Myron Samuel Scholes ( ; born July 1, 1941) is a Canadian–American financial economist.  Scholes is the Frank E. Buck Professor of Finance, Emeritus, at the Stanford Graduate School of Business, Nobel Laureate in Economic Sciences, and co-originator of the Black–Scholes options pricing model. Scholes is currently the chairman of the Board of Economic Advisers of Stamos Capital Partners. Previously he served as the chairman of Platinum Grove Asset Management and on the Dimensional Fund Advisors board of directors, American Century Mutual Fund board of directors and the Cutwater Advisory Board. He was a principal and limited partner at Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM), a highly leveraged hedge fund that collapsed in 1998, and a managing director at Salomon Brothers. Other positions Scholes held include the Edward Eagle Brown Professor of Finance at the University of Chicago, senior research fellow at the Hoover Institution, director of the Center for Research in Security Prices, and professor of finance at MIT's Sloan School of Management. Scholes earned his PhD at the University of Chicago.

In 1997, Scholes – together with Robert C. Merton – was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for a method to determine the value of derivatives. The model provides a conceptual framework for valuing options, such as calls or puts, and is referred to as the Black–Scholes model.

Biography

Early life and education
Scholes was born to a Jewish family on July 1, 1941, in Timmins, Ontario, where his family had moved during the Great Depression. In 1951 the family moved to Hamilton, Ontario. Scholes was a good student although fighting with his impaired vision starting with his teens until finally getting an operation when he was twenty-six. Through his family, he became interested in economics early, as he helped with his uncles' businesses and his parents helped him open an account for investing in the stock market while he was in high school.

After his mother died from cancer, Scholes remained in Hamilton for undergraduate studies and earned a Bachelor's degree in economics from McMaster University in 1962. One of his professors at McMaster introduced him to the works of George Stigler and Milton Friedman, two University of Chicago economists who would later both win Nobel prizes in economics. After receiving his B.A. he decided to enroll in graduate studies in economics at the University of Chicago. Here, Scholes was a colleague with Michael Jensen and Richard Roll, and he had the opportunity to study with Eugene Fama and Merton Miller, researchers who were developing the relatively new field of financial economics. He earned his MBA at the Booth School of Business in 1964 and his Ph.D. in 1969 with a dissertation written under the supervision of Eugene Fama and Merton Miller.

Academic career
In 1968, after finishing his dissertation, Scholes took an academic position at the MIT Sloan School of Management. Here he met Fischer Black, who was a consultant for Arthur D. Little at the time, and Robert C. Merton, who joined MIT in 1970. For the following years Scholes, Black and Merton undertook groundbreaking research in asset pricing, including the work on their famous option pricing model. At the same time, Scholes continued collaborating with Merton Miller and Michael Jensen. In 1973 he decided to move to the University of Chicago Booth School of Business, looking forward to work closely with Eugene Fama, Merton Miller and Fischer Black, who had taken his first academic position at Chicago in 1972 (although he moved two years later to MIT). While at Chicago, Scholes also started working closely with the Center for Research in Security Prices, helping to develop and analyze its famous database of high frequency stock market data.

In 1981 he moved to Stanford University, where he remained until he retired from teaching in 1996. Since then he holds the position of Frank E. Buck Professor of Finance Emeritus at Stanford. While at Stanford his research interest concentrated on the economics of investment banking and tax planning in corporate finance.

In 1997 he shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with Robert C. Merton "for a new method to determine the value of derivatives". Fischer Black, who co-authored with them the work that was awarded, had died in 1995 and thus was not eligible for the prize.

In 2012, he authored an article entitled 'Not All Growth Is Good' in The 4% Solution: Unleashing the Economic Growth America Needs, published by the George W. Bush Presidential Center.

Investment activity

In 1990 Scholes became more involved directly with the financial markets. He went to Salomon Brothers as a special consultant, then becoming a managing director and co-head of its fixed-income-derivative group. In 1994 Scholes joined several colleagues, including John Meriwether, the former vice-chairman and head of bond trading at Salomon Brothers, and his future Nobel Memorial Prize co-winner Robert C. Merton, and co-founded a hedge fund called Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM). The fund, which started operations with $1 billion of investor capital, performed extremely well in the first years, realizing annualized returns of over 40%. However, following the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 1998 Russian financial crisis the highly leveraged fund in 1998 lost $4.6 billion in less than four months and collapsed abruptly, becoming one of the most prominent examples of risk potential in the investment industry.

LTCM brought legal problems for Scholes in 2005 in the case of Long-Term Capital Holdings v. United States. The firm's corporate structure and accounting had established an offshore tax shelter to avoid taxes on investment profits. Courts disallowed the firm's claim of $40 million in tax savings, finding it based on formal accounting losses of $106 million that represented no economic substance.

Subsequent to LTCM, in 1999 Scholes joined Oak Hill Capital, the private equity firm led by Robert Bass. There, Scholes and his LTCM colleague, Chi-Fu Huang, launched a new hedge fund, Oak Hill Platinum Partners.

Other interests
Scholes is also chief investment strategist at Janus Henderson, a role he held at legacy firm  Janus Capital Group since 2014.  Janus Capital merged with Henderson Group in 2017 to form Janus Henderson. In this role, he leads the firm's evolving asset allocation product development efforts and partners with the investment team contributing macro insights and quantitative analysis specific to hedging, risk management and disciplined portfolio construction.  He also serves on the boards of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and Dimensional Fund Advisors.  Scholes is currently the chairman of the Board of Economic Advisers of Stamos Capital Partners.

See also
 List of economists
 List of quantitative analysts
 List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

External links

 Nobel e-Museum page on 1997 prize for economics
 Platinum Grove Asset Management, company where Scholes is chairman
 Speaker at Hedge Fund Conference
 PBS Nova – Trillion Dollar Bet (2000)
 IDEAS/RePEc
 "Findings and Opinion" Long Term Capital Holdings vs. United States

1941 births
Nobel laureates in Economics
American Nobel laureates
Canadian Nobel laureates
Living people
McMaster University alumni
Jewish American economists
Jewish Canadian scientists
Jewish American social scientists
Long-Term Capital Management
Financial economists
People from Hamilton, Ontario
People from Timmins
Scientists from Ontario
University of Chicago alumni
MIT Sloan School of Management faculty
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
National Bureau of Economic Research
20th-century Canadian scientists
21st-century Canadian scientists
Presidents of the American Finance Association

Myron Scholes


First Stop Travel was a Scottish bus company, which operated primarily in Renfrewshire and southwest Glasgow. Its depot was located in Muriel Street, Barrhead. It was closed in 2008 after the Traffic Commissioner revoked its licence.

History
Initially founded as the 'Govan Minibus Company' after bus deregulation, it provided strong competition to Strathclyde Buses in the Govan area of Glasgow by operating cheaper minibuses instead of Strathclyde's then full-size buses. Strathclyde countered the threat with minibuses of their own, known as 'Your Wee Happy Bus'. This was the first round of the 'Paisley bus wars' with many competing companies challenging for routes, threatening to bankrupt the larger companies, including Clydeside (now McGill's Bus Company). The bus wars failed to stop the progress of the company, which was competing on a number of key routes with Strathclyde. After FirstGroup purchased Strathclyde's Buses, Govan Minibus Company lost its operating licence when it was revoked by VOSA. The company changed direction away from mini-buses and was re-opened as 'First Stop Travel', usually shorted to F.S.T.

The company still had a large patronage on the former Govan Minibus Company routes and exploited this by running many services in competition with First Glasgow and Arriva. Gibson Direct, another Paisley company, accepted a number of SPT contracts in 2004, and was unable to continue its competition with Arriva on the busy 21 route linking Paisley, Renfrew, Braehead and Govan and thus the buses and route passed to FST. This was FST first route in Renfrew, especially unusual since their depot had been based in the town for some years. This also saw an influx of modern buses and a move to proper albeit small buses rather than minibuses. This service has returned to Gibsons in 2006. First's service cuts in 2005 saw FST become the only operator on the key "Paisley-Penilee-Govan corridor", a route that was well-patronised and run using double deckers with First, as well as the Nitshill-Govan service.

In August 2005, due to reported ill-health of the founder, the Port Glasgow company Slaemuir Coaches acquired the operation. Subsequently following redirection of the business by Slaemuir, the company has been sold on to the Walker Family who run a variety of small bus operations including Gullivers Travel, Erskine Travel and L.B.C. The buses of both Gullivers, First Stop Travel and LBC have now been branded First Stop. As a result, First Stop took over a number of new routes, although these were licensed and operated by vehicles belonging to LBC, Erskine Travel and Gullivers Travel. The buses were painted in an all yellow livery, and the operations moved to premises in Barrhead with the other Walker companies, having left the previous depot in Renfrew.

There was also a significant expansion of services in 2007 with many used vehicles purchased. This saw First Stop compete on many main corridors with local independent operators as well as major companies like Arriva and First. The company operated a service into Glasgow City Centre over the busy 38 corridor with full-size buses. Further into 2007 further expansion took place with the addition of the 9 Paisley - Hawkhead, 19 Paisley - Bridge of Weir and 301 Johnstone - Kilmacolm.

On 14 July 2008 The Traffic Commissioner revoked the company's operating licence, fined owner John Walker £42,000 and banned him from holding an operating licence for 10 years.

Fleet
The fleet varied from Iveco minibuses to full size single deck Dennis Lances, most vehicles were dating from the mid- to late 1990s. The average estimated age of the fleet was 7 to 10 years. After the recent purchase of 10 Dennis Darts the fleet had a big mix of Iveco, Mercedes, Optare and Dennis vehicles. The licence allowed for over 30 vehicles to be run by First Stop Travel with more being licensed for use by associated companies.

When the company was closed down it had around 60 vehicles and employed 87 staff.

See also
List of bus operators of the United Kingdom

References

Companies of Scotland
Transport in Glasgow
Transport in Paisley, Renfrewshire
Former bus operators in Scotland

First Stop Travel


This is a list of countries and dependencies ranked by population density, sorted by inhabitants per square kilometre or square mile. The list includes sovereign states and self-governing dependent territories based upon the ISO standard ISO 3166-1. The list also includes unrecognized but de facto independent countries. The figures in the table are based on areas including internal bodies of water such as bays, lakes, reservoirs and rivers. The list does not include entities not on ISO 3166-1, except for states with limited recognition. Thus constituent countries that are not included on ISO 3166-1, and other entities not on ISO 3166-1 like the European Union, are not included.

