The London Merchant (Or The History Of George Barnwell) is playwright George Lillo's most famous work.   A tragedy that follows the downfall of a young apprentice due to his association with a prostitute, it is remarkable for its use of middle and working class characters.  First performed at the Drury Lane Theatre on 21 June 1731, The London Merchant became one of the most popular plays of the century.

Sources
George Lillo was born in London on 4 February 1693. By 1730, he began writing plays such as  George Barnwell (also known as The London Merchant), Fatal Curiosity, Silvia, and The Country Burial.

George Lillo based The London Merchant on a seventeenth-century ballad about a murder in Shropshire.  The ballad follows the adventures of George Barnwell, who engages in an affair with the prostitute Sarah Millwood.  After stealing money from his employer to fund his relationship, Barnwell robs and murders his uncle.  Both Barnwell and Millwood are arrested and executed for their crimes.  Lillo's plays usually resembled drames, or mixed toned Bourgeois Tragedies revolving around the middle-class.

According to Lillo's preface to the play, he was drawn to the subject matter for its moral instruction.  Lillo states, "If tragic poetry be. . .the most excellent and most useful kind of writing, the more excellent that piece must be of its kind."  He validates his use of middle class characters in "that tragedy is so far from losing its dignity by being accommodated to the circumstances of the generality of mankind that it is more truly August in proportion to the extent of its influence and the numbers that are properly affected by it, as it is more truly great to be the instrument of good to many who stand in need of our assistance than to a very small part of that number."

Lillo may have taken his title The London Merchant as a twist to make real the fictional play featured in Francis Beaumont's Knight of the Burning Pestle. The reuse of the name acknowledges that both plays elevate common citizens as subjects worthy of a play.

Characters
Thorowgood, a London merchant
George Barnwell, apprentice to Thorowgood
Trueman, apprentice to Thorowgood
Blunt, servant of Millwood
Barnwell, uncle of George Barnwell
Maria, daughter of Thorowgood
Sarah Millwood, a lady of pleasure
Lucy, servant of Millwood
Officers with their attendants, keeper of the prison, executioner and footmen

Plot
Act I
Sarah Millwood, a London prostitute, schemes to find some innocent young man "who, having never injured women, [would] apprehend no injury from them" (I.iii) to seduce and exploit for money. She observes young George Barnwell in town, and she invites him to her house for supper.  She realizes that he works for the wealthy merchant Thorowgood (who is known throughout London for his wealth and success).  She decides to seduce George Barnwell at supper with irresistible flattery, and he succumbs to her wiles in a way that will give her access to Thorowgood's money, and she manipulates Barnwell to steal from his boss.

Act II
Upon returning home the next morning, George feels he has betrayed Thorowgood by disobeying his curfew. The guilt he feels from disobeying the rules of the house, as well as the guilt he feels from his fornication with Millwood, leaves George tormented.  His guilt is compounded by the loyalty of his friend Trueman. Soon, Millwood visits George at his place of work. When she discovers he no longer wants anything to do with her, she begins to sense her money-making scheme has come to an end. She quickly thinks of a lie to tell George to keep her plan going. She tells George that the man who provides her with housing somehow found out about their tryst and is now evicting her because of it.  This evokes new feelings of guilt from George, and he is prompted to steal a large sum of money from his employer's funds to give to her to amend the situation.

Act III

After giving her the money, George feels unworthy of his kind master, Thorowgood, so he runs away and leaves a note for Trueman confessing his crime. Having no place to go, he turns to Millwood for help. At first she refuses him since his employer's money is no longer at his disposal, but she quickly remembers that he has previously mentioned a rich uncle. She again manipulates George into believing that she truly loves him, and concocts a scheme for him to rob his uncle. George objects, saying that his uncle will recognize him as his nephew; Millwood answers that the only way, then, will be to also murder his uncle. In a fit of passion, George runs off to commit the robbery and murder. He finds his Uncle Barnwell alone, and as he approaches, George veils his face and attacks his uncle with a knife. As he lies dying, Uncle Barnwell prays both for his nephew and his murderer, not knowing that they are the same. Overcome with sorrow, George reveals himself to his uncle, and before he dies, Uncle Barnwell forgives his murderous nephew.

Act IV
In the meantime, Lucy came to Thorowgood and revealed the truth behind what Barnwell had done.  Because of this Thorowgood rushes to exit and tells Lucy she must keep watch on Millwood's house.  Later, George returns to Millwood's home upset, trembling, and with bloody hands. Upon realizing that he did not take any money or property, Millwood sends for the police and has George arrested for murder. Two of Millwood's servants, Lucy and Blunt, who were aware of the plan from the beginning, have her arrested as well. Both George and Millwood are sentenced to death. In the last scene of Act 4 Millwood expresses to Thorowgood that she is not remorseful in the least bit saying, "I hate you all! I know you, and expect no mercy -- nay, I ask for none.  I have done nothing that I am sorry for.  I followed my inclinations, and that the best of you does every day.  All actions are alike natural and indifferent to man and beast who devour or are devoured as they meet with others weaker or stronger than themselves."

Act V
Millwood blamed society and men for what she has become.  She is not remorseful at all and with passion accepts her fate.  Despite all that has transpired, George is visited by Thorowgood and Trueman in his prison cell. They console and forgive him.  Thorowgood provides for his spiritual needs by arranging a visit from a clergyman. In the end, George is truly repentant for his sins and is at peace with himself, his friends, and God.  Trueman ends the show with a small monologue saying, "In vain with bleeding hearts and weeping eyes we show a human gen'rous sense of others' woe, unless we mark what drew their ruin on, and, by avoiding that, prevent our own" (Act V Sc. X) to show that the play was to learn how to do the right things in our own lives.

Themes
Morality and Ethics
Morality in the theater was an important issue during the Restoration and eighteenth century.  The Killigrew and Davenant Patents are similar documents which gave the guidelines for the reopening of theaters in London, granting the rights of one theater to each. The Killigrew Patent describes that "no new play shall be acted … containing any passages offensive to piety and good manners" (Patent).  Many felt that plays from earlier periods, including those of Shakespeare, exhibited bold vulgarity.  Producers strove to remove these aspects from theater to ensure that the audience did not model themselves after the immoral decisions of characters.  The London Merchant follows this general trend and goes further to include a moral message intended to be learned by apprentices watching the play.  In the dedication to "The London Merchant", Lillo argues that "Plays founded on moral tales in private life may be of admirable use by carrying conviction to the mind with such irresistible force as to engage all the faculties and powers of the soul in the cause of virtue, by stifling vice in its first principles." Tejumola Olaniyan states that Lillo is effective in ensuring that the audience should learn from the play.  He suggests that due to accounts from Thorowgood, Trueman, and Maria, as well as evidence from his actions in the play, Barnwell is at his essence a good character despite his crimes, and the audience should sympathize with and learn from him.

Olaniyan argues that the ethics in the play are "supernatural," meaning that they are timeless.  Morals do not exist for people, but people exist for the morals.  This is significant because it means that the individual is subservient to the system.  As a part of the absolutist system, each member must contribute to these ethics and is allowed no individuality in them.  This is important for then-contemporary audiences, who by watching the play would learn their place within society.  Within the supernatural ethics of the play, Barnwell has no hope as soon as he smiles at Millwood as he sees her on the street for the first time.  He is unable to eradicate this error, and any attempts he makes to fix his situation end up making it worse.  He digs himself into a deeper hole until eventually he commits the ultimate crime of murdering his uncle.  Millwood is another character who operates within this scheme of ethics.  In a system that allows for no deviation, she is the deviation.  Because of this, she is not offered the same "redemption" that is granted to Barnwell at the end of the play, as he is accepted by Trueman and dies respected by other characters.

Status of the Merchant
Lillo emphasizes the central role of the merchant in society, showing that the merchant class has a level of what Peter Hynes calls "cultural legitimacy".  The upper classes of the eighteenth century struggled to decide where to place merchants in society, and many looked down upon them.  At the same time, merchants strove to emphasize their gentility.  Daniel Defoe argued that the trade of the merchants and the land of the elites were codependent, supporting and supplying one another with necessities.  Olaniyan argues that the play glorifies mercantile ideals such as empire, peace, and patriotism, and also asserts the importance of the merchant in holding society together; the merchant builds the empire and helps ensure the peace.  Thorowgood draws attention to these key aspects of the merchant throughout the text with statements such as "honest merchants, as such, may sometimes contribute to the safety of their country as they do at all times to its happiness"(Act I, scene i).

