Pasquier had congratulated General Commandant Superior Aubert on the "most favourable results" of "close [military–civilian] collaboration".

The events at Yên Bái mutiny and the discovery that the VNQDD had infiltrated many other units reinforced the need for closer military–civilian relations and fast tracked the process of improved relations. According to Morlat, the Sûreté's indirect penetration of military affairs involved linking the military intelligence service (SRM) to the Sûreté and the information provided by it, thereby making itself dependent on the political information and even political judgement and agenda of the civilian authorities. The central SRM then relayed this information to its local branches as part of its SRM Bulletin. There, "ALL OFFICERS (and not just those of the SRM" [capitals and brackets in original] were to be participate in the study of the revolutionary groups. As a result of the uprising, the SRM became more closely linked to the Sûreté and its methodology and philosophy in of analysing Vietnamese anti-colonial activity. The number of recipients of such intelligence increased markedly due to the decision to have all officers involved in studying revolutionary parties. The focus thus widened from observing only internal army activities to include developments among Vietnamese anti-colonial organisations at large.

As rivalries continued to exist between military and civil authorities, the military intelligence service did not completely fall under the sway of the Sûreté, but it was strongly influenced by the institutionalised cooperation and the Sûreté's style of analysing Vietnamese anti-colonial politics: it also benefited from an improved flow of information between the two intelligence agencies. Whether the institutionalised sharing of intelligence and enhanced understanding of anti-colonial organisations would lead to more effective prevention, depended largely on the internal operations of the military intelligence service. The mutiny had exposed flaws in the local and central SRM, the result of both personal and institutional deficiencies. Commandant Le Tacon, who had been responsible for organising the local SRM, had been unable to understand the graveness of the predicament despite several warnings. The central SRM may have prevented the mutiny if the officer responsible for Yên Bái, Slouchez, had informed his local contact, Tran Uc Sinh, about his leave of absence or if he had taken the required precautions of arranging cover during his absence. These oversights were particular to Yên Bái, whereas planned VNQDD mutinies in many other garrisons, such as Kien An, Phu Lang Thuong, Nam Dinh and Sept-Pagodes, were prevented at the last moment. The intelligence failure at Yên Bái did not reflect weaknesses in the overall organisational hierarchy of the SRM, or failures in the decentralisation measures which had started in early 1929 but which had not yet been finished.

Although Yên Bái was the exception, this did not mean that the SRM ran smoothly or that the performance standards could not be higher. A month after the mutiny, General Commandant Superior Aubert circulated SRM Notice 660, on March 11, 1930, to describe (and prescribe) the morale and techniques needed for an effective intelligence service. It stressed the importance of understanding the objectives and organisational structure of anti-colonial parties and then advised on the ways in which the revolutionary threat could be nullified. The note also deemed it necessary to remind its recipients about two earlier intelligence communications – of February 25 and October 17, 1929 – thus indicating that they had not been taken on board completely. One of the reasons given for this was what was seen as the complacent attitude of many officers, in assuming that they could "preserve [their] units from revolutionary propaganda" and related to this, the low morale of many European warrant officers who regarded "their [intelligence] role as ending when their working hours are over". Apart from indicating what officers should be giving their due diligence, Aubert's note also indicated the means by which critical intelligence information could be obtained. This largely depended on close collaboration with Vietnamese warrant officers who had an important intelligence role in their position as a conduit between their French masters and their Vietnamese troops. The flow of intelligence between French officers and Vietnamese warrant officers was not as smooth as desired. The French were often not tactful and discreet enough, and many were not, due to a lack of language skills or interest, "in real contact with the indigenous warrant officers." On the other hand, the Vietnamese were not very open with regard to the provision of information, and thus did not take (co-)responsibility "for the maintenance of the troops' good spirit". Despite the air of good appearance and behaviour of the Vietnamese warrant officers and tirailleurs, they often misled their French superiors about their knowledge of subversive activities. This posed a major problem in intelligence gathering, necessitating the cross-checking of information, as well as threatening harsh penalties if information was withheld.

Historical consensus notes that irrespective of whether military duty in the France was productive or not, the time spent by the Vietnamese soldiers in France had a profound transformation on them in both the social and individual sense. Inside as well as outside the barracks, the Vietnamese servicemen were often treated more equitably than in their home country. They encountered intellectual thought not openly promulgated in Vietnam. They could relate to Frenchmen, have relations with French women, and with other colonised peoples present in France. Furthermore, they could see that France too was in a state of change. As a result of their overseas service, at least some of the returning troops would attempt to rationalise the differences between their experiences in the two countries. Coupled with the differences in colonial and metropolitan discipline, this is postulated to have bred a more critical stance towards their superiors and a more critical attitude towards the colonial order.