Unless otherwise noted, areas and populations are sourced from the United Nations World Population Prospects, which uses the latest censuses and official figures, as well as figures from the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

Countries and dependencies by population density

See also
 List of countries and dependencies by area
 List of countries and dependencies by population
 List of sovereign states
 List of cities proper by population density
 List of world cities by population density
 Urban density

Notes

References

List of countries and dependencies by population density


Abe Stark (September 28, 1894 – July 2, 1972) was an American businessman and politician. Born on the Lower East Side in New York City, he became a tailor and owned a clothing store at 1514 Pitkin Avenue in the Brownsville section of Brooklyn.

Brooklyn Dodgers link
Stark's name first became familiar because of the advertising gimmick for his clothing store, a sign placed directly under the Ebbets Field scoreboard in right-center field in 1931, and seen by millions in movie newsreels and then on television. It announced, "Hit Sign, Win Suit. Abe Stark. 1514 Pitkin Ave. Brooklyn's Leading Clothier." Any player who hit the sign on the fly would get a free suit from his store.

Due to the excellent fielding of Brooklyn Dodgers right fielders Dixie Walker and Carl Furillo, Stark awarded very few suits. It has been said that, as long as the sign was up, the only opposing player to hit it on a fly was Mel Ott of the arch-rival New York Giants, who did it twice. It has also been said that, upon the suggestion of a customer who pointed out how many free suits Furillo saved Stark from having to give away, Stark gave Furillo a free suit. However, according to teammate Duke Snider, Furillo received only a pair of slacks.

The stories about how few players won free suits are probably more legend than truth. Prior to the famous sign, which measured about 3 feet by 30 feet, there was an even larger one that was hit by batted balls much more frequently. Overton Tremper, a reserve outfielder for the Dodgers, recalled that it covered the right field wall from top to bottom and from the foul line to about 150 to right center field, and Murray Rubin, whose father worked in Stark's store for 40 years, said, "Many balls hit the original Stark sign. My father told me that on some evenings, he altered more suits for players than for paying customers."

Political career
Stark became so well known as a result of his sign that he rose through New York City politics and was elected twice as president of the New York City Council, serving in that office from 1954 to 1961, and three times as borough president of Brooklyn, holding that office from 1962 to 1970.

Legacy

An ice skating rink on the Riegelmann Boardwalk in Coney Island and an elementary school in Spring Creek, Brooklyn are named after Stark.

References

Brooklyn borough presidents
1890s births
1972 deaths
Jewish American people in New York (state) politics
20th-century American Jews

Abe Stark


Omprakesh Bankelal Agrawal also known as either Omprakash Agarwal or Omprakash Agrawal (27 April 1955 – 15 May 1994), was an Indian professional snooker player. As an amateur, he was world champion in 1984.

Career
Born in 1955, Agrawal played at the 1984 World Amateur Snooker Championship, where he won seven of nine matches to qualify in second place from his group, before defeating Dilwyn John of Wales and Jon Wright of England to reach the final. There, he faced defending world champion Terry Parsons of Wales, winning the match 11–7 to become World Amateur champion. He also became the first snooker player outside the UK to win an amateur snooker world championship.

This enabled Agrawal to compete on the sport's main tour for the 1985/1986 season. He won his first-ever professional match, beating Paul Watchorn 5–2 in the Matchroom Trophy, but lost by the same scoreline in the next round to Danny Fowler. Agrawal followed this with victories over Jim Rempe and John Dunning in qualifying for the 1985 Grand Prix as he reached the last 64; at that stage, however, he was whitewashed 0–5 by the incumbent World Champion Steve Davis.

In the 1985 UK Championship, he was drawn against Stephen Hendry in the first round, and despite having lost the first frame, compiled a break of 110 in defeating him 9–2. In the next round, he led Mario Morra 8–6, but could not prevent an 8–9 loss.

Further defeats to Graham Miles in the British Open and Steve Newbury in the 1986 World Championship followed, but Agrawal's performances were sufficient for him to finish his first season ranked 89th.

The 1986/1987 season brought poor form; he played in only the International Open, the Grand Prix, the UK Championship, the Classic and the British Open, losing his first match in each tournament. Agrawal resigned his professional status in 1987.

Death
Agrawal died of cancer in May 1994, aged 39.

Career finals

Amateur finals: 1 (1 title)

References

Indian snooker players
1955 births
1994 deaths
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Sportspeople from Mumbai
Deaths from cancer in India
Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports

Omprakesh Agrawal


The Lost Books of the Bible and the Forgotten Books of Eden (1926) is a collection of 17th-century and 18th-century English translations of some Old Testament Pseudepigrapha and New Testament apocrypha, some of which were assembled in the 1820s, and then republished with the current title in 1926.

History of the translations
Rutherford Hayes Platt, in the preface to his 1964 reprint of The Lost Books of the Bible and the Forgotten Books of Eden states:
"First issued in 1926, this is the most popular collection of apocryphal and pseudepigraphal literature ever published."
The translations were first published, under this title, by an unknown editor in The Lost Books of the Bible Cleveland 1926, but the translations had previously been published many times.

The book is, essentially, a combined reprint of earlier works.  The first half, Lost Books of the Bible, is an unimproved reprint of a book published by William Hone in 1820, titled The Apocryphal New Testament, itself a reprint of a translation of the Apostolic Fathers done in 1693 by William Wake, who later became the Archbishop of Canterbury, and a smattering of medieval embellishments on the New Testament, from a book  by Jeremiah Jones (1693–1724), posthumously published in 1736. In the three centuries since these were originally published, a great deal more is known about the Apostolic Fathers (including a good deal of the original text that was not available in 1693) and New Testament apocrypha.

The second half of the book, The Forgotten Books of Eden, includes a translation originally published in 1882 of the "First and Second Books of Adam and Eve", translated first from ancient Ethiopic to German by Ernest Trumpp and then into English by Solomon Caesar Malan, and a number of items of Old Testament pseudepigrapha, such as reprinted in the second volume of R.H. Charles's Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (Oxford, 1913).

More modern translations of these works include J. H. Charlesworth, ed. Old Testament Pseudepigrapha; W. Schneemelcher, ed. New Testament Apocrypha; and M. R. James,  The Apocryphal New Testament.

Past of The Lost Books of the Bible
♦ = attributed to the Apostolic Fathers
 The Book of Enoch
 The Protevangelion
 The Gospel of the Infancy of Jesus Christ
 The Infancy Gospel of Thomas
 The Book of Jesus Christ
 The Gospel of Nicodemus (Acts of Pilate)
 The Apostles' Creed (throughout history)
 The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Laodiceans
 The Epistles of Paul the Apostle to Seneca, with Seneca's to Paul
 The Acts of Paul and Thecla
♦ The Epistles of Clement (The First and Second Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians)
♦ The Epistle of Barnabas
♦ The Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians
♦ The Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians
♦ The Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians
♦ The Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans
♦ The Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadelphians
♦ The Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrneans
♦ The Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp
♦ The Shepherd of Hermas (Visions, Commands, and Similitudes)
 Letter of Herod To Pilate the Governor
 Letter of Pilate to Herod
 The Lost Gospel of Peter
♦ The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians
 The History of Susana

Contents of The Forgotten Books of Eden
 The Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan (The First and Second Book of Adam and Eve)
 The Secrets of Enoch  (also known as the Slavonic Enoch or Second Enoch)
 The Psalms of Solomon
 The Odes of Solomon
 The Letter of Aristeas
 The Fourth Book of Maccabees
 The Story of Ahikar
 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

1. Books of the Apocrypha
1 Esdras and 2 Esdras (150-100 BC)

Tobit (200 BC)

Judith (150 BC)

Additions to Esther (Vulgate Esther 10:4 – 16:24) (140-130 BC)

Wisdom of Solomon (30 BC)

Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), otherwise known as The Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach (132 BC)

Baruch (150-50 BC)

Letter of Jeremiah (300-100 BC)

Song of the Three Children (Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children), an addition in the Greek version of Daniel 3 (170-160 BC)

Story of Susanna (Vulgate Daniel 13) (200-0 BC)

The Idol Bel and the Dragon (Vulgate Daniel 14) (100 BC)

Additions to Daniel, or the Prayer of Azariah (200-0 BC)

Prayer of Manasseh (100-0 BC)

1 Maccabees (110 BC)

2 Maccabees (110-170 BC)

2. Books of the Pseudepigrapha
Epistle of Barnabas

3 Maccabees

4 Maccabees

Assumption of Moses (Testament of Moses)

Book of Enoch

Book of Jubilees

Psalms of Solomon

Letter of Aristeas

The Odes of Solomon

Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

2 Baruch

3 Baruch

First (and Second) Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians

The letter of the Smyrnaeans (also known as The Martyrdom of Polycarp)

The Shepherd of Hermas

The Gospel of Judas (130-170 AD)

Gospel of Thomas (140-170 AD)

The Books of Adam and Eve

The Acts of Phillip

The Apocalypse of Peter

The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary

The Gospel of Nicodemus

The Gospel of the Saviour's Infancy

The History of Joseph the Carpenter

The Acts of Paul (Including Paul and Thecla)

The Seven Epistles of Ignatius

The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians

References
Edgar J. Goodspeed, Modern Apocrypha (Boston, Beacon Press, 1956), chapt. 15.

External links
}

1926 non-fiction books
17th-century Christian texts
18th-century Christian texts
Ancient Christianity
Ancient Christian controversies
Apocrypha
Books about the Bible
Books about Christianity
Christian Greek pseudepigrapha
Christianity in late antiquity
Early Christianity
Old Testament apocrypha
Old Testament pseudepigrapha
Works of uncertain authorship
1st-century Christianity


Camp Lakebottom is a Canadian animated series produced by 9 Story Media Group that premiered on Teletoon in Canada on July 4, 2013 and on Disney XD in the United States on July 13, 2013. The series airs on Disney Channels worldwide (except Portugal, where it instead airs on Biggs and RTP2, and Southeast Asia), as well as ABC in Australia.

By April 2014, Teletoon had renewed the show for a second season of another 26 episodes, which aired from 2015 to 2016. A third season began airing on July 3, 2017. The show aired its series finale on July 24, 2017.

The series theme song was performed by Terry Tompkins and Scott McCord.

