The degree of polymerization, or DP, is the number of monomeric units in a macromolecule or polymer or oligomer molecule.

For a homopolymer, there is only one type of monomeric unit and the number-average degree of polymerization is given by ,
where Mn is the number-average molecular weight and M0 is the molecular weight of the monomer unit. For most industrial purposes, degrees of polymerization in the thousands or tens of thousands are desired. This number does not reflect the variation in molecule size of the polymer that typically occurs, it only represents the mean number of monomeric units.

Some authors, however, define DP as the number of repeat units, where for copolymers the repeat unit may not be identical to the monomeric unit. For example, in nylon-6,6, the repeat unit contains the two monomeric units  —NH(CH2)6NH—  and  —OC(CH2)4CO—, so that a chain of 1000 monomeric units corresponds to 500 repeat units. The degree of polymerization or chain length is then 1000 by the first (IUPAC) definition, but 500 by the second.

Step-growth and chain-growth polymerization
In step-growth polymerization, in order to achieve a high degree of polymerization (and hence molecular weight), Xn, a high fractional monomer conversion, p, is required, according to Carothers' equation  For example, a monomer conversion of p = 99% would be required to achieve Xn = 100.

For chain-growth free radical polymerization, however, Carothers' equation does not apply. Instead long chains are formed from the beginning of the reaction. Long reaction times increase the polymer yield, but have little effect on the average molecular weight. The degree of polymerization is related to the kinetic chain length, which is the average number of monomer molecules polymerized per chain initiated. However it often differs from the kinetic chain length for several reasons:
 chain termination may occur wholly or partly by recombination of two chain radicals, which doubles the degree of polymerization
 chain transfer to monomer starts a new macromolecule for the same kinetic chain (of reaction steps), corresponding to a decrease of the degree of polymerization
 chain transfer to solvent or to another solute (a modifier or regulator also decreases the degree of polymerization

Correlation with physical properties

Polymers with identical composition but different molecular weights may exhibit different physical properties.  In general, increasing degree of polymerization correlates with higher melting temperature  and higher mechanical strength.

Number-average and weight-average

Synthetic polymers invariably consist of a mixture of macromolecular species with different degrees of polymerization and therefore of different molecular weights. There are different types of average  polymer molecular weight, which can be measured in different experiments. The two most important are the number average (Xn) and the weight average (Xw).

The number-average degree of polymerization is a weighted mean of the degrees of polymerization of polymer species, weighted by the mole fractions (or the number of molecules) of the species. It is typically determined by measurements of the osmotic pressure of the polymer.

The weight-average degree of polymerization is a weighted mean of the degrees of polymerization, weighted by the weight fractions (or the overall weight of the molecules) of the species. It is typically determined by measurements of Rayleigh light scattering by the polymer.

See also
 Anhydroglucose unit

References

Polymer chemistry

Degree of polymerization


The Roman emperor Nero committed suicide near the villa of his freedman Phaon in June of 68 AD.  Between the autumn of 69 AD and the reign of the emperor Domitian, some people appeared and claimed they were Nero. These impostors were known as Pseudo-Nero. Most scholars believe there were either two or three Nero impostors. St. Augustine wrote of the popularity of the belief that Nero would return in his day, which is known as the Nero Redivivus legend. Suetonius writes that  imperial edicts were forged in the name of dead Nero. These edicts encouraged his followers and promised that he would soon return to avenge himself on his enemies.

One of the things that led to the belief that Nero survived was the fact that he died in a location that was not well known. Suetonius wrote that Galba's freedman Icelus saw the dead emperor's body and reported back to his master. Nero was also denied the lavish burial that was accorded to popular emperors and members of the imperial family.  This may have left those plebeians who loved him dissatisfied and suspicious. Furthermore, he was not buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus with the other Julio-Claudian emperors, but in a tomb on the Pincian Hill at the family burial place of the Domitii Ahenobarbi. Many Roman plebeians  though Nero was very popular after his death, and  so they laid flowers at his tomb.

After Nero's death, there were prophecies that predicted he would regain his kingdom in the East. These prophecies possibly inspired people to impersonate him.  One version placed his reappearance at Jerusalem. The prophecies have been tied to Nero's natal chart, which has been interpreted as pointing to a loss of his patrimony and its recovery in the East. Tacitus may have been referring to such prophecies in veiled language when he wrote of the rumors that circulated about Nero after his death, which had contributed to the belief that he had survived. The return of Nero may have inspired the author of the Book of Revelation when he wrote about the eschatological opponent called the Beast, which is mortally wounded and then miraculously heals. The number of the Beast, 666 or 616, depending on the manuscript, has been identified by some as the numerical value of the letters in Nero's name. Nero also appears more explicitly in this role in the Ascension of Isaiah and some of the books of the Sibylline Oracles. Because of these prophecies and others, Nero was long thought to be the Antichrist.

Due to the short-lived success of the Nero impostors and Nero's incorporation into eschatological literature, the belief in Nero's imminent return lasted for centuries. Lion Feuchtwanger wrote a historical novel based on the second known Pseudo-Nero, Terentius Maximus, entitled Der falsche Nero. This novel was published in 1936.

First Impostor
The first Pseudo-Nero appeared in the autumn of 68 AD or the early winter of 69 AD in the Roman province of Achaia, today modern Greece. Nero had visited Greece (66–67 AD) to participate in its Panhellenic Games, and this may account for some of the support the impostor received. Tacitus attributed the whole phenomenon to the gullibility and restive nature of the Greeks, whom he seems to have disliked. The impostor, according to Tacitus, was either a slave from Pontus, or a freedman from Italy. The historian does not reveal much about the early career of the impostor, except to say that the Pseudo-Nero gathered around him a group of army deserters and then set out to sea.

The impostor's group was blown by storm to the island of Kythnos, one of the lesser islands of the Cyclades, which had only one community worthy of the appellation polis in antiquity—the city of Cythnus. Here he supposedly engaged in piracy by waylaying merchants, stealing their cargo, and arming their slaves. Cythnus was long known as a popular base for pirates. The false Nero also made appeals to bring Roman soldiers en route to Italy over to his growing armed force. Nero's successor Galba probably assigned Calpurnius Asprenas with the task of hunting down the impostor on his way to take up the governorship of the province of Galatia and Pamphylia. With information provided by naval captains that the Pseudo-Nero had attempted to seduce to his side, Asprenas ordered his soldiers to storm the ship and kill the impostor. Asprenas then sent the head of the impostor on a tour of Asia and then on to Rome.

Second Impostor
The second pseudo-Nero appeared during the reign of Titus. He was an Asiatic named Terentius Maximus and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero. He gained a great number of followers across the Euphrates to Parthia. He later fled to Parthia and tried to gain their support by claiming that they owed him some requital for the return of Armenia. Artabanus III, the Parthian King, out of anger towards Titus, both received him and made preparations to restore him to Rome. He was executed when his true identity was revealed.

Third Impostor
The third pseudo-Nero appeared twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of Domitian. Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up and the matter almost came to war.

References

Roman people
68

Pseudo-Nero


Christina Lake, also called Christina Pit, is a wedge-shaped lake. This lake is a manmade freshwater lake just west of Lakeland Highlands, Florida. It is a mine excavation that was landscaped to become a lake. This lake has a  surface area. It is bounded on the east by a narrow strip of land that separates it from another converted mine pit, now called Six Pound Pond. On the north is County Road 540A, on the northeast is a business property, on the west is S. Florida Avenue (State Route 37) and on the south are residences on the north side of Christina Lake Drive.

There are no public boat ramps or no swimming areas on Christina Lake's shores. However, there is public access to the lake along the north and west side public road right-of-way areas, as well as along the strip of land on the east separating the lake from Six Pound Pond. The Hook and Bullet website says Christina Lake contains brook trout and lake trout.

In March 2005 a man was found dead in Six Pound Pond.  He was killed by a 9 foot 8 inch 300-pound alligator that was subsequently captured and killed.

References

Lakes of Polk County, Florida

Christina Lake (Florida)


The Grant R. Brimhall Library serves as the main library for the city of Thousand Oaks, California. It is controlled by the Thousand Oaks Library System, which also controls the Newbury Park Branch Library. The Grant R. Brimhall Building is located on Janss Rd. near State Route 23. There are  in the main building and  in the adjacent Special Collections Storage building. It serves Thousand Oaks, including Newbury Park and Westlake Village. It is the largest library in Ventura County, the largest library in the region, and one of the largest in Southern California.

American Radio Archive was part of the Special Collections Department at the library, and featured one of the largest collections of broadcasting documents in the United States, or perhaps in the world. It had a collection of 23,000 radio- and TV scripts, 10,000 photographs, and 10,000 books related to the history of radio. Furthermore, it contained archives of notable individuals such as Bob Crosby, Rudy Vallee, Norman Corwin, and Monty Masters.