Important to the emphasis on the merchant's role is the genre of the play.  The London Merchant is an early example of bourgeois tragedy. Tragedy, which had been a genre reserved for elite and royal subjects, has now been applied to the middle class.  Lillo says in the dedication to the play that "tragedy is so far from losing its dignity by being accommodated to the circumstances of the generality of mankind.".  What he refers to as "the end of tragedy" functions by "exciting the passions in order to the correcting of them".  By bringing tragedy to the level of the middle class, he allows it to have a powerful message that the audience can learn from.  This significant shift in tragedy is similar to the change in comedy made by Richard Steele's The Conscious Lovers, a play that refined sensibility in comedy and depicted the middle class as modern gentry   The London Merchant asserts the ethics of the merchant, creating Thorowgood as a character who exemplifies all of the desired values that a merchant should have.

Exchange and Excess
While exchange and trade are important issues to the merchant, they are also key factors in the text itself as they become metaphors throughout the play.  Imperial commerce was growing in the eighteenth century, and Thorowgood describes this phenomenon as a circulation throughout the world.  For example, he tells Trueman in act three that he should study trade because he can learn "how it promotes humanity as it has opened and yet keeps up an intercourse between nations far remote from one another in situation, customs, and religion"(Act III, scene i).

Key moments of the play, such as the bond between Barnwell and Trueman in act five, are put into the language of exchange.  Barnwell describes their union as an "intercourse of woe" instructing Trueman to "pour all your griefs into my breast and in exchange take mine" (Act V, scene ii).  While there are obvious homoerotic implications to this dialogue, its presence in the play shows how the exchange created by merchants helps to sustain society.

In addition to exchange, another economic element that serves as a metaphor in the play is excess, which is most strongly exhibited through passion.  While Barnwell begins by following calm commerce, a passionate lust replaces it with the theft from Thorowgood and murder of Barnwell's uncle.  Hynes describes that the most dangerous thing about passion is its insatiability, because "erotic love, unlike trade, includes no machinery of impulse and abatement, no way of rationally regulating itself".  While trade can easily sustain itself, passion has nothing stopping it from going to the extreme.  Millwood also embodies this excess, as her absolutism political ideology defies all aspects of sustainability through exchange. In this way she exploits contracts, simulating behavior of exchange, but really in order to defy the entire system.

Apprenticeship
The application of the tragic genre to the middle merchant class comes with new identity structures for the audience, namely that of apprenticeship.  Apprenticeship was very popular at the time of this play, as there were 10-20,000 apprentices in the city of London.  One day each year, usually around Easter, all of the apprentices were taken to the theater and shown a play for apprentice day.  Beginning around the year 1675, the play shown on this day was called The London Cuckolds.  This play was about three businessmen whose wives cheat on them with their apprentices.  Soon it was felt that the play gave a poor moral message to the apprentices.  In 1731, Lillo's play was performed for the first time for apprentices, and it continued to be played on such an occasion every year until 1819, perhaps the last time that the play was staged for many decades.  The London Merchant, through the eyes of masters, would be an instructive play for apprentices because it shows how important it is for them to obey their masters.

Apprenticeships were both educational and economical exchanges.  In terms of economics, two men would exchange a young man, and with him came money to pay for his training, food, and boarding.  The apprentice was taken into the home of the master and became a member of his family; the master became a type of surrogate father for the apprentice.  During the beginning of an apprenticeship, the master might lose money because the apprentice is not capable of performing a trade well enough for a profit, but towards the end of an apprenticeship, the master would actually make money.  At times, this was a faulty system.  A master might sometimes dismiss an apprentice for "misconduct" and then keep the money. He may also be reluctant to teach the apprentice too well, because then he would only be creating more competition for himself.  Thorowgood does not display any of these poor habits.  Lillo has created him as an ideal master, similar to how he is the ideal example of proper exchange and trade.  The play emphasizes his kindness and mercy as a master instead of his disciplinary function.  As a master should, he is a surrogate father for Barnwell.  He cries at the end of the play over Barnwell's death, a fatherly gesture.

Apprenticeship was also very much a gender-based institution.  Women could also be apprentices, but the field was mostly dominated by men.  Not only does Barnwell form a strong bond with Thorowgood, but also with Trueman, another apprentice.  One example of this is at the end of the play as Barnwell and Trueman hold one another.  A strong moral bond develops between the men in the play, which is something that would have been a desirable message for the audience of that time.  A fraternity grows between men, and the female Millwood is not allowed to take part in this.  However, her comments to Barnwell about her regrets of her sex upon their first meeting suggest that she longs to take part in such a brotherhood.  Because she is denied admittance, she tries to get revenge by severing all such ties that Barnwell has (Thorowgood, his uncle), putting him into the same position as her.

Productions
The original Drury Lane cast included Theophilus Cibber as George Barnwell, Roger Bridgewater as Thorowgood, William Mills as Trueman, Jane Cibber as Maria and Charlotte Charke as Lucy.

The London Merchant was staged ninety-six times from 1731 to 1741.  Although not performed as frequently as the most famous play of the period, John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, The London Merchant was extremely popular with English theatergoers of the time, it was later performed regularly until 1819 at the Christmas and Easter holidays as a cautionary entertainment for apprentices.  Lillo's play was so popular that it was performed for Queen Caroline and George II by request on a number of occasions, the Queen requesting a copy of the script. In more recent years the Theatre Royal, Bury St Edmunds staged the play in 2010.

On November 14, 1751, George Washington saw a production of the play in Bridgetown, Barbados, during the only international trip of his life. He remarked in his diary after watching the play, "The character of Barnwell and several others were said to be well perform'd." Historians believe this the first play that Washington ever saw performed.

Analysis
The story is adapted from the ballad, George Barnwell, but the plot has been modified to strengthen its connection to the urban lower classes. The focus of the story is an apprentice, or member of the "makers class."  These young men were not taught the skills of the master, and many turned to a life of crime to support themselves. However, the master in this play, Thorowgood, is not only fair and kind to his apprentices, he treats them with dignity and respect as well, and the apprentice is led to a life of crime through the actions of a talented seductress, Sarah Millwood. The London Merchant provided a tempered breakdown of a complicated social issue and simplified it into a parable about personal loyalty and sexual appetite, making it easy for the masses to identify with the characters.

Due to Lillo's use of extended prose and long speeches in praise of the merchant class, as well as the "melodramatic" plot elements, there is a great deal of prose and not a lot of substance given to the bulk of the characters, with the exception of Millwood and possibly Lucy.  However, the play was an oddity when it was published as well, being quite unlike anything published before or after it. The London Merchant marked the introduction of the bourgeois tragedy. Where tragedies had previously been reserved for the nobility, Lillo brought the concept to the everyman character and further complicated his idea by including the situation of acquisition through exchange, rather than through conquest.  The idea of exchange ties heavily to the pro-merchant/ master theme of the play, as Thorowgood is a merchant and a good master.  The play also provides a portrait of the model apprentice in the character of Trueman, who is juxtaposed with George Barnwell in an effort to demonstrate proper apprentice behavior as well as warn the many apprentices who were expected to be in attendance of the dangers of disobeying their masters.

The theater commonly gave plays produced especially for the apprentice audience on selected days throughout the year. These plays generally contained an apprentice character that represented the audience and was constructed as someone with whom they could identify.  In the case of The London Merchant, there were two such characters, George Barnwell and Trueman. Lillo presented these two as the dichotomy of the apprentice class. The one, Trueman, was a model apprentice, as evidenced by his name, and George Barnwell was presented as the apprentice led astray by the wiles of women, serving as a warning to apprentices everywhere that even a small act of disobedience, breaking the master's curfew, could lead to the unthinkable, murder. The fact that apprentices were encouraged to attend these plays was frowned upon by larger society as they felt that apprentices would abandon their businesses in pursuit of entertainment and would learn unacceptable behavior from the characters in the plays. However, in truth, plays like The London Merchant were for the edification of the masters and the merchant class and sought to demonstrate "model behavior" to the apprentices, although the idea that apprentices were truly sneaking away from their posts en masse and enjoying other interests to the detriment of business is questionable.