Plot
Three 12-year-old kids, McGee, Gretchen and Squirt board are sent to the wrong summer camp bus and have all sorts of adventures in a camp called Camp Lakebottom, while trying to protect the camp from McGee's nemesis Jordan Buttsquat at Camp Sunny Smiles.

Characters
 McGee (voiced by Scott McCord): Described as being a 12-year-old daredevil and mastermind, McGee is a thrill seeker whose curiosity often leads him to act before he thinks. He has an utter inability to recognize impending danger, combined with a habit of ignoring the counselors' warnings, and as a result constantly gets himself and his friends into trouble, but it is his eager mind which always gets them back out as well. This has led him to developing the catchphrase "Should've thought that through." Out of all of the campers he is the most intrigued and tolerant of Camp Lakebottom, being fascinated by all of its potential sources of fun and adventure. He is a self-proclaimed master of pranks, as revealed in "Pranks for Nothing", but his pranks are actually quite lame. His nemesis is Buttsquat.
 Gretchen (voiced by Melissa Altro): She is a girl who is described as being anything but "sugary sweet"; she is sardonic and indifferent about everything as well as a tomboy. Her lack of enthusiasm is made up with her sharp, critical tongue. With a black belt in karate, and an intolerance toward wrongdoing, Gretchen is not a girl to mess with. Her nemesis is Suzi. However underneath the tough exterior she has a huge heart, and secretly wishes she could be like any normal girl (though she would never ever reveal this). Her catchphrase is "Ya think?!" usually said to McGee when a plan has gone away and he points out the obvious. She is revealed to have a severe phobia of chipmunks in "Cheeks of Dread". Her dad calls her "Gretchikins" and her mom calls her "Gretchywetchy". Gretchen is nicknamed "The Gretch" and her parents have the surname Gritcherson.
 Squirt (voiced by Darren Frost): McGee's best friend. A dimwitted simpleton in his own right, he is always cheerful, and a friend to all living things, even if they're trying to kill him. He has befriended just about every monster ever to set foot in Camp Lakebottom. While his omnibenevolence sometimes comes in handy in dealing with the monsters that constantly appear, his extreme lack of intelligence often makes him susceptible to control from several villains, the most prominent example being "Mindsuckers From the Depths" where an evil, giant leech attaches to his head and mind-controls him. In "Late Afternoon of the Living Gitch" it's revealed he has worn the same pair of underwear all his life.
 Sawyer (voiced by Cliff Saunders): A lovable Zombie, with a multipurpose tool taking the place of his left hand, which is frequently a chainsaw. He is one of the camp's counselors, and the one who usually accompanies the kids on their adventures. As a zombie, his head and limbs constantly fall off, but can be reattached. He has distanced himself from the stereotype that zombies are mindless monsters who hunger for brains and has revealed that he has a heart (quite literally as he takes it out of his chest), he has vowed to look after the human campers, and often acts as a grandfatherly figure to them. He serves as the camp's handy man, and has constructed bizarre inventions over the course of the series, including a Frankenstein's Monster in "Frankenfixer". In "Zombie Dearest" Sawyer is revealed to have a zombie mother who acts like a stereotypical brain eating zombie, who Sawyer abandoned out of defiance to her habits.
 Armand (voiced by Adrian Truss): A sasquatch with a passion for the performing arts, and dreams of becoming an actor. He is another one of the camp's counselors. While he is usually very kind, easygoing, and quite difficult to anger, the rare instances in which he has, have proven to be dangerous to everyone's safety. The episode "Marshmallow Madness" reveals that he has a severe addiction to marshmallows; he will be driven into an unstoppable, hunger-filled rage if he is ever close to the delicacies.
 Rosebud (voiced by Jonathan Wilson): A short, bitter woman who resembles a serial killer with a German accent, who serves as the camp's cook and the final counselor. She takes pride in her cooking; however, her meals are not only inedible, but frequently threaten the lives of the campers. She is known to use whatever foul things she manages to find as ingredients in her meals. Squirt appears to be the only one who enjoys her cooking. She is the strictest counselor, and is least tolerant of McGee's antics, however underneath it all she means well. It was also revealed back in her younger days, Rosebud used to be an infamous monster hunter for S.M.A.C.K (Society of Monster Annihilation and Creature Kicking) but gave it up after her love for cooking when she met Sawyer and Armand when she was tasked for destroying all monsters in Lakebottom.
 Jordan Buttsquat (voiced by Carter Hayden): Buttsquat is the spoiled-rich son of the owner of "Camp Sunny Smiles" (Lakebottom's rival camp) and McGee's nemesis. He serves as the main antagonist of the series, constantly going to Camp Lakebottom in attempt to wreck the rival camp, or to mock the Bottom Dwellers' poor living conditions by showing off some new, fancy, high-tech item available at his camp. However Buttsquat is severely lacking in the intellectual department and McGee is able to outsmart him every time, which will lead him to say the reoccurring catchphrase "I will have revenge." McGee has saved Buttsquat's life on the many occasions his nemesis has been threatened by the various monsters, but he never displays gratitude afterwards.
 Suzi (voiced by Bryn McAuley): McGee's older sister, who is a pageant queen, and became queen of "Sunny Smiles" on her first day. She is Gretchen's nemesis, who has held a grudge against her ever since she beat Gretchen in a beauty pageant contest. She has a crush on Buttsquat, and often accompanies him in his schemes to thwart Lakebottom. She always refers to McGee as "Baby Bruv", and while the two siblings sometimes bicker, they are usually shown to care for each other. Despite having less evil intent than Buttsquat, there are several occasions where she has posed as a far bigger threat and danger to everyone's safety, as she has a tendency to get entangled by one of the supernatural monsters or phenomena that have appeared. Examples of this include: "Stage Fright" where she uses stage bad luck and inadvertently summons an evil spirit which possesses her and nearly destroys Lake Bottom. Another example is "28 Suzis Later" where she is cloned by a mystical mud, causing the camp to be overrun by Suzi clones.
 Slimey is a gigantic octopus like creature who lives in the lake, and the most frequent appearing reoccurring character in the series. While he terrified the campers on their first appearance by grabbing them and tossing them in the air, it's revealed he actually wants to play with them. He later becomes quite good friends with the campers, especially Squirt, and will often provide them with fun by tossing them into the air when they're swimming so that they can dive. He obeys any of the counselors, and will quite often aid the campers during their adventures involving the lake. Only his tentacles are shown, so it is unknown what his body looks like.

Episodes

References

Other websites

English-language television programs

Camp Lakebottom


The British Association for Applied Linguistics (BAAL) is an academic society. Members are professional applied linguists, language teachers, and other people interested in these topics. BAAL is in the United Kingdom. BAAL has more than 800 members. They meet at different places in the UK. The association publishes conference proceedings and a regular newsletter. It also gives scholarships to students. Tess Fitzpatrick, Professor of Applied Linguistics in the Centre for Language and Communication Research at Cardiff University, is the chair from 2015-2018.

BAAL's Annual Meeting happens every September in the UK. BAAL is part of the Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquee (International Association of Applied Linguistics, AILA). In the UK, it is a registered charity. BAAL meetings usually have a theme.The theme of the 40th conference at the University of Edinburgh was 'Technology, Ideology and Practice in Applied Linguistics'.

History
The association started in the 1960s. At that time, more people were becoming interested in the new science of modern linguistics and they were especially interested in practical results. One important area of applied linguistics is language teaching and learning. Also at this time, the European Union was becoming more important, so people in Europe needed better language teaching.

Peter Strevens, the Chair in Applied Linguistics at the University of Essex first had the idea to start BAAL. At a meeting at Birkbeck College in July 1965, the original idea for BAAL was to study mainly language teaching and machine translation. However, at the first full meeting in 1967 in Reading, Berkshire the group decided to study many different topics. BAAL became the UK member of AILA, and Pit Corder was its first Chair. At first, membership was only for academics because BAAL wanted people to think it was a group of experts, not a teachers' meeting. However, by the early 1970s it became easier to join BAAL. Since 1985, anyone can join. There are no requirements to become a member. In 1980, the Association began to publish a journal called, Applied Linguistics.

References

British Association for Applied Linguistics (1997) Notes on the History of the British Association for Applied Linguistics 1967-1997.
Trim J (1988) Applied Linguistics in Society. In Grunwell P (ed.) Applied Linguistics in Society: British Studies in Applied Linguistics 3. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research. .

Other websites
British Association for Applied Linguistics - official site
Applied Linguistics - journal published by Oxford University Press, in collaboration with BAAL, the American Association for Applied Linguistics and the International Association for Applied Linguistics

Related pages
Applied linguistics
Language acquisition
Linguistics

1960s establishments in the United Kingdom
Linguistics organizations
Organisations based in England


In mathematics, tensor calculus, tensor analysis, or Ricci calculus is an extension of vector calculus to tensor fields (tensors that may vary over a manifold, e.g. in spacetime).

Developed by Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro and his student Tullio Levi-Civita, it was used by Albert Einstein to develop his general theory of relativity. Unlike the infinitesimal calculus, tensor calculus allows presentation of physics equations in a form that is independent of the choice of coordinates on the manifold.

Tensor calculus has many applications in physics, engineering and computer science including elasticity, continuum mechanics, electromagnetism (see mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field), general relativity (see mathematics of general relativity), quantum field theory, and machine learning.

Working with a main proponent of the exterior calculus Elie Cartan, the influential geometer Shiing-Shen Chern summarizes the role of tensor calculus:In our subject of differential geometry, where you talk about manifolds, one difficulty is that the geometry is described by coordinates, but the coordinates do not have meaning. They are allowed to undergo transformation. And in order to handle this kind of situation, an important tool is the so-called tensor analysis, or Ricci calculus, which was new to mathematicians. In mathematics you have a function, you write down the function, you calculate, or you add, or you multiply, or you can differentiate. You have something very concrete. In geometry the geometric situation is described by numbers, but you can change your numbers arbitrarily. So to handle this, you need the Ricci calculus.

Syntax

Tensor notation makes use of upper and lower indexes on objects that are used to label a variable object as covariant (lower index), contravariant (upper index), or mixed covariant and contravariant (having both upper and lower indexes).  In fact in conventional math syntax we make use of covariant indexes when dealing with Cartesian coordinate systems  frequently without realizing this is a limited use of tensor syntax as covariant indexed components.