History

The Thousand Oaks City Council established the Thousand Oaks Library, which was dedicated on January 25, 1982. Previously, library services had been provided by the Ventura County Library Services Agency operating from a branch on Wilbur Road. The new city structure provided the community with a 59,000 sq. ft. building. It has an interior fountain and a sculpture of J.B. Blunk, which was the city's first major purchase of artwork. The land is owned by Conejo Recreation and Park District, which leases the property to the city for a 98-year lease. A.C. Martin and Associates was the library designers, and the original 54,000 sq. ft. building was built at a cost of $8 million, much of it which had been donated. The City of Thousand Oaks made a $4.5 million down payment. A reception was held on January 22, 1982, where 385 people attended and donated over $75,000. Hundreds more turned out the following day for the public dedication. On day one, around 4,300 books were loaned, $1,000 was donated to the book fund, and 500 new library cards were issued. The library opened with a collection of 200,000 books, however, was expected to reach 300,000 by 1990. From 1986 to 1987 the library circulated over 1.2 million items, a 97% increase since its opening in 1982–83. As of 1989, the library was visited by 2,500 people on a daily basis.

The library was originally located on Wilbur Road, across from where the Janss Marketplace parking structure stands today. Today, the original building has been remodeled and is used for art work. The Thousand Oaks Library occupies its new building, at 1401 E. Janss Rd. in January 1982, which was later named the Grant R. Brimhall Library in honor of the former City Manager. Before 1982, the library was part of the Ventura County Library Services Agency. In November 1982, the City of Thousand Oaks assumed responsibility for library operations.

The Newbury Park Branch of the library opened in January 1991 at 2331 Borchard Rd. The library encompasses .  The building includes an additional  which house the Friends of the Thousand Oaks Library work area. Newbury Park Library is also home of Thousand Oaks Community Gallery.

Architecture

A.C. Martin and Associates Architecture firm located in Los Angeles was the designer responsible for the new library. It shares similar architecture to the original Thousand Oaks City Hall, which is located off Lynn Rd. across from The Oaks Shopping Center, and with the Thousand Oaks Civic Arts Center and present city hall located on Thousand Oaks Boulevard. The style is very clean and futuristic, with straight lines throughout. It is noted by local residents as being one of the most appealing buildings in the area because of its unique architecture, which was ahead of its time.

Relocation and return
For many years, the library was not located at the main Grant R. Brimhall Building. It moved to a large commercial building off Conejo School Road. In 1994, the Thousand Oaks Library was damaged by the Northridge earthquake and was temporarily relocated to 2400 Willow Lane to allow reconstruction to proceed rapidly. The Grant R. Brimhall Library re-opened at the Janss Road site in November 1996. The building began to have problems with the roof in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Damage occurred inside the library due to leaking, which sent the city and original developer into a lawsuit that took years to conclude. Until the lawsuit concluded and the building could be repaired correctly, the library was moved to the Conejo School Road location, across the US 101 freeway from the present day Thousand Oaks Civic Arts Plaza.

Thousand Oaks Library System
There are approximately 380,000 items in the collection, including books, magazines, newspapers, recorded books on CD and digital formats, DVDs, CD-ROMs and music CDs. New materials are ordered daily by the library. The library system no longer uses the card catalog system, but rather a computer database system to store all library information. The library system also offers large meeting rooms and auditoriums at both library locations, and the Conejo Valley Art Exhibition at the Newbury Park Branch, which is constantly running and previewing local artists' work.

The American Radio Archive was one of the special collections of the Thousand Oaks Library Foundation.  Other collections include local history and the art and history of the book. The American Radio Archives and Museum contained one of the largest collections of radio broadcasting in the United States. The library is home to a local history collection that has more than 1,800 books and pamphlets, from approximately 1875 to the present. The collection also includes extensive subject files, biographical files, maps, oral histories, photographs, and other materials.

Newbury Park Library
Newbury Park Library opened in January 1991 on Borchard Road in Newbury Park, California, directly across from Newbury Gateway Park. It is adjacent to Thousand Oaks Community Gallery and home of the 4,000 sq. ft. Friends of the Thousand Oaks Library work area. The 31,000 sq. ft. library is a branch of the Thousand Oaks Library and is located in a former Ralphs supermarket. It was finished in 1991 at a cost of $4 million, and opened with a collection of 18,000 volumes and a small collection of video and audiotapes. The library houses various genealogical items of the Conejo Valley Genealogical Society.

Expansion

The Grant R. Brimhall Library recently finished a children's wing expansion project. The library expansion project includes a  expansion of the Grant R. Brimhall Library. The project adds onto the south side of the building and is devoted to children's services and collections. Additional staff work area is also included in this project. The new Children's Library entrance is facing Janss Road, with additional parking, a drive-up book drop, a courtyard, 3700 gallon saltwater aquarium and children's patio. It also offers a separate program room, additional shelving for the juvenile collection, and extra study and seating area for children. The existing facility was renovated and modified to include a new location for the library Foundation Store, the Special Collections Department, as well as new quiet and group study rooms, additional seating and shelving.

It was designed by Killefer, Flammang Architects located in Santa Monica, and constructed by AKG Construction, Inc., based in Van Nuys. It took approximately 18 months to complete from its start date, November 17, 2004. Total cost added up to $10.5 million.

References

External links

 Grant R. Brimhall Library Home Page
 Online photo archive
 Friends of the Thousand Oaks Library

Libraries in Ventura County, California
Buildings and structures in Thousand Oaks, California
Education in Thousand Oaks, California
Library buildings completed in 1982
1982 establishments in California

Grant R. Brimhall Library


Brunegg castle () is a castle in the municipality of Brunegg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

The castle was built on a hill at the edge of the Jura mountains in the 13th century.  This castle was probably built, together with Wildegg castle in nearby Wildegg, as part of the Habsburg border defenses.  The castle was occupied by Habsburg knights, including Schenken von Brunegg and Gessler von Meienberg.  In 1415 the castle was besieged by Bernese troops, but they lifted siege after a counterattack.  However, Bern conquered the Aargau, and awarded the fief to the Segenser or Segesser family.  Between 1538 and 1798, the castle was subordinate to the governor of Lenzburg.  In 1815 it became the property of the Hünerwadel family of Lenzburg.  The current owners of the castle, the von Salis family, inherited the castle through marriage from the Hünerwadels.  For hundreds of years, the castle was poorly maintained, and in the 17th century it was heavily damaged twice through storm and tempest.  In 1805–06, the keep and out buildings were repaired and the roof was rebuilt.

The village of Brunegg owes its name and existence to the castle.  Initially it belonged to the personal land of the Habsburgs.  In the 14th century, they granted the rights to low justice into the hands of the castle owners.  Bern placed in the court of Othmarsingen in the Lenzburg district.  In the 19th century it was part of the Brugg district though since 1840 it has been in the Lenzburg district.

See also

List of castles and fortresses in Switzerland

References

Castles in Aargau
House of Habsburg
13th-century architecture in Switzerland

Brunegg Castle


Baron Berwick, of Attingham Park in the County of Shropshire, was a title in the Peerage of Great Britain. It was created in 1784 for Noel Hill, who had earlier represented Shrewsbury and Shropshire in Parliament. He was the son of Thomas Hill (originally Thomas Harwood), son of Thomas Harwood, a draper, of Shrewsbury, Shropshire. His paternal grandmother was Margaret, daughter of Rowland Hill, sister of Sir Richard Hill and aunt of Sir Rowland Hill, 1st Baronet, ancestor of the Viscounts Hill. Hill's father had assumed the surname of Hill in lieu of his patronymic on succeeding to the Hill estates through his mother. Lord Berwick was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Baron. He was a patron of art. He died childless and was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Baron. He was a diplomat and politician. In 1824 he assumed by Royal licence the additional surname of Noel, which was that of his maternal grandfather, William Noel, younger son of Sir John Noel, 4th Baronet, of Kirkby Mallory (see Noel Baronets).

Lord Berwick died unmarried and was succeeded by his younger brother, the fourth Baron. He was a clergyman. He also assumed the additional surname of Noel by Royal licence in 1824. Two of his sons, the fifth and sixth Barons, both succeeded in the title. Both died unmarried and on the death of the sixth Baron the title passed to his nephew, the seventh Baron. He was the son of the Hon. Thomas Henry Noel-Hill, younger son of the fourth Baron. He was childless and was succeeded by his nephew, the eighth Baron. He was the son of Reverend the Hon. Thomas Noel-Hill, younger brother of the seventh Baron. 8th Baron had no children. The title became extinct on the death of his second cousin who died without legitimate issue, the ninth Baron, in 1953.

The family seat was Attingham Park, Atcham, Shropshire.