In addition to the measures intended to help identify, isolate or eliminate soldiers of suspect loyalty, the regulations for dismissal were liberalised. The French military authorities had long complained that the rules were biased in favour of the soldiers. They complained that while the chief French provincial administrator could dismiss a native Garde indigène without notice if they were regarded as suspect, this was virtually impossible in the army due to legal constraints. They blamed this for the higher rate of mutiny in the army. The military managed to have the regulations changed. A decree of April 8, 1930 permitted the General Commandant Superior "to discharge those soldiers who had been the object of convictions in excess of three months imprisonment by a military tribunal, or who would have rendered themselves guilty of activities contrary to military duty". While the guidelines for sacking remained narrow, with only the highest officer in Indochina allowed to authorise these measures, and only under certain conditions, the last clause in the decree of April 8 could be interpreted freely.

Vietnamese language skills of French officers

Aubert's notice stressed the importance of close contact between French officers and their Vietnamese warrant officers in order to improve the quality of intelligence, but did not discuss whether this also required French officers to improve their Vietnamese language skills. The
annual report of 1930 considered the language was a problem because "[i]t would be . . . . desirable that the biggest possible number of officers and warrant officers had a sufficient Annamite language knowledge in order to permit them to do without an interpreter when dealing with the Tirailleurs." The report mentions the creation of a "centre of Annamite studies" in Toulouse as a first step in improving language skills and put high expectations on the fact that the "number of tirailleurs speaking French is increasing constantly". Such measures would ideally have increased the level of direct communication between French officers and NCOs and their Vietnamese subordinates. However, improvement in horizontal communication was not what the report principally had in mind, but rather using language skills as a tool of command to reinforce hierarchical relationships.

The report also toyed with the concept of using specialised Vietnamese language skills as a means of gathering intelligence and to control the minds of Vietnamese troops, but discarded it. The presence of three Vietnamese language specialists at Yên Bái had been unable to stop the mutiny; the persistent anti-colonial penetration of the civil administration had occurred despite its many specialists. Furthermore, the experience of Roman Catholic missionaries indicated that language specialisation was becoming increasingly ineffective in countering the trend towards more secretive and effective anti-colonial organisation. The report thus concluded that deeper specialisation would not improve intelligence and that a degree of expertise – to improve command skills – was all that one would need.

The report further argued that excessive specialization would be counterproductive and thus detrimental. It strongly opposed extensive specialisation because it would have required long tours in Indochina, which was deemed to be detrimental to the health of the specialist. More importantly, there was a suspicion that specialists became too trusting towards their Vietnamese subordinates, to the extent of becoming indigenophiles. This was contrary to the needs and functions of a colonial army in which hierarchies and distance, even linguistic distance from subordinates had to be maintained. Finally, specialisation was said to be detrimental because it would not only make Vietnamese troops more secretive, but would very likely improve their organisational abilities, since they would need to "take even more precautions".

Decrease in the proportion of Vietnamese troops

Although the reaction, which included punishment, new regulations, SRM institutional reform, fewer Vietnamese serving in France, increased specialisation – were considerable, military and civilian authorities in both Vietnam and France did not believe them sufficient for the reassertion of control over their colonised troops. A further four decisions were implemented, aimed at striking the a stable racial balance among the troops in French Indochina. The number of ethnic Vietnamese soldiers was perceived to be too great and thus threatening in the wake of the mutiny: a safer level had to be found, in order to counterbalance what was considered to be an excessive level of numerous Vietnamese troops. This safer proportion aimed at an overall ratio among Indochina's colonial troops of 1:1 ethnic Vietnamese to European and indigenous ethnic minorities (Montagnards). The measures demonstrated the French distrust of Vietnamese troops and the apparent belief that the fidelity of Vietnamese soldiers was maximised by creating a racial balance within the army that was tilted towards showing all Vietnamese soldiers – and thereby the Vietnamese population at large – the futility of attempting insurrection and mutiny.

The first of the four measures aimed at increasing the dependability of Vietnamese soldiers which also aimed at achieving the right ethnic proportion of troops at each garrison. The lack of European troops at Yên Bái – aside from Massimi's and Le Tacon's personal failures – had been pinpointed as the cause of the mutiny. The proposal held that if the local commanding officer had more European troops at his disposal, their presence would have deterred the Vietnamese soldiers from taking part in the mutiny. Although this was plausible in that one of the leaders of the mutiny had attempted to foment his Vietnamese colleagues by pointing to the weak French presence, this internal argument overlooked the haphazard command and security procedures that had left Yên Bái vulnerable.