Tensor notation allows upper index on an object that may be confused with normal power operations from conventional math syntax.

Key concepts

Vector decomposition

Tensors notation allows a vector () to be decomposed into an Einstein summation representing the tensor contraction of a basis vector ( or ) with a component vector ( or ).

Every vector has two different representations, one referred to as contravariant component () with a covariant basis (), and the other as a covariant component () with a contravariant basis ().  Tensor objects with all upper indexes are referred to as contravariant, and tensor objects with all lower indexes are referred to as covariant.  The need to distinguish between contravariant and covariant arises from the fact that when we dot an arbitrary vector with its basis vector related to a particular coordinate system, there are two ways of interpreting this dot product, either we view it as the projection of the basis vector onto the arbitrary vector, or we view it as the projection of the arbitrary vector onto the basis vector, both views of the dot product are entirely equivalent, but have different component elements and different basis vectors:

For example, in physics you start with a vector field, you decompose it with respect to the covariant basis, and that's how you get the contravariant coordinates. For orthonormal cartesian coordinates, the covariant and contravariant basis are identical, since the basis set in this case is just the identity matrix, however, for non-affine coordinate system such as polar or spherical there is a need to distinguish between decomposition by use of contravariant or covariant basis set for generating the components of the coordinate system.

Covariant vector decomposition

Contravariant vector decomposition

Metric tensor

The metric tensor represents a matrix with scalar elements ( or ) and is a tensor object which is used to raise or lower the index on another tensor object by an operation called contraction, thus allowing a covariant tensor to be converted to a contravariant tensor, and vice versa.

Example of lowering index using metric tensor:

Example of raising index using metric tensor:

The metric tensor is defined as:

This means that if we take every permutation of a basis vector set and dotted them against each other, and then arrange them into a square matrix, we would have a metric tensor. The caveat here is which of the two vectors in the permutation is used for projection against the other vector, that is the distinguishing property of the covariant metric tensor in comparison with the contravariant metric tensor.

Two flavors of metric tensors exist: (1) the contravariant metric tensor (), and (2) the covariant metric tensor (). These two flavors of metric tensor are related by the identity:

For an orthonormal Cartesian coordinate system, the metric tensor is just the kronecker delta  or , which is just a tensor equivalent of the identity matrix, and .

Jacobian

In addition a tensor can be readily converted from an unbarred() to a barred coordinate() system having different sets of basis vectors:

by use of Jacobian matrix relationships between the barred and unbarred coordinate system ().  The Jacobian between the barred and unbarred system is instrumental in defining the covariant and contravariant basis vectors, in that in order for these vectors to exist they need to satisfy the following relationship relative to the barred and unbarred system:

Contravariant vectors are required to obey the laws:

Covariant vectors are required to obey the laws:

There are two flavors of Jacobian matrix:

1. The J matrix representing the change from unbarred to barred coordinates. To find J, we take the "barred gradient", i.e. partial derive with respect to :

2. The  matrix, representing the change from barred to unbarred coordinates. To find , we take the "unbarred gradient", i.e. partial derive with respect to :

Gradient vector

Tensor calculus provides a generalization to the gradient vector formula from standard calculus that works in all coordinate systems:

Where:

In contrast, for standard calculus, the gradient vector formula is dependent on the coordinate system in use (example: Cartesian gradient vector formula vs. the polar gradient vector formula vs. the spherical gradient vector formula, etc.).  In standard calculus, each coordinate system has its own specific formula, unlike tensor calculus that has only one gradient formula that is equivalent for all coordinate systems. This is made possible by an understanding of the metric tensor that tensor calculus makes use of.

See also

Vector analysis
Matrix calculus
Ricci calculus
Curvilinear coordinates
Tensors in curvilinear coordinates
Multilinear subspace learning
Multilinear algebra
Differential geometry

References

Further reading

External links

Calculus
Tensors

Tensor calculus


Bernard Vogler (30 April 1935 – 2 December 2020) was a French academic and historian. He was a professor at the University of Strasbourg. He  was a specialist in the History of Alsace from the 15th to the 20th Centuries. Vogler was born in Obermodern-Zutzendorf, France.

Vogler was a member of the Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques from 1989 to 2000 and was vice-president of the International Commission for Comparative Ecclesiastical History from 1975 to 2001. He was President of the University of the Third Age from 2004 to 2008.

Vogler died on 2 December 2020 in Strasbourg, France at the age of 85.

References

1935 births
2020 deaths
French historians

Bernard Vogler


The history of mobile phones covers mobile communication devices that connect wirelessly to the public switched telephone network.

While the transmission of speech by signal has a long history, the first devices that were wireless, mobile, and also capable of connecting to the standard telephone network are much more recent. The first such devices were barely portable compared to today's compact hand-held devices, and their use was clumsy.

Drastic changes have taken place in both the networking of wireless communication and the prevalence of its use, with smartphones becoming common globally and a growing proportion of Internet access now done via mobile broadband.

Foundations

Predecessors
In 1908, Professor Albert Jahn and the Oakland Transcontinental Aerial Telephone and Power Company claimed to have developed a wireless telephone. They were accused of fraud and the charge was then dropped, but they do not really seem to have proceeded with production. In 1917 the Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt successfully filed a patent for a "pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone". Beginning in 1918, the German railroad system tested wireless telephony on military trains between Berlin and Zossen. In 1924 public trials started with telephone connection on trains between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1925 the company  was founded to supply train-telephony equipment and, in 1926 telephone service in trains of the Deutsche Reichsbahn and the German mail service on the route between Hamburg and Berlin was approved and offered to first-class travelers.

Fiction anticipated the development of real-world mobile telephones. In 1906 the English caricaturist Lewis Baumer published a cartoon in Punch entitled "Forecasts for 1907" in which he showed a man and a woman in London's Hyde Park each separately engaged in gambling and dating on wireless-telegraphy equipment. Cartoonist W. K. Haselden published The Pocket Telephone: When Will It Ring? in 1919, depicting six awkward possibilities. In 1923 Ilya Ehrenburg casually listed "pocket telephones" among the achievements of contemporary technology in a story in his collection Thirteen Pipes ().  In 1926 the artist Karl Arnold drew a visionary cartoon about the use of mobile phones in the street, in the picture "wireless telephony", published in the German satirical magazine Simplicissimus. The popular American cartoon detective Dick Tracy acquired a two-way, atomic-battery-powered wrist radio in 1946, upgraded to a wrist TV in 1964.

The Second World War (1939-1945) saw the military use of radio-telephony links. Hand-held radio transceivers have been available since the 1940s. Mobile telephones for automobiles became available from some telephone companies in the 1940s. Early devices were bulky, consumed large amounts of power, and the network supported only a few simultaneous conversations. (Modern cellular networks allow automatic and pervasive use of mobile phones for voice- and data-communication.)

In the United States, engineers from Bell Labs began work on a system to allow mobile users to place and receive telephone calls from automobiles, leading to the inauguration of mobile service on 17 June 1946 in St. Louis, Missouri. Shortly after, AT&T offered Mobile Telephone Service. A wide range of mostly incompatible mobile-telephone services offered limited coverage areas and only a few available channels in urban areas. As calls were transmitted as unencrypted analog signals, anyone with radio equipment that could receive those frequencies could eavesdrop. The commercial introduction (in Japan in 1979) of cellular technology, which allowed re-use of frequencies many times in small adjacent areas covered by relatively low-powered transmitters, made widespread adoption of mobile telephones economically feasible.

In the USSR, Leonid Kupriyanovich, an engineer from Moscow, developed and presented a number of experimental pocket-sized communications radios in 1957–1961. The weight of one model, presented in 1961, was only 70 g and could fit in a palm. However, in the USSR the decision at first to develop the system of the automobile "Altai" phone was made.

In 1965 the Bulgarian company "Radioelektronika" presented a mobile automatic phone combined with a base station at the Inforga-65 international exhibition in Moscow. Solutions of this phone were based on a system developed by Leonid Kupriyanovich. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to 15 customers.

Advances in mobile telephony can be traced in successive generations from the early "0G" services like MTS and its successor Improved Mobile Telephone Service, to first-generation (1G) analog cellular networks (1979–), second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks (1991–), third-generation (3G) broadband data services (launched commercially in 2001) to the fourth-generation (4G) native-IP networks (launched in 2006 in South Korea). 5G began deployment in 2019.

Early services

MTS
In 1949, AT&T commercialized Mobile Telephone Service. From its start in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1946, AT&T introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about  each week. Calls were set up manually by an operator and the user had to depress a button on the handset to speak and release the button to listen. The call subscriber equipment weighed about

Subscriber growth and revenue generation were hampered by the constraints of the technology. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time. Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing US$15 per month, plus $0.30–0.40 per local call, equivalent to (in 2012 US dollars) about $176 per month and $3.50–4.75 per call.

In the UK, there was also a vehicle-based system called "Post Office Radiophone Service," which was launched around the city of Manchester in 1959, and although it required callers to speak to an operator, it was possible to be put through to any subscriber in Great Britain. The service was extended to London in 1965 and other major cities in 1972.

IMTS
AT&T introduced the first major improvement to mobile telephony in 1965, giving the improved service the obvious name of Improved Mobile Telephone Service. IMTS used additional radio channels, allowing more simultaneous calls in a given geographic area, introduced customer dialing, eliminating manual call setup by an operator, and reduced the size and weight of the subscriber equipment.

Despite the capacity improvement offered by IMTS, demand outstripped capacity. In agreement with state regulatory agencies, AT&T limited the service to just  system wide. In New York City, for example,  shared just 12 radio channels and typically had to wait 30 minutes to place a call.

Radio Common Carrier

Radio Common Carrier or RCC was a service introduced in the 1960s by independent telephone companies to compete against AT&T's IMTS. RCC systems used paired UHF 454/459 MHz and VHF 152/158 MHz frequencies near those used by IMTS. RCC based services were provided until the 1980s when cellular AMPS systems made RCC equipment obsolete.