Barons Berwick (1784)
Noel Hill, 1st Baron Berwick (1745–1789)
Thomas Noel Hill, 2nd Baron Berwick (1770–1832)
William Noel-Hill, 3rd Baron Berwick (1773–1842)
Richard Noel-Hill, 4th Baron Berwick (1774–1848)
Richard Noel Noel-Hill, 5th Baron Berwick (1800–1861)
William Noel-Hill, 6th Baron Berwick (1802–1882)
Richard Henry Noel-Hill, 7th Baron Berwick (1847–1897)
Thomas Henry Noel-Hill, 8th Baron Berwick (1877–1947)
Charles Michael Wentworth Noel-Hill, 9th Baron Berwick (1897–1953)

See also
Viscount Hill
Noel Baronets
Baron Hume of Berwick
Lord Lloyd of Berwick

References

Pedigree

Extinct baronies in the Peerage of Great Britain
Noble titles created in 1784

Baron Berwick


The Age of Reason; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology is a book written by English and American political activist Thomas Paine. It defends the philosophical position of deism. It follows in the tradition of 18th-century British deism, and challenges the official religion and the authority of the Bible. It was published in three parts in 1794, 1795, and 1807.

It was a best-seller in the United States, where it was the cause for a coming back of deism. However, it was not well received in Britain, because the public feared increased political radicalism as a result of the French Revolution.

The Age of Reason presents common deistic arguments; for example, it highlights what Paine saw as corruption of the Christian Church. Paine preferes reason in the place of revelation, leading him to reject miracles and to view the Bible as an ordinary book, rather than a text given by God. In The Age of Reason, he promotes natural religion and argues for the existence of a creator god.

1794
1790s books
1800s books

The Age of Reason


Total Immersion Racing is a 2002 racing game that covers three types of car classes: GT, GTS and PRO (Prototype) and involves racing on both real-world and imaginary circuits. There are four difficulty levels: Amateur, Professional, Legend and Extreme.

Total Immersion Racing was released for the Mac OS X by Feral Interactive in 2003.

Game modes
Single Race: Race on any unlocked track with any unlocked car. One lap to twenty-five can be raced and the time of day can be changed to either Evening or Day (on most tracks).

Career: Start in a low power GT car and rise through the ranks to win the PRO category championship and unlock cars and tracks.

Time Trial: Get best lap times on any track with any car.

Challenge: Complete thirty seven different challenges under five classes: GT, GTS, PRO, Manufacturer and Endurance. A list of all the challenges can be found below.

Cars
There are a total of seventeen cars divided into three groups (GT, GTS and PRO (prototype)):

Challenges
The challenges have to be completed in order, with completion of #1 unlocking #2 and so on. With each race the player accumulates points for their finishing position (10 for a win), which contribute to a championship score. Failure to win the championship will constitute failure of the challenge. The challenges may be one-car specific or may allow the choice of several or all cars from a single class. Completing challenges unlocks cars and tracks for use in single and multi-player as well a time trial use. Generally, 'manufacturer' challenges (where specific cars are unlocked) are separated by one or two general challenges (mostly allowing use of any unlocked car from the class of the previously unlocked vehicle). Winning races on tracks not previously raced on will unlock them, since not all tracks are available for racing from the start. Each challenges includes anywhere from 1 to 8 separate races, each of between 1 and 50 laps.

For challenge racing, there are no difficulty settings, with the difficulty ramping up as the player moves through them.

Reception

The game received "mixed or average reviews" on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.

References

External links
 Official website (archived)

2002 video games
Classic Mac OS games
MacOS games
PlayStation 2 games
Racing video games
Video games scored by Richard Jacques
Windows games
Xbox games
Feral Interactive games
Empire Interactive games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Razorworks games
Multiplayer and single-player video games

Total Immersion Racing


NFL is a 1989 football video game, developed by Atlus and published by LJN exclusively for the Nintendo Entertainment System.

Gameplay modes

This game was the first since NFL Football - released in 1979 for the Intellivision - to get an official National Football League license. Intending to loosely represent the 1988-89 season of the National Football League, the game uses the teams and play formations of that particular era while avoiding usage of the players' names, due to a lack of an NFLPA license, which was given to Tecmo's Tecmo Bowl.

The player could play one of four options, either Interconference, AFC and NFC game or the Super Bowl (specifically Super Bowl XXIII). Along with the option to choose a package to play during the game, players can directly control the entire team at once. This game was one of the first NFL video games on a gaming system. The game employs a Top-Down system for the actual gameplay and allows players to assign handicaps to a human opponent that is not as skilled as they are.

Reception
Allgame gave the game a 2.5 out of 5 rating in their overview.

References

1989 video games
Video games developed in Japan
LJN games
Atlus games
National Football League video games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
North America-exclusive video games
Professional American football video games set in the United States
Top-down video games
Video games scored by Hirohiko Takayama
Video games set in 1988
Multiplayer and single-player video games

NFL (video game)


The Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration, or Mandatory Iraq ( ), was created in 1921, following the 1920 Iraqi Revolt against the proposed British Mandate of Mesopotamia, and enacted via the 1922 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty and a 1924 undertaking by the United Kingdom to the League of Nations to fulfil the role as Mandatory Power.

Faisal ibn Husayn, who had been proclaimed King of Syria by a Syrian National Congress in Damascus in March 1920, was ejected by the French in July of the same year. Faisal was then granted by the British the territory of Iraq, to rule it as a kingdom, with the British Royal Air Force (RAF) retaining certain military control, but de facto, the territory remained under British administration until 1932.

The civil government of postwar Iraq was headed originally by the High Commissioner, Sir Percy Cox, and his deputy, Colonel Arnold Wilson. British reprisals after the murder of a British officer in Najaf failed to restore order. The most striking problem facing the British was the growing anger of the nationalists, who continued to fight against the imposition of British authority. British administration had yet to be established in Iraqi Kurdistan.

History

Early unrest

Three important anticolonial secret societies had been formed in Iraq during 1918 and 1919. The League of the Islamic Awakening (Jam'iyya an-naḥda al-islāmiyya) was organized at Najaf. The Muslim National League (al-Jam'iyya al-waṭaniyya al-islāmiyya) was formed with the object of organizing and mobilizing the population for major resistance. In February 1919, in Baghdad, a coalition of Shia merchants, Sunni teachers, and civil servants, Sunni and Shia ulama, and Iraqi officers formed the Guardians of Independence (Harās al-istiqlāl). The Istiqlal had member groups in Karbala, Najaf, Kut, and Hillah.

The Grand Mujtahid of Karbala, Imam Shirazi, and his son, Mirza Muhammad Riza, began to organize the insurgent effort.  Shirazi then issued a fatwa (religious ruling), pointing out that it was against Islamic law for Muslims to countenance being ruled by non-Muslims, and he called for a jihad against the British. By July 1920, Mosul was in rebellion against British rule, and the insurrection moved south down the Euphrates River valley. The southern tribes, who cherished their long-held political autonomy, needed little inducement to join in the fray. They did not cooperate in an organized effort against the British, however, which limited the effect of the revolt. The country was in a state of anarchy for three months; the British restored order only with reinforcements from India.

The Iraqi revolt of 1920 was a watershed event in contemporary Iraqi history. For the first time, Sunnis and Shias, tribes and cities, were brought together in a common effort. In the opinion of Hanna Batatu, author of a seminal work on Iraq, the building of a nation-state in Iraq depended upon two major factors: the integration of Shias and Sunnis into the new body politic and the successful resolution of the age-old conflicts between the tribes and the riverine cities and among the tribes themselves over the food-producing flatlands of the Tigris and the Euphrates. The 1920 rebellion brought these groups together, if only briefly; this constituted an important first step in the long and arduous process of forging a nation-state out of Iraq's conflict-ridden social structure.The Assyrian Levies, a military force under British command, participated in the Kirkuk Massacre of 1924 of Kurds;Arabs and Turkomen. (See Simele Massacres of 1933)

On 1 October 1922, the Royal Air Force (RAF) elements stationed in Iraq were reorganized into the RAF Iraq Command, which came about partially as a result of the 1920 revolt. This new command was primarily designed to suppress any threats to the Hashemite monarchy. Air control was considered by the British government as a more cost-effective method of controlling large areas of territory than land forces, an idea that was heavily promoted by RAF officer Hugh Trenchard. During the 1920s and 30s, the RAF Iraq Command participated in the suppression of numerous protests and revolts against the Hashemite monarchy.  Historian Elie Kedourie noted that "the North [of Iraq] as a whole had to be coerced [into submission] by the Royal Air Force." When the Kurdish leader Sheikh Mahmud launched an armed rebellion, the British used the newly established Iraqi army to suppress the revolt, but that proved ineffective. The British then resorted to deploying the RAF, which suppressed the revolt. In the same period, rebellions by the Shia in the South were also suppressed by the RAF.