The London Merchant originally closed with a gallows scene that Lillo was encouraged by his associates to cut from the production of the play. The scene was a reflection of the high number of public executions taking place at the time. During the eighteenth century, six times a year, the government would execute a large number of people at Tyburn for the crime of theft. This practice was especially prevalent during the 1720s. These hangings disproportionately featured people belonging to the poor, lower class, many of whom were former apprentices. There were a number of scuffles during these executions between government representatives and the public as they tried to prevent both the hangings as well as the removal of the bodies.  There are a number of theories regarding the removal of this scene. Among them are the fact that the bourgeoisie did not wish to expose the brutality that was primarily the result of a class pushed to thievery because of the treatment they received from the upper class. It was also a very literal interpretation of the harsh discipline of the day which many of these apprentices had witnessed firsthand. Another theory is simply that the scene would have been too "entertaining" for the ideas that it attempted to portray to come across properly.  Although published with some versions of the play, this scene was not staged in a production of The London Merchant until the Theatre Royal Bury St Edmunds's 2010 production in-the-round.

Polly Fields' work examines The London Merchant through the lens of the economic theories of the time and those that Lillo was known to subscribe to.  The play focuses on the effects that capitalism has had on people who are its victims through no fault of their own, but through accidents of birth and gender. One of, if not the only character that Lillo truly expands is Millwood, a woman who uses her body and her wits to convince George Barnwell to steal and even kill to supply her with money. Barnwell is shown to be Millwood's victim, but in the larger picture of the society he presents, Lillo shows Millwood to be the victim of capitalism. She is the embodiment of agency in the play as her actions cause the plot to move forward and also expand Lillo's economic critiques in the play. Lillo's background as a jeweler gave him a unique perspective on the economy as he was a solid member of the bourgeois class and an avid participant in capitalism.

Millwood rebels against the hierarchy of women in society as well as women in business. Her rebellion continues to death, as the last scene in which she appears in the regular text is a scathing criticism of the hierarchy and hypocritical nature of men and the economy. In the gallows scene that was removed for most productions, a repentant George Barnwell urges Millwood to change her ways, to which she replies that she "was doomed before the world began to endless pains and (Barnwell) to joys eternal".  In Lillo's world of trade, Millwood's commodity is her body; however, she refuses to be "victimized as a woman and a whore." Therefore, Millwood is a more compelling candidate to wear the title of The London Merchant, than even Thorowgood, the ostensibly eponymous merchant.  This is reinforced with the opening scene in the play where Millwood entices George Barnwell, and Lucy, is standing nearby as an apprentice, quietly watching her master and learning the trade. Lucy also serves in much the manner of Trueman, to give the audience the character of the life that this successful merchant leads, filled with "fine linens and furniture", further solidifying her role as the merchant and the subversion of the economic order of the day that Lillo illustrates with her character. (Fields, 1999)

Lillo's work reinforces bourgeois values while changing the face of eighteenth-century theater with a tragedy of the middle class. The London Merchant outlines the primary case of the day: the plight of the apprentice. However, through the character of Millwood, he is able to expand his agenda to include the effects of capitalism on women in society as well. These ideas were the primary impetus behind the success of the play both during its time and as an important play to be examined by modern dramatists and economics alike.

Literary and scholarly references

Thomas Skinner Surr adapted the play into the three-volume novel George Barnwell, published in 1798.

The use of The London Merchant as a tale for the moral edification of apprentices is satirized by Charles Dickens in Great Expectations. Pip is subjected by Mr Wopsle and Mr Pumblechook to a reading of "the affecting tragedy of George Barnwell" in which Pip is stung by their "identification of the whole affair with my unoffending self".

In On Liberty, philosopher John Stuart Mill mentions Barnwell's murder of his uncle to illustrate the grounds for punishing wrongdoing: "George Barnwell murdered his uncle to get money for his mistress, but if he had done it to set himself up in business, he would equally have been hanged."

Notes

References

External links
An Analysis

Domestic tragedies
Tragedy plays
1731 plays
Plays by George Lillo
West End plays
Plays set in London

The London Merchant


Hildegard Westerkamp (born April 8, 1946, in Osnabrück, Germany) is a Canadian composer, radio artist, teacher and sound ecologist of German origin. She studied flute and piano at the Conservatory of Music in Freiburg, West Germany from 1966 to 1968 and moved to Canada in 1975. She received a Bachelor of Music from the University of British Columbia in 1972 and a Master of Arts from Simon Fraser University in 1988. She taught acoustic communication at Simon Fraser University from 1982 to 1991.

Biography

In 1972, she married the Canadian poet and playwright Norbert Ruebsaat and has collaborated with him on a number of projects.

Music

Many of her compositions deal with the acoustic environment and she often incorporates the medium of tape in conjunction with live instruments or voices, combining, manipulating and processing environmental sounds. Because her work focuses on nature, humanity, childhood and motherhood, it is more based in sound and not what would usually be considered as "music". She has been influenced by studying the works of composers like Pauline Oliveros, John Cage and Barry Truax.

Collaborations

She collaborated with director Gus Van Sant, with whom she seemed to share work that explored similar concepts. To quote Randolph Jordan, "Her compositions are ideally suited for helping to flesh out Van Sant's portraits of young people adrift in worlds from which they are seemingly detached, but who might well be pointing towards alternative modes of environmental awareness."

1973–91

From 1973–80 Westerkamp worked as a research associate along with R. Murray Schafer at the World Soundscape Project at Simon Fraser University. This work fed into Schafer's book The Tuning of the World. In 1974 she began working as a producer and host at CFRO (Vancouver Cooperative Radio). Through her work with Schafer and with radio, she developed a deep interest and concern for noise and the acoustic environment, which greatly influenced her style of composition. After this time, she began to experiment with recording, processing, and mixing environmental sounds in the recording studio.

Westerkamp was involved in several other research projects on noise, acoustic ecology and music. From 1974 to 1975, she was a researcher with the Noise Abatement Project of the Society Promoting Environmental Conservation in Vancouver.

Throughout the 1980s, she developed an interest in music for live performance, and in creating installations and other "composed environments" (sometimes in collaboration) for specific sites. In 1982, she was a researcher for the Women in Music project at Simon Fraser University. She is also a founding member of the World Forum on Acoustic Ecology (WFAE).

1991 - present

After 1991, Westerkamp devoted herself to more fully to composing, lecturing, and writing, disseminating her compositions and ideas at concerts and conferences. She was editor of The Soundscape Newsletter from 1991 - 1995 and joined the editorial committee of Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology, for the World Forum for Acoustic Ecology in 2000.

She has also composed soundtracks for radio dramas and film and her music has been featured in movies by Gus Van Sant including Elephant (2003) and Last Days (2005). She collaborated with Jesse Zubot on the electronic score for Koneline (2016).

Some of Westerkamp's works are directly related to feminism. In 1990, she composed "École Polytechnique", which was commissioned by Montréal Musiques Actuelles/New Music America. According to Andra McCartney and Marta McCarthy,"Hildegard Westerkamp's (1990) composition École Polytechnique is an artistic response to one of Canada's most profoundly disturbing mass murders, the 1989 slaying of fourteen women in Montreal, Quebec."

Discography

Recordings featuring Westerkamp's compositions, chronologically:

 (1989) Kits Beach Soundwalk
 (1990) Anthology of Canadian Music:Electroacoustic music
 (1990) The Aerial 2
 (1990) Électro clips (empreintes DIGITALes, IMED 9004, rereleased 1996 as IMED 9604)
 (1994) Radio Rethink - art and sound transmission
 (1995) Der Verlust der Stille
 (1995) Klang Wege
 (1995) Transmissions From Broadcast Artists, Radius #4
 (1996) The Vancouver Soundscape
 (1996) Transformations (empreintes DIGITALes, IMED 9631)
 (1997) 1977-1997, 20 Jahre Osnabrücker Komponisten
 (1998) Harangue I (Earsay, ES 98001)
 (1998) Harangue II (Earsay, ES 98005)
 (1999) The Dreams of Gaia
 (2000) Radiant Dissonance
 (2002) Into India (Earsay, ES 02002)
 (2003) Musique inpirée et tirée du film Elephant
 (2003) S:on