According to the anonymous diary of a French officer, the decision to "return to the old system of white safety garrisons next to important detachments of tirailleurs" came after an exhaustive debate between French Indochina's civilian and military authorities. The decision reversed a major reorganisation of the army that had been launched by General Aubert in 1928. Its reversal demonstrated the concern about the impact of revolutionary propaganda on the loyalty of Vietnamese troops, and the consequent uncertainty about the reliability of this instrument of colonial rule. The measure was aimed at demonstrating French strength and superiority over Vietnamese soldiers and  revolutionaries, and signified that physical power was at the heart of French colonial rule in Indochina.

The most sweeping suggestion was made by Resident Superior Robin who wanted to "completely and radically abolish all regiments of Tirailleurs tonkinois in the service in the delta and the middle regions" and relieve them with "white [Foreign] Legion or even North African Battalions". This proposal was rebuffed by General Aubert who initially advocated the abolition of four tirailleurs companies to compensate for the dispatch of a [Foreign] Legion Battalion, and the replacement of three Vietnamese companies by three Montagnard ones. Governor General Pasquier eventually reached a compromise proposal with General Aubert, which was then submitted to the Minister of Colonies. It proposed the "[abolition] of one Regiment of Tirailleurs Tonkinois [13 companies, one company HR, and four machinegun sections]".

Two major arguments were put against any reduction in Vietnamese troops. The Cabinet of the Director of the Military Services Direction had reasoned that a reduction in the number of Vietnamese soldiers would evoke feelings of bitterness among dismissed soldiers and turn them into "declared enemies of France". The more prominent argument was that it would weaken the defence of French Indochina. The second argument was repeated robustly in the Colonial Consultative Defence Council's advice to the Minister of Colonies, reasoning that the reduction in the number of Indochinese troops in Indochina could not "be envisaged under any pretext" because of the "necessities of external defence". Despite the counter-arguments, the abolition of two Annamite battalions was enacted. Policy strategists calculated that the reduction in Vietnamese troops could be made up by a concomitant increase in the number of European and ethnic minority troops.

The third decision made with the objective achieving a safer racial ratio in the army was the "[r]einforcement of the occupation corps' troops by three white battalions: one Foreign Legion battalion, [and] two Colonial Infantry battalions". This decision was causally linked to the first two decrees and complemented them. If European troops were placed next to Vietnamese ones, then despite the reduction in Vietnamese troops by two battalions, more European troops would be needed. As the Colonial Consultative Defence Council had informed the Minister of Colonies that the overall level of troops in Indochina could not be reduced for external defence reasons, this necessitated the replacement of at least the two disbanded Vietnamese battalions.

Prior to the mutiny, the Department of War had clearly indicated that it would not be able "to provide for one more European Battalion in Indochina in the 1931 Budget" due to fiscal constraints, manpower shortages and organizational problems. The Yên Bái mutiny prompted generated the political will to send more European troops to French Indochina. As early as mid-March 1930, the Colonial Consultative Defence Committee informed the Colonies Minister that the forces stationed in Tonkin would be increased by a European Colonial Infantry Battalion. However, the fear in the aftermath of the mutiny situation was such that a political decision to send two rather than one battalion. It was complemented
by "the urgent dispatch of a Foreign Legion Battalion to Tonkin", an action ordered by the French government on April 30, 1930. Aside from replacing two Vietnamese battalions with three French battalions, the French authorities also increased the number and proportion of ethnic minorities among the Indochinese troops. As such, the "[i]ntensification of recruitment of non-Annamite indigenous people: Thos, Laotians, Mois, Cambodians was decided." The aim was to attain increase the non-Vietnamese percentage to 50%.

Notes

References

Vietnamese independence movement
Military history of Vietnam
France

Military reforms resulting from the Yên Bái mutiny


"Si la vie est cadeau" (; "If Life Is a Gift") by Jean-Pierre Millers (music) and Alain Garcia (lyrics) was the winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 1983, performed in French by French singer Corinne Hermès for .

The song is a dramatic ballad dealing with the wonder of life, likening it to a gift. The lyrics tell of the singer's suffering in love with a man "who promised [her] the whole world" and did not follow through: "what about the child I wanted to give to you in the spring?". She then sings that any kind of gift is welcome, whether it be given, stolen or returned, and warns that the good times are too short, implying that the listener should savor them for all they are worth. Hermès also recorded the song in English and German, as "Words of Love" and "Liebe gibt und nimmt" ("Love gives and takes") respectively.