Coronation of Faisal
At the Cairo Conference of March 1921, the British set the parameters for Iraqi political life that were to continue until the 1958 revolution; they chose a Hashemite, Faisal ibn Husayn, son of Sherif Hussein ibn Ali former Sharif of Mecca as Iraq's first King; they established an Iraqi army (but kept Iraq Levies under direct British command); and they proposed a new treaty. To confirm Faisal as Iraq's first monarch, a one-question plebiscite was carefully arranged that had a return of 96 percent in his favor. The British saw in Faisal a leader who possessed sufficient nationalist and Islamic credentials to have broad appeal, but who also was vulnerable enough to remain dependent on their support. Faisal traced his descent from the family of the Prophet Muhammad.  His ancestors held political authority in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina since the 10th century. The British believed these credentials would satisfy traditional Arab standards of political legitimacy; moreover, the British thought Faisal would be accepted by the growing Iraqi nationalist movement because of his role in the 1916 Arab Revolt against the Turks, his achievements as a leader of the Iraq emancipation movement, and his general leadership qualities. Faisal was instated as the Monarch of Iraq after the Naquib of Baghdad was disqualified as being too old (80 yrs) and Sayid Talib (a prominent Iraqi from the province of Basra) was deported on trumped up charges by the British. The voting was far from a reflection of the true feelings of the Iraqi people. Nevertheless, Faisal was considered the most effective choice for the throne by the British government.

The final major decision taken at the Cairo Conference related to the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1922. Faisal was under pressure from the nationalists and the anti-British mujtahids of Najaf and Karbala to limit both British influence in Iraq and the duration of the treaty. Recognizing that the monarchy depended on British support— and wishing to avoid a repetition of his experience in Syria — Faisal maintained a moderate approach in dealing with the UK. The treaty, which had been originally set as a 20-year engagement but later reduced to four years, was ratified in June 1924; it stated that the king would heed British advice on all matters affecting British interests and on fiscal policy as long as Iraq had a balance of payments deficit with the UK, and that British officials would be appointed to specified posts in 18 departments to act as advisers and inspectors. A subsequent financial agreement, which significantly increased the financial burden on Iraq, required Iraq to pay half the cost of supporting British resident officials, among other expenses. British obligations under the new treaty included providing various kinds of aid, notably military assistance, and proposing Iraq for membership in the League of Nations at the earliest moment. In effect, the treaty ensured that Iraq would remain politically and economically dependent on the UK. While unable to prevent the treaty, Faisal clearly felt that the British had gone back on their promises to him.

The British decision at the Cairo Conference to establish an indigenous Iraqi army was significant. In Iraq, as in most of the developing world, the military establishment has been the best organized institution in an otherwise weak political system. Thus, while Iraq's body politic crumbled under immense political and economic pressure throughout the monarchic period, the military gained increasing power and influence; moreover, because the officers in the new army were by necessity Sunnis who had served under the Ottomans, while the lower ranks were predominantly filled by Shia tribal elements, Sunni dominance in the military was preserved.

Later years
The Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 provided for a "close alliance," for "full and frank consultations between the two countries in all matters of foreign policy," and for mutual assistance in case of war. Iraq granted the British the use of air bases near Basra and at Habbaniyah and the right to move troops across the country. The treaty, of twenty-five years' duration, was to come into force upon Iraq's admission to the League of Nations.

With the signing of the 1930 Treaty and the settling of the Mosul Question, Iraqi politics took on a new dynamic. The emerging class of Sunni and Shia landowning tribal sheikhs vied for positions of power with wealthy and prestigious urban-based Sunni families and with Ottoman-trained army officers and bureaucrats. Because Iraq's newly established political institutions were the creation of a foreign power, and because the concept of democratic government had no precedent in Iraqi history, the politicians in Baghdad lacked legitimacy and never developed deeply rooted constituencies. Thus, despite a constitution and an elected assembly, Iraqi politics was more a shifting alliance of important personalities and cliques than a democracy in the Western sense. The absence of broadly based political institutions inhibited the early nationalist movement's ability to make deep inroads into Iraq's diverse social structure.

The Mandatory administration continued to operate until 1932.

In 1936 and 1937 various protests and revolts broke out against the Iraqi government, with the main issues centering around agrarian issues and conscription into the armed forces. These were suppressed by the Iraqi government with assistance from the RAF Iraq Command, with Kedourie writing that the "killing, it seems, was indiscriminate, and old men, women and children were the victims." An armed revolt which broke out in 1937 over agrarian issues and conscription was also "put down with the help of indiscriminate aerial bombing." During these disturbances, Shia religious leaders were expelled from Iraq due to being Persians. Kedourie describes the monarchy as despotic, with a record "full of bloodshed, treason and rapine" and "however pitiful its end we may know that it was implicit in its beginning."

In his assessment of the British mandate and the Iraqi monarchy, historians Kanan Makiya considers the British mandate and its institutions more as "agents of modernisation" than colonialism:

Kedourie's judgement, however, is different:

If Makiya is referring to economic development in his account of the British modernising legacy in Iraq, an authoritative study demonstrates that Iraq's productivity in agriculture, the most important sector at the time, in fact declined from 275 kg per acre in 1920 to an average of 238 kg per acre between 1953 and 1958.

Under the British mandate a new ruling class of 'government shaikhs' was created. "Many of them [the Shaikhs], reported Major Pulley to the British commissioner in Baghdad in 1920, "were small men of no account until we made them powerful and rich." The Civil Commissioner Wilson reported on his part that the Shaikhs "were in most cases directly dependent on the civil administration for the positions they held; realising that their positions entailed corresponding obligations, they co-operated actively with the political officers."

In a dispatch by a British official to London in 1928, there was a description of how the electoral system worked: the government's provincial governors were in fact election agents who drew up lists of those to be elected and of those who would do the electing. Elections to "the chamber of deputies and appointments to the senate," comments Keeourie, "were an additional weapon in the hands of the
government wherewith the better to control the country."

Independence
On 3 October 1932, the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq became a fully-sovereign state. Ruled by the Hashemites, it lasted until 1958.

Economy
Nomadic bedouin tribes within Iraq, which had previously traded all throughout the Middle East, became confined to trading only within the borders of the Mandate itself. This decision by the colonial administration proved economically troubling and devastating for the bedouins.

Oil concession
Before the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the British-controlled Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC) had held concessionary rights to the Mosul wilaya (province). Under the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement — an agreement in 1916 between Britain and France that delineated future control of the Middle East — the area would have fallen under French influence. In 1919, however, the French relinquished their claims to Mosul under the terms of the Long-Berenger Agreement. The 1919 agreement granted the French a 25 percent share in the TPC as compensation.

Beginning in 1923, British and Iraqi negotiators held acrimonious discussions over the new oil concession. The major obstacle was Iraq's insistence on a 20 percent equity participation in the company; this figure had been included in the original TPC concession to the Turks and had been agreed upon at Sanremo for the Iraqis. In the end, despite strong nationalist sentiments against the concession agreement, the Iraqi negotiators acquiesced to it. The League of Nations was soon to vote on the disposition of Mosul, and the Iraqis feared that, without British support, Iraq would lose the area to Turkey. In March 1925, an agreement was concluded that contained none of the Iraqi demands. The TPC, now renamed the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), was granted a full and complete concession for a period of seventy-five years.

British High Commissioners
 1920–1923: Major-General Sir Percy Cox
 1923–1928: Sir Henry Dobbs
 1928–1929: Brigadier-General Sir Gilbert Clayton
 1929–1932: Lt. Colonel Sir Francis Humphrys

See also
Guardians of Independence
Mesopotamian campaign
Ottoman Iraq
RAF Iraq Command

Notes

Sources

Further reading
 Barker, A. J.: The First Iraq War, 1914-1918: Britain's Mesopotamian Campaign (New York: Enigma Books, 2009).
 Fuccaro, Nelida: The Other Kurds (London: IB Tauris, 1999).
 Dodge, Toby: Inventing Iraq (2009).
 Fieldhouse, David K.: Western Imperialism in the Middle East, 1914–1958 (2006).
 Fisk, Robert: The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East, (2nd ed. 2006).
 Jacobsen, Mark: "'Only by the Sword': British Counter‐insurgency in Iraq", in: Small Wars and Insurgencies 2, no. 2 (1991): pp. 323–63.
 Simons, Geoff: Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam (2nd ed. 1994).
 Sluglett, Peter: Britain in Iraq: Contriving King and Country, 1914–1932 (2nd ed. 2007).
 Vinogradov, Amal: "The 1920 Revolt in Iraq Reconsidered: The Role of Tribes in National Politics," International Journal of Middle East Studies 3, no. 2 (1972): pp. 123–39.

Mandatory Iraq
British military occupations
Former countries in the Middle East
Iraq–United Kingdom relations
States and territories established in 1920
States and territories disestablished in 1932
Sykes–Picot Agreement
1920 establishments in Iraq
20th-century disestablishments in Iraq
Former countries of the interwar period

Mandatory Iraq


A belt without a buckle, especially if a cord or rope, is called a girdle in various contexts, especially historical ones, where girdles were a very common part of everyday clothing from antiquity until perhaps the 15th century, especially for women.  Most girdles were practical pieces of costume to hold other pieces in place, but some were loose and essentially for decoration. Among the elite these might include precious metals and jewels.