List of works

Compositions
Whisper Study (1975–79)
Familie mit Pfiff (Theme and Variations) (1976)
Fantasie for Horns I (1978)
Fantasie for Horns II (1979)
A Walk Through the City (1981)
Attending to Sacred Matters (2002)
Cool Drool (1983)
His Master's Voice (1985)
Harbour Symphony (1986)
Cricket Voice (1987)
Moments of Laughter (1988)
Kits Beach Soundwalk (1989)
 The Deep Blue Sea (1989)
Breathing Room (1990)
École polytechnique (1990)
Beneath the Forest Floor (1992)
India Sound Journal (1993)
Sensitive Chaos" (1995)
Dhvani (1996)
Talking Rain (1997)
Gently Penetrating beneath the sounding surfaces of another place (1997)
Into the Labyrinth (2000)
Attending to Sacred Matters (2002)
Like a Memory (2002)
Breaking News (2002)
Für Dich-For You (2005)

Composed environments and sound installations
Cordillera (Music from the New Wilderness Festival, Western Front Gallery, Vancouver, Feb 1980)
Zone of Silence Story, with Norbert Ruebsaat (Zone of Silence Project, Museum of Quebec, Quebec City, Dec 1985–Jan 1986
Coon Bay (1988)
Türen der Wahrnehmung (Ars Electronica '89, Linz, Austria, Sept 1989)
Nada - An Experience in Sound, in collaboration with Savinder Anand, Mona Madan, and Veena Sharma (Mati Ghar, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts Janpath, New Delhi, India, 10–25 Dec, 1998)
At the Edge of Wilderness, in collaboration with photographer Florence Debeugny (Industrial Ear, Vancouver, Sept 8-16, 2000; Whyte Museum, Banff, 11 Oct, 2002 – 19 Jan, 2003; Victoria College of the Arts, Melbourne, 19–27 March 2003)
Soniferous Garden, rev. of Part 4 of Nada (Engine 27, New York, 7–15 Nov, 2000; Sound Practice [first UKISC Conference on Sound Culture and Environments], Dartington College of Arts, UK, Feb 2001; CCNOA, Brussels, 2–9 Feb, 2003; x-tract Sculpture Musicale, Podewil, Berlin, 1–12 Apr, 2003)

See also

 Music of Canada
 List of Canadian composers

References

Notes

Further reading
Chatelin, R. (1988). Hildegard Westerkamp: Wake-up and hear the crickets. Music Scene, 360, 7.
Jordan, R. (2007). The work of Hildegard Westerkamp in the films of Gus Van Sant. Offscreen, 11(8-9). Retrieved from: http://offscreen.com/view/jordan_westerkamp
Khazam, R. (2000). Soundscapes Be)for(e 2000—Amsterdam, Holland, 19–26 November 1999. Leonardo, 33(4), 338–39. doi:10.1162/leon.2000.33.4.338.
 McCartney, A. "Hildegard Westerkamp's Moments of Laughter: Recording Childhood, Performing Motherhood, Refusing to Shut up and Laughing." Perspectives of New Music, Vol 38, N 1, 2000.
 McCartney, A. (1995) "Inventing Images: Constructing and Contesting Gender in Thinking about Electroacoustic Music." Leonardo Music Journal, Vol.5 (57-66).
 McCartney, A. (1999). Sounding Places with Hildegard Westerkamp. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. (NQ46305).
Labelle, B. (1999). The sound of music: Contemporary sound-art and the phenomenal world. Art Papers, 23(2), 36-39.
Steenhuisen, P. (2009). Hildegard Westerkamp. In Sonic Mosaics: Conversations with Composers. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press.
Werner, H. U. (1994). Hildegard Westerkamp: I am a composer, I recycle sound. Soundscape - Akustische Landschaften: Eine Klangoekologische Spurensuche
Woloshyn, A. Playing with the voice and blurring boundaries in Hildegard Westerkamp's "MotherVoiceTalk".  eContact!", 14(4). Retrieved from: http://econtact.ca/14_4/woloshyn_westerkamp.html
Young, G. (1984). Composing with environmental sound. Musicworks, 26, 4-8.
Zapf, D. (1981). Inside the soundscape: the compositions of Hildegard Westerkamp. Musicworks'', 15, 5-8.

External links

Ear Room interview (Mark Peter Wright 6th July 2011)
"Composer showcase: Hildegard Westerkamp" Canadian Music Centre
"The signal of noise." Ideas: With Paul Kennedy. CBC Radio.
Paula Gordon Show

Living people
German composers
German classical composers
Canadian classical composers
Canadian women classical composers
Canadian sound artists
Women sound artists
20th-century classical composers
German women composers
German film score composers
Electroacoustic music composers
1946 births
Hochschule für Musik Freiburg alumni
Academic staff of Simon Fraser University
University of British Columbia alumni
Canadian women in electronic music
German women classical composers
20th-century German composers
20th-century Canadian composers
German emigrants to Canada
20th-century women composers
20th-century Canadian women musicians
20th-century German women musicians
Canadian women composers

Hildegard Westerkamp


Borchard Community Park is a public park located in western Newbury Park, CA. Situated adjacent to both the Newbury Park High School and the Borchard Maintenance Shop, the park is situated at the corner of Reino Road and Borchard Road at the foothills of the Santa Monica Mountains. The park encompasses 29 acres, which is home to various courts for recreational sports, fitness area, community rooms, a farm themed playground, picnic areas, several fields, and a skate park. The park was established by the Conejo Recreation & Park District (CRPD) in 1969. It has two volleyball courts, four tennis courts, two stages, three softball fields, a basketball court, barbecue grills, two bocci courts, a gymnasium, horseshoe pits, a kitchen, a soccer field, two playgrounds, and more.

To get here from Highway 101, take the Borchard Road/Rancho Conejo Road Exit and go southwest on Borchard Rd. for one mile to the park entrance. It is located at 190 Reino Road in western Newbury Park.

There is an undergoing project to create a multiuse pathway along the Arroyo Conejo from the southern parts of the park through Casa Conejo, CA and further to the Newbury Park Library.

Near the corner of Borchard- and Reino Roads, where Borchard Community Park is located today, was the home of the pioneer Caspar Borchard family, who owned a large ranch here in 1881–1961.

References

Newbury Park, California
Parks in Ventura County, California

Borchard Community Park


Ile Aux Galets Light, also known as Skillagalee Island Light, is located on Ile Aux Galets (more commonly known as Skillagalee Island), a gravelly, low-lying island in northeast Lake Michigan, between Beaver Island and the mainland, approximately  northwest of Cross Village in Emmet County, Michigan. Along with nearby Grays Reef, Waugoshance, and White Shoal Lights, it warns shipping away from the reefs and shoals of Waugoshance Point, which pose an imminent hazard to navigation.

United States Lighthouse Board records initially used both names when referring to the lighthouse, but by 1889 Skillagalee started to be used exclusively. Around 1910, Ile Aux Galets started to be used again, and it is listed by that name on modern light lists published by the United States Coast Guard.

History
The islet is home to a significant colony of ring-billed gulls.  Its name, given by early French explorers, means "Isle of Pebbles."  It is said that the English speakers found the French name unpronounceable, and "Ile aux Galets"—soon misheard, misunderstood and mispronounced—transmuted into "Skillagalee" (or some variant) which took hold.  By the "mid 1800s references to the original French name all but disappeared."

There are many wrecks near Skillagalee island.  However, on September 27, 1850, the loss of the A.D. Patchin—a wood sidewheeler,  long and built in Trenton, Michigan in 1846—led to the construction of the first light on the island.  Loaded with general goods, the Patchin's course into Grays Reef Passage was disrupted by currents that pulled her onto Skillagalee's shore. Her crew escaped and was rescued, but foul winds and weather thwarted many attempts to set her free.  She was "pounded to pieces, becoming yet another of Lake Michigan's many victims."

Congress appropriated sums to construct a light on Skillagalee Island in 1851, and the task was undertaken by the Department of the Treasury, the administrative predecessor to the Lighthouse Board.  Due in part to the extreme exposure of the location, that lighthouse badly and quickly deteriorated and was replaced in 1868.

In 1888, the United States Lighthouse Board built the current  tower and equipped it with a 'state of the art' fourth order Fresnel lens.  This is the third lighthouse on the island.  This "handsome" lighthouse shares its design and shape with only one other, Port Sanilac Light, on Lake Huron.

In 1890, the station's fog signals were upgraded from the existing steam siren to  steam whistles. On October 4, the Lighthouse steam barge RUBY delivered a work party and the necessary equipment for the upgrade. Within the month the task was completed, and the old sirens were thereupon transferred to Beaver Island Head Light. "Life was busy for the keepers . . . that following year, since in addition to tending the light and maintaining the equipment, they operated the station's new steam whistles . . . 268 hours, [stoking] 26 tons of coal into their boilers."  In 1894 the boathouse, boatways and landing crib were moved fifteen feet toward the lake, due to the ever fluctuating water levels.

