Faisal I bin Al-Hussein bin Ali Al-Hashemi (, Fayṣal al-Awwal bin al-Ḥusayn bin ʻAlī al-Hāshimī; 20 May 1885 – 8 September 1933) was King of Iraq from 23 August 1921 until his death in 1933. A member of the Hashemite family, he was a leader of the Great Arab Revolt during the First World War, and ruled as the unrecognized King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria from March to July 1920 when he was expelled by the French.

The third son of Hussein bin Ali, the Grand Emir and Sharif of Mecca, Faisal was born in Mecca and raised in Constantinople. From 1916 to 1918, with British assistance, he played a major role in the revolt against the Ottoman Empire. He helped set up an Arab government in Syria, based in Damascus, and led the Arab delegation at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. In 1920, the Syrian National Congress proclaimed Faisal king,  rejecting the French claim to a Mandate for Syria. In response, France invaded a few months later, abolished the kingdom and forced him into exile.

In August 1921, in accordance with the decision made at the Cairo Conference, the British arranged for Faisal to become king of a new Kingdom of Iraq under British administration. During his reign, Faisal fostered unity between Sunni and Shiite Muslims to encourage common loyalty and promote pan-Arabism in the goal of creating an Arab state that would include Iraq, Syria and the rest of the Fertile Crescent. In 1932, he presided over the independence of Iraq upon the end of the British Mandate and the country's entry into the League of Nations. Faisal died of a heart attack in 1933 in Bern, Switzerland at the age of 48 and was succeeded by his eldest son Ghazi.

Early life
Faisal was born in Mecca, Ottoman Empire (in present-day Saudi Arabia), in 1885, the third son of Hussein bin Ali, the Grand Sharif of Mecca. He grew up in Constantinople and learned about leadership from his father. In 1913, he was elected as representative for the city of Jeddah for the Ottoman parliament.

Following the Ottoman Empire's declaration of war against the Entente in December 1914, Faisal's father sent him on a mission to Constantinople to discuss the Ottomans' request for Arab participation in the war. Along the way Faisal visited Damascus and met with representatives of the Arab secret societies al-Fatat and Al-'Ahd. After visiting Constantinople Faisal returned to Mecca via Damascus where he again met with the Arab secret societies, received the Damascus Protocol, and joined with the Al-Fatat group of Arab nationalists.

World War One and the Great Arab Revolt

On 23 October 1916 at Hamra in Wadi Safra, Faisal met Captain T. E. Lawrence, a junior British intelligence officer from Cairo. Lawrence, who envisioned an independent post-war Arabian state, sought the right man to lead the Hashemite forces and achieve this. In 1916–18, Faisal headed the Northern Army of the rebellion that confronted the Ottomans in what was to later become western Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Syria. In 1917, Faisal, desiring an empire for himself instead of conquering one for his father, attempted to negotiate an arrangement with the Ottomans under which he would rule the Ottoman vilayets of Syria and Mosul as an Ottoman vassal. In December 1917 Faisal contacted General Djemal Pasha declaring his willingness to defect to the Ottoman side provided they would give him an empire to rule, saying the Sykes–Picot agreement had disillusioned him in the Allies and he now wanted to work with his fellow Muslims. Only the unwillingness of the Three Pashas to subcontract ruling part of the Ottoman Empire to Faisal kept him loyal to his father when it finally dawned on him that the Ottomans were just trying to divide and conquer the Hashemite forces. In his book Seven Pillars of Wisdom, Lawrence sought to put the best gloss on Faisal's double-dealing as it would contradict the image he was seeking to promote of Faisal as a faithful friend of the Allies betrayed by the British and the French, claiming that Faisal was only seeking to divide the "nationalist" and "Islamist" factions in the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). The Israeli historians Efraim Karsh and his wife Inari wrote that the veracity of Lawrence's account is open to question given that the major dispute within the CUP was not between the Islamist Djemal Pasha and the nationalist Mustafa Kemal as claimed by Lawrence, but rather between Enver Pasha and Djemal Pasha. In the spring of 1918, after Germany launched Operation Michael on 21 March 1918, which appeared for a time to foreordain the defeat of the Allies, Faisal again contacted Djemal Pasha asking for peace provided that he be allowed to rule Syria as an Ottoman vassal, which Djemal confident of victory declined to consider. After a 30-month-long siege, he conquered Medina, defeating the defence organised by Fakhri Pasha and looted the city. Emir Faisal also worked with the Allies during World War I in their conquest of Greater Syria and the capture of Damascus in October 1918. Faisal became part of a new Arab government at Damascus, formed after the capture of that city in 1918. Emir Faisal's role in the Arab Revolt was described by Lawrence in Seven Pillars of Wisdom. However, the accuracy of that book, not least the importance given by the author to his own contribution during the Revolt, has been criticized by some historians, including David Fromkin.

Post World War I

Participation in peace conference

In 1919, Emir Faisal led the Arab delegation to the Paris Peace Conference and, with the support of the knowledgeable and influential Gertrude Bell, argued for the establishment of independent Arab emirates for the predominantly Arab areas previously held by the Ottoman Empire.

Greater Syria

British and Arab forces took Damascus in October 1918, which was followed by the Armistice of Mudros. With the end of Turkish rule that October, Faisal helped set up an Arab government, under British protection, in Arab controlled Greater Syria. In May 1919, elections were held for the Syrian National Congress, which met the following month.

Faisal–Weizmann Agreement

On 4 January 1919, Emir Faisal and Dr. Chaim Weizmann, President of the Zionist Organization, signed the Faisal–Weizmann Agreement for Arab-Jewish Cooperation, in which Faisal conditionally accepted the Balfour Declaration, an official declaration on behalf of the British government by Arthur Balfour, promising British support to the development of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Once Arab states were granted autonomy from the European powers, years after the Faisal-Weizmann Agreement, and these new Arab nations were recognized by the Europeans, Weizmann argued that since the fulfillment was kept eventually, the agreement for a Jewish homeland in Palestine still held. In truth, however, this hoped-for partnership had little chance of success and was a dead letter by late 1920. Faisal had hoped that Zionist influence on British policy would be sufficient to forestall French designs on Syria, but Zionist influence could never compete with French interests. At the same time Faisal failed to enlist significant sympathy among his Arab elite supporters for the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, even under loose Arab suzerainty.

Following the decisions taken by the San Remo conference in April 1920, on 13 May 1920, Lord Allenby forwarded to the British War Cabinet, a letter from Faisal which stated his opposition to the Balfour proposal to establish a homeland for the Jews in Palestine.

King of Syria and Iraq

On 7 March 1920, Faisal was proclaimed King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria (Greater Syria) by the Syrian National Congress government of Hashim al-Atassi. In April 1920, the San Remo conference gave France the mandate for Syria, which led to the Franco-Syrian War. In the Battle of Maysalun on 24 July 1920, the French were victorious and Faisal was expelled from Syria.

In March 1921, at the Cairo Conference, the British decided that Faisal was a good candidate for ruling the British Mandate of Iraq because of his apparent conciliatory attitude towards the Great Powers and based on advice from T. E. Lawrence (more commonly known as Lawrence of Arabia). But, in 1921, few people living in Iraq even knew who Faisal was or had ever heard his name. With help of British officials, including Gertrude Bell, he successfully campaigned among the Arabs of Iraq and won over the popular support of the minority Sunni. However, the Shia majority were lukewarm about Faisal, and his appearance at the Shia port of Basra was met with indifference.

The British government, mandate holders in Iraq, were concerned at the unrest in the colony. They decided to step back from direct administration and create a monarchy to head Iraq while they maintained the mandate. Following a plebiscite showing 96% in favour, Faisal agreed to become king. On 23 August 1921, he was made king of Iraq. Iraq was a new entity created out of the former Ottoman vilayets (provinces) of Mosul, Baghdad and Basra. Ottoman vilayets were usually named after their capital, and thus the Basra vilayet was southern Iraq. Given this background, there was no sense of Iraqi nationalism or even Iraqi national identity when Faisal took his throne. Anecdotally, the band present played God Save the King, as Iraq did not yet have a national anthem and would not have one until 1932. During his reign as King, Faisal encouraged pan-Arab nationalism that envisioned ultimately bringing the French mandates of Syria and Lebanon together with the British mandate of Palestine under his rule. Faisal was keenly aware that his power-base was with the Sunni Arabs of Iraq, who comprised a minority. By contrast, if Syria, Lebanon and Palestine were incorporated into his realm, then the Sunni Arabs would comprise the majority of his subjects, making the Arab Shiites and the Kurds of Iraq into minorities. Furthermore, the Arab Shiites of Iraq had traditionally looked towards Persia for leadership, and the rallying cry of Pan-Arabism might unite the Arab Sunnis and Shiites around a common sense of Arab identity. In Iraq, the majority of the Arabs were Shiites who had not responded to the call for Sharif Hussein to join the "Great Arab Revolt" as the Sharif was a Sunni from the Hejaz, thus making him a double outsider. Rather than risk the wrath of the Ottomans on behalf of an outsider like Hussein, the Shia of Iraq had ignored the Great Arab Revolt. In the Ottoman Empire, the state religion was Sunni Islam and the Shiites had been marginalized for their religion, making the Shia population poorer and less educated than the Sunni population.

Faisal encouraged an influx of Syrian exiles and office-seekers to cultivate better Iraqi-Syrian relations. In order to improve education in the country Faisal employed doctors and teachers in the civil service and appointed Sati' al-Husri, the ex-Minister of Education in Damascus, as his director of the Ministry of Education. This influx resulted in much native resentment towards Syrians and Lebanese in Iraq. The tendency of the Syrian emigres in the education ministry to write and issue school textbooks glorying the Umayyad Caliphate as the "golden age" of the Arabs together with the highly dismissive remarks about the Imam Ali gave great offense in the Shiite community in Iraq, prompting protests and leading Faisal to withdraw the offending textbooks in 1927 and again in 1933 when they were reissued. Faisal himself was a tolerant man, proclaiming himself a friend of the Shiite, Kurdish and Jewish communities in his realm, and in 1928 criticized the policy of some of his ministers of seeking to fire all Jewish Iraqis from the civil service, but his policy of promoting pan-Arab nationalism to further his personal and dynastic ambitions proved to be a disruptive force in Iraq as it drew a wedge between the Arab and Kurdish communities. Faisal's policy of equating wataniyya ("patriotism" or in this case Iraqiness) with being Arab marginalized the Kurds who feared that they had no place in an Arab-dominated Iraq, indeed in a state that equated being Iraqi with being Arab.