Today, girdles are part of Christian liturgical vestments, and the word is used in other contexts, such as American sports (for what is really a kind of underwear).

The girdle as an undergarment or abbreviated corset around the waist is a different, essentially 20th-century, concept, but from around 1895 there was a fashion for "girdles" as a separate section of a fashionable dress, worn just above the waist on top of the main dress. It was typically up to about eight inches high, and often terminated in a "V" shape. It might be the same colour as the main dress or not. It differs from the earlier Swiss waist of the mid-19th century by not having lacing or boning.

History

The men among the Greeks and Romans wore the girdle upon the loins, and it served them to confine the tunic, and hold the purse, instead of pockets, which were unknown; girls and women wore it under the bosom. The Strophium, Taenia, or Mitra occurs in many figures. In the small bronze Pallas of the Villa Albani, and in figures on the Hamilton Vases, are three cordons with a knot, detached from two ends of the girdle, which is fixed under the bosom. This girdle forms under the breast a knot of ribbon, sometimes in the form of a rose, as occur on the two handsomest daughters of Niobe. Upon the youngest the ends of the girdle pass over the shoulders, and upon the back, as they do upon four Caryatides found at Monte Portio. This part of the dress the ancients called, at least in the time of Isidore, Succinctorium or Bracile.

The girdle was omitted by both sexes in mourning. Often when the tunic was very long, and would otherwise be entangled by the feet, it was drawn over the girdle in such a way as to conceal the latter entirely underneath its folds. It is not uncommon to see two girdles of different widths worn together, one very high up, the other very low down, so as to form between the two in the tunic, a puckered interval; but this fashion was mostly applied to short tunics. The tunic of the Greek males was almost always confined by a girdle.

Among the Anglo-Saxons, it was used by both sexes; by the men to confine their tunic, and support the sword. Some were richly embroidered, and of white leather.  A leather strap was chiefly worn by monks.

Vestment and iconography

Christian usage

As a Christian liturgical vestment, the girdle is a long, rope-like cord tied around the waist over the alb or cassock. The Parson's Handbook describes the girdle as being made "generally of white linen rope, and may have a tassel at each end. About 12 ft. 6 in. long is a very convenient size if it is used double, one end being then turned into a noose and the tasselled ends slipped through. The girdle, however, may be coloured." They are used to close a cassock in Christian denominations, including the Anglican Communion, Catholic Church, Methodist Church and Lutheran Church.

Christian monastics would often hang religious texts, such as the Bible or Breviary, from their girdles and these became known as girdle books. In addition, they would often knot the ends of the girdle thrice, in order to represent the "vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience." As such, within the Christian Church, the girdle, in some contexts, represents chastity and within the Hebrew Bible, "Proverbs 31 provides biblical reference to the ancient practice of girdle making by virtuous chaste women". In the New Testament, "Christ referred to the girdle as a symbol of preparation and readiness for service ()":

Saint Paul, in  also references the term, stating "Stand therefore, first fastening round you the girdle of truth and putting on the breastplate of uprightness", further buttressing the concept of the girdle as a symbol of readiness. Many Christian clergy, such as Anglican priests and Methodist ministers, use the following prayer when wearing the girdle:

By the 8th century AD, the girdle became established as a liturgical vestment "in the strict sense of the word." In 800 AD, the girdle began to be worn by Christian deacons in the Eastern Church.

Although the general word "cincture" is sometimes used as a synonym for the girdle, liturgical manuals distinguish between the two, as the "girdle is a long cord or rope while the cincture is a wide sash. Generally an alb is closed with a girdle, an Anglican-style double-breasted cassock is closed with a cincture, and a Roman cassock is closed with either one."

In the medieval and early modern period there are also accounts of girdles being used as a mnemonic. These would be tied or decorated with bead so that, like a rosary, each notch would remind the wearer of a particular psalm or book. The girdle, in the 8th or 9th century, was said to resemble an ancient Levitical Jewish vestment, and in that era, was not visible.

The girdle, for men, symbolizes preparation and readiness to serve, and for women, represents chastity and protection; it was also worn by laypersons in the Middle Ages, as attested in literature. For example, the hagiographical account of Saint George and the Dragon mentions the evildoer being tamed with the sign of the cross and a girdle handed to Saint George by a virgin.

In Judaism
A gartel is a belt worn by Jewish males, predominantly (but not exclusively) Hasidim, during prayer. "Gartel" is Yiddish for "belt" and is cognate with the English word "girdle". Gartels are generally very modest in appearance. Most are black, but some gartels are white. Hasidic custom requires that there be a physical divide between the heart and the genitalia during any mention of God's name. It is commonly explained that separating the upper and lower parts of the body manifests a control of the animal instincts of the person by the distinctly human intellect.

Indian religions
In the Vajrayana iconography of the Hevajra Tantra, the 'girdle' (Tib.: ske rags), one of the 'Five Bone Ornaments' (aṣṭhiamudrā) symbolizes Amoghasiddhi and the 'accomplishing pristine awareness' (Kṛty-anuṣṭhāna-jñāna), one of the 'Five Wisdoms' (pañca-jñāna). The iconography of the girdle (or bone apron and belt ) in Vajrayana iconography developed from one of the items of vestment adorning the Mahasiddha of the charnel grounds.

Beer (1999: p. 318) describes the bone girdle as the 'netted bone apron and belt' as vesture of the Dakinis and Heruka of the Cham Dance and Gar Dance of Tibetan Buddhism sacred ritual dance performances:

Girdle in literature

In literature, girdles are often portrayed as magical, giving power and strength if worn by men, and protection if worn by women. Several scriptures in the Bible make use of the girdle as a symbol for readiness and preparation. Ishtar, a Babylonian goddess, wore a fertility girdle, which, when it was removed, rendered the universe barren. Hercules wrestled with the Amazon queen for her girdle in his Greek myth. Aphrodite, or Venus in Roman mythology, also wore girdles associated with lechery in later poetry.

For men a girdle was often used to hold weapons. It also gave them freedom to move in a fight, unlike other types of clothing. Both of these are thought to carry the connection of power to the man's girdle in literature. For example, Odysseus wears a girdle which allows him to swim for three days straight, and a girdle worn by Thor doubles his strength. Metal girdles were manufactured by girdlers.

Later, for women, the girdle became a sign of virginity, and was often considered to have magical properties. Monsters and all types of evil are recorded as being subdued by girdles in literature, a famous one being the dragon slain by Saint George. Marriage ceremonies continued this tradition of girdles symbolizing virginity by having the husband take the wife's girdle, and prostitutes were forbidden to wear them by law in historic France. Often in literature, women are portrayed as safe from sexual or other attack when wearing a girdle, but suddenly vulnerable if it is missing or stolen.

Non-clothing uses in literature include Tolkien's "Girdle of Melian", a magical, protective "wall" surrounding an elven kingdom.

The 20th century women's girdle attracts various references in literature, often in a disparaging way. For example, Marilyn French in her classic book, The Women's Room, is very critical not only of the girdle itself, but also of the virtual compulsion to wear one, a compulsion which existed until the late 1960s. In John Masters's Bhowani Junction, once the mixed-race Victoria Jones decides to opt for an Indian rather than British persona, she rejects her girdle as a "western garment".

For information on the girdle as a modern undergarment, see Girdle (undergarment)

Sports
In American football, what is called a girdle is worn under the football player's pants to keep the hip, thigh, and tailbone pads in place, making the process of putting on the tight football pants easier. Older girdles resembled chaps, in that they covered only the front of the leg with pads, that snapped on. Modern girdles are essentially a tight pair of compression shorts with pockets for the pads. The girdle was also used in the Mesoamerican ballgame and is used in hockey (National Hockey League).

Some designs are made specifically for use in the sport of ringette.

See also

Confraternities of the Cord
Girdle of Thomas
Girdle book
List of animals referred to as girdled

References

External links

Belts (clothing)
Anglican vestments
Lutheran vestments
1920s fashion
1930s fashion
1940s fashion
1950s fashion
1960s fashion
Corsetry
History of clothing (Western fashion)
Lingerie
Foundation garments

Girdle


A podiatrist ( ) is a medical professional devoted to the treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, and related structures of the leg. The term originated in North America but has now become the accepted term in the English-speaking world for all practitioners of podiatric medicine. The word chiropodist was previously used in the United States, but it is now regarded as antiquated.