The islet and lighthouse were occupied by lighthouse keepers from 1850 until 1969, when the Fresnel lens was retired. At the time, a Coast Guard crew razed all the structures (fog signal building, keeper's house, oil storage shed and boathouse), leaving only the tower in the middle of the island.  An automated  ML-300 Tideland Signal acrylic plastic lens was placed in the lantern, powered by 12-volt batteries attached to a photovoltaic array mounted on the parapet's railing.

Except for the light itself, the fog horn sound building, keeper's dwelling and all other structures were razed.

In June 2011, the Lighthouse was declared excess to the needs of the Coast Guard and made available (along with eleven others) by the General Services Administration to eligible organizations under the provisions of the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act.

Current status
The light is listed on the National Register of Historic Places Reference #84001389; Name of Listing: SKILLAGALEE LIGHT STATION.

As of July, 2015, the light is for sale through an on line auction process.

Getting there
The island is accessible by small boat or sea kayak. Due to variable weather conditions, shallow water and dangerous reefs and shoals, any close approach to the island is hazardous. There are no landing areas or other facilities on the island, and the light is closed.

References

Further reading
 "A Tour of the Lights of the Straits." Michigan History 70 (Sep/Oct 1986), pp. 17–29.

External links
 Lighthouses in the Mackinac Straits.
Interactive map of Lights in Northern Lake Michigan, mapped by Google.
 Lighthouse Friends, Lighthouses in the Mackinac Straits, (Skillagalee Island  Light).
 Map of Michigan Lighthouse in PDF Format.

Lighthouses completed in 1888
Houses completed in 1888
Buildings and structures in Emmet County, Michigan
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Michigan
National Register of Historic Places in Emmet County, Michigan

Ile Aux Galets Light


Great Malvern is an area of the spa town of Malvern, Worcestershire, England. It lies at the foot of the Malvern Hills. It is on the eastern flanks of the Worcestershire Beacon and North Hill, and is the historic centre of Malvern and includes its town centre.

Other websites
Visit The Malverns — Great Malvern

Towns in Worcestershire

Great Malvern


In mathematics, particularly matrix theory and combinatorics, a Pascal matrix is a matrix (possibly infinite) containing the binomial coefficients as its elements. It is thus an encoding of Pascal's triangle in matrix form. There are three natural ways to achieve this: as a lower-triangular matrix, an upper-triangular matrix, or a symmetric matrix. For example, the 5 × 5 matrices are:

There are other ways in which Pascal's triangle can be put into matrix form, but these are not easily extended to infinity.

Definition

The non-zero elements of a Pascal matrix are given by the binomial coefficients:

such that the indices i, j start at 0, and ! denotes the factorial.

Properties
The matrices have the pleasing relationship Sn = LnUn. From this it is easily seen that all three matrices have determinant 1, as the determinant of a triangular matrix is simply the product of its diagonal elements, which are all 1 for both Ln and Un. In other words, matrices Sn, Ln, and Un are unimodular, with Ln and Un having trace n.

The trace of Sn is given by

with the first few terms given by the sequence 1, 3, 9, 29, 99, 351, 1275, … .

Construction
A Pascal matrix can actually be constructed by taking the matrix exponential of a special subdiagonal or superdiagonal matrix. The example below constructs a 7 × 7 Pascal matrix, but the method works for any desired n × n Pascal matrices. The dots in the following matrices represent zero elements.

It is important to note that one cannot simply assume exp(A) exp(B) = exp(A + B), for n × n matrices A and B; this equality is only true when AB = BA (i.e. when the matrices A and B commute). In the construction of symmetric Pascal matrices like that above, the sub- and superdiagonal matrices do not commute, so the (perhaps) tempting simplification involving the addition of the matrices cannot be made.

A useful property of the sub- and superdiagonal matrices used for the construction is that both are nilpotent; that is, when raised to a sufficiently great integer power, they degenerate into the zero matrix. (See shift matrix for further details.) As the n × n generalised shift matrices we are using become zero when raised to power n, when calculating the matrix exponential we need only consider the first n + 1 terms of the infinite series to obtain an exact result.

Variants
Interesting variants can be obtained by obvious modification of the matrix-logarithm PL7 and then application of the matrix exponential.

The first example below uses the squares of the values of the log-matrix and constructs a 7 × 7 "Laguerre"- matrix (or matrix of coefficients of Laguerre polynomials

The Laguerre-matrix is actually used with some other scaling and/or the scheme of alternating signs.
(Literature about generalizations to higher powers is not found yet)

The second example below uses the products v(v + 1) of the values of the log-matrix and constructs a 7 × 7 "Lah"- matrix  (or matrix of coefficients of Lah numbers)

Using v(v − 1) instead provides a diagonal shifting to bottom-right.

The third example below uses the square of the original PL7-matrix, divided by 2, in other words: the first-order binomials (binomial(k, 2)) in the second subdiagonal and constructs a matrix, which occurs in context of the derivatives and integrals of the Gaussian error function:

If this matrix is inverted (using, for instance, the negative matrix-logarithm), then this matrix has alternating signs and gives the coefficients of the derivatives (and by extension the integrals) of Gauss' error-function.  (Literature about generalizations to greater powers is not found yet.)

Another variant can be obtained by extending the original matrix to negative values:

See also
Pascal's triangle
LU decomposition

References

 G. S. Call and D. J. Velleman, "Pascal's matrices", American Mathematical Monthly, volume 100, (April 1993) pages 372–376

External links
 G. Helms Pascalmatrix in a project of compilation of facts about Numbertheoretical matrices
 G. Helms Gauss-matrix
 Weisstein, Eric W. Gaussian-function
 Weisstein, Eric W. Erf-function
 Weisstein, Eric W. "Hermite Polynomial". Hermite-polynomials
 Endl, Kurt "Über eine ausgezeichnete Eigenschaft der Koeffizientenmatrizen des Laguerreschen und des Hermiteschen Polynomsystems". In: PERIODICAL VOLUME 65 Mathematische Zeitschrift Kurt Endl
  (Related to Gauss-matrix).

Matrices
Triangles of numbers

Pascal matrix


The markhor (Capra falconeri)  is a large Capra (goat) species native to South Asia and Central Asia, mainly within Pakistan, the Karakoram range, parts of Afghanistan, and the Himalayas. It is listed on the IUCN Red List as Near Threatened since 2015.

The markhor is the national animal of Pakistan, where it is also known (in English) as the "screw-horn" or screw-horned goat. The word mārkhor (), meaning "snake-eater", comes from both Urdu and classical Persian languages, referencing the ancient belief that the markhor would actively kill and consume snakes. This regional myth is believed to stem from the "snake-like" form of the male markhor's horns, twisting and curling like a snake, possibly leading ancient peoples to associate them with snakes.

Description
Markhor stand  at the shoulder, are  long and weigh from . They have the highest maximum shoulder height among the species in the genus Capra, but is surpassed in length and weight by the Siberian ibex. The coat is of a grizzled, light brown to black colour, and is smooth and short in summer, while growing longer and thicker in winter. The fur of the lower legs is black and white. Markhor are sexually dimorphic, with males having longer hair on the chin, throat, chest and shanks. Females are redder in colour, with shorter hair, a short black beard, and are maneless. Both sexes have tightly curled, corkscrew-like horns, which close together at the head, but spread upwards toward the tips. The horns of males can grow up to  long, and up to  in females. The males have a pungent smell, which surpasses that of the domestic goat.

Behaviour and ecology

Markhor are adapted to mountainous terrain, and can be found between  in elevation. They typically inhabit scrub forests made up primarily of oaks (Quercus ilex), pines (Pinus gerardiana), and junipers (Juniperus macropoda). They are diurnal, and are mainly active in the early morning and late afternoon. Their diets shift seasonally: in the spring and summer periods they graze, but turn to browsing in winter, sometimes standing on their hind legs to reach high branches. The mating season is during winter, when the males fight each other by lunging, locking horns and attempting to push each other off balance. The gestation period lasts 135–170 days, and usually results in the birth of one or two kids, and occasionally three. Markhor live in herds, usually numbering nine animals, composed of adult females and their young. Adult males are largely solitary. Adult females and kids comprise most of the markhor population, with adult females making up 32% and kids making up 31%. Adult males comprise 19% of the population, while subadults (males aged 2–3 years) make up 12%, and yearlings (females aged 12–24 months) 9%. Their alarm call closely resembles the bleating of domestic goats. Early in the season the males and females may be found together on the open grassy patches and clear slopes among the forest. During the summer, the males remain in the forest, while the females generally climb to the highest rocky ridges above. In the spring, the females stay closer to cliffs in areas with more rock coverage to provide protection for their offspring. The males stay in higher elevated areas with more access to vegetation for foraging so as to improve their body's condition.