Faisal also developed desert motor routes from Baghdad to Damascus, and Baghdad to Amman. This led to a great interest in the Mosul oilfield and eventually to his plan to build an oil pipeline to a Mediterranean port, which would help Iraq economically. This also led to an increase in Iraq's desire for more influence in the Arab East. During his reign, Faisal made great effort to build Iraq's army into a powerful force. He attempted to impose universal military service in order to achieve this, but this failed. Some see this as part of his plan to advance his pan-Arab agenda.

During the Great Syrian Revolt against French rule in Syria, Faisal was not particularly supportive of the rebels partly because of British pressure, partly because of his own cautious nature, and mainly because he had reason to believe that the French were interested in installing a Hashemite to govern Syria on their behalf. In 1925, after the Syrian Druze uprising, the French government began consulting Faisal on Syrian matters. He advised the French to restore Hashemite power in Damascus. The French consulted Faisal because they were inspired by his success as an imposed leader in Iraq. As it turned out, the French were merely playing Faisal along as they wished to give him the impression that he might be restored as king of Syria to dissuade him from supporting the Syrian rebels, and once they crushed the Syrian revolt, they lost interest in having a Hashemite rule Syria.

In 1929, when bloody rioting broke out in Jerusalem between the Arab and Jewish communities, Faisal was highly supportive of the Arab position and pressured the British for a pro-Arab solution of the Palestine crisis. In a memo stating his views on Palestine submitted to the British high commissioner Sir Hubert Young on 7 December 1929, Faisal accepted the Balfour Declaration, but only in the most minimal sense in that the declaration had promised a "Jewish national home". Faisal stated he was willing to accept the Palestine Mandate as a "Jewish national home" to which Jews fleeing persecution around the world might go, but he was adamant that there be no Jewish state. Faisal argued that the best solution was for Britain to grant independence to Palestine, which would be united in a federation led by his brother, the Emir Abdullah of Trans-Jordan, which would allow for a Jewish "national home" under his sovereignty. Faisal argued that what was needed was a compromise under which the Palestinians would give up their opposition to Jewish immigration to Palestine in exchange for which the Zionists would give up their plans to one day create a Jewish state in the Holy Land. Faisal's preferred solution to the "Palestine Question", which he admitted might not be practical at the moment, was for a federation that would unite Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine under his leadership.

Faisal saw the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 as an obstacle to his pan-Arab agenda, although it provided Iraq with a degree of political independence. He wanted to make sure that the treaty had a built-in end date because the treaty further divided Syria and Iraq, the former which was under French control, and the latter under British rule. This prevented unity between two major Arab regions, which were important in Faisal's pan-Arab agenda. Ironically, Arab nationalists in Iraq had a positive reception to the treaty because they saw this as progress, which seemed better than the Arab situation in Syria and Palestine. Faisal's schemes for a greater Iraqi-Syrian state under his leadership attracted much opposition from Turkey, which preferred to deal with two weak neighbors instead of one strong one, and from King Fuad of Egypt and Ibn' Saud, who both saw themselves as the rightful leaders of the Arab world. When Nuri al-Said visited Yemen in May 1931 to ask the Imam Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din if he was interested in joining the "Arab Alliance" under Faisal's leadership, the Imam replied with a confused look what would be the purpose of the "Arab Alliance" and to please explain the meaning of the phrase "Arab World", which he was unfamiliar with.

In March 1932, just months before independence, Faisal wrote a memorandum where he complained about a lack of Iraqi national identity, writing: Iraq is a kingdom ruled by a Sunni Arab government founded on the wreckage of Ottoman rule. This government rules over a Kurdish segment, the majority of which is ignorant, that includes persons with personal ambitions who lead it to abandon it [the government] under the pretext that it does not belong to their ethnicity. [The government also rules over] an ignorant Shiite majority that belongs to the same ethnicity of the government, but the persecutions that had befallen them as a result of Turkish rule, which did not enable them to take part in governance and exercise it, drove a deep wedge between the Arab people divided into these two sects.  Unfortunately, all of this made this majority, or the persons who harbor special aspirations, the religious among them, the seekers of posts without qualification, and those who did not benefit materially from the new rule, to pretend that they are still being persecuted because they are Shiites.

In 1932, the British mandate ended and Faisal was instrumental in making his country independent. On 3 October, the Kingdom of Iraq joined the League of Nations.

In August 1933, incidents like the Simele massacre caused tension between the United Kingdom and Iraq. Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald ordered High Commissioner Francis Humphrys to Iraq immediately upon hearing of the killing of Assyrian Christians. The British government demanded that Faisal stay in Baghdad to punish the guilty, whether Christian or Muslim. In response, Faisal cabled to the Iraqi Legation in London: "Although everything is normal now in Iraq, and in spite of my broken health, I shall await the arrival of Sir Francis Humphrys in Bagdad, but there is no reason for further anxiety. Inform the British Government of the contents of my telegram."

In July 1933, right before his death, Faisal went to London where he expressed his alarm at the current situation of Arabs that resulted from the Arab-Jewish conflict and the increased Jewish immigration to Palestine, as the Arab political, social, and economic situation was declining. He asked the British to limit Jewish immigration and land purchases.

Death

King Faisal died of a heart attack on 8 September 1933 in Bern, Switzerland. He was 48 years old at the time of his death. Faisal was succeeded on the throne by his eldest son, Ghazi.

A square is named in his honour at the end of Haifa Street, Baghdad, where an equestrian statue of him stands. The statue was knocked down following the overthrow of the monarchy in 1958, but later restored.

Marriage and children
Faisal was married to Huzaima bint Nasser and had with her one son and three daughters, and to Latifa bint Hamed and had with her one son.
Princess Azza bint Faisal.
Princess Rajiha bint Faisal.
Princess Raifia bint Faisal.
Ghazi, King of Iraq, born 1912 died 4 April 1939, married his first cousin, Princess Aliya bint Ali, daughter of King Ali of Hejaz.
Prince Mohammad

Film
Faisal has been portrayed on film at least three times: in David Lean's epic Lawrence of Arabia (1962), played by Alec Guinness; in the unofficial sequel to Lawrence, A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia (1990), played by Alexander Siddig; and in Werner Herzog's Queen of the Desert (2015), played by Younes Bouab. On video, he was portrayed in The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones: Chapter 19 The Winds of Change (1995) by Anthony Zaki.

Images

Ancestry

See also

 Faisal–Weizmann Agreement
 List of Syrian monarchs
 Timeline of Syrian history
 Battle of Maysalun
 Ali of Hejaz
 Abdullah I of Jordan
 Ghazi of Iraq
 Hussein of Hejaz

References

Further reading

External links

|-

1885 births
1933 deaths
Dhawu Awn
Kings of Syria
20th-century monarchs in the Middle East
20th-century Syrian politicians
Iraqi Arab nationalists
Field marshals of Iraq
Grand Cordons of the Order of Independence (Jordan)
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
House of Hashim
Iraqi Sunni Muslims
Kings of Iraq
Ottoman Arab nationalists
Arab people from the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Sunni Muslims
People from Jeddah
People from Mecca
People of the Franco-Syrian War
Arab Revolt
19th-century Arab people
20th-century Arab people
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People of the Arab Revolt
Iraqi people of Circassian descent

Faisal I of Iraq


The Nikon F-601, otherwise known as the Nikon N6006, is a 35mm single-lens reflex (SLR) film camera that was produced by Nikon starting in 1990. The F601 featured an improved second-generation autofocus system, motor drive for automatic film advance, a built-in pop-up electronic flash, a top shutter speed of 1/2000 of a second, and a new "Matrix" evaluative multi-zone metering program.

The camera includes an integrated motor drive and is also available in a version with a date back, which could be set to print the date and time on the photo film as images were acquired. As a kit, the F601 shipped with a 35-to-70mm autofocus Nikkor zoom lens. It is compatible with a wide range of Nikon F-mount lenses, including both autofocus and manual focus types. However, Nikon's older, non-AI modified lenses will not mount without modification. Doing so forcefully may damage the indexing pin on the body.
Due to a firmware defect, G-type lenses without an aperture ring are compatible (in program and shutter priority modes) only if the aperture ring position sensor is manually actuated to its maximum position, therefore their use is not endorsed by Nikon.

During the 1990s, the F-601 sat between the Nikon F-401 and Nikon F-801s in the company's consumer SLR range.

A version without autofocus or built-in flash was sold as the Nikon F-601M.

References

External links

F601
F601
Products introduced in 1991

Nikon F-601


Charlotte Bühler (née Malachowski; December 20, 1893 – February 3, 1974) was a German-American developmental psychologist.

Life

Bühler was born Charlotte Berta Malachowski in Berlin, the elder of two children of Jewish government architect Hermann Malachowski, and his wife Rose (née Kristeller).

After graduating from high school in 1913, Charlotte Malachowski studied natural sciences and humanities at the University of Freiburg and the University of Berlin.  In 1918, she received her doctorate from the University of Munich with a dissertation on the topic Über Gedankenentstehung: Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Denkpsychologie ("On the origin of thought: Experimental studies on the psychology of thought"). That same year she went to Dresden to work with Karl Bühler, where she continued her research in the fields of child and youth psychology, as well as working on her habilitation. In  1920, she completed her habilitation at the Technical University of Dresden and became qualified to teach in Saxony.

She married Karl Bühler on April 4, 1916. Their daughter Ingeborg was born in 1917, and their son Rolf in 1919. Karl died in 1963 in Los Angeles, California. She herself fell ill in 1970 and returned in 1971 to live with her children in Stuttgart, where she died at the age of 80.

Academic appointments

In 1923, Charlotte Bühler went to teach at the University of Vienna, where in 1929 she was promoted to the position of associate professor.  Both Bühlers worked closely together at this new institution, which provided them with a laboratory to conduct their research.