The song was performed 20th (last) on the night, following 's Pas de Deux with "Rendez-vous". At the close of voting, it had received 142 points, placing 1st in a field of 20. The win brought Luxembourg equal with  on five contest wins each, however both countries would later be eclipsed by  and Sweden, which would win seven times each.

Compared to the previous years' Eurovision winners, "Si la vie est cadeau" proved to be only a moderate commercial success, peaking at #2 in France; #3 in Belgium; #12 in Ireland; #13 in Sweden; #14 in Switzerland; #19 in the Netherlands, and failing to chart in most other European countries.

The song was succeeded in 1984 as winner of the contest by Herreys representing  with "Diggi-Loo Diggi-Ley". It was succeeded as Luxembourgish representative at the 1984 contest by Sophie Carle with "100% d'amour".

The Finnish rendering "Lahjan sain" was recorded by Lea Laven being the title cut of her 1983 album release.

External links
 Official Eurovision Song Contest site, history by year, 1983
 Detailed info & lyrics, The Diggiloo Thrush, "Si la vie est cadeau"

References

1983 songs
Eurovision songs of 1983
Eurovision songs of Luxembourg
Eurovision Song Contest winning songs
Polydor Records singles
PolyGram singles

Si la vie est cadeau


Life extension (also indefinite life extension or biological immortality) is the catch-all term for drastically increasing people's lifespans by halting or reversing aging. Because aging has multiple causes and symptoms, any successful indefinite life extension program would have to include multiple medications, supplement pills, therapies and other procedures. It could even include molecular nanobots to repair damage brought on by aging. This life expectancy extension is currently impossible but futurists say such procedures, therapies, etc should be available in the 2030s or 2040s.

Medicine

Life extension


Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Collier Michell, KH (29 March 1793 in Exeter – 28 March 1851 in Eltham, London), later known as Charles Cornwallis Michell, was a British soldier, first surveyor-general in the Cape, road engineer, architect, artist and naturalist.

Early life
He was son to Admiral Sampson Michell and his wife Anne Shears. His eldst brother was Admiral Frederick Thomas Michell. He was named after Admiral George Collier his father's commanding officer at the time.

Born in Exeter, Devon, and called Charles Cornwallis Michell later in his life because of the proximity to Cornwall of his birthplace, Michell was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and commissioned into the Royal Artillery in 1809. He headed a brigade at the battles of Vittoria and Toulouse, took part in Waterloo and was appointed teacher of military drawing at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst on 24 March 1824 and professor of military fortification at Woolwich on 25 December 1825 and promoted to the brevet rank of major shortly thereafter. He was fluent in Spanish, Portuguese and French.

Cape of Good Hope
Michell was appointed as surveyor-general at the Cape in 1828, (having probably heard of the post through his cousin Rufane Donkin) at the same time holding the positions of superintendent of public works and civil engineer. For performing these functions, he received an annual salary of £800. The surveyor-general's duties included taking charge of the detailed surveys needed to produce a good map of the Colony, improving passes and roads and surveying the Colony's border accurately. He was an outstanding architect, designing various churches such as St. Paul's in Rondebosch and St. John's in Bathurst. He suggested improvements to Table Bay Harbour and designed lighthouses at Mouille Point, Cape Agulhas (supposedly modelled on the Pharos of Alexandria) and Cape Recife.

He acted as assistant quartermaster in the Sixth Frontier War in 1834. His most active area was in the planning and construction of roads, as well as their improvement, being responsible for the planning of Michell's Pass near Ceres – a vast improvement on the old Mostert's Hoek Pass – and the Houw Hoek Pass near Elgin, both carried out by Andrew Geddes Bain, as well as Sir Lowry's Pass and the Montagu Pass, the latter constructed over the Outeniqua Mountains by an Australian road-engineer Henry Fancourt White in 1843–47. Besides all his other skills, Michell was an accomplished water-colourist, particularly of landscapes. His illustrations appeared in Narrative of a voyage of observation among the colonies of Western Africa and of a campaign in Kaffirland (1837), written by his son-in-law, Capt. Sir James Edward Alexander. He was granted a pension in 1848 and returned to England, where he died on 28 March 1851 at Eltham.