Some RCC systems were designed to allow customers of adjacent carriers to use their facilities, but equipment used by RCCs did not allow the equivalent of modern "roaming" because technical standards were not uniform. For example, the phone of an Omaha, Nebraska–based RCC service would not be likely to work in Phoenix, Arizona. Roaming was not encouraged, in part, because there was no centralized industry billing database for RCCs. Signaling formats were not standardized. For example, some systems used two-tone sequential paging to alert a mobile of an incoming call. Other systems used DTMF. Some used Secode 2805, which transmitted an interrupted 2805 Hz tone (similar to IMTS signaling) to alert mobiles of an offered call. Some radio equipment used with RCC systems was half-duplex, push-to-talk LOMO equipment such as Motorola hand-helds or RCA 700-series conventional two-way radios. Other vehicular equipment had telephone handsets and rotary dials or pushbutton pads, and operated full duplex like a conventional wired telephone. A few users had full-duplex briefcase telephones (radically advanced for their day)

At the end of RCC's existence, industry associations were working on a technical standard that would have allowed roaming, and some mobile users had multiple decoders to enable operation with more than one of the common signaling formats (600/1500, 2805, and Reach). Manual operation was often a fallback for RCC roamers.

Other services
In 1969 Penn Central Railroad equipped commuter trains along the  New York-Washington route with special pay phones that allowed passengers to place telephone calls while the train was moving. The system re-used six frequencies in the 450 MHz band in nine sites.

In the UK, Channel Islands and elsewhere the "Rabbit" phone system was briefly used, being a hybrid of "cell" base stations and handsets. One major limitation was that you had to be less than 300 feet (closer with buildings) from a base due to power limitations on a portable device.
With modern technology a similar variant is being considered for Apple's new 4G "smart watch" so they can be used in large events in a broadly similar way to a femtocell.

European mobile radio networks

In Europe, several mutually incompatible mobile radio services were developed.

In 1966 Norway had a system called OLT which was manually controlled. Finland's ARP, launched in 1971, was also manual as was the Swedish MTD. All were replaced by the automatic NMT, (Nordic Mobile Telephone) system in the early 1980s.

In July 1971 Readycall was introduced in London by Burndept after obtaining a special concession to break the Post Office monopoly to allow selective calling to mobiles of calls from the public telephone system. This system was available to the public for a subscription of £16 month. A year later the service was extended to two other UK towns.

West Germany had a network called A-Netz launched in 1952 as the country's first public commercial mobile phone network. In 1972 this was displaced by B-Netz which connected calls automatically.

Cellular concept

In December 1947, Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for mobile phones in vehicles. At this stage, the technology to implement these ideas did not exist, nor had the frequencies been allocated. Two decades would pass before Richard H. Frenkiel, Joel S. Engel and Philip T. Porter of Bell Labs expanded the early proposals into a much more detailed system plan. It was Porter who first proposed that the cell towers use the now-familiar directional antennas to reduce interference and increase channel reuse (see picture at right) Porter also invented the dial-then-send method used by all cell phones to reduce wasted channel time.

In all these early examples, a mobile phone had to stay within the coverage area serviced by one base station throughout the phone call, i.e. there was no continuity of service as the phones moved through several cell areas. The concepts of frequency reuse and handoff, as well as a number of other concepts that formed the basis of modern cell phone technology, were described in the late 1960s, in papers by Frenkiel and Porter. In 1970 Amos E. Joel, Jr., a Bell Labs engineer, invented a "three-sided trunk circuit" to aid in the "call handoff" process from one cell to another. His patent contained an early description of the Bell Labs cellular concept, but as switching systems became faster, such a circuit became unnecessary and was never implemented in a system.

A cellular telephone switching plan was described by Fluhr and Nussbaum in 1973, and a cellular telephone data signaling system was described in 1977 by Hachenburg et al.

Emergence of automated services
The first fully automated mobile phone system for vehicles was launched in Sweden in 1956. Named MTA (Mobiltelefonisystem A), it allowed calls to be made and received in the car using a rotary dial. The car phone could also be paged. Calls from the car were direct dial, whereas incoming calls required an operator to locate the nearest base station to the car. It was developed by Sture Laurén and other engineers at Televerket network operator. Ericsson provided the switchboard while Svenska Radioaktiebolaget (SRA) and Marconi provided the telephones and base station equipment. MTA phones consisted of vacuum tubes and relays, and weighed . In 1962, an upgraded version called Mobile System B (MTB) was introduced. This was a push-button telephone, and used transistors and DTMF signaling to improve its operational reliability. In 1971 the MTD version was launched, opening for several different brands of equipment and gaining commercial success. The network remained open until 1983 and still had 600 customers when it closed.

In 1958 development began on a similar system for motorists in the USSR. The "Altay" national civil mobile phone service was based on Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The main developers of the Altay system were the Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications (VNIIS) and the State Specialized Project Institute (GSPI). In 1963 the service started in Moscow, and by 1970 was deployed in 30 cities across the USSR. Versions of the Altay system are still in use today as a trunking system in some parts of Russia.

In 1959 a private telephone company in Brewster, Kansas, US, the S&T Telephone Company, (still in business today) with the use of Motorola Radio Telephone equipment and a private tower facility, offered to the public mobile telephone services in that local area of NW Kansas. This system was a direct dial up service through their local switchboard, and was installed in many private vehicles including grain combines, trucks, and automobiles. For some as yet unknown reason, the system, after being placed online and operated for a very brief time period, was shut down. The management of the company was immediately changed, and the fully operable system and related equipment was immediately dismantled in early 1960, not to be seen again.

In 1966, Bulgaria presented the pocket mobile automatic phone RAT-0,5 combined with a base station RATZ-10 (RATC-10) on Interorgtechnika-66 international exhibition. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to six customers.

One of the first successful public commercial mobile phone networks was the ARP network in Finland, launched in 1971. Posthumously, ARP is sometimes viewed as a zero generation (0G) cellular network, being slightly above previous proprietary and limited coverage networks.

Handheld mobile phone

Prior to 1973, mobile telephony was limited to phones installed in cars and other vehicles. The first portable cellular phone commercially available for use on a cellular network was developed by E.F. Johnson and Millicom, Inc. It was introduced by Millicom subsidiary Comvik in Sweden in September 1981.

Motorola was the first company to produce a handheld mobile phone. On 3 April 1973, Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, made the first mobile telephone call from handheld subscriber equipment, placing a call to Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs, his rival. The prototype handheld phone used by Dr. Cooper weighed  and measured . The prototype offered a talk time of just 30 minutes and took 10 hours to re-charge. Commonly referred to as "the Brick," it was not commercially launched until October 1983, and only then in the U.S.

John F. Mitchell, Motorola's chief of portable communication products and Cooper's boss in 1973, played a key role in advancing the development of handheld mobile telephone equipment. Mitchell successfully pushed Motorola to develop wireless communication products that would be small enough to use anywhere and participated in the design of the cellular phone.

Early generations

Newer technology has been developed and rolled out in a series of waves or generations. The "generation" terminology only became widely used when 3G was launched, but is now used retrospectively when referring to the earlier systems.

1G – Analog cellular

The first automatic analog cellular systems ever deployed were NTT's system first used in 1979 for car phones in Tokyo (and later the rest of the country of Japan), and the cellular systems released by Comvik in Sweden in September, NMT in the other Nordic countries in October of 1981.

The first analog cellular system widely deployed in North America was the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS). It was commercially introduced in the Americas on 13 October 1983, Israel in 1986, and Australia in 1987. AMPS was a pioneering technology that helped drive mass market usage of cellular technology, but it had several serious issues by modern standards. It was unencrypted and easily vulnerable to eavesdropping via a scanner; it was susceptible to cell phone "cloning" and it used a Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) scheme and required significant amounts of wireless spectrum to support.

On 6 March 1983, the DynaTAC 8000X mobile phone launched on the first US 1G network by Ameritech. It cost $100M to develop, and took over a decade to reach the market. The phone had a talk time of just thirty minutes and took ten hours to charge. Consumer demand was strong despite the battery life, weight, and low talk time, and waiting lists were in the thousands.

Many of the iconic early commercial cell phones such as the Motorola DynaTAC Analog AMPS were eventually superseded by Digital AMPS (D-AMPS) in 1990, and AMPS service was shut down by most North American carriers by 2008.

In February 1986 Australia launched its Cellular Telephone System by Telecom Australia. Peter Reedman was the first Telecom Customer to be connected on 6 January 1986 along with five other subscribers as test customers prior to the official launch date of 28 February.

2G – Digital cellular

In the 1990s, the 'second generation' mobile phone systems emerged. Two systems competed for supremacy in the global market: the European developed GSM standard and the U.S. developed CDMA standard. These differed from the previous generation by using digital instead of analog transmission, and also fast out-of-band phone-to-network signaling. The rise in mobile phone usage as a result of 2G was explosive and this era also saw the advent of prepaid mobile phones.

In 1991 the first GSM network (Radiolinja) launched in Finland. In general the frequencies used by 2G systems in Europe were higher than those in the United States, though with some overlap. For example, the 900 MHz frequency range was used for both 1G and 2G systems in Europe, so the 1G systems were rapidly closed down to make space for the 2G systems. In the United States, the IS-54 standard was deployed in the same band as AMPS and displaced some of the existing analog channels.

In 1993, IBM Simon was introduced. This was possibly the world's first smartphone. It was a mobile phone, pager, fax machine, and PDA all rolled into one. It included a calendar, address book, clock, calculator, notepad, email, and a touchscreen with a QWERTY keyboard. The IBM Simon had a stylus, used to tap the touch screen. It featured predictive typing that would guess the next characters as you tapped. It had applications, or at least a way to deliver more features by plugging a PCMCIA  memory card into the phone.
Coinciding with the introduction of 2G systems was a trend away from the larger "brick" phones toward tiny  hand-held devices. This change was possible not only through technological improvements such as more advanced batteries and more energy-efficient electronics, but also because of the higher density of cell sites to accommodate increasing usage. The latter meant that the average distance transmission from phone to the base station shortened, leading to increased battery life while on the move.

The second generation introduced a new variant of communication called SMS or text messaging. It was initially available only on GSM networks but spread eventually on all digital networks. The first machine-generated SMS message was sent in the UK on 3 December 1992 followed in 1993 by the first person-to-person SMS sent in Finland. The advent of prepaid services in the late 1990s soon made SMS the communication method of choice among the young, a trend which spread across all ages.

2G also introduced the ability to access media content on mobile phones. In 1998 the first downloadable content sold to mobile phones was the ring tone, launched by Finland's Radiolinja (now Elisa). Advertising on the mobile phone first appeared in Finland when a free daily SMS news headline service was launched in 2000, sponsored by advertising.