In the next few years at Vienna she gained international prestige through her research and publications which led to the development of the "Viennese child psychology school" of Charlotte Bühler - the spirit of which is still maintained today in the Charlotte Bühler Institute.

In March 1938, during a stay in London, she learned of the occupation of Austria by Nazi Germany. Karl Bühler was taken into "protective custody" on March 23, 1938 due to his vocal anti-Nazi sentiments. Via connections in Norway, Charlotte Bühler arranged the release of her husband after six and a half weeks, and in October 1938 the family was reunited in Oslo. Because Charlotte Bühler was of Jewish descent they emigrated to the United States.

Both Bühlers were offered professorships in 1938 by Fordham University in New York City, which, however, did not materialize.  Karl Bühler then accepted a professorship in Saint Paul, Minnesota; however, Charlotte Bühler remained in Norway because she had already accepted a professorship at the University of Oslo and a position at the Teachers' Academy in Trondheim.  Only after an urgent request by her husband did she emigrate in 1940 to Saint Paul in the United States, where she arrived shortly before the invasion of Norway.

In 1942 she accepted a position as senior psychologist at the Minneapolis General Hospital. In 1945 she became an American citizen and moved to Los Angeles, California, as chief psychologist at the Los Angeles County Hospital. She held this position until her retirement in 1958; during that time she also served as a professor of Psychiatry at the University of Southern California. After her retirement she went into private practice in Beverly Hills, California.

Work

In 1922 in Dresden, she published Das Seelenleben des Jugendlichen ("The mental life of young people"), in  which, for the first time, a developmental perspective was used in adolescent psychology. "Bühler's world test" is a projective test method developed by Charlotte Bühler.
In Vienna, specializing in infant and adolescent psychology, Bühler established a focus on experimental research based on diaries and behavioral observations (the "Vienna School").  With her assistant Hildegard Hetzer, who was succeeded in 1927 by Lotte Schenk-Danzinger, she developed intelligence assessment tests for children which are used to this day.
In 1933, her work on Der menschliche Lebenslauf als psychologisches Problem ("The course of human life as a psychological problem") was the first German-language study to include old age among the psychological age spans and to consider gerontopsychology a part of psychology.  She is therefore considered an early pioneer in the field of gerontopsychology.
In the United States, she came up with four "basic tendencies" of humans: gratification, self-restricting accommodation, creative expansion, and maintaining internal order. Other ways of expressing these tendencies are: drive for personal satisfaction, adjustment for the purpose of obtaining security, creativity or self-expression, and need for order. She laid the foundations of humanistic psychology together with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Honors

 The Charlotte-Bühler-Institut für praxisorientierte Kleinkindforschung ("Charlotte Bühler Institute for practical research on infants"), established in 1992 in Vienna, is named after her.

 A plaque in honor of Charlotte and Karl Bühler was unveiled in 1995 at the Palais Epstein in Vienna.
 Dresden and Emsdetten have Charlotte Bühler roads and Vienna has a Charlotte Bühler way.

Publications

Her list of publications includes 168 works, several of which have been translated into 21 languages.

 Das Märchen und die Phantasie des Kindes ("The fairy tale and the imagination of the child"). Barth, Leipzig 1918.
 Das Seelenleben des Jugendlichen : Versuch einer  Analyse und Theorie der psychischen Pubertät  (The inner life of the adolescent: An attempt at analysis and theory of mental puberty"). G. Fischer, Jena 1922.
 Kindheit und Jugend : Genese des Bewußtseins ("Childhood and adolescence: Origins of consciousness"). Hirzel, Leipzig 1928.
 Der menschliche Lebenslauf als psychologisches Problem ("The course of human life as a psychological problem"). Hirzel, Leipzig 1933.
 Praktische Kinderpsychologie ("Practical child psychology"). Lorenz, Vienna, Leipzig [1938].
 Kind und Familie : Untersuchungen der Wechselbeziehungen des Kindes mit seiner Familie ("Child and family: Studies on the interactions of the child with his family"). Fischer, Jena 1937.
 Kleinkindertests : Entwicklungstests vom 1. bis 6. Lebensjahr ("Infant testing: Developmental testing from 1 up to 6 years of age"). Barth, Munich 1952.
 Psychologie im Leben unserer Zeit ("Psychology in the life of our times") Droemer/Knaur, Munich, Zurich 1962.

Footnotes

References

 Manfred Berger: Bühler, Charlotte Berta. In: Hugo Maier (Ed.): Who is who der Sozialen Arbeit. (Who's Who of Social Work) Freiburg/Breisgau 1998, pp. 115–116.
 Manfred Berger: Zum 100. Geburtstag von Charlotte Bühler. (100th birthday of Charlotte Bühler) In: Unsere Jugend (Our Youth) 1993, pp. 525–527.
 Charlotte Bühler: Selbstdarstellung (Self-portrait). In: Ludwig Pongratz et al. (Eds.): Psychologie in Selbstdarstellungen (Psychology in self-portraits). Vol 1. Huber, Bern etc. 1972, , pp. 9–42.
 Gerald Bühring: Charlotte Bühler oder Der Lebenslauf als psychologisches Problem (Charlotte Bühler or the course of life as a psychological problem). Lang, Frankfurt et al. 2007,  (Beiträge zur Geschichte der Psychologie (Contributions to the history of Psychology) 23), (Biography).
 Barbara Reisel: Bühler, Charlotte. In: Gerhard Stumm et al.: Personenlexikon der Psychotherapie (Biographical encyclopedia of psychotherapy). Springer, Vienna etc. 2005, , pp. 77–79.

External links

 Short biography on the website of the Charlotte Bühler Institute, Vienna
 Psychology's Feminist Voices: Charlotte Bühler

German psychologists
German women psychologists
German people of Polish-Jewish descent
German people of Jewish descent
American women psychologists
American child psychologists
American developmental psychologists
1893 births
1974 deaths
20th-century American psychologists
20th-century American women
20th-century American people
Emigrants from Nazi Germany
Immigrants to the United States

Charlotte Bühler


51st is a station on the Chicago Transit Authority's "L" system, located in Chicago, Illinois and serving the Green Line. It is situated at 319 E 51st Street, three blocks east of State Street. It opened on August 28, 1892.

History
51st was built in 1892 when the South Side Elevated Railroad extended its line southward to serve the World's Columbian Exposition. The original station was designed by Myron H. Church and was a brick building with some elements of the Queen Anne style and a half-cone bay. The platforms at 51st were constructed like all other South Side Elevated Railroad platforms and consisted of wooden platforms with a tin canopy.

When the A/B skip-stop system was introduced in 1949, 51st became an AB station. Because Garfield and 58th were B and A stations respectively, 51st became the transfer point between the Englewood (A) and Jackson Park (B) branches of the South Side Elevated. It served as the transfer point until 1982, when Garfield became an AB station.

51st closed in 1990, so its original canopies could be removed. The station underwent renovation during the 1994-96 Green Line closure, and its station house was replaced with a modern station house with a white and green tile facade. The platforms were also rebuilt, and steel and glass platforms replaced the old wooden ones. Construction at 51st was not completed until 1997, a year after the Green Line reopened.

Services
51st is located in and serves the Washington Park and Grand Boulevard neighborhoods of Chicago along with the 47th and Garfield stations. Trains toward Harlem/Lake arrive every ten minutes, as do trains toward Ashland/63rd and Cottage Grove. During 2007, 340,624 passengers boarded at 51st, making it the 22nd busiest station on the Green Line.

51st has two elevated side platforms which serve the Green Line's two tracks. A station building on the south side of 51st Street houses the fare controls and connects to both platforms via stairs and elevators. Auxiliary exit stairs are located on the north side of 51st Street.  The station is fully wheelchair accessible.

Bus connections
CTA
  15 Jeffery Local

Notes

References

External links
51st Street entrance from Google Maps Street View

CTA Green Line stations
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1892

51st station


The Italian Society for Military History (Società Italiana di Storia Militare – SISM) is a scientific society founded by Raimondo Luraghi, in Rome on 14 December 1984. Its aim is promoting studies in the field of military history and organizes meetings, seminars, and other events related to the society's aim. The society periodically issues studies, newsletters, and bulletins. Its primary aim is historical research in collaboration with organisations, societies, and students. It also grants scholarships for university degrees. Other initiatives related to the pursuit of the society's aim can be accomplished or sponsored by proposal by external subjects.

Partners
The SISM is a society acknowledged by the Italian Defense Ministry. It cooperates with the Commissione Italiana di Storia Militare (Italian Committee of Military History – CISM), constituted by a ministerial order on 21 November 1986, with the Centro interuniversitario di studi e ricerche storico-military (Interuniversity Center of Studies and Research in Military History – CIRSM), constituted by an agreement between universities of Turin, Padua and Pisa, and with the Society of Friends of the Italian Military Library, constituted in Varallo Sesia on 20 September 2008. SISM divulged in Italy the Bibliographer Internationale d'histoire militaire  (International bibliography of military history) attended by the Bibliography Committee of the Commission international d'histoire militaire (International Commission on Military History – CIHM).

SISM collaborated with CISM in organizing the 18th and 19th International Conference of the Commission Internationale d'Histoire Militaire, which took place in Turin in the years 1992 and 2013.

Honorary presidents
 Prof. Raimondo Luraghi (1992)
 Prof. Mariano Gabriele (2010)

Presidents
 Prof. Raimondo Luraghi (1985–1992)
 Gen. Filippo Stefani (1992–1994)
 Prof. Massimo Mazzetti (1995–1997)
 Prof. Massimo Mazzetti (1995–1997)
 Prof. Antonello Folco Maria Biagini (1997–1999)
 Gen. Pierpaolo Meccariello (1999–2001)
 Prof. Giuseppe Conti (2001–2004)
 Prof. Virgilio Ilari (2004–2007)
 Gen. Pierpaolo Meccariello (February–August 2008)
 Prof. Mariano Gabriele (2008)
 Prof. Virgilio Ilari (2010–present (2013))

General managers
 Michele Nones (1985–1990)
 Giuseppe Conti (1991–1997)
 Piero Crociani (1997)
 Ciro Paoletti (1997–2004)
 Flavio Carbone (2004)
 Nicola Pignato (2004–2008)
 Annamaria Isastia (2009–present (2013))

Publications

Books
 Teaching of military history in Italy (L'insegnamento delta storia military in Italia')', Acta of seminary held in Rome on 4 December 1987, Roma, Compagnia dei Librai, 1989.
 The Italian Army, history of men and armaments (L'Esercito italiano, storia di uomini e di armi), Roma, Italia, 1988
 Military history of Italy 1796–1975 (Storia militare d'Italia 1796–1975), Roma, Italia, 1990
 Italian in the Russian Campaign of 1812 (Италянски в Россий 1812) Gli italiani nella campagna di Russia del 1812. Acta of the meeting held in Cassino and also Rome in October 2012.