In the United States, podiatrists are educated and licensed as Doctors of Podiatric Medicine (DPM). The preparatory education of most podiatric physicians — similar to the paths of traditional physicians (MD or DO) — includes four years of undergraduate work, followed by four years in an accredited podiatric medical school, followed by a three- or four-year hospital-based podiatry residency. Optional one- to two-year fellowship in foot and ankle reconstruction, surgical limb salvage, sports medicine, plastic surgery, pediatric foot and ankle surgery, and wound care is also available. Podiatric medical residencies and/ or fellowships are accredited by the Council on Podiatric Medical Education (CPME). The overall scope of podiatric practice varies from state to state with a common focus on foot and ankle surgery.

In many countries, the term podiatrist refers to allied health professionals who specialize in the treatment of the lower extremity, particularly the foot. Podiatrists in these countries are specialists in the diagnosis and nonsurgical treatment of foot pathology. In some circumstances, these practitioners will further specialise and, following further training, perform reconstructive foot and ankle surgery. In the United States, a podiatrist or podiatric surgeon shares the same medical education as osteopathic physicians (DO) and allopathic physicians (MD) with 4 years of medical school and 3-4 years of surgical residency focusing on the lower extremity.

Podiatry is a high-paying specialization. Medical Group Management Association (MGMA) data shows that a general podiatrist with a single specialty earns a median salary of $230,357, while one with a multi-specialty practice type earns $270,263. However, a podiatric surgeon makes more with a single specialty, with the median at $304,474 compared to that of multi-specialty podiatric surgeons of $286,201. First-year salaries around $150,000 with performance and productivity incentives are common. Private practice revenues for solo podiatrists vary widely, with the majority of solo practices grossing between $200,000 and $600,000 before overhead.

Podiatric specialties
Podiatrists treat a wide variety of foot and lower extremity conditions through nonsurgical and surgical approaches. The American Board of Podiatric Medicine (ABPM) offers a comprehensive board qualification and certification process in podiatric medicine and orthopedics. Subspecialties of podiatry include:

 Reconstructive surgery
 General podiatry
 Podiatric medicine
 Podiatric orthopedics
 Podiatric sports medicine
 High-risk wound care
 Podiatric rheumatology
 Neuropodiatry
 Oncopodiatry (podiatric oncology)
 Podiatric vascular medicine
 Podiatric dermatology
 Podoradiology
 Podiatric gerontology
 Podiatric diabetology (limb salvage and wound care)
 Podopediatrics
 Forensic podiatry

Podiatry assistant

In Australia, podiatry assistant Certificate IV in Allied Health Assistance qualification. The podiatry assistant work as a part of a podiatric medical team in both clinical and nonclinical settings. Common professional accreditation pathways to becoming a podiatric assistant include:

 Podiatric nurse
 Foot carer/nurse
 Podiatry support worker
 Podiatry technician
 Podiatry hygienist
 Foot health professional
 Podiatric surgical nurse
 Foot hygienist
 Foot health practitioner
 Podiatric medical assistant

Podiatric surgery
Podiatric surgery is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the foot and ankle:

 Structural deformities, including bunions, hammertoes, flat feet, high arches, and bone spurs
 Heel pain
 Nerve entrapment
 Joint degeneration and arthrosis
 Skin and nail conditions
 Congenital deformities such as clubfoot and polydactyly
 Trauma, including fractures and dislocations
 Ankle fractures
 deformity correction/reconstruction for things like malunion, limb length discrepancy, Charcot neuroarthropathy
 Joint fusions for arthritis and other painful joint destructive conditions in the foot and ankle
 Total ankle replacements
 Total or hemi-joint replacements

Responsibilities
Podiatrists' roles include dealing with the conditions resulting from bone and joint disorders such as arthritis and soft-tissue and muscular pathologies as well as neurological and circulatory diseases. Podiatrists are also able to diagnose and treat any complications of the above which affect the lower limb, including skin and nail disorders, corns, calluses and ingrown toenails. Foot injuries and infections gained through sport or other activities are also diagnosed and treated by podiatrists.

Education and training

United States

In the United States, medical and surgical care of the foot and ankle is mainly provided by two groups of professionals: podiatrists (Doctor of Podiatric Medicine or DPM) and orthopedists (MDs or DOs).
The first two years of podiatric medical school is similar to training that either Doctors of Medicine (M.D.) or Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) receive, but with an emphasized scope on foot, ankle, and lower extremity. To enter a college of podiatric medicine, the student must first complete at least three years or 90 semester hours of college credit at an accredited institution. Biology, chemistry, organic chemistry, physics (all science courses require a lab) and English are among the required subjects. Over 95% of the students who enter a college of podiatric medicine have a bachelor's degree. Many have also completed some graduate study. Before entering a college of podiatric medicine, the student must take the MCAT (Medical College Admissions Test). In 2019, the average MCAT score for matriculants was 494.6 and the average undergraduate cGPA was 3.3.
There are nine colleges of podiatric medicine in the United States. They all receive accreditation from the Council on Podiatric Medical Education, which is recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education and the Council on Higher Education Accreditation. All of the colleges grant the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM).

The four-year podiatric medical school is followed by a hospital based residency, which is hands-on post-doctoral training. Their residency model was standardized to 3-years of post-graduate training in 2011 (with some programs lasting 4 years in length), and the residency is now known as the Podiatric Medicine and Surgery Residency (PMSR) with almost all now having an added Reconstructive Rearfoot and Ankle (RRA) credential. Podiatric residents rotate through core areas of medicine and surgery. They work alongside their MD and DO counterparts in such rotations as emergency medicine, internal medicine, infectious disease, behavioral medicine, physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R), vascular surgery, general surgery, orthopedic surgery, plastic surgery, dermatology and podiatric surgery and medicine. Fellowship training is available after residency in such fields such as foot and ankle traumatology, lower extremity reconstruction, or limb salvage.

Upon completion of their residency, podiatrists can decide to become board certified by a number of specialty boards including the American Board of Podiatric Medicine (ABPM) and/or the American Board of Foot and Ankle Surgery (ABFAS), which are both approved by the profession's credentialing arm, the CPME, and both have been certifying podiatrists since the 1970s. Though the ABPM and ABFAS are more common, other boards not recognized by CPME are challenging the status quo confer board qualified/certified status. The American Board of Multiple Specialties in Podiatry (ABMSP) is one additional option and has been certifying podiatrists since 1998.

The DPM superseded the historical DSC (Doctor of Surgical Chiropody) degree in the 1960s.

Australia
Australian podiatrists complete an undergraduate degree of Bachelor of Podiatry or Podiatric Medicine ranging from 3 to 4 years of education. The first 2 years of this program are generally focused on various biomedical science subjects including anatomy, medical chemistry, biochemistry, physiology, pathophysiology, sociology and patient psychology, similar to the medical curriculum. The following two years will then be spent focusing on podiatry specific areas such as podiatric biomechanics and human gait, podiatric orthopaedics or the non-surgical management of foot abnormalities, pharmacology and prescribing, general medicine, general pathology, local and general anaesthesia, and surgical procedural techniques such as partial and total nail avulsions, matricectomy, cryotherapy, wound debridement and care, enucleation, and other cutaneous and electro-surgical procedures such as electro-desiccation, fulagaration and electrosection. Postgraduate courses in podiatric therapeutics and prescribing are required for having endorsements in scheduled medicines.

All podiatrists are required to register with Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) prior to be licensed to practice in Australia. Registration is required annually. There is a minimum of continuing professional development (CPD) hours a podiatrist must undertake to maintain said registration.

Podiatric surgery in Australia
Podiatric surgeons are specialist podiatrists who have completed extensive, post-graduate medical and surgical training and perform reconstructive surgery of the foot and ankle. The qualifications of podiatric surgeons are recognised by Australian state and federal governments. It is an approved specialty by the AHPRA. Podiatric surgeons are included within both the Health Insurance Act and the National Health Act. The Podiatry Board of Australia recognizes 3 pathways to attain specialist registration as a Podiatric Surgeon:
Fellowship of the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons
Doctor of Podiatric Surgery, University of Western Australia
Eligibility for Fellowship of the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons

Podiatric surgical qualifications are a post-graduate speciality of the podiatric profession. Before attaining a podiatric surgical fellowship qualification, a podiatrist must complete an extensive training program, including:
Bachelor of Applied Science degree, majoring in Podiatry (4 years)
Minimum of 2 years post-graduate clinical practice
Master of Podiatry (2 years full-time university degree)
A 3-stage surgical fellowship training under supervision of the ACPS (4 to 6 years)
International residency training (usually in the UK and USA)
Demonstrated mastery of knowledge in foot and ankle surgery by passing oral and written examinations administered by the ACPS

New Zealand

Only one university, Auckland University of Technology (AUT), offers training to become a podiatrist. Podiatrists must have a Bachelor of Health Science majoring in podiatry from AUT, or an overseas qualification recognised by the Podiatrists Board of New Zealand, be registered with the Podiatrists Board of New Zealand and have a current Annual Practising Certificate.

Canada

In Canada, the definition and scope of the practice of podiatry varies provincially. For instance, in some provinces like British Columbia and Alberta, the standards are the same as in the United States where the Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) is the accepted qualification.