Mobile payments were trialed in 1998 in Finland and Sweden where a mobile phone was used to pay for a Coca-Cola vending machine and car parking. Commercial launches followed in 1999 in Norway. The first commercial payment system to mimic banks and credit cards was launched in the Philippines in 1999 simultaneously by mobile operators Globe and Smart.

The first full internet service on mobile phones was introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1999.

3G – Mobile broadband

As the use of 2G phones became more widespread and people began to use mobile phones in their daily lives, it became clear that demand for data (such as access to browse the internet) was growing. Further, experience from fixed broadband services showed there would also be an ever-increasing demand for greater data speeds. The 2G technology was nowhere near up to the job, so the industry began to work on the next generation of technology known as 3G. The main technological difference that distinguishes 3G technology from 2G technology is the use of packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission. In addition, the standardization process focused on requirements more than technology (2 Mbit/s maximum data rate indoors, 384 kbit/s outdoors, for example).

Inevitably this led to many competing standards with different contenders pushing their own technologies, and the vision of a single unified worldwide standard looked far from reality. The standard 2G CDMA networks became 3G compliant with the adoption of Revision A to EV-DO, which made several additions to the protocol while retaining backwards compatibility:
 Introduction of several new forward link data rates that increase the maximum burst rate from 2.45 Mbit/s to 3.1 Mbit/s
 Protocols that would decrease connection establishment time
 Ability for more than one mobile to share the same time slot
 Introduction of QoS flags
All these were put in place to allow for low latency, low bit rate communications such as VoIP.

The first pre-commercial trial network with 3G was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in the Tokyo region in May 2001. NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial 3G network on 1 October 2001, using the WCDMA technology. In 2002 the first 3G networks on the rival CDMA2000 1xEV-DO technology were launched by SK Telecom and KTF in South Korea, and Monet in the US. Monet has since gone bankrupt. By the end of 2002, the second WCDMA network was launched in Japan by Vodafone KK (now Softbank). European launches of 3G were in Italy and the UK by Three/Hutchison group, on WCDMA. 2003 saw a further eight commercial launches of 3G, six more on WCDMA and two more on the EV-DO standard.

During the development of 3G systems, 2.5G systems such as CDMA2000 1x and GPRS were developed as extensions to existing 2G networks. These provide some of the features of 3G without fulfilling the promised high data rates or full range of multimedia services. CDMA2000-1X delivers theoretical maximum data speeds of up to 307 kbit/s. Just beyond these is the EDGE system which in theory covers the requirements for 3G system, but is so narrowly above these that any practical system would be sure to fall short.

The high connection speeds of 3G technology enabled a transformation in the industry: for the first time, media streaming of radio (and even television) content to 3G handsets became possible, with companies such as RealNetworks and Disney among the early pioneers in this type of offering.

In the mid-2000s, an evolution of 3G technology began to be implemented, namely High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3G (third generation) mobile telephony communication protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Current HSDPA deployments support down-link speeds of 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.0 Mbit/s.

By the end of 2007, there were 295 million subscribers on 3G networks worldwide, which reflected 9% of the total worldwide subscriber base. About two thirds of these were on the WCDMA standard and one third on the EV-DO standard. The 3G telecoms services generated over $120 billion of revenues during 2007 and at many markets the majority of new phones activated were 3G phones. In Japan and South Korea the market no longer supplies phones of the second generation.

Although mobile phones had long had the ability to access data networks such as the Internet, it was not until the widespread availability of good quality 3G coverage in the mid-2000s (decade) that specialized devices appeared to access the mobile web. The first such devices, known as "dongles", plugged directly into a computer through the USB port. Another new class of device appeared subsequently, the so-called "compact wireless router" such as the Novatel MiFi, which makes 3G Internet connectivity available to multiple computers simultaneously over Wi-Fi, rather than just to a single computer via a USB plug-in.

Such devices became especially popular for use with laptop computers due to the added portability they bestow. Consequently, some computer manufacturers started to embed the mobile data function directly into the laptop so a dongle or MiFi wasn't needed. Instead, the SIM card could be inserted directly into the device itself to access the mobile data services. Such 3G-capable laptops became commonly known as "netbooks". Other types of data-aware devices followed in the netbook's footsteps. By the beginning of 2010, E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle and the Nook from Barnes & Noble, had already become available with embedded wireless Internet, and Apple had announced plans for embedded wireless Internet on its iPad tablet devices later that year.

4G – Native IP networks

By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

One of the main ways in which 4G differed technologically from 3G was in its elimination of circuit switching, instead employing an all-IP network. Thus, 4G ushered in a treatment of voice calls just like any other type of streaming audio media, using packet switching over Internet, LAN or WAN networks via VoIP.

5G – Cellular Mobile Communications

"5G" is the next version of cellular mobile telephone standards. The 5G standards include millimetre-band radio spectrum to allow data speeds up to 1 gigabit per second, and reduce latency (the processing time to handle a data transmission) between handset and network to a few milliseconds. 5G standards also include low-band and mid-band spectrum similar to existing networks. Telephone companies are introducing 5G technology starting in 2019.

Mobile device charger standards

Before a universal charger standard was agreed upon in the late 2000s users needed an adapter which was often proprietary by brand or manufacturer to charge their battery. Later, mobile phones from major brands typically used a USB cable with a micro-USB or, since the mid-2010s, USB-C interface. Apple's iPhone was the sole major brand to retain its own interface (30-pin dock connector replaced by Lightning in 2012). In 2023 Apple's iPhone 15 series finally made the switch to USB-C, since then, all major brands used USB-C as the charger.

In China
, all new mobile phones applying for a license in China are required to use a USB port as a power port for battery charging. This was the first standard to use the convention of shorting D+ and D−.

OMTP/GSMA Universal Charging Solution

In September 2007, the Open Mobile Terminal Platform group (a forum of mobile network operators and manufacturers such as Nokia, Samsung, Motorola, Sony Ericsson, and LG) announced that its members had agreed on Micro-USB as the future common connector for mobile devices.

The GSM Association (GSMA) followed suit on 17 February 2009, and on 22 April 2009, this was further endorsed by the CTIA – The Wireless Association, with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) announcing on 22 October 2009 that it had also embraced the Universal Charging Solution as its "energy-efficient one-charger-fits-all new mobile phone solution," and added: "Based on the Micro-USB interface, UCS chargers will also include a 4-star or higher efficiency rating—up to three times more energy-efficient than an unrated charger."

EU smartphone power supply standards

In June 2009, many of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers signed an EC-sponsored Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), agreeing to make most data-enabled mobile phones marketed in the European Union compatible with a common external power supply (common EPS). The EU's common EPS specification (EN 62684:2010) references the USB Battery Charging Specification and is similar to the GSMA/OMTP and Chinese charging solutions. In January 2011, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) released its version of the (EU's) common EPS standard as IEC 62684:2011.

In 2022, the Radio Equipment Directive 2021/0291 required new smartphones to use USB-C as a universal charger by the end of 2024, and laptops by 2026.

Satellite mobile

As well as the now-common cellular phone, there is also the very different approach of connecting directly from the handset to an Earth-orbiting satellite. Such mobile phones can be used in remote areas out of reach of wired networks or where construction of a cellular network is uneconomic.

The Inmarsat system is the oldest, originally developed in 1979 for safety of life at sea, and uses a series of satellites in geostationary orbits to cover the majority of the globe. Several smaller operators use the same approach with just one or two satellites to provide a regional service. An alternative approach is to use a series of low Earth orbit satellites much closer to Earth. This is the basis of the Iridium and Globalstar satellite phone services.

See also
 Camera phone
 The Mobile Revolution
 Autopatch
 History of prepaid mobile phones
 History of the telephone
 List of best-selling mobile phones
 Personal Communications Service PCS
 Pager
 Babylonokia
 SIM card

References

Further reading

History of mobile phones


Loretta Tofani (February 5, 1953, New York City) is a Pulitzer Prize-winning American journalist.

Life
Tofani earned a bachelor's degree from Fordham University in 1975 and a master's degree in journalism from the University of California, Berkeley. She had a Fulbright fellowship to Japan in 1983.

In 1982, while a staff writer at The Washington Post, she wrote a series of articles about a pattern of widespread gang rape inside a Prince George's County Maryland jail for which she won a 1983 Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting. The series was notable for its documentation: Tofani obtained the victims' medical records and interviewed the victims as well as the rapists. The victims were innocent, charged with drunk driving and shop lifting, in jail because they did not have enough money for bond. The jail placed them in the same cellblocks with convicted murderers and armed robbers, who raped them. The jail changed its policies as a result of her story.

After nine years at The Washington Post, Tofani in 1987 became a reporter for The Philadelphia Inquirer, serving as the paper's Beijing Bureau Chief from 1992 through 1996. She wrote for the Inquirer for 14 years. She won other national awards at The Philadelphia Inquirer, and was a finalist for another Pulitzer Prize. She and her family moved to Utah in 2001. She currently lives in Boise, Idaho.

As a free-lancer in 2007, Tofani reported and wrote the newspaper series, "American Imports, Chinese Deaths." The six stories showed that millions of  Chinese factory workers  were getting fatal diseases and limb amputations while making thousands of products for the U.S. Chinese workers have been paying the real price of America's cheap goods.

The series was published in The Salt Lake Tribune (http://extras.sltrib.com/china/).  Tofani reported the series by making five trips to China with small travel grants provided by the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting and the Center for Investigative Reporting's Dick Goldensohn Fund.

Awards
 Pulitzer Prize, 1983, local investigative reporting.
 Investigative Reporters and Editors award, 1983 and 2008.
 Society of Professional Journalists' award for investigative reporting, 1983 and 2008.
 Michael Kelly Award from the Atlantic Media Company, 2008.
 Special citation from the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, 2008.
 Daniel Pearl Award for Outstanding International Investigative Reporting, 2008.

References

External links
Loretta Tofani's blog
 Winner Pulitzer report: "American imports, Chinese deaths: The human cost of doing business" Oct. 2007

20th-century American women journalists
Fordham University alumni
Living people
The Philadelphia Inquirer people
Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting winners
1953 births
20th-century American journalists
21st-century American women

Loretta Tofani


Jimmy Thomas (January 20, 1939 – April 25, 2022) was an American soul singer and songwriter. He was best known as a vocalist for Ike Turner. Thomas joined Turner's Kings of Rhythm in 1958, and remained with the band when the Ike & Tina Turner Revue was formed in 1960. He released solo singles on Turner's labels Sue, Sputnik, and Sonja Records. After his departure from Turner, Thomas continued recording as a solo artist, eventually relocating to London. He formed his own label, Osceola Records, in 1979.