In collaboration with CIRSM
 Italian military historiography in the last twenty years (La storiografia militare italiana negli ultimi venti anni), edited by Giorgio Rochat and Piero Del Negro, Milano, Angeli, 1985
 Italian bibliography about history and military studies 1960–1984 (Bibliografia italiana di storia e study militari 1960–1984), edited by Giorgio Rochat, Piero Del Negro and Filippo Frassati, Milano, F. Angeli, 1987.
 Handbook on Italian military history (Guida alla storia militare italiana, edited by Piero Del Negro, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, 1997
 Catalogue of Italian students of military history 2005 (Repertorio degli studiosi italiani di storia militare 2005, edited by Gian Luca Balestra and Nicola Labanca, Milano, Edizioni UNICOPLI, 2005

In collaboration with The Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities
 The fonts for the Italian military history in the Contemporary Age (Le fonti per la storia militare italiana in età contemporanea. Acta of the 3rd seminary Rome 1–17 December 1988), edited by Alberto Maria Arpino, Antonello Folco Maria Biagini and Franco Grispo), Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities – Central department for archival resources (Ufficio centrale peri beni archivistici), Roma, 1993.

In collaboration with CISM
 Acta of the 2nd National meeting on military history (II Convegno nazionale di storia militare) held in Rome at CASD 28–20 October 1999, Italian committee on Military History, Roma, 2001

Chaiers
Al chaiers are available on line
 1993, Roma, GEI Gruppo Editoriale Internazionale, 1994.  from Scribd
 1994, Roma, GEI Gruppo Editoriale Internazionale, 1995.
 1995, Roma, GEI Gruppo Editoriale Internazionale, 1997.
 1996–1997 National identity of the Armed Forces (Identità nazionale Forze Armate). Acta of the 4th meeting of Sism in Caserta, edited by Fortunato Minniti, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, 2001.
 1999 (edited by Fortunato Minniti), Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, 2001.
 2000 – The military historiography in France and in Italy. Comparison of two experiences (La storiografia militare in Francia e in Italia. Due esperienze a confronto) Acta (edited by Fortunato Minniti), Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, 2001.
 2001–2002 Italian soldiers in Africa (Militari italiani in Africa) edited by Nicola Labanca, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, 2004
 2004–2005 – Tsushima 1905 – Jutland 1916. Acta of naval seminaries of SISM 2005, edited by Marco Gemignani.
 2006 – History of the future war (Storia della guerra futura). Acta of the 1st meeting SISM at Varallo, edited by Giovanni Cerino Badone.
 2007–08 History of the economic war (Storia della guerra economica). Acta of the 2nd meeting SISM at Varallo, edited by Catia Eliana Gentilucci.
 2009 The war of 1859 (La guerra del Cinquantanove) Acta of the National Meeting CISM-SISM about the Second Italian War of Independence
 2010 The year of Teano (L'Anno di Teano), Acta of the meeting on political-military history of year 1860 held at CASD (Palazzo Salviati) in November 2009
 2011 The Saint Mark weapons (Le Armi di San Marco) Acta of the meeitng on the military history of the Serenissima held at Venice and Padua, September 2011
 2012-2013 American Legacy. SISM commemorates Raimondo Luraghi).
.

Bibliography
 Filippo Stefani, Un decennio di attività della Società di Storia Militare, in Quaderno 1994, Gruppo Editoriale Internazionale, Roma, 1995, pp. 159–164

References

External links
 Website of the Italian Society for Military History
 Sito della Website of Commission Internationale d'Histoire Militaire
 Website of the Italian Committee of Military History
 Website of the Interuniversity Center of Studies and Research in Military History

Historical societies of Italy
Military history of Italy

Italian Society for Military History


Nambi is a pastoral lease and sheep station located about  north east of Leonora and  south east of Leinster in the Goldfields of Western Australia.

The station was established in 1899.

The property was owned by the Leonora Pastoral company in 1925, who ran cattle on the leasehold. The company sold 129 mixed cattle at Midland Junction sales in December 1929, another 28 in January 1930, and another 30 in March 1930.

Plans were underfoot to change to sheep as early as 1925 when Geo Sexton, one of company directors, arrived at the station to commence fencing in preparation for the arrival of sheep at the station. The station had also recently purchased eight trucks.

By 1926 Nambi sold some of their first clip with 55 bales sold at the Perth sales in October 1926. and another 46 bales in 1928.

Approximately 10,000 sheep were shorn at Nambi in 1928, with a total clip of 252 bales of wool. The shearing shed had recently been fitted with six stands of Lister machinery, whereas shearing had been all done by hand in the past.

The Leonora Pastoral company put the property up for auction in 1930, advertising the property as having an area of  with tenure up until 1948. The station had  of 5 or 6 wire sheep-proof fencing enclosing  into 14 paddocks, and an additional  of cattle fencing also in place. Water was available from 23 wells complete with windmills for a flock of approximately 11,000 sheep, of which about 6,000 are breeding ewes, 70 cattle and 100 horses.

The station was sold to the Murrum Pastoral Company and Mrs C. Fitzgerald in August 1930. They had bought the station for £18,600 with all plant but no sheep. At this time the station occupied an area of  and had over  of fencing in place. Having little surface water, the property also had 28 wells and in 1930 carried a flock of 9,500 sheep. One of Nambi's neighbours is Clover Downs Station.

William Fitzgerald, of the Murrum Pastoral Company, died in December 1933, leaving his wife and two sons.  One son, Cyril Irwin Fitzgerald, is the manager at Nambi, while the other, Victor Fitzgerald, is the manager at Murrum Station.

In 1937 the station bought an additional 70 Bungaree blood rams from the Hagley stud in Tammin, followed by another 25 in 1938.

A station employee, William Paul, inadvertently shot himself with his own weapon outside the men's quarters in 1941. The bullet grazed his ribs and lodged in his left arm, but the wound was not serious.

The station had a good year in 1948 when 17,715 sheep were shorn and 465 bales of wool were collected, an increase of 3,500 sheep on the previous year. Lambing was estimated at 81%.

Two shearers, members of Len Mitchell's shearing team, became lost when out shooting following rain; this held up shearing in 1949. The two men, Don McDonald and Ronald Bacon went shooting and became lost in the bush where they spent two of the coldest and wettest nights of the year. Both men were found safe and well about  from the homestead. Vehicles and trackers from the station covered over  in the search for the men.

The following year the station sold off 3,000 sheep to nearby Wilbah Station.

Cyril Irwin Joseph Fitzgerald, who had owned and managed Nambi since 1933, died in January 1951, aged 41. He left his entire estate to his widow.

Minara Resources currently owns Nambi, along with three other nearby properties: Glenorn, Yundamindera and Minara Stations. In 2012 Glenorn and Nambi were running approximately 1,700 head of cattle. By 2016 all four stations were running a herd of cattle.

See also
List of ranches and stations

References

Homesteads in Western Australia
Stations in Goldfields-Esperance
1899 establishments in Australia

Nambi


Thomas Anthony Baugh (born December 1, 1963) is a former American football player. He was a center who played four seasons in the National Football League (NFL) for two teams.

A 1981 graduate of Riverside Brookfield High School, Baugh attended Southern Illinois University where he was a key member of the 1983 NCAA Division I-AA national football championship squad. Baugh was captain of the 1985 Southern Illinois Salukis and a fourth round draft pick of the Kansas City Chiefs in 1986. In his NFL career, he played center for the Kansas City Chiefs for three seasons starting in 1986.  Baugh finished his playing career in 1989 with the Cleveland Browns. Baugh was called by his former Chiefs coach Frank Ganz Sr. in 1990 to play for the Detroit Lions. During a preseason game Tom suffered a concussion and was released.

Tom Baugh is a member of the NFL Players Association. He served as the membership director and treasurer of the Kansas City Chapter of the National Football League Alumni Association. Tom was elected to the NFL Alumni Association Board of Directors and as Secretary/Treasurer of the Association by his NFL Alumni peers. Tom along with Carl Mauck and David Carter resigned from their posts  as Retiree Advocacy Directors following some questionable reorganization, and the Leagues renewal of the Logo Trust Agreement.

Baugh resides in Lone Jack, Missouri  where he was elected to serve the community on the Lone Jack C-6 School Board. He is a member of the Salvation Army Team Emergency Radio Network and is an FCC Federal Communications Commission licensed Amateur radio operator (AE9B) using all modes of communication including Morse code. Tom also volunteers at Saint Luke's Hospital of Kansas City and is a committee member of the Paint the Town Activity celebrating Kansas City's long tradition of the Arts. He also visits Children's Mercy Hospital, volunteering time visiting with the children.

Tom is currently President of KC Constructors, Inc. an Award-winning construction business. KC Constructors is a 2012,13,14,15,16,17,18,19 member of the Lee's Summit Chamber of Commerce nominated for the "2019 Truly the Best Award"

In 2002, he was selected to the SIU Saluki Hall of Fame
In 2013, he was selected to the SIU Saluki All-Century Team
In 2023, he was inducted to the SIU Saluki Hall of Fame

Tom spent several years teaching Automotive Technology to teenagers in Elmhurst, Illinois, at York Community High School, where he was also the track and field teams shot put and discus coach. He was released in 1998 over a disagreement about opportunities for the students in his classes. He had arranged for students to work in a local body shop alongside experienced body men, and he sent the students two at a time every Friday. The school, however, disapproved of the arrangement.