Quebec, too, has recently changed to the DPM level of training, although other academic designations may also register. Also in Quebec, in 2004, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières started the first program of Podiatric Medicine in Canada based on the American definition of podiatry. In the prairie and Atlantic provinces, the standard was originally based on the British model now called podiatry (chiropody). That model of podiatry is currently the accepted model for most of the world including the United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa.

The province of Ontario has been registering Chiropodists since July 1993 (when the Ontario Government imposed a cap on new podiatrists). If a registered podiatrist from outside of Ontario relocates to Ontario they are required to register with the province and practice as a chiropodist. Podiatrists who were practising in Ontario previous to the imposed provincial cap were 'grandfathered' and allowed to keep the title of podiatrist as a subclass of chiropody. The scope of these 'grandfathered' (mostly American trained) podiatrists includes boney procedures of the forefoot and the ordering of x-rays in addition to the scope of the chiropodist.

In Ontario, podiatrists are required to have a "Doctor of Podiatric Medicine/DPM" degree (a post-baccalaureate, four-year degree), where the majority of chiropodists currently practising hold a post-secondary diploma in chiropody, although many also have some university level schooling or a baccalaureate degree in the sciences or in another field. Podiatrists may bill OHIP for their services; chiropodists may not. Podiatrists may "communicate a diagnosis" to their patients (or to their patients' representatives) and perform surgical procedures on the bones of the forefoot; chiropodists may do neither.

Chiropodists and podiatrists are regulated by the College of Chiropodists of Ontario, which had 594 chiropodists and 65 podiatrists registered as of 29 July 2015.

The only English-speaking Chiropody program in Canada, in which also has a working Chiropody Clinic on campus for students to treat patients under the supervision of licensed Chiropodists is The Michener Institute. According to The Michener Institute website, Chiropody is a branch of medical science that involves the assessment and management of foot and lower limb disorders. This includes the management of a wide variety of disorders, injuries, foot deformities, infections and local manifestations of systemic conditions. A Chiropodist is a primary care professional practising in podiatric medicine in Ontario that specializes in assessment, management and prevention of diseases and disorders of the foot. An essential member of the inter professional healthcare team, the Chiropodist is skilled in assessing the needs of their patients and of managing both chronic and acute conditions affecting foot and lower limb function. As a primary care provider capable of independent clinical practice, these skills are often practised independent of medical referral and medical supervision.

United Kingdom

In the UK, podiatrists usually undertake a 3-year undergraduate Bachelor of Science (Podiatry). Podiatric Surgeons usually undertake fellowships and postgraduate studies. The scope of practice of a podiatrist falls into four key categories:
 General clinics
 Biomechanics
 High-risk patient management
 Surgery.

There are two levels of surgical practice. As part of general podiatric care, podiatrists as HPC (Health Professions Council)-registered practitioners are involved with nail-and-minor-soft-tissue surgical procedures and qualified to administer local anaesthetics.

From 1 August 2012, the HPC is being rebranded to the HCPC (Health & Care Professions Council) as they are expanding their remit to include Social Workers. The old term of "State Registered" has been defunct for some time and is no longer used since the creation of the HPC.

Some podiatrists go on to develop and train as podiatric surgeons, who surgically manage bone and joint disorders within the foot. It is to this latter group (Podiatric Surgeons) that the guidelines apply. Fellowship requires a minimum of six-years postgraduate training. This includes a two- or three-year surgical residency with an approved centre. Podiatric surgeons acquire comprehensive knowledge of related subjects including pharmacology, regional anaesthetic techniques and radiographic interpretation, as well as in-depth knowledge of foot surgery. The Surgical Faculty of the College of Podiatrists has set the standards for fellowship.

In 2019, a 23% drop in podiatry students in the UK was reported. The Conference of Postgraduate Medical Deans called for full payment of their tuition fees and the introduction of a maintenance grant for healthcare students.

References

Podiatry

Podiatrist


Polyanka () is a Moscow Metro station in the Yakimanka District, Central Administrative Okrug, Moscow, Russia. It is on the Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya Line. It was opened in 1986. The station is a column-trivault, with a large sculpture presenting a couple with a child, inside a circle, at the end.

A transfer to the Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya line at Yakimanka station would be planned in the 1980s. The station would open between the mid-1990s and the early 2000s. The construction would start in 1996 and would be finished in 2000. It was later cancelled and the completion of the station has not yet to be occurred until further notice.

Gallery

Moscow Metro stations
Railway stations in Russia opened in 1986
Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevskaya Line
Railway stations located underground in Russia

Polyanka (Moscow Metro)


The 1909 Cherry Mine disaster was a fire that occurred in Cherry, Illinois on November 13, 1909 in the Cherry Coal mine. Of the approximately 500 miners who reported to work that day, 259 men and boys (some as young as 10 years old) lost their lives. It was the second worst mine disaster in United States History.

Background
During the early 20th century, coal miners risked their lives every day. During the first decade of the 20th century, on average about six miners died every month in Northern Illinois coal mines. Between 1905 and 1930 in the U.S. it totaled about 2,000 deaths per year. The Cherry Mine was operated by the St. Paul Coal Company. It opened in 1905 and by 1909 was producing 300,000 tons of coal a year. The mine was a modern state of the art mine for its time. It had two vertical shafts, one of which blew blew air into the mine and was also used if miners needed to escape. The other shaft had elevators that lowered men and supplies, and brought out the coal. Most of the miners were from Europe and were new to America. Many lived in nearby towns such as Streator, Illinois or other towns on the Illinois River.

November 13th

There were three veins of coal, two of which were being worked that day. About 300 men worked the second vein while about 200 worked the third and deepest vein. In order to reach the third level, miners had to use the escape shaft and take a different elevator. On the morning of November 13, the electricity that lit the mine was not working. This was a common problem in the mine. When there was no electricity, miners used kerosene lamps to light the mine. A mine car full of hay to feed the mules that worked in the mine caught fire. The fire quickly spread and was out of control. Many of the miners burned to death while others died of suffocation from the toxic fumes.

About forty-five minutes after the fire started, men were told to abandon the mine. About 10 to 12 cages full of men reached the surface through the elevator shaft. Others scrambled up the escape shaft. About 2:00 p.m. someone decided to reverse the fans that supplied air into the mine. This spread the fire and made matters much worse. Rescue workers went into the mine to try to save lives. But after a cage full of rescuers was lost at about 4:00 p.m., the company decided to seal off the mine.

The next day, rescue workers went back into the mine. They wore diving helmets with oxygen tanks, as no special equipment yet existed for mine rescues. They brought out the bodies of the dead workers. Then there was a surprising development. A small group of 21 miners had been quick thinking enough to build a barricade against the fire. They were found alive eight days later.

Aftermath
When a final count was made, 259 men and boys were killed in the mine fire. As a consequence, the USA reinforced many mining laws and regulations. The United Mine Workers Union gained hundreds of new members. In Illinois, the disaster led to the passage of the Illinois Workmen's Compensation Act. It also became a main reason for changes in the child labor laws in the United States. It was one of the mine disasters that caused the formation of the United States Bureau of Mines in 1910.

Additional reading
 Karen Tintori, Trapped: The 1909 Cherry Mine Disaster (New York; London: Atria Books, 2002)
 Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report on the Cherry Mine Disaster (Springfield, IL:, Illinois State Journal Co., State Printers, 1910)
 Dean Cotton; Lorena Cotton, ''Oneness: the 1909 Cherry Mine Disaster (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2004)

References

Other websites
 Cherry Mine Disaster Video by Ray Tutaj Jr.; YouTube

1909 in North America
1900s in the United States
Disasters in the United States
20th century in Illinois

1909 Cherry Mine disaster


The Moskvitch 2141, commonly referred tae as simply Aleko (Roushie: "АЛЕКО", derivative frae factory name "Автомобильный завод имени Ленинского Комсомола", Aftomobilnyi zavod imeni Leninskogo Komsomola, meanin "Automotive Factory o Lenin's Komsomol"), is a Roushie mid-size hatchback caur that wis first annoonced in 1985 an manufacturt tae maistly the Eastren Bloc kintras atween 1986 an 2000 (gradually replaced in 2001 bi its sedan body version, Moskvitch 2142, that niver wis produced in lairge quantities an that warldwide sales wisna even stairted) bi the nou bankrupt Moskvitch Stock Company, based in Moscow, Roushie.

Aleko wis a huge improvement ower previous Moskvitch models, whit wur dependable but auld-farrant saloons an station wagons (estates) wi rear-wheel drive an a solid rear axle. In fact, Aleko haed nae common pairts wi previous models apairt frae the ingine an some ither minor details an pairts.