Predators
Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Himalayan wolf (Canis lupus chanco) and brown bear (Ursus arctos) are the main predators of the markhor. The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) has been reported to prey upon young markhor. The markhor possess keen eyesight and a strong sense of smell to detect nearby predators. Markhor are very aware of their surroundings and on high alert; in exposed areas, they are quick to spot and flee from predators.

Taxonomy

Aegoceros (Capra) Falconeri was the scientific name proposed by Johann Andreas Wagner in 1839 based on a female specimen from the Indian Himalayas.

Multiple subspecies have been recognized, often based on horn configuration, but it has been shown that this can vary greatly even within the same population confined to one mountain range.
 Astor markhor or Astore markhor (C. f. falconeri)
 Bukharan markhor (C. f. heptneri)
 Kabul markhor (C. f. megaceros)
 Kashmir markhor (C. f. cashmiriensis)
 Sulaiman markhor (C. f. jerdoni)

Astor markhor
The Astor markhor has large, flat horns, branching widely and then going up nearly straight with only a half turn. It is synonymous with Capra falconeri cashmiriensis or Pir Panjal markhor, which has heavy, flat horns, twisted like a corkscrew. The Astor markhor also has a tendency to sexually segregate outside the mating season because of multiple different mechanisms. The females are usually confined to cliffs with less forage coverage, while the males live in areas with a lot more forage coverage.

Within Afghanistan, the Astor markhor is limited to the east in the high and mountainous monsoon forests of Laghman and Nuristan. In India, this subspecies is restricted to a portion of the Pir Panjal range in southwestern Jammu and Kashmir. Throughout this range, Astor markhor populations are scattered, starting east of the Banihal Pass (50 km from the Chenab River) on the Jammu–Srinagar highway westward to the disputed border with Pakistan. Recent surveys indicate it still occurs in catchments of the Limber and Lachipora Rivers in the Jhelum Valley Forest Division, and around Shupiyan to the south of Srinagar. In Pakistan, the Astor markhor there is restricted to the Indus and its tributaries, as well as to the Kunar (Chitral) River and its tributaries. Along the Indus, it inhabits both banks from Jalkot (Kohistan District) upstream to near the Tungas village (Baltistan), with Gakuch being its western limit up the Gilgit River, Chalt up the Hunza River, and the Parishing Valley up the Astore River. It has been said to occur on the right side of the Yasin Valley (Gilgit District), though this is unconfirmed. The flare-horned markhor is also found around Chitral and the border areas with Afghanistan, where it inhabits a number of valleys along the Kunar River (Chitral District), from Arandu on the west bank and Drosh on the east bank, up to Shoghor along the Lutkho River, and as far as Barenis along the Mastuj River. The largest population is currently found in Chitral National Park in Pakistan.

Bukharan markhor
Although the Bukharan markhor or Tajik markhur (Capra falconeri heptneri) formerly lived in most of the mountains stretching along the north banks of the Upper Amu Darya and the Pyanj Rivers from Turkmenistan to Tajikistan, two to three scattered populations now occur in a greatly reduced distribution. It is limited to the region between lower Pyanj and the Vakhsh Rivers near Kulyab in Tajikistan (near ), and in the Kugitangtau Range in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan (around ). This subspecies may possibly exist in the Darwaz Peninsula of northern Afghanistan near the border with Tajikistan. Before 1979, almost nothing was known of this subspecies or its distribution in Afghanistan, and no new information has been established in Afghanistan since that time.

Kabul markhor
The Kabul markhor has horns with a slight corkscrew, as well as a twist. A junior synonym is Capra falconeri jerdoni.

Until 1978, the Kabul markhor survived in Afghanistan only in the Kabul Gorge and the Kohe Safi area of Kapissa, and in some isolated pockets in between. It now lives the most inaccessible regions of its once wider range in the mountains of Kapissa and Kabul Provinces, after having been driven from its original habitat by intensive poaching. In Pakistan, its present range consists only of small isolated areas in Baluchistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province and in Dera Ghazi Khan District (Punjab Province). The KPK Forest Department considered that the areas of Mardan and Sheikh Buddin were still inhabited by the subspecies. At least 100 animals are thought to live on the Pakistani side of the Safed Koh range (Districts of Kurram and Khyber).

Relationship with the domestic goat
Certain authors have postulated that the markhor is the ancestor of some breeds of domestic goat. The Angora goat has been regarded by some as a direct descendant of the Central Asian markhor. Charles Darwin postulated that modern goats arose from crossbreeding markhor with wild goats. Evidence for markhors crossbreeding with domestic goats has been found. One study suggested that 35.7% of captive markhors in the analysis (ranging from three different zoos) had mitochondrial DNA from domestic goats. Other authors have suggested that markhor may have been the ancestor of some Egyptian goat breeds, based on their similar horns, though the lack of an anterior keel on the horns of the markhor belies any close relationship. The Changthangi domestic goat of Ladakh and Tibet may derive from the markhor. The Girgentana goat of Sicily is thought to have been bred from markhor, as is the Bilberry goat of Ireland. The Kashmiri feral herd of about 200 individuals on the Great Orme limestone headland of Wales are derived from a herd maintained at Windsor Great Park  belonging to Queen Victoria.

Fecal samples taken from markhor and domestic goats indicate that there is a serious level of competition for food between the two species. The competition for food between herbivores is believed to have significantly reduced the standing crop of forage in the Himalaya–Karkoram–Hindukush ranges. Domestic livestock have an advantage over wild herbivores since the density of their herds often pushes their competitors out of the best grazing areas, and decreased forage availability has a negative effect on female fertility.

Threats
Hunting for meat as a means of subsistence or trade in wildlife parts adds to the growing problem for wildlife managers in many countries. Poaching, with its indirect impacts as disturbance, increasing fleeing distances and resulting reduction of effective habitat size, is by far the most important factor threatening the survival of the markhor population. The most important types of poachers seem to be local inhabitants, state border guards, the latter usually relying on local hunting guides, and Afghans, illegally crossing the border. Poaching causes fragmentation of the population into small islands where the remaining subpopulations are prone to extinction. The markhor is a valued trophy hunting prize for its spiral horns. The Pakistani government issued several tags in an attempt to save the species, which since the introduction of hunting the species has seen a remarkable rebound. The continuing declines of markhor populations finally caught the attention of the international community.

Hunting

In British India, markhor were considered to be among the most challenging game species, because of the danger involved in stalking and pursuing them in high, mountainous terrain. According to Arthur Brinckman in his The Rifle in Cashmere, "a man who is a good walker will never wish for any finer sport than ibex or markhoor shooting". Elliot Roosevelt wrote of how he shot two markhor in 1881, his first on 8 July, his second on 1 August. Although it is illegal to hunt markhor in Afghanistan, they have been traditionally hunted in Nuristan and Laghman Provinces, and this may have intensified during the War in Afghanistan. In Pakistan, hunting markhor is legal as part of a conservation process: expensive hunting licenses are available from the Pakistani government that allow the hunting of old markhors, which are no longer good for breeding purposes. In India, it is illegal to hunt markhor but they are poached for food and for their horns, which are thought to have medicinal properties. Markhor have also been successfully introduced to private game ranches in Texas. Unlike the aoudad, blackbuck, nilgai, ibex, and axis deer, however, markhor have not escaped in sufficient numbers to establish free-range wild populations in Texas.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources currently classifies the markhor as a near threatened species, because of its relatively small population (2013 estimate: ~5,800 individuals), the absence of a projected total population decline, and its reliance on ongoing conservation efforts to maintain population levels. There are reservations in Tajikistan to protect the markhors. In 1973, two reservations were established. The Dashtijum Strict Reserve (also called the Zapovednik in Russian) offers markhor protect across 20,000 ha. The Dashtijum Reserve (called the Zakasnik in Russian) covers 53,000 ha. Though these reserves exist to protect and conserve the markhor population, the regulations are poorly enforced making poaching common as well as habitat destruction. Although markhors still face ongoing threats, recent studies have shown considerable success with regards to the conservation approach. The approach began in the 1900s when a local hunter was convinced by a hunting tourist to stop poaching markhors. The local hunter established a conservancy that inspired two other local organizations called Morkhur and Muhofiz. The two organizations expect that their conversations will not only protect, but allow them to sustainably exploit the markhor species. This approach has been effective compared to the protection of lands that lack enforcement and security. In India, the markhor is a fully protected (Schedule I) species under Jammu and Kashmir's Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978.