Family
While Michell was posted in Toulouse, he married schoolgirl Anne D'Arragon on 10 October 1814, after eloping. She was the only daughter of a retired officer in the army of King Louis XVI of France and her parents disapproved of the marriage. Their first two children were born in Lisbon, Julia Anne in 1815 and Frederica Louisa in June 1817. The third, Lady Eveline Marie Alexander, was born in Nantes on 16 April 1821, and the last Anne in Cape Town on 28 October 1829.

Sampson Michell *1755 Croft West (Admiral in the service of the Portuguese Navy) – 20 January 1809 Rio de Janeiro x Ann Shears from Somerset
 Frederick Thomas (later Admiral Sir Frederick Michell KCB) *8 April 1788 Exeter – January 1873 Totnes
 Louisa *27 October 1789 Exeter x 1809 Jacob Whitbread (29 January 1782 – 20 January 1809
 Jacob William
 Charles Frederick
 Gordon
 Anne Maria *14 September 1791 Exeter x 1815 Benjamin Wood
 Charles *29 March 1793 Exeter – 28 March 1851 Eltham, London x Toulouse 10 October 1814 Anne D'Arragon 1799 – 3 January 1853 Eltham, London
 Julia Anne *1815 Lisbon x Cape Town 4 September 1833 Joseph Hendy Smith *13 March 1798 Ireland
 Frederica Louisa *June 1817 Lisbon x Cape Town 27 July 1833 John Kynaston Luard *6 January 1803 Essex
 Eveline Marie *16 April 1821 Nantes x Cape Town 25 October 1837 James Edward Alexander *16 October 1803
 Anne *28 October 1829 Cape Town x 1853 Robert Courage (brewery family) – 9 children
 Eliza *December 1794 Lisbon – died when a few months old
 Emma Caroline *15 January 1802 Lisbon x Rev. John Page Wood (eldest son of Matthew Wood (Lord Mayor of London 1815–16) the brother of Benjamin Wood). They had 13 children, the most notable being
 Evelyn
 Katherine

Michell was a cousin of Sir Rufane Donkin, sometime governor of the Cape of Good Hope.

References

The Life and Work of Charles Michell – Gordon Richings (Fernwood Press 2006)
Standard Encyclopaedia of Southern Africa Vol.7 (Nasou, Cape Town 1972)

Engineers from Exeter
Royal Artillery officers
British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
English civil engineers
South African surveyors-general
South African road engineers
Architects from Exeter
19th-century English painters
English male painters
1793 births
1851 deaths
Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
19th-century South African architects
19th-century South African painters
South African male painters
19th-century English male artists
Military personnel from Exeter

Charles Collier Michell


or Dakshina () is a Sanskrit word found in Buddhist, Hindu, Sikh and Jain literature where it may mean any donation, fees or honorarium given to a cause, monastery, temple, spiritual guide or after a ritual. It may be expected, or a tradition or voluntary form of dāna. The term is found in this context in the Vedic literature.

It may mean honorarium to a guru for education, training or guidance.

Etymology and description

According to Monier Williams, the term is found in many Vedic texts, in the context of "a fee or present to the officiating priest (consisting originally of a cow, Kātyāyana Śrautasūtra 15, Lāṭyāyana Śrautasūtra 8.1.2)",  a 'donation to the priest', a 'reward', an 'offering to a guru', a 'gift, donation'.

The word also connotes 'south', a cardinal direction, and by extension, 'the Deccan'.  is also found in various other expressions such as , right-hand path of tantra.

refers to the tradition of repaying one's teacher or guru after a period of study or the completion of formal education, or an acknowledgment to a spiritual guide. The tradition is one of acknowledgment, respect, and thanks. It is a form of reciprocity and exchange between student and teacher. The repayment is not exclusively monetary and may be a special task the teacher wants the student to accomplish.

Guru Dakshina (In Literature)
Guru Dakshina (Play) in Hindi is written by Bihari Lal Harit in 1969.

In Indian epics
There is a symbolic story in the Indian epic Mahabharata that discusses proper and improper , after a character named Ekalavya.. This story refers to a tribal boy's passion to learn and master archery.

The story, like many stories in Mahabharata, is an open ended parable on education, personal drive to learn, and what is proper and improper  In the epic Mahabharata, after the right hand thumb as  event, Drona is haunted and wonders if demanding Ekalavya's thumb was proper, Ekalavya goes on to re-master archery with four fingers of his right hand, as well as left hand, thereby becoming a mighty warrior, becomes accepted as a king, and tells his children that education is for everyone and that no one can close the doors of education on any human being.

See also
Guru-shishya tradition

References

Hindu traditions
Rigveda
Rigvedic deities

Dakṣiṇā