For Moskvitch, Aleko wis innovative, haein front-wheel drive, a hatchback body style, McPherson strut front suspension an torsion-crank rear suspension. The wheelbase went up amaist 20 centimetres (7.9 in), the body got 14 centimetres (5.5 in) braider, the wheel size went up ae inch (14 inches). The caur became mair spacious, comfortable an safe. For the first time in the history o Roushie caur makkin, the caur's profile wis optimised for aerodynamics, wi the help o Roushie an French aircraft an space ingineers. The offeecially reportit bi factory drag coefficient is 0.35.

The caur originatit as a front-wheel drive "proof o concept", based on foreign models. In the late 1970s Moskvitch bocht aboot twa dozen compact caurs biggit bi unalike manufacturers, an thoroughly testit thaim. French an Swadish caurs wur favoured for thair utility an reliability. The final decision wis made bi the Meenister o Automobile Industry, wha surprisingly for the factory chose the French Simca 1307 as the best candidate for the Roushie mercat.

Ingineers modified an existin Moskvitch ingine for front-wheel drive layoot an fittit the drivetrain intae the Simca. For this an Audi 100 as a model caur wis uised (http://www.my-azlk.ru/m2141xr.php ). Efter the tests wur successfully completed, it wis decidit bi the rights tae copy the Simca 1307 bodyshell amaist entirely, startin from the A-pillar. While this decision helped to cut the development costs, it came as an insult to engineers and designers, who had their own mock-ups of future car ready. The morale o the staff haed been damaged, an Aleko niver became a beloved project amang Moskvitch ingineers (testimony bi the Chief Designer o the Moskvitch Stock Company at the time, Igor Zaitsev. Autoreview, 2002, #5 , in Russian)

The existin ingine wis too lang for transverse placement, so it wis placed longitudinally, like on the Audi 80/100 series. Mony ideas an design decisions wur borrowed frae Audi caurs (which anes wur bought intae factory an aa), includin torsion-crank rear suspension, McPherson strut front suspension, rack-an-pinion steerin an a collapsible steerin column. The spare tyre wis locatit unnerneath the buit an wis accessible frae ootside, in the tradition o French caurs. As wi Audis, zinc coatin o doors an body floor wis an aa planned, but it wis actually done ae for sma quantity o the caurs.

Despite "seicont-hand" stylin an design, the Aleko turned oot tae be quite a breakthrough for the Roushie automotive industry. Its body deisign wis modern compared tae the obsolete lookin "angular" Lada Samara. It amaist became the first production front-wheel drive caur o Roushie, but efter development it took a further twa years for Moskvitch tae setup the manufacturin, an the Lada Samara arrived first.
Despite the better an mair comfortable design frae Samara the ver law assamblin quality o Aleko resultit tae a low reputation o this caur in the mercats.
The positive features o this caur wur robustnes o construction, handyness in repairin wirks. Aleko haes hie "aff-road" drivin capabilities an aa.

Aleko wis sauld maistly on the domestic mercat, but in the late 1980s it wis exportit too. In some export mercats, includin Fraunce & Germany, the caurs wur advertised as the Lada Aleko, an diesel ingines frae Ford an Indenor coud be delivered in addition tae the standard petrol ingines.

Some o the laist Moskvitch models tae be biggit wur the somewha upgradit Aleko that wis renamed tae Svjatogor (models M-214122, M-214100, M-214145) an the M-2142, Dolgorukij, (1997–2002), wur an aa based on the design o M-2141.

Alternative names o the original caur an modifications
 Aleko 141 (for foreign mercat)
 Moskvitch-2141 (for domestic mercat, in Laitin alphabet)
 Москвич-2141 (for domestic mercat, in Roushie Cyrillic alphabet)
 AZLK-2141 (for domestic mercat, in Laitin alphabet)
 АЗЛК-2141 (for domestic mercat, in Roushie Cyrillic alphabet)
 Svjatogor (syne 1997, for domestic mercat, in Laitin alphabet)
 Святогор (syne 1997, for domestic mercat, in Roushie Cyrillic alphabet)

Gallery

References

Motor vehicle manufacturers o Roushie
Moskvitch
Soviet automobiles
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
Vehicles introduced in 1986
Hatchbacks

Aleko


Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, also written Ahmadinezhad (; born October 28, 1956) is an Iranian politician who was the sixth President of the Islamic Republic of Iran. He was president from August 3, 2005 to August 3, 2013.

Ahmadinejad became the mayor of Tehran, the capital of Iran, on May 3, 2003. He was chosen to be the president in elections on June 24, 2005. Many people think he is very religious. Because of that, the religious leadership in Iran supported him in many ways when he was elected.

Ahmadinajad's political power comes from the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran, also known as "Abadgaran". This is an alliance between Islamic parties and organizations.

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has a Master of Science in Civil engineering from the Iran University of Science and Techology. He also has a PhD in  transportation engineering from the same university. Hassan Rouhani was elected on June 15, 2013 as Ahmadinejad's successor and took office on August 3, 2013.

His brother was failed presidential candidate and staff member Davoud Ahmadinejad (1950–2017).

References

Notes

1956 births
Living people
Iranian Muslims
Iranian mayors
Presidents of Iran

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad


The Royal National Rose Society Gardens, also known as The Gardens of The Rose, were the gardens and headquarters of The Royal National Rose Society at Bone Hill, Chiswell Green, St Albans, Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The Royal National Rose Society was established in 1876 and the gardens were opened over 50 years ago by Mary, Princess Royal who was a Patron of the society at the time. The Society's stated aim was to create a "living dictionary" of roses. The gardens contain 2,500 different rose cultivars among 15,000 rose bushes.

The Royal National Rose Society went into administration on 15 May 2017. The Gardens are permanently closed.

Royal Entomological Society
The Royal Entomological Society refurbished the mansion at Bone Hill to become the society's headquarters known as Butterfly World. Following a £27 million build, the project was launched in March 2008 at an event at the Royal Society in London. In December 2015, it was closed.

References

External links

Tourist attractions in Hertfordshire
Botanical gardens in England
Rose gardens in Hertfordshire
Former rose gardens in the United Kingdom

Royal National Rose Society Gardens


Ella M. Bully-Cummings (born 1958) is an  American police officer who served as the chief of the Detroit Police Department from 2003 to 2008.

Early life and education
Bully-Cummings was born in Japan, the second-oldest of eight children of an African American repairman and a (now retired) Japanese American chef. Her parents met when her father was serving in the U.S. Army as part of the American Occupation forces. The family settled in Detroit, her Mississippi-born father's adopted hometown, before she was two years old.

While in high school she worked at a movie theater, and between graduating from high school and going into the police force in 1977 she worked as an administrative assistant at Redford High School and sold real estate.

She attended Henry Ford Junior High School in Highland Park, Michigan, and is a graduate of Cass Technical High School. Bully-Cummings helped her parents pay for her siblings' education through early years on the police force. She went to college herself while still serving on the police force after helping to pay for five of her siblings. In December 1993 Bully-Cummings graduated with honors from Madonna University with a bachelor's degree in public administration. She then went on to graduate cum laude from Michigan State University College of Law with a J.D. in January 1998 and was sworn into the State Bar of Michigan in May 1998.

Career
Bully-Cummings entered the police academy in 1977. In the mid-1980s she worked for the Detroit Free Press as a receptionist, secretary, and administrative assistant when hundreds of police officers were laid-off due to budget cuts. Back to the force, she rose to the rank of sergeant in 1987. She continued her rise in the department by making lieutenant in 1993 and commander in 1998.

In July 1999 retired from the department to become a staff attorney first at Miller, Canfield, Paddock and Stone PLC, then at Foley & Lardner, and finally back at Miller Canfield. She represented management in employment cases that involved federal and state discrimination.

In 2002 she was called back into service by Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick as an Assistant Chief of Police, the first female appointed to assistant chief position in Detroit.  She was charged with overseeing Management Services, Training, Personnel, Science and Technology, and Risk Management bureaus, collectively called the "Administrative Portfolio".

After the resignation of Chief Jerry Oliver in 2003, Bully-Cummings was appointed as interim chief.  She became permanent in 2004.

Under her leadership, in 2004, the Detroit Police Department realized the greatest reduction in major crimes in 41 years, and a record reduction of 15.2% in violent crimes.

The Detroit Police were under the supervision of US District Judge Julian Abele Cook Jr. until 2008 per a US Justice Department investigation.

Bully-Cummings was held in contempt of court in late 2005 for not reinstating four inspectors and three commanders, who were let go as a part of the restructuring of the police department to save money.  A total of 150 police personnel were laid off.

Slander suit
Mayor Kilpatrick, his Chief of Staff Christine Beatty and  Bully-Cummings were named in a lawsuit brought about by Detroit Police officers Zack Weishuhn and Patrick Tomsic, who claimed that they were slandered in the media by city officials.

The lawsuit stemmed from a 2004 incident in which the two police officers pulled Beatty over for speeding.  The officers claimed that Beatty was irate at being stopped and bluntly asked the officers, "Do you