Life and career

Early life
Thomas was born in Osceola, Arkansas on January 20, 1939. Raised by his aunt and uncle, Thomas grew up listening to blues musicians such as Big Maceo, Tampa Red, Walter Davis, and Sonny Boy Williamson. In his teens, Thomas formed his first band called the Rock and Roll Trays. They performed popular R&B and blues tunes in clubs around Osceola. In 1958, Albert King recommended that Thomas travel to East St. Louis and audition for a spot as a vocalist in Ike Turner's band the Kings of Rhythm.

Kings of Rhythm
By 1956, Ike Turner and his Kings of Rhythm were one of the most popular live attractions in the St. Louis and East St. Louis club scene. In 1958, Turner was looking for a new vocalist following the departure of Clayton Love. Thomas replaced Love and was soon joined by singer Tommy Hodge. Around the time Thomas and Hodge joined the Kings of Rhythm, Turner shifted from his usual blues oriented sound to producing R&B material. That year, Thomas made his recording debut during the group's Cobra Records sessions in Chicago. He was featured on Turner's singles released on Stevens Records in 1959. In St. Louis, Thomas also performed with Benny Sharp, Eugene Neal, and Albert King.

Ike and Tina Turner Revue
In 1960, Turner wrote "A Fool in Love" for Art Lassiter. When Lassiter failed to show up for the recording session, one of Turner's background vocalists, Little Ann, sang the lead. Little Ann was renamed Tina Turner, and the single was released on Sue Records. Following the success of the single, Turner formed the Ike & Tina Turner Revue which included the Kings of Rhythm and a trio of female vocalists called the Ikettes. In 1961, Thomas and Ikette Wilhelmina Weaver (as Jimmy & Jean) released the single "I Can't Believe" / "I Want Marry You" on Sue. After Ike & Tina had a string of hit records, Turner relocated the band to Los Angeles in 1962. When the hits dried up they began to tour vigorously. Thomas recalled, "We would only be in L.A. three months out of the year, we be touring like nine months." Since they couldn't rely on records, the revue strengthened their live act by added dance routines. Thomas and Tina Turner would change the routines and have dance battles onstage.

In 1962, Thomas released his single "You Can Go"/"Hurry And Come Home" on Sue Records. In between touring, Turner formed multiple record labels to release singles. Thomas released solo singles on Turner's labels Sputnik and Sonja. In 1964, the revue released their first live album, Ike & Tina Turner Revue Live, which features Thomas' rendition of "Feel So Good" by Junior Parker. His rendition of "Down In The Valley" is included on the revue's follow-up live album, Live! The Ike & Tina Turner Show, released in 1965.

Solo career
While the Ike & Tina Turner Revue were touring the UK with the Rolling Stones in 1966, Thomas befriended producers Denny Cordell and Tony Visconti, who invited him to learn production. Thomas released the single "Where There's a Will (There's a Way)" on Mirwood Records in 1966. After leaving Ike & Tina Turner, he worked local jobs in Los Angeles before relocating to London in 1969. He began producing his own solo records such as the Northern soul classic "The Beautiful Night" released on Parlophone in 1969. In 1973, Thomas wrote and produced a solo LP, Abyss, released on Contempo, a London label owned by John Abbey, founder of Blues and Soul magazine. Thomas formed his own label, Osceola Records, in 1979.

Beginning in the 1970s, Thomas provided background vocals for various acts, including Gary Wright, David Essex, Voyage, Mikael Rickfors, Lloyd Cole & The Commotions, Madness, Miguel Bosé, Blue Mercedes, and Kevin Rowland.

Death
His death in April 2022 was confirmed online by his friend P. P. Arnold.

Discography

Albums

 1973: Abyss

Ike and Tina Turner

 1964: Ike & Tina Turner Revue Live
 1965: Live! The Ike & Tina Turner Show
2012: Ike Turner Studio Productions: New Orleans and Los Angeles 1963–1965

Singles

 1961: Jimmy & Jean – "I Can't Believe" / "I Want Marry You" (Sue 743)
1961: "I Must Be Crazy"/"Every Day I Wake Up Crying" (Play Back Record PO-0037A)
 1962: "You Can Go"/"Hurry And Come Home" (Sue 778)
 1963: "The Darkest Hour"/"The Little Cheater" (Sputnik 10001)
 1964: "You've Tasted Anothers Lips"/"I Love Nobody But You" (Sonja 2004)
 1966: "Where There's A Will"/"Just Trying To Please You" (Mirwood 5522)
 1969: "The Beautiful Night"/"Above A Whisper" (Parlophone R 5773)
 1970: "(We Ain't Here Looking For) No Trouble"/"Springtime" (Spark SRL 1035)
 1971: "White Dove"/"You Don't Have To Say Goodbye" (Sire 45-4121)
 1973: "All God's Children"/"The Weak-End Is Mine" (Contempo C 8)
 1975: "Beautiful Night"/"I Can't Live My Life Without You" (20th Century Records BTC 1002)
 1981: "Hang Right On In There"/"Driving Wheel" (Osceola Records OSC 2)
1982: "Standing Alone In A Crowd"/"Mister Are You Famous" (Cricket LBW 002)
 2002: "We Got Togetherness"/"Secret Doors To Secret Places" (Smoke City SMC 9001)

Features

 1959: "Jack Rabbit"/"In Your Eyes Baby" (Stevens 104) with Icky Renrut (alias for Ike Turner)
 1959: "Hey – Hey"/"Ho – Ho" (Stevens 107) with Icky Renrut (alias for Ike Turner)
 1980: "Just A Matter Of Time" (Laser LAS 34) with Zen

Backing vocal credits

 1971: Street Singer – Mick Softley
1971: Footprint – Gary Wright
1972: Queues – Vigrass & Osborne
1973: Rock On – David Essex
1973: Now Hear This – Hanson
1976: Thunder into Our Hearts – Jabula
1978: Midnight Ride – Barbara Pennington
 1981: One Step Higher – Voyage
 1983: Blue Fun – Mikael Rickfors
 1985: Easy Pieces – Lloyd Cole & The Commotions
 1985: Mad Not Mad – Madness
 1986: Salamandra – Miguel Bosé
 1987: Face To Face – Barclay James Harvest
 1988: Rich And Famous – Blue Mercedes
 1988: When The Night Begins – Ellert
 1999: My Beauty – Kevin Rowland

References

External links
Osceola Records

1939 births
2022 deaths
People from Osceola, Arkansas
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singer-songwriters
Kings of Rhythm members
Ike & Tina Turner members
Mirwood Records artists
Sonja Records artists
Singer-songwriters from Arkansas
American rhythm and blues singer-songwriters
American soul singers
Sue Records artists
African-American male singers
African-American songwriters
American emigrants to England

Jimmy Thomas


The Democratic People's Union (Bosnian: Demokratska narodna zajednica, DNZ) is a political party in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was founded in 1993 and first led by Fikret Abdić.

In 2014 the Democratic People's Union saw a major split when large number of its members led by Elvira Abdić-Jelenović (Fikret's daughter) founded a new party, the Labour Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Due to this split, the DNZ now has only 2 out of 28 members of the Velika Kladuša Municipality Council, while the new Labour Party gained a large majority.

References

External links
Website of the political party

Bosniak political parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Velika Kladuša

Democratic People's Union


This article is about the Korean national capital in general. For the current capital, see Seoul or Pyongyang.

The capital of Korea has been in many locations during the history of the Korean peninsula.  Today there are two Koreas, each with its own capital city:
 Seoul is the capital of the Republic of Korea (ROK), also known as South Korea
 Pyongyang is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), also known as North Korea

Since the end of World War II, there have been two countries or  divided Korea:  If reunification were to take place someday, alternate prospects for the capital city, along with Seoul and Pyŏngyang,are Sejong City in South Korea and Kaesong in North Korea.

History
During the Gojoseon period
The Go-Joseon period lasted from 2333 BC to 108 BC.
 Unknown — first capital
 Pyongyang — second capital (post 400 BC)
During the Three Kingdoms period
The Three Kingdoms period lasted from 57 BC to AD 676
 Jolbon – first capital of Goguryeo
 Gungnae-seong – second capital of Goguryeo
 Pyongyang – third capital of Goguryeo
 Wiryeseong – first capital of Baekje
 Ungjin – second capital of Baekje
 Sabi – third capital of Baekje
 Gyeongju – capital of Silla

During the North-South States Period
 Gyeongju – capital of Silla
 Dongmo Mountain – first capital of Balhae
 Junggyeong – second capital of Balhae
 Sanggyeong – third capital of Balhae

During the Later Three Kingdoms period
 Gyeongju – capital of Silla
 Wansanju – capital of Hubaekje
 Songak – first capital of Taebong
 Cheorwon – second capital of Taebong

During the Goryeo Dynasty period
The Goryeo Dynasty lasted from 918 to 1392.
 Gaegyeong

During the Joseon Dynasty period
The Joseon Dynasty lasted from 1392 to 1910.
 Hanseong

During the Japanese colonial period
The Japanese colonial period lasted from 1910 to 1945.
 Seoul

Modern capitals
 Seoul
 Pyongyang

References

History of Korea

Capital of Korea


The International Olympiad "Tuymaada" is an annual competition for students under the age of 18, held in the Sakha Republic, Russia. The contestants compete individually, in four independent sections: computer science, mathematics, physics and chemistry. The participating teams (national and local teams) can have up to three students for one section (the total number of students that can participate for a team being twelve, plus two teachers: a leader and a deputy leader). The contest is held in July, for two days of competitions. The structure is being in conformity with the International Science Olympiads worldwide and all Russian National Science Olympiads.

History of the Olympiad
In 1993, the Ministry of Education decided to open a summer school where pupils who showed good results on various maths, physics and computing Olympiads were invited to. The leading teachers of the republic taught classes and there was a summer Olympiad held. In that historically important year the team of the Buryatia republic was invited. In 1994, already it was decided to hold the first international Olympiad of schoolchildren. The summer school for gifted children was later named the International Summer School "Tuymaada" and played a special role in bringing to life the presidential program "Gifted Children". The school gave a perfect opportunity for kids personal development. Holding an international Olympiad "Tuymaada" became the main tradition of the School. Pavlova E.N., head of the department of the Ministry of Education, has been in charge of the Olympiad and a principal of the school for all these years.

The organizers

The organizers of the Olympiads and the initiators of foundation of specialized classes in the Republic were such famous professors, as M.A. Alekseev, S.G. Dyrachov, V.N. Sophroneev, I.E. Serguchev, I.M. Yakoylev and others. The progress of gifted pupils would have been impossible without the great work of staff of Verchneviluysk physics and maths school: V. Dolgunov, N. Ivanov, A. Semenov, A. Machasynov. The names of other teachers are also very famous, such as M. Shergin, O. Sukneva, V. Ratchin, G. Isaev, P. Timopheev, J. Nogovichyna, L. Semenov, R. Mustakimov, T. Demidko, E. Kozlova, M. Sleptsova, Z. Chetvertakova, S. Egorova, and others.
It is necessary to outline the work of staff of physics and maths school (at present known as the Republican college), founded in 1977. With the help of Aliev I., first principal, candidate of sciences, senior lecturer at Yakut State University, his enthusiasm and self-devotion, school has become the leading institution, that works with gifted children.
Other important names that should be mentioned: A.M. Abramov, Doctor of Sciences, member-journalist of the Russian Academy of Education, Moscow; T.T. Timopheev, candidate of sciences, Novosibirsk; I.F. Sharygin, doctor of sciences, professor of Moscow State University; D.G. Von-Der Flaas, candidate of sciences, member of the all-Russian Olympiads jury and many other Russian scientists and professors.

Early developments
Nowadays the Olympiads are held on various subjects, the special attention is paid to the use of new informational technologies. The coordination of distant intellectual studies is carried out by Popov S.V., professor of Yakut State University, doctor of sciences and by Potapov V.F., the honoured teacher of the Russian Federation. The achievements and success of children shows that the direction chosen the right direction and approach of work. According to the opinion of independent experts, the level of tasks of the Olympiad satisfy the standards of All-Russian and International Olympiads.

See also
 International Science Olympiad
 ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest
 Central European Olympiad in Informatics

References

External links
 http://www.guas.info/competit/tuyme.htm
 http://www.wcpsd.org/posters/education/Grigoriev.pdf
 http://www.mathlinks.ro

Competitions in Russia
Science competitions
Science events in Russia
Annual events in Russia

Tuymaada


Carl J. Domino (born April 15, 1944) is a former member of the Florida House of Representatives, representing the 83rd district from 2002 to 2010. He was the Republican nominee for the United States House of Representatives in Florida's 18th congressional district in 2014 but was defeated by Patrick Murphy.

Education
Domino received his bachelor's degree in accounting from Florida State University in 1966. He received his MBA from Harvard University in 1972. In 2014, at the age of 70, Domino obtained a law degree from Nova Southeastern University's Shepard Broad College of Law.

Career
Domino is a former officer in the U.S. Navy. He began his career as an investment manager in 1972. He started Carl Domino Associates in 1987, which was renamed Northern Trust Value Investors (NTVI) in 2000. Domino serves as president of NTVI, which has $3.5 billion of assets under management.

Florida House of Representatives
Domino served in the Florida House of Representatives, representing the 83rd district, from 2002 to 2010. Domino was not eligible to run for re-election to the Florida House of Representatives in 2010 due to term limits. He instead opted to run for the Florida State Senate, losing in the Republican primary for district 25. He served as Majority Whip from 2004 to 2006.

In 2012 Domino ran to represent Florida's House of Representatives' District 82. He was defeated in the Republican primary by MaryLynn Magar.

2014 congressional run

In 2014, Domino ran to represent Florida's 18th congressional district. He won a six-way Republican primary in August 2014, and faced incumbent Democrat Patrick Murphy in the general election.

Domino got 40.2% of the vote, losing to Murphy's 59.8%.

2016 congressional run
In 2016, Domino ran again for the Republican nomination for the 18th District seat, which was being vacated by Murphy, but lost the August 30, 2016, placing fourth with 13% of the vote in a six-way race that was won by Brian Mast.

Personal life
Domino was born in Virginia. He moved to Jupiter, Florida in 1958. He was married to Deborah Claney Domino, but divorced. He currently resides in Jupiter with his wife, Sharon, and their two children. He has served on the board of directors of the Seminole Boosters, the American Cancer Society, the Palm Beach Economic Council, and Easter Seals Florida.

References

External links
Official Bio for Representative Domino

Florida State University alumni
Harvard Business School alumni
American politicians of Cuban descent
Republican Party members of the Florida House of Representatives
1944 births
Living people
Hispanic and Latino American state legislators in Florida

Carl J. Domino


Dust devils are twirling masses of air that form in the desert and send sand spinning. The height of a dust devil can range from a few meters tall to more than  tall. They are usually harmless, but occasionally they can cause some damage to both people and property.

Formation
A dust devil forms when hot air near the ground rises quickly through a small pocket of cooler, low-pressure air above it. If conditions are just right, then the air may begin to rotate. As the air rapidly rises, the hot air is stretched vertically and because of angular momentum, the spinning gets much more intense. Because the hot air cools when it rises, it eventually goes down to the base and expands horizontally, while more hot air shoots up the column to replace the lost air. The air that is displaced falls to the ground around the dust devil, creating a balancing force. Thus, a dust devil is formed.

Certain conditions help the formation of dust devils:

1. Flat barren, desert terrain: Flat terrain and hot conditions help the hot air "fuel" being always available. The dust and sand helps the dust devil be seen.

2. Clear skies or lightly cloudy conditions: The surface needs a lot of solar energy to heat the air.

3. Light or no wind, and cool temperature in the atmosphere: Without a cool atmosphere and hot surface, the dust devil with never form. Wind will not keep the dust devil stable.

A dust devil "dies" when it eventually sucks in cool air from the surface. Cool air destroys the dust devil because it quickly discourages the rising of air through the column. This usually happens when the dust devil becomes weak, or moves across a new terrain were the surface temperatures are cooler.

Similarly, when hot air rises rapidly in water bodies and if conditions are just right they are known as water sprout.

Martian dust devils

Dust devils occur on the planet of Mars as well. They can be ten times higher than ones on Earth, and fifty times as wide. They can pose a threat to technology placed on Mars.

However, not all dust devils are damaging. Mission members keeping an eye on the Mars Spirit rover reported that on March 12, 2005, a lucky encounter with a dust devil had cleaned the solar panels of that robot. Power levels dramatically increased, and much more scientific work was able to be done.

Related pages
 Steam Devil
 Storm
 Tornado
 Waterspout

References

Weather
Tornadoes

Dust devil


The China Railways SL7 () class steam locomotive was a class of 4-6-2 express passenger steam locomotives operated by the China Railway. They were originally built for the South Manchuria Railway (Mantetsu) to pull the Asia Express - Mantetsu's signature train and most iconic locomotive, whose images were used on fliers, posters, postage stamps, and even children's school textbooks, as a symbol of technology and modernism in Manchukuo and was used to demonstrate the success of Japan's imperial project.

History
After designing his first locomotive, the Pashiko class, at age 37 Nobutarō Yoshino (吉野信太郎), who had studied at the American Locomotive Company for two and a half years and, as the young star of Mantetsu's engineering division, nicknamed "King of Locomotives", designed the streamlined Pashina class was built with the specific purpose of hauling the long-distance, high-speed Asia Express limited express train between Dalian and Xinjing (Changchun), at speeds up to . It was one of the world's first steam locomotives to be fully streamlined, which reduced air resistance by 30%, and they were painted a distinctive Prussian blue colour. Design and manufacture of the Pashina class took only seven months, using a novel process of simultaneous design and manufacture. A group of American reporters who rode the inaugural "Asia Express" train, doubting that the Japanese could build such a locomotive, enquired as to which American manufacturer had built the locomotive for Mantetsu. After Yoshino replied that he had designed it, and that it had been built domestically using components sourced almost entirely from Japan and Manchukuo, the reporter asked which American university he and the other engineers had studied at, he answered that most had studied in Japan, but that many had gained experience in the US.

They were the first Mantetsu locomotives to be fitted with the Schmidt type E superheater, and were also equipped with a combustion chamber firebox, a feedwater heater, and an automatic stoker; the stoker was deemed essential, as it was calculated that human power could not supply the necessary quantities of coal fast enough. The tender bogies were fitted with Timken roller bearings. A Pashina class locomotive was used to pull Prince Chichibu's train when he visited Manchukuo in 1940. Following the suspension of the Asia Express in February 1943, they were used on ordinary express trains.

The first three were built by Mantetsu's Shahekou Works in 1934, with the next eight coming from Kawasaki in Japan, with パシナ979 (later パシナ10), completed on 21 October 1934, being the 1,500th steam locomotive to be built by Kawasaki. After experiments in the Kawanishi Aircraft Company's wind tunnel, the shape of the streamlining was redesigned, and the final unit, number 981 (later パシナ12) was built with the new design by Kawasaki in 1936.

Originally numbered パシナ970 through パシナ981, they were renumbered パシナ1–パシナ12 in Mantetsu's 1938 general renumbering.

Postwar

All twelve survived the Pacific War and at the end of the war were assigned to the Dalian depot, and were subsequently taken over by the Republic of China Railway. After the establishment of the People's Republic and the current China Railway, they were designated class ㄆㄒ7 (PX7) in 1951, becoming class SL7 (勝利, Shènglì, "victory") in 1959; they were numbered within the 751–770 range. They remained in use on the Shenda Line between Dalian and Shenyang into the 1980s. Several locomotives were converted to a standard type because the cover of the locomotives are obstructive to inspect.

SL7 753-755 were noted to be in dump around Sujiatun Locomotive Depot in 1980s. SL7 751 was restored to fully working condition in 1984, and is displayed at the Shenyang Railway Museum. In 2001, the restoration of SL7 757 was completed in Dalian, and it has been on display at the Shenyang Railway Museum since 2013.

Gallery

References

4-6-2 locomotives
CRRC Dalian locomotives
Kawasaki locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1934
Railway locomotives introduced in 1936
Steam locomotives of China
Standard gauge locomotives of China
Rolling stock of Manchukuo
Streamlined steam locomotives
Passenger_locomotives

China Railways SL7