In culture
The markhor is the national animal of Pakistan. It was one of the 72 animals featured on the World Wide Fund for Nature Conservation Coin Collection in 1976. Markhor marionettes are used in the Afghan puppet shows known as buz-baz. The markhor has also been mentioned in a Pakistani computer-animated film known as Allahyar and the Legend of Markhor.

Etymology
The name is thought to be derived from Persian language — a conjunction of  (, "snake, serpent") and the suffix  (, "-eater"), interpreted to represent the animal's alleged ability to kill snakes, or as a reference to its corkscrew-like horns, which are somewhat reminiscent of coiling snakes.

In folklore the markhor is believed to kill and eat serpents. Thereafter, while chewing the cud, a foam-like substance comes out of its mouth that drops on the ground and dries. This foam-like substance is sought after by the local people, who believe it is useful in extracting the poison from snakebites.

References

External links

 Markhor Pakistan National Animal

Capra (genus)
Fauna of the Himalayas
Mammals of Asia
Mammals of Pakistan
National symbols of Pakistan
Mammals described in 1839

Markhor


Nealon Greene (born April 13, 1976) is a retired American-born Canadian football quarterback who was active for nine seasons in the CFL. He played college football at Clemson University.

Early life
Greene was born in Yonkers, New York.  When finishing high school, he was recruited by Rich Bisaccia, the new running backs and special teams coach at Clemson University in South Carolina.  Bissacia was also from Yonkers and Greene knew him through his family.

Pro career
After spending his collegiate career with Clemson, where he became the school's career leader in passing yardage, Greene came to the Canadian Football League with the Toronto Argonauts. Greene was traded in 1999 to the Edmonton Eskimos before he could establish himself on the Argonauts, but played well enough to stay with the team for a few seasons. On July 16, 1999, Greene set a CFL record for rushing yards in a single game by a quarterback with 180 yards. He became the clear Eskimos starter in 2000 while posting a 10-8 record and second-place finish. The Eskimos narrowly lost the west semi final to the BC Lions by a score of 34-32 after a seemingly easy but missed field goal by kicker Sean Fleming which would have sealed the win. The loss resulted in the firing of head coach Don Matthews which led to Greene losing the starting quarterback role to Jason Maas during the 2001 season. Greene was subsequently traded to the Saskatchewan Roughriders with Simon Baffoe and a second round pick (offensive lineman Francois Boulianne) in the 2002 CFL Draft for offensive lineman Dan Comiskey, running back Darren Davis, and kicker Mike O'Brien.

Greene immediately became the starter in Saskatchewan starting the 2002 season improving the then woeful Roughriders to an 8-10 record, making the playoffs for the first time since their 1997 Grey Cup appearance. In 2003 Greene played sixteen games for the Roughriders, posting a 10-6 record as a starter, leading Saskatchewan to their first winning season since 1994. They defeated the Winnipeg Blue Bombers 37-21 in the first round of the postseason before losing to the Edmonton Eskimos in the western final by a score of 30-23.

The successful season of 2003 and further advancements having been made in the playoffs left the Roughriders fans looking positive. However, in the first game of the 2004 season against the Toronto Argonauts, Greene suffered a season-ending broken leg which resulted in a disappointing 9-9 season for Saskatchewan under back-up quarterback Henry Burris. Greene recovered and returned in the 2005 season, where he retained the role of starter after the departure of Burris. The up-and-down season struggles saw the team start strongly with a 3-1 record, but fall to a disappointing 3-6 by the halfway point of the season. Seeing that change was necessary, Greene was benched and lost the starting role to back-up Marcus Crandell. Crandell quarterbacked the Riders to five straight victories during Greene's time on the bench, but later lost three crucial games in a row near the end of the season dropping the Roughriders to below .500 once again with an 8-9 record. Having nothing to lose, head coach Danny Barrett then returned to Greene to start in the last regular season game in BC. Greene led the Riders to victory in his final CFL start, salvaging another disappointing 9-9 season for the green and white. Although the season resulted in a last place finish in the west, Greene and the Roughriders had a stronger record than the third-place team in the east, the Ottawa Renegades, entitling the Roughriders to cross over divisions and make the eastern playoffs. However, despite the victory against the league-leading BC Lions the previous week under Greene, he was benched again in favor of Crandell and never saw any playing time in the ensuing 30-14 loss to the Montreal Alouettes in the east semi final.

On April 20, 2006 Greene was traded by Saskatchewan to the Montreal Alouettes where he reunited with head coach Don Matthews and served as a back-up quarterback to Anthony Calvillo. Despite Calvillo's struggles and poor play later in the season, he remained the starter and Greene was never given a chance to start a game for Montreal. Greene was cut the following season after Matthews resigned as head coach.

Greene retired from pro football, he returned to Clemson University and continued his education.

References

External links
Greene's profile and career statistics on the official CFL website

1976 births
Living people
African-American players of Canadian football
American football quarterbacks
Canadian football quarterbacks
Clemson Tigers football players
Edmonton Elks players
Montreal Alouettes players
Sportspeople from Yonkers, New York
Players of American football from New York (state)
Toronto Argonauts players
Saskatchewan Roughriders players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Nealon Greene


Major General Herbert William Lloyd,  (18 November 1883 – 10 August 1957) was an Australian Army officer who served in the First and Second World Wars.

Early life and career
Herbert William Lloyd was born in South Yarra, Melbourne, the son of a police officer. He was educated at University High School and Wesley College. On 26 June 1902 he joined the public service in the treasury department.

Lloyd was commissioned in the Australian Field artillery as a second lieutenant on 9 July 1906. He was promoted to lieutenant on 2 July 1907 and then to captain on 16 August 1909. On 31 March 1910, Lloyd quit the treasury department and joined the Permanent Forces as a full lieutenant. He was promoted to captain again on 1 May 1914.

First World War
Lloyd was appointed to the Australian Imperial Force on 18 August 1914 with the rank of captain as adjutant of the 1st Field Artillery Brigade, which sailed for Egypt in October 1914. He landed on Cape Helles with the 1st Brigade on 4 May 1915. On 9 May 1915, the commander of the 1st Field Artillery Battery, Major Sweetland, was evacuated sick and Lloyd took over as battery commander. The battery fired in support of the British until shifted to Anzac Cove in September, Lloyd remaining in command until Gallipoli was evacuated in December. For his services at Gallipoli, Lloyd was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO).

Lloyd held the position of Brigade Major of the 2nd Divisional Artillery from 1 January to 11 March 1916. In preparation for the move to the Western Front, the number of batteries per division was increased from nine to sixteen. As a consequence, most of the original battery commanders were given brigades to form. Lloyd was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 12 March 1916 and given the new 22nd Field Artillery (Howitzer) Brigade. On 13 April 1916 he took over the 5th Field Artillery Brigade and in February to March 1917 was acting commander of the 2nd Divisional Artillery. He commanded the artillery in support of an advance column under the command of Brigadier General Harold Edward Elliott. In May he became acting commander of the 2nd Divisional Artillery again. For his services in these battles, Lloyd was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG), and awarded the Serbian Order of the White Eagle.

Lloyd took over command of the 6th Field Artillery Brigade on 28 November 1917 and then the 12th Field Artillery Brigade on 7 February 1918. Lloyd was credited with turning the 12th Artillery Brigade into an outstanding unit.

On 11 April 1918, Lloyd and his 12th Brigade was sent forward to assist the Scottish infantry attempting to stop the German advance in the Lys sector. On 8 November 1918, Lloyd took over command of the 5th Divisional Artillery from Brigadier General Alfred Bessell-Browne and was promoted to temporary brigadier general. On 5 December Lloyd took over command of the 1st Divisional Artillery, holding the position until 24 March 1919. He was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in the 1919 King's Birthday Honours for his services on the Western Front, during which time he had been Mentioned in Despatches four times.