References

External links

1963 births
Living people
American football centers
Cleveland Browns players
Kansas City Chiefs players
Southern Illinois Salukis football players
People from Jackson County, Missouri
People from Riverside, Illinois
Players of American football from Chicago
Amateur radio people

Tom Baugh


Between Time and Timbuktu is a television film directed by Fred Barzyk and based on a number of works by Kurt Vonnegut. Produced by National Educational Television and WGBH-TV in Boston, Massachusetts, it was telecast March 13, 1972 as a NET Playhouse special.  The television script was also published in book form in 1972, illustrated with photographs by Jill Krementz and stills from the production.

The first draft of the script was written by David Odell, with contributions from Bob Elliott and Ray Goulding, and the film's director. Vonnegut himself served as an "advisor and contributor to the script." The primary title refers to a collection of poetry written by one of the main characters in Vonnegut's second novel, The Sirens of Titan.

Plot
Stony Stevenson, a young poet living with his mother, receives notice on nation-wide TV that he has won the grand prize in the Blast-Off Space Food jingle contest. The prize is a trip on the Prometheus-5 rocket into the Chrono-Synclastic Infundibulum. TV reporter Walter Gesundheit and ex-astronaut Bud Williams, Jr. explain that Stevenson was chosen for this mission because it is believed that only a poet could find the words to describe the Chrono-Synclastic Infundibulum, a type of time warp, which may hold the answer to all creation. Bud Williams, Jr. recalls that he had trouble describing Mars, comparing it to his driveway back home.

After traveling through space for six months, Astronaut Stevenson hits the Chrono-Synclastic Infundibulum, his capsule explodes, and he is scattered through time and space. While the TV correspondents struggle to remember the immortal words spoken when man first stepped on the Moon, Stevenson pops in and out of a series of strange scenes (based on Vonnegut's novels and stories):

 On the island of San Lorenzo, he meets Bokonon (Cat's Cradle), leader of a religious cult, who has given his followers a religion of harmless lies because the truth of their lives is so difficult.
 He appears among jurors at the trial of Dr. Paul Proteus (Player Piano), who is accused of waging war against modern technology and the industrial system.
 He finds himself with Dr. Hoenikker (Cat's Cradle) and a General who discuss the military application of Ice Nine, which could freeze all water on a battlefield so soldiers would never have to fight in mud.
 He lands in a society where no one is allowed to be superior to anyone else. He sees dancers hobbled with weights struggling to perform a ballet until one dancer ("Harrison Bergeron") rebels by removing the handicaps from himself and his partner so they can dance freely.
 He visits an Ethical Suicide Parlor in an overpopulated world ("Welcome to the Monkey House") and meets Lionel J. Howard who wants to know one thing before he dies: "What are people for?"
 In the final episode, he hitches a ride on a fire truck with a young girl, Wanda June, who was hit by an ice-cream truck before her birthday party (Happy Birthday, Wanda June), and confronts his own death.

Cast
The televised production of the play starred William Hickey as Stony Stevenson. The rest of the cast included:
Bruce Morrow as Contest Announcer
Dortha Duckworth as Mrs. Stevenson (Stony's mother)
Ray Goulding as Walter Gesundheit
Bob Elliott as Bud Williams, Jr. (the ex-astronaut)
Franklin Cover as Col. Donald "Tex" Pirandello
Russell Morash as Sandy Abernethy
John Devlin as Dr. Bobby Denton
Kevin McCarthy as Bokonon
Edie Lynch as Island Girl
Jerry Gershman as Soldier
James Sloyan as Dr. Paul Proteus
George Serries as Prosecutor
Ashley Westcott as Deaf Juror
John Peters as Drunk
Helen Stenborg as Miss Martin
Hurd Hatfield as Dr. Hoenikker
Dolph Sweet as General
Hariet Hamilton as Lead Caroler
Sam Amato as Policeman
Benay Venuta as Diana Moon Glampers
Carlton Power as First Stagehand
Jean Sanocki as Larry
Jack Shipley as News Announcer
Alexis Hoff as Ballerina
Avind Haerum as Harrison Bergeron
Frank Dolan as Short Order Cook
Susan Sullivan as Nancy
Charles White as Lionel J. Howard
Philip Bruns as Announcer
Ariane Munker as Wanda June
Page Johnson as Hitler
MacIntyre Dixon as Cemetery Gardener

See also
 List of American films of 1972

References

External links

I have seen the future – and it slurps: A two part conversation between Kurt Vonnegut and Adrian Mitchell (BBC Two, 1972) which bracketed a broadcast of Between Time and Timbuktu

1972 films
1972 television films
1970s fantasy comedy-drama films
Films about astronauts
Films based on works by Kurt Vonnegut
American films based on plays
PBS original programming
Works by Kurt Vonnegut
American fantasy comedy-drama films
1972 comedy films
1972 drama films
1970s English-language films
American drama television films
Films directed by Fred Barzyk
Films with screenplays by David Odell
1970s American films

Between Time and Timbuktu


Giuseppe Modesti (1915–1998) was an Italian bass-baritone.

Giuseppe Modesti made his operatic debut at La Scala in 1940, as Schelkalov in Boris Godunov. His career was then interrupted by conscription in 1942, but he resumed his career in 1945.

For the next twenty-five years he sang a wide repertoire as a regular member of La Scala company, also appearing in the rest of Italy, as well as Europe, the United States and South America.

In 1954, he created the role of Abner in Darius Milhaud's David, and in 1965 he took part in the first performance of Piero Manzoni's controversial stage work Atomted.

He can be heard in a number of live recordings, notably Parsifal (as Klingsor), Il trovatore, Lucia di Lammermoor (conducted by Herbert von Karajan), La sonnambula (conducted by Leonard Bernstein), and Norma opposite Maria Callas. He was also part of the first recordings of Linda di Chamounix, Oberto, and Médée.

Studio recordings
 Verdi: La forza del destino (Guerrini, Pirazzini, Campora, Colzani, Corena; Parodi, p. 1952) Urania
 Verdi: Aida (Callas, Barbieri, Tucker, Gobbi; Serafin, 1955) EMI
 Cherubini: Medea (Callas, Scotto, Pirazzini, Picchi; Serafin, 1957) Ricordi/EMI
 Puccini: La bohème (Stella, Rizzoli, Poggi, Capecchi; Molinari-Pradelli, 1957) Philips
 Puccini: La bohème (Scotto, Meneguzzer, Poggi, Gobbi; Votto, 1961) Deutsche Grammophon

Sources
Evelino, Abeni, Giuseppe Modesti: I suoi personaggi (Giuseppe Modesti: His roles), Azzali, 2006.
Kutsch, K.J. and Riemens, Leo, "Modesti, Giuseppe", Unvergängliche Stimmen (Everlasting Voices),  Francke, 1975, p. 447.
Palmer, Andrew, Liner Notes for Oberto (complete recording), GALA 880155.

1915 births
1998 deaths
Operatic bass-baritones
20th-century Italian male opera singers

Giuseppe Modesti


Michael Timothy Nagy (born March 25, 1948) is an American former professional baseball pitcher who played for the Boston Red Sox, St. Louis Cardinals, Texas Rangers and Houston Astros of Major League Baseball (MLB). He batted and threw right-handed, stood  tall and weighed . Nagy played professionally from 1966 to 1974, and was traded five times throughout his career.

Career
Nagy was born in The Bronx but raised in Lebanon, Pennsylvania by a Jewish family originally from New Jersey. He was drafted in the 6th round (104th overall) of the 1966 Major League Baseball Draft by the Boston Red Sox out of St Helena's High School for Boys now called Monsignor Scanlan High School in Bronx, NY. He played three years in the minor leagues, and made his major league debut in 1969. Nagy had a very good year in his first major league season, with 12 wins, and only 2 losses. He also had a 3.11 earned run average. This season led to him being selected as American League Rookie pitcher of the Year.

Nagy's pitching career never was as good as his rookie season was. Due to major arm injuries, he never pitched an entire season in the Major Leagues without being placed on the disabled list with an arm injury. He spent the next three years with the Red Sox before being traded to the St. Louis Cardinals for a player to be named later. The Red Sox were later sent pitcher Lance Clemons. Just a little more than two months later on March 31, 1973, he was traded to the Texas Rangers. This trade was to complete a deal between the Cardinals and Rangers that had been made on February 1, 1973. The Cardinals originally sent pitcher Charlie Hudson and a player to be named later to the Rangers for Mike Thompson. Nagy was sent to the Rangers to complete the trade. He was again sent to the Cardinals, where he played for one season. After that, he played for the Houston Astros for one year and retired in 1975.

From 1976 to 1979 he played in the Mexican League.

References

External links
, or Baseball Almanac, or Retrosheet, or Pura Pelota

1948 births
Living people
American expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Boston Red Sox players
Bravos de Reynosa players
Covington Red Sox players
Denver Bears players
Greenville Red Sox players
Houston Astros players
Iowa Oaks players
Louisville Colonels (minor league) players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Mexican League baseball pitchers
Plataneros de Tabasco players
St. Louis Cardinals players
Spokane Indians players
Baseball players from the Bronx
Tigres de Aragua players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Tulsa Oilers (baseball) players
Winston-Salem Red Sox players
Winter Haven Red Sox players

Mike Nagy


Meitei (; , romanised: "Meiteilon"), officially known as Manipuri (, ; ), is a Tibeto-Burman language of northeast India. It is the official language and the lingua franca of Manipur as well as one of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic, included in the 8th Schedule to the Indian Constitution. Native to the Meitei people, it is spoken by around 1.8 million people, predominantly in the state of Manipur, but also by smaller communities in the rest of the country and in parts of neighbouring Myanmar and Bangladesh. It was used as a court language in the historic Manipur Kingdom.

Meitei language is the most widely spoken Tibeto-Burman language of India and the most spoken indigenous language of northeast India after Assamese and Bengali.
There are  million Meitei speakers in India according to the 2011 census. The majority of these, or  million, are found in the state of Manipur, where they represent just over half of its population. There are smaller communities in neighbouring Indian states, such as Assam (), Tripura (), Nagaland (), and elsewhere in the country (). Additionally, there are around 200,000 L2 speakers. The language is also spoken by smaller groups in neighbouring Myanmar and Bangladesh. Meitei is not endangered: its status has been assessed as safe in Ethnologue (where it is assigned to EGIDS level 2 "provincial language"), but is considered vulnerable in UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.

In the Indian subcontinent, a command over Meitei language, alongside Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Oriya, Persian, or Arabic, is highly appreciated and respected for learning dances (most significantly Indian Classical Dances) as dancers could have the tools of these languages to go into the primary material texts.

History

Meitei language has been in existence since 2000 years back till present times, preserving a classical cultural heritage of literature.

First Millennium CE

1st half : 1st century-5th century CE
The Ougri () is an ancient Meitei ritualistic musical composition which dated back to the 1st century CE. It was used mostly in the religious ceremonies of the early Meitei society and the coronation ceremonies  of rulers in Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur).
Many scholars are of the opinion that this ritual song existed even before the beginning of the Common Era.

In the 3rd century CE, Poireiton Khunthok (), an ancient Meitei literary narrative work, about a legendary establishment of a colony in the Imphal Valley, under the leadership of Poireiton, was composed. The "Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur Bulletin No. 1" affirmed the antiquity of this literary work.

2nd half : 6th century-10th century CE
The Khencho () is another ancient Meitei poetry work, which was composed at least before the beginning of 7th century CE.
It is noted to be "quite obscure and entirely unintelligible" to the present-day generations of people but still it is an integral part of the Lai Haraoba festival.

According to the "Report on the Archaeological Studies in Manipur, Bulletin No-1", a Meitei language copper plate inscription was found to be dated back to the 7th-8th century CE. It is one of the most well preserved ancient Meitei language epigraphic records. It was inscribed during the reign of Meitei King Khongtekcha (763-773 CE). It was discovered by scholar W. Yumjao from Phayeng village in the east of Imphal in the year 1935 CE.

In c. 763 CE, Akoijam Tombi (also called Akoijam Tomboy) composed the Panthoibi Khonggul (Ancient Meitei: , ), also termed as the Panthoibi Khongul, an ancient Meitei language narrative text of the romantic adventures of deified Meitei princess Panthoibi.

Second Millennium CE
In 1100 CE, the Loyumba Shinyen (Ancient Meitei: , ), a written constitution was finalised and enacted by Meitei King Loiyumba (Loyumba) (1074 CE-1112 CE), as a formal edict of the "proto-constitution" which was first drafted in 429 CE by his ancestor ruler, Meitei King Naophangba.

Geographical distribution

Bangladesh

The population of Meitei speakers (Manipuris) are found in four districts, namely Sylhet District, Moulvibazar District, Sunamganj District and Habiganj District of the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh. In early times, there were Meitei speaking population in Dhaka, Mymensingh and Comilla also.

Sylhet district
There are thirteen villages in Sylhet District, which are Amborkhana (Nongthombam Leikai in Meitei language), Nayabazar, Shibgonj, Goaipara, Kewapara, Sagordighirpar (Pukhri Mapan in Meitei language), Baghbari, Laladighipar (Sapam Leikai in Meitei language), Lamabazar (Leichom Leikai in Meitei language), Doxingach, Rajbari (Konung Leikai in Meitei language), Brojonath Tila (Meitei people refer to it as Brajanath Leikai but earlier it was known as Narasingh Tila) and Noyabazar (Sylhet P.S.) among others.

Mouluvibazar district
Moulvibazar District has twenty-eight Meitei populated settlements, which are Photiguli, Goalbari, Naldhari, Boroiloli (Kulaura P.S.), Ramnagar, Khaspur, Balishira (Shrimongol P.S.), Gouranagar, Puthadhor, Chotodhamai, Patharia, Gourangabil (Borolekha P.S.), Madhobpur, Chaiciri (Nongthombam Leikai in Meitei language), Homerjan, Majhergaon, Shangaon (Hamom Khul in Meitei language), Haqtiarkhola, Shripiire, Bhandarigaon, Chitlia, Noyapattan, Ganganagar, Bhanubil, Katabil Tateygaon (Mange Makhong Khul in Meitei language), Mongolpur (Haobam Leikai in Meitei language), Konagoan (Kamalgonj P.S.), among others.

Habiganj district
Habigonj District (Chunarghat P.S.) had four Meitei settlement areas, which are Gaborkhula, Abadgaon, Shibnagar and Dudhpatil.

Sunamganj district
Sunamgonj District (Chatak P.S.) has three Meitei populated settlements, which are Nayanpur, Lakhat and Ratanpur.

India

Assam

Meitei language is the third most widely spoken language, after Bengali and Hindi, in the Barak Valley region of Assam state of India.

Manipur
The Indian state of Manipur has the largest Meitei speaking population among all its geographical distribution. Native to as well as predominantly spoken in the state, Meitei language is the official language of the Government of Manipur as well as the lingua franca of the different communities living in Manipur.

Nagaland
According to Ethnologue, Meitei language is also spoken in Dimapur, Kohima, Peren and Phek of Nagaland.

Myanmar
Myanmar has significant Meitei speaking population in Kachin state, Yangon Region, Sagaing Region, Shan state, Ayeyarwady Region, among others.

As a second or foreign language
According to the Ethnologue, in India, Meitei language is used as a second language (L2) by the various Naga ethnic groups and Kuki-Chin ethnic groups, including Aimol, Anal, Chiru, Chothe, Gangte, Hmar, Inpui, Kharam, Koireng, Kom, Lamkang, Mao, Maram, Monsang, Moyon, Purum, Tarao, Thadou (Chin people), Thangal Naga peoples.

The Ethnologue also reports that Meitei language in Bangladesh is used as a second language (L2) by the Bishnupriya people.

Name
According to the Ethnologue, the alternative names of Meitei language are Kathe, Kathi, Manipuri, Meetei, Meeteilon, Meiteilon, Meiteiron, Meithe, Meithei, Menipuri, Mitei, Mithe, Ponna.

The name Meitei or its alternate spelling Meithei is preferred by many native speakers of Meitei over Manipuri. The term is derived from the Meitei word for the language Meitheirón (Meithei + -lon 'language', pronounced ). Meithei may be a compound from mí 'man' + they 'separate'. This term is used by most Western linguistic scholarship. Meitei scholars use the term Meit(h)ei when writing in English and the term Meitheirón when writing in Meitei. Chelliah (2015: 89) notes that the Meitei spelling has replaced the earlier Meithei spelling.

The language (and people) is also referred to by the loconym Manipuri. The term is derived from the name of the state of Manipur. Manipuri is the official name of the language for the Indian government and is used by government institutions and non-Meitei authors. The term Manipuri is also used to refer to the different languages of Manipur and to the people. Additionally, Manipuri, being a loconym, can refer to anything pertaining to the Manipur state.

Speakers of Meitei language are known as "Kathe" by the Burmese people, "Moglie" or "Mekhlee" by the people of Cachar, Assam (Kacharis and Assamese) and "Cassay" by the Shan people and the other peoples living in the east of the Ningthee River (or Khyendwen River). "Ponna" is the Burmese term used to refer to the Meiteis living inside Burma.

Dialects
The Meitei language exhibits a degree of regional variation; however, in recent years the broadening of communication, as well as intermarriage, has caused the dialectal differences to become relatively insignificant. The only exceptions to this occurrence are the speech differences of the dialects found in Tripura, Bangladesh and Myanmar. The exact number of dialects of Meitei is unknown.

The three main dialects of Meitei are: Meitei proper, Loi and Pangal. Differences between these dialects are primarily characterised by the extensions of new sounds and tonal shifts. Meitei proper is considered to be the standard variety—and is viewed as more dynamic than the other two dialects. The brief table below compares some words in these three dialects:

Devi (2002) compares the Imphal, Andro, Koutruk, and Kakching dialects of Meitei.

Status

Official language status
Meitei is the sole official language of the Government of Manipur. It is used for all official purposes, except for some interstate cases. Meitei is included among the languages that are part of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India, thus granting it the status of a "scheduled language".

Amendment to the script policy
In 2021, there were changes to the Manipur Official Language Act by the Government of Manipur as follows:

Court language status

Meitei language was the court language of the historic Manipur Kingdom (Meeteileipak), and was declared as such in the kingdom's 1947 Constitution, before it merged into the Indian Republic.

Recognition by the Sahitya Akademi

With nearly two dozen dailies and a good deal of periodicals, and more than 1000 ancient and medieval texts, written in Meitei Mayek (Manipuri script), Meitei language was recognised by the National Sahitya Akademi of New Delhi, as one of the major advanced Indian literary languages in 1972, long before it was recognised as a constitutionally scheduled language in 1992. The National Sahitya Academy bestow multiple annual awards for the promotion, recognition of the language and its literature.

Scheduled language status

The Meitei language has been recognised (under the name Manipuri) by the Indian Union and was included in the list of scheduled languages (included in the 8th schedule by the 71st amendment of the constitution in 1992).
The day of the inclusion of Meitei language in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India and making it one of the official languages of the Indian Republic is annually commemorated as Meitei Language Day (also called Manipuri Language Day) on 20 August.

Language movements
In the modern era, several Meitei language movements have been in existence, including the linguistic purism movement, scheduled language movement, classical language movement, associate official language movement. There is a proposal for the language to be granted the elite status of "Classical Languages of India". Besides, it is also proposed to be recognised as an "associate official language" of the Government of Assam. According to Leishemba Sanajaoba, the present titular king of Manipur and a Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha from Manipur state, by recognising Meitei as an associate official language of Assam, the identity, history, culture and tradition of Manipuris residing in Assam could be able to get protected and preserved.

In the Prime Minister's Office

Meitei language is selected as one of the 11 Indian languages, out of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic, to be made available in the official website of the Indian Prime Minister's Office.

In the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
Meitei language is selected as one of the 14 Indian languages, out of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic, to be made available in the Press Information Bureau (PIB) by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of the Government of India (GOI). The Meitei language versions of the press releases are presently available in Bengali script, but there is plan of changing the script into Meitei script (Manipuri script) in due course of time.

In the Staff Selection Commission
Meitei language is one of the 13 Indian languages, out of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic, selected by the Staff Selection Commission (SSC) of the Government of India, to be made available in the conduction of the Multi-Tasking (Non-Technical) Staff examination across the country. The Staff Selection Commission is one of the biggest job recruiting agencies belonging to the Indian Government. It mainly recruits people to "Group B" (Non-Gazetted Posts) and "Group C" (Non-Technical Posts) in diverse governmental ministries and departments.

In the Central Armed Police Forces
Meitei language is selected by the Union Government of India as one of the 13 Indian languages, out of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic, to be used in the recruitment examination of the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF). The decision, for all these 13 languages, was taken by an official agreement between the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Staff Selection Commission, and it will be converted into action from .

In the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
Meitei language is selected as one of the 5 Indian languages, for publishing information on the Indian heritage by the Indian Government's Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology sponsored "Northeast Heritage" Web, besides Hindi and English.

In the National Education Policy

Meitei language is one of the 28 languages selected across the world, besides French, Sanskrit, Tamil, etc. to be used in teaching and learning in grades (1-5) by the "Unified District Information System for Education Plus" (UDISE+), as per the reports of the Press Information Bureau (PIB). It is a part of the National Education Policy 2020 started by the Union Cabinet of India.

Education

Besides being a medium of instructions in the educational institutions in Manipur, Meitei language is taught as a subject up to the post-graduate level (Ph.D.) in major universities of India, including but not limited to Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi University, Gauhati University, and University of North Bengal.

All India

CBSE
Meitei language (under the subject name "Manipuri") is one of the 40 languages (including indigenous/local and foreign/international) offered for academics in the curriculum for the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), controlled and managed by the Ministry of Education of the Government of India.

IGNOU
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), the largest university in the world, offers education in Meitei language as one of the 14 major "Modern Indian Languages" (MILs) for undergraduate students.

Assam

Board of Secondary Education, Assam (SEBA) offers Meitei language subject under the name "Manipuri".
Assam Higher Secondary Education Council (AHSEC) of Assam offers Meitei language subjects, under the names "Manipuri" and "Advance Manipuri".

Meitei language subject is offered by the Government of Assam in the lower primary schools of Assam, since 1956.
Meitei language subject is offered for the education in the Bachelor's degree in the Gauhati University.

Since 2020, Assam Government is annually granting ₹5 lakh as financial assistance to the Assam Manipuri Sahitya Parishad. Moreover, the Assam government financed  and created a corpus for the development of the Meitei language.

The "Department of Manipuri" (estd. in July 1997) of Assam University in Silchar offers education of Master's degree, Master of Philosophy degree and Doctor of Philosophy degree in Meitei language, under the title "Manipuri".

Tripura
The Government of Tripura offers Meitei language as "first language" subject at primary level in 24 notified schools throughout the state. It was introduced since 1998.

In December 2021, Tripura University proposed to the Ministry of Human Resource Development and the University Grants Council (UGC), about the introduction of diploma courses in Meitei language, along with other international languages like Japanese, Korean and Nepali simultaneously.

Phonology
The exact classification of the Meitei language within Sino-Tibetan remains unclear. It has lexical resemblances to Kuki and Tangkhul.

Tone
The Meitei language is a tonal language. There is a controversy over whether there are two or three tones.

Segments
Meitei distinguishes the following phonemes:

Consonants

Vowels

Note: the central vowel /ɐ/ is transcribed as <ə> in recent linguistic work on Meitei. However, phonetically it is never [ə], but more usually [ɐ]. It is assimilated to a following approximant: /ɐw/ = /ow/, /ɐj/ = [ej].

Phonological processes
A velar deletion is noted to occur on the suffix -lək when following a syllable ending with a /k/ phoneme.

Meitei has a dissimilatory process similar to Grassmann's law found in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit, though occurring on the second aspirate. Here, an aspirated consonant is deaspirated if preceded by an aspirated consonant (including ) in the previous syllable. The deaspirated consonants are then voiced between sonorants.

Writing systems

Meitei script

The Meitei script (, romanized: Meitei Mayek), also known as the Meetei script (, romanized: Meetei Mayek), used for writing in Meitei language, is one of the official scripts of the Indian Republic. Also known as the Kanglei script (, romanized: Kanglei Mayek/Kanglei Iyek) and the Kok Sam Lai script (, romanized: Kok Sam Lai Mayek), its earliest known epigraphic evidence of existence dates back to the 6th century CE coins issued by Meitei kings, engraving the Meitei letters, as verified by the National Sahitya Akademi. It was used until the 18th century, when it was replaced by the Bengali script, and reused again massively in the 20th century. Starting from 2021, Meitei script (officially known as Meetei Mayek) was officially used by the Government of Manipur, along with the Bengali script, to write the Meitei language, as per "The Manipur Official Language (Amendment) Act, 2021".

Naoriya Phulo script

Latin script
Elementary Manipuri (Roman Script) is one of the subjects offered to the students by The Board of Secondary Education Manipur.
It is a subject categorised under the "Subjects In Lieu Of First Language", for being used in lieu of "Manipuri".
It is a commonly opted subject to the students of the hill people of Manipur.

The Meitei language editions of the Bible in Roman script is very commonly used by the Christians of Manipur.

There exists an informal, but fairly consistent practical spelling of Meitei in Latin script. This spelling is used in the transcription of personal names and place names, and it is extensively used on the internet (Facebook, blogspots, etc.). It is also found in academic publications, for the spelling of Meitei book titles and the like (examples can be seen in the References, below). This spelling, on the whole, offers a transparent, unambiguous representation of the Meitei sound system, although the tones are usually not marked. It is practical in the sense that it does not use extra-alphabetical symbols, and can, therefore, be produced easily on any standard keyboard. The only point of ambiguity is found in the spelling of the vowels /ɐ/ and /a/, which are usually both written "a", except when they occur before an approximant (see table below). The vowel /a/ is sometimes written as "aa" to distinguish it from /ɐ/.

Bengali script

Meitei in Bangladesh and India currently uses the Bengali script, alongside the Meitei script.

Grammar
Sentences in the Meitei language use the format subject–object–verb word order (SOV). For example, in the sentence Ei chak chai (ꯑꯩ ꯆꯥꯛ ꯆꯥꯢ), which translates to I eat rice, the gloss is "ei" (I), "chak" (rice), "chai" (eat).

Nouns
Nouns and pronouns are marked for number in Meitei. The plural is indicated by the suffixes -khoi (for personal pronouns and human proper nouns) and -sing (for all other nouns). Verbs associated with the pluralised nouns are unaffected. Examples are demonstrated below:

When adjectives are used to be more clear, Meitei utilises separate words and does not add a suffix to the noun. Examples are show in the chart below:

Compound verbs
Compound verbs are created by combining root verbs each ending with aspect markers. While the variety of suffixes is high, all compound verbs utilise one of two:

Aspect markers appear as suffixes that clarify verb tense and appear at the end of the compound verb. Overall, the formula to construct a compound verb becomes [root verb] + [suffix] + [aspect marker]:

Compound verbs can also be formed utilising both compound suffixes as well, allowing utterances such as pithokningle meaning "want to give out".

Number words

Literature

The Khamba Thoibi Sheireng, also spelled as the Khamba Thoibi Seireng (, lit. Poem on Khamba Thoibi), which is regarded as the national epic of the Manipuris, is a classical Meitei language epic poem based on the ancient romantic adventure tale of Khamba and Thoibi of Moirang kingdom of Ancient Kangleipak (early Manipur). It is the masterpiece of Hijam Anganghal, the "Bard of Samurou", and is regarded as the greatest of all the epic poems in Meitei literature, having a length of 39,000 verses.

Linguistic tradition

The culture involved with the Meitei language is rooted deeply with pride and tradition based on having respect to the community elders. Young children who do not know about the tales that have been passed on from generation to generation are very rare. Regarding the history behind the ancient use of proverbs that defines the way conversation is held with the Meitei language, it is a way of expressing and telling stories and even using modern slang with old proverbs to communicate between one another.

Literary Awards

Media

After the birth of Meitei cinema in 1972 as Matamgi Manipur (), Maniwood, the Meitei language film industry, began to bring fame and prestige to India at the international level and to Manipur at the nation level. Notable internationally acclaimed and renowned films include 1981 film Imagi Ningthem (first Indian film to win a grand prix award of the Golden Montgolfiere at the Festival des 3 Continents, Nantes), 1990 film Ishanou (screened at the Un Certain Regard section of the 1991 Cannes International Film Festival), the 1984 film "Pebet" (Best Short Fiction Film in the International Short Film Festival, Kolkata 1985), the 2008 film "Nungee Mit" (Best Short Film in 2nd Cine ASA International Film Festival 2009, Guwahati), the 2009 film "Ilisha Amagi Mahao" (Best Director Award in the Cine ASA International Film Festival 2009, Guwahati), 2014 film "Phum Shang" (Best Medium Length Film at 18th International Environmental Film & Video Festival, Goias, Brazil 2016), 2016 film "Ima Sabitri" (Best Documentary Film Award at the 15th Mumbai International Film Festival), 2017 film "Theatre of the Earth" (Winner of Satyajit Ray Bronze Award for the 3rd Best Documentary at the 2nd South Asian Short Film Festival), 2018 film "Fireflies" (Best Documentary Short at Arthouse Asia International Film Festival 2018), "Naapal" (Best Short Film Award at the 1st Guwahati International Documentary, Short and Animation Film Festival), 2019 film "Highways of Life" (Best Film Award at the 8th Liberation DocFest, Bangladesh 2020), "I Rise" (Best Documentary Award at the Mumbai Short International Film Festival 2020), Motsillaba Mingsel (The Tainted Mirror) (Best Director and Best Child Artist awards at the Cochin International Shortfilm Awards 2021, Best Short Film Award at The Himalayan Film Festival 2021), 2020	film "Nawa Seidum" (Outstanding Achievement Award at the Tagore International Film Festival 2020, Best Narrative Film in Moment International 2020), "Samnaba - Merge" (Best Cinematography Award at The Himalayan Film Festival 2021), 2021 film "Class@6pm" (Best Asian Short Film Award at the Golden Leaf International Film Festival 2021), "Monsoon of Life" (Best Film at Unibrow Film Festival 2021 at the MOKKHO International Film Festival 2022), "Beyond Blast" (Best Director of Photography in the Goa International Film Festival 2021 and Best Documentary Feature Film in the Port Blair International Film Festival 2021), 2022 film "Erolnungdagi" (2nd Best Film Award at the 14th International Guwahati Film Festival 2022), "Re-Inkarnation" (DocEdge New Zealand Award in the Dhaka Doc Lab 2022), etc.

Annual events
Various annual events are organised to promote, protect and develop Meitei language, in the sovereign states of India and Bangladesh in particular as well as in other parts of the world in general.

Meitei language day

The Meitei language day (, romanized: Meiteilon-gi Numit), formally known as the Manipuri language day (,  romanized: Manipuri Lon-gi Numit), is annually observed on 20 August, in memory of the historic day on which the language was included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India and made one of the official languages of the Indian Republic on 20 August 1992.

Meitei poetry day

The Meitei poetry day (, romanized: Meiteilon Sheirenggi Numit), formally termed as the Manipuri poetry day (, romanized: Manipuri Sheirenggi Numit), is an annual literary event that promotes the Meitei language poetries and honours the contributions of the poets as well as the diverse and distinctive uncommon literary traditions of Meitei language, organised in Manipur as well as in other Meitei speakers populated areas (Northeast India and West Bengal inside India), aiming to popularise and expose Meitei literature (Manipuri literature) to the greater world.

Meitei language festival

The Meitei language festival (), formally known as the Manipuri language festival () or the Manipuri Bhasha Utsav (), is an annual cultural event that aims to the protection and the development of Meitei language, indigenous Meitei script and Meitei culture in the Republic of Bangladesh. The event is organised by the "Bangladesh Manipuri Sahitya Sangsad" since the year 2008.

Software

In 2021, Rudali Huidrom, a Manipuri researcher of the EBMT/NLP laboratory, Waseda University, Japan, created a text corpus named "EM Corpus" (shortened form of "Emalon Manipuri Corpus"). It is the first comparable text to text corpus built for Meitei language (mni) and English language (eng) pair from sentences. The writing system used for Meitei language in this corpus is Bengali script. It was crawled and collected from thesangaiexpress.com - the news website of "The Sangai Express", a daily newspaper of Manipur from August 2020 to 2021. In version 1, she created the monolingual data, having 1,034,715 Meitei language sentences and 846,796 English language sentences. In version 2, she created the monolingual data, having 1,880,035 Meitei language sentences and 1,450,053 English language sentences.

EM-ALBERT is the first ALBERT model available for Meitei language. EM-FT is also FastText word embedding available for Meitei language. These resources were created by Rudali Huidrom and are now available at free of cost at the European Language Resources Association catalogue (ELRA catalogue) under CC-BY-NC-4.0 license.

On 11 May 2022, Google Translate added Meitei-language (under the name "Meiteilon (Manipuri)") during its addition of 24 new languages to the translation tool. The writing system used for Meitei language in this tool is Meitei script.

Influence on other speech forms
Words of Meitei origin occur in other languages, dialects and lects.

In Bishnupriya lect

Bishnupriya, also termed as "Bishnupriya Manipuri" or "Bishnupriya Meitei", a creole of Bengali language and Meitei language, besides still retaining its pre-Bengali features, uses around 4000 borrowed root words from Meitei language.

In Tangkhul

"Tangkhul" () is a speech form as well as an ethnicity.
The term "Tangkhul" got its name from the Meitei language terms, "Tang" () meaning "scarce" and "Khul" () meaning "village" respectively.
According to another theory, the term "Tangkhul" is derived from "Thankhul", meaning "Than village" in Meitei language.

In Lamkang/Lamgang

"Lamkang" () or "Lamgang" () is a speech form as well as an ethnic group. The term is derived from the Meitei language words, "Lam" () meaning "land" and "Kang" () meaning "dry". The overall meaning of "Lamkang" is rendered as "people who settled on the dry hilly areas" by the Meitei people. In old Meitei records, the Lamkang people were termed as the "Hiroi Lamkang". The prefixed term "Hiroi" is derived from the Meitei language word for boat ("hi") and work group ("loi").

In Anal/Anan

"Anāl" () is a speech form as well as an ethnic group. The term "Anāl" () is derived from the Meitei language term "Anan" () meaning "cleanliness". The Anāl people are named so by the Meitei people because of their cleanliness in comparison to other tribes.

Sample text
The following is a sample text in Modern Meitei of the Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):

See also

 Languages of India
 List of languages by number of native speakers in India
 List of Manipuri poets
 Meitei inscriptions
 Meitei literature
 Meitei Language Day
 List of epics in Meitei language
 List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Meitei
 List of Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize winners for Meitei
 List of Yuva Puraskar winners for Meitei
 Vikaspedia

Footnotes

References

Further reading
 1. A Short History of Kangleipak (Manipur) Part-I, by Chingtamlen, 2005
 2. A Short History of Kangleipak (Manipur) Part-II, by Chingtamlen, 2007
 3. A Short History of Kangleipak (Manipur) Part-III, by Chingtamlen, 2008
 4. The Meetei and the Bishnupriya, by Chingtamlen, 2008

Culture
 Brara, N. Vijaylakshmi. (1998). Politics, society, and cosmology in India's North East. Delphi: Oxford University Press.
 Budha, W. (1992). Indigenous games of the Meiteis. Manipur: Wangkeimayum Publications.
 Kshetrimayum, Otojit. (2014). Ritual, Politics and Power in North East India: Contexualising the Lai Haraoba of Manipur. Delhi: Ruby Press & Co.
 Singh, M. Kirti. (1988). Religion and culture of Manipur. Delhi: Manas Publications.
 Singh, M. Kirti. (1993). Folk culture of Manipur. Delhi: Manas Publications.
 Singh, Saikhom Gopal. (2014). The Meeteis of Manipur: A Study in Human Geography. Delhi: Ruby Press & Co.

Language
 Bhat, D. N. S.; & Ningomba, S. (1997). Manipuri grammar. Munich: Lincom Europa.
 Chelliah, Shobhana L. (1990). Experiencer subjects in Manipuri. In V. M. Manindra & K. P. Mohanan (Eds.), Experiencer subjects in South Asian languages (pp. 195–211). Stanford: The Center for the Study of Language and Information.
 Chelliah, Shobhana L. (1992). Tone in Manipuri. In K. L. Adams & T. J. Hudak (Eds.), Papers from the first annual meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 1991 (pp. 65–85). Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University.
 Chelliah, Shobhana L. (1992). Bracketing paradoxes in Manipuri. In M. Aronoff (Ed.), Morphology now (pp. 33–47). Albany: State University of New York Press.
 Chelliah, Shobhana L. (1994). Morphological change and fast speech phenomena in the Manipuri verb. In K. L. Adams & T. J. Hudak (Eds.), Papers from the second annual meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 1992 (pp. 121–134). Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University.
 Chelliah, Shobhana L. (1997). A grammar of Meitei. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. .
 Chelliah, Shobhana L. (2002). Early Meitei manuscripts. In C. I. Beckwith (Ed.), Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages: PIATS 2000: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the ninth seminar of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, Leiden 2000 (pp. 59–71). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
 Chelliah, Shobhana L. (2002). A glossary of 39 basic words in archaic and modern Meitei. In C. I. Beckwith (Ed.), Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages: PIATS 2000: Tibetan studies: Proceedings of the ninth seminar of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, Leiden 2000 (pp. 189–190). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.

 Singh, Ningthoukhongjam Khelchandra. (1964). Manipuri to Manipuri & English dictionary.

External links

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Meitei language


Studio 8H is a  television studio in New York City in the United States. The studio is a part of NBC Studios, where the NBC television network is, at 30 Rockefeller Plaza. It is known for having the live recording of Saturday Night Live, which has been shown from the studio since the show's creation in 1975.

Construction
Studio 8H was built in 1933. It was meant to be used for orchestras and radio variety programs with big studio audiences. When it was built, Studio 8H was the world's biggest radio studio. It was  feet big, and it was three stories tall, which could fit a full orchestra. It was used for television in 1950, mostly for the live showing of Kraft Television Theatre.

History

Studio 8H is now best known for showing the NBC sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live, which is recorded live. Two episodes of NBC sitcom 30 Rock, "Live Show" and "Live from Studio 6H" were also recorded live from the studio.

References

Television
Entertainment in New York City

Studio 8H


Dark matter is a type of matter thought to be responsible for much of the mass in the universe.

The idea arose when astronomers found that the mass of large astronomical objects, and their gravitational effects, was much greater than the mass from the "luminous matter" that contains stars, gas, and dust.

Dark matter was first proposed by Jan Oort in 1932 as a reason for the spinning speeds of stars in the Milky Way. Fritz Zwicky in 1933 used dark matter to explain "missing mass" in the spinning speeds of galaxies in clusters. Later, many other observations have suggested that there is dark matter in the universe. The spinning speeds of galaxies, gravitational lensing of background objects, the temperature distribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters of galaxies: these are some of the examples that make scientists believe in dark matter.

According to the Planck mission team, and based on the standard model of cosmology, the total mass–energy of the known universe contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy.Thus, dark matter is estimated to make up 84.5%  of the total matter in the universe, while dark energy plus dark matter make up 95.1% of the total "stuff" in the universe.

Because dark matter does not seem to give off or reflect light, x-rays, or any other radiation, the instruments that are used to find normal matter (like hot gas, stars, planets, and us) can't find dark matter. It seems that dark matter is not made of the same thing as the matter we see every day on Earth. The only way we can tell if dark matter is there, is by how it affects things we can "see" by gravity.

In 2006, a group of scientists claimed that they had found a way to find dark matter. Since dark matter is supposedly very different from normal matter, it is expected to act differently. The scientists observed two far-away galaxy clusters that had crashed into each other at high speed: normal matter would have been scattered nearby after the collision, while dark matter would not. By measuring gravity, they were able to detect what looked like two clouds of dark matter, with a cloud of normal matter (hot gas) in between them.

Related pages
 Dark energy
 Expansion of the Universe
 Nature timeline

References

Astrophysics
Cosmology
Matter

Dark matter