Between the wars
Lloyd's appointment to the AIF was terminated on 15 July 1919 and he was posted to Army Headquarters in Melbourne where he was Chief Inspector of Field Artillery from 16 July to 1 November 1919, Director of Artillery from 2 November 1919 to 31 March 1920, and general staff officer Artillery from 1 April to 3 September 1920. While in the AIF he had been given the rank of brevet major on 1 December 1915. He was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 1 November 1919 and brevet rank of lieutenant colonel on the same day. He was promoted to the permanent rank of lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1920. He held the honorary rank of brigadier general from 8 November 1918. Lloyd acted as transport officer for the 1920 visit to Australia of the then Prince of Wales, for which he was appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO).

From September 1920 to January 1922, Lloyd attended the Staff College at Quetta, in India. On his return to Australia Lloyd was posted to 1st Division Headquarters in Sydney from 1 February 1922 to 26 August 1925. Lloyd resigned from the permanent forces on 26 August 1925 and transferred to the Militia's unattached list.

In 1925 Lloyd took up a job with Vacuum Oil. He was elected as the Nationalist candidate for the Legislative Assembly seat of Parramatta at the 1929 by-election following the death of the Nationalist member, Albert Bruntnell. He was defeated in the 1930 election, but in 1932 won the seat of Mosman as a United Australia Party candidate, holding the seat at the 1935, and 1938 elections. He was defeated by Donald Macdonald an Independent UAP candidate at the 1941 election.

Second World War
From May to July 1940, Lloyd held the post of Director General of Army Recruiting. He was recalled to active duty on 1 August 1940 with the rank of brigadier as Deputy Adjutant General at Army Headquarters. He was promoted to temporary major general on 23 October 1940 when he took over command of the 2nd Division, a Militia formation. From 25 April to 31 July 1941, he was also Director-General of Army Recruiting.

In 1942, the 2nd Division was assigned to III Corps—commanded by Lieutenant General Gordon Bennett—which was tasked with defending Western Australia. Lloyd joined the Second Australian Imperial Force on 15 January 1943 with the substantive rank of colonel, but as a temporary major general. However, in September 1943, he returned to Sydney to command the 1st Division, another Militia unit. On 8 May 1945, Lloyd took command of the Second Army. General Sir Thomas Blamey recommended him for an active command, but the War Cabinet ruled that as Lloyd was now 61, the post-war army would be better served by the appointment of a younger officer.

Lloyd retired on 1 February 1946 as a major general. He became a company director, with his appointments including the Adelaide Steamship Company. He died on 10 August 1957 and was cremated.

See also
 List of Australian generals

References

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1883 births
1957 deaths
Military personnel from Melbourne
Australian military personnel of World War I
Australian Army personnel of World War II
Australian generals
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order
Members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
People educated at Wesley College (Victoria)
20th-century Australian politicians
Graduates of the Staff College, Quetta
People from South Yarra, Victoria

Herbert Lloyd


Fleury Abbey (Floriacum) in Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire, Loiret, France, founded in about 640, is one of the most celebrated Benedictine monasteries of Western Europe, and possesses the relics of St. Benedict of Nursia. Its site on the banks of the Loire has always made it easily accessible from Orléans, a center of culture unbroken since Roman times.  In 2010, the abbey had over forty monks led by the abbot Etienne Ricaud.

Abbo of Fleury (died 1004) a monk and abbot of Fleury was a theologian of wide-ranging intellect; his life was written by the chronicler Aimoin, also a monk of Fleury. Andrew of Fleury (writing c 1043) wrote Miracula sancti Benedicti. Hugh of Fleury (died after 1118) was a monk of Fleury known for his chronicles and other writings.

Churches

Anscar Vonier, writing in the Catholic Encyclopedia says that "from the very start the abbey boasted of two churches, one in honour of St. Peter and the other in honour of the Blessed Virgin." The church of St Peter was demolished in the eighteenth century; the existing church dedicated to the Virgin pre-existed the founding of the monastery. After the ravages of the Normans, who penetrated via the Loire and burned the monastery buildings, which suffered a catastrophic fire in 1026, this became the great late eleventh-century Romanesque basilica, which occasioned the erection of a great tower, that was intended as the west front of the abbey church, which was completed in 1218. It was here that the Fleury Playbook was compiled, perhaps in dedication to the new church. The tower of Abbot Gauzlin, resting on fifty columns, forms a unique porch. The Carolingian style church is about three hundred feet long, its transept one hundred and forty feet.  The choir of the church contains the tomb of a French monarch, Philip I of France, buried there in 1108. Of the mediaeval abbey's buildings, only this basilica survives in the modern monastery.

Medieval history
The seventeenth-century Benedictine scholar Jean Mabillon accepted the traditional founding of Fleury as by Leodebaldus, abbot of St-Aignan (Orléans) about 640, in the existing Gallo-Roman villa of Floriacum, in the Vallis Aurea, the "Golden Valley". This was the spot selected by the Abbot of St-Aignan for his Benedictine foundation. Rigomarus was its first abbot.

The most famous of the Merovingian abbots was St. Mommolus, who effected the translation of the relics there of Benedict of Nursia.
Pepin of Herstal, having considerably augmented the abbey, committed it to the direction of Saint Bain in 706.
The monastery underwent a season of reform in its monastic life, about 930, along the lines first laid out at Cluny. The monastery  enjoyed the patronage of the Carolingian dynasty for generations; it was also central to the political ambitions of the Robertian house descended from Robert I of France, several of whom had held the title Duke of the Franks. The monk of Fleury named Helgaud (died ca 1068), was chaplain to King Robert II and wrote a brief Epitoma vitae Roberti regis. Fleury had particular significance in lending legitimacy to its patrons. Although royal and ducal patronage had material advantages, there was also a price to be paid in terms of monastic autonomy when the ducal candidate conflicted with the choice of the monastic community.

Theodulphus, bishop of Orléans established at Fleury a school for young noblemen recommended there by Charlemagne. By the mid-ninth century its library was one of the most comprehensive ever assembled in the West, and scholars such as Lupus of Ferrières (d. 862) traveled there to consult its texts. Later under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988-1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age; it kept up close relations with abbeys in England. Later, among the non-resident abbots in commendam were Cardinals Odet de Coligny and Antoine Sanguin in the reign of François I and Cardinal Richelieu.

Modern history

Like all Benedictine monasteries in France, the community was scattered by the French revolution.  Nevertheless, a Benedictine presence remained continually: the parish was held by a monk disguised as a secular priest, and there were numerous attempts to restore the monastery throughout the 19th century.
Finally, in 1944, the community (which had been resident at Pierre-qui-Vire) was restored to the abbey, which was rebuilt as a member of the Subiaco Congregation.
The monastery is remembered each day at evensong in Winchester Cathedral with an additional short said prayer at the conclusion of the responses – the Fleury Prayer.

Benedict of Nursia's relics

Fleury is reputed to contain the relics of St. Benedict of Nursia, the father of Western monasticism. Mommolus, the second Abbot of Fleury, is said to have effected their transfer when that abbey fell into decay after the ravages of the Lombards in the sixth century. Benedict's relics, and the Miracula S. Benedicti developed over three centuries by five monks of Fleury, including Andreas of Fleury (), attracted pilgrims, bringing wealth and fame.

Monks of the Italian monastery Monte Cassino, which was founded by Benedict himself, disputed this story. They claimed that Monte Cassino possesses the remains of the body of St. Benedict, but have never shown relics as proof.

See also

 List of Carolingian monasteries
 Carolingian architecture
 Carolingian art
 Regional characteristics of Romanesque architecture
 Codex Floriacensis

Notes

References
  Elizabeth Dachowski, "Edmund of East Anglia: Life of Abbo of Fleury": an introduction to the political background.
 (Dewey Library, University of Pennsylvania) Boethius, In Librum Aristotelis de Interpretatione: Manuscript probably produced at Fleury, mid-ninth century

Further reading
 Anselme Davril, editor, 1990. The Monastic Ritual of Fleury. A twelfth-century ritual, Orléans, Bibliothèque Municipale MS 123 [101]
 Chenesseau, Georges. L'abbaye de Fleury à Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire (Paris: van Oest) 1933.

Benedictine monasteries in France
Basilica churches in France
Carolingian architecture
Romanesque architecture in France
Churches in Loiret
Christian monasteries in Loiret

Fleury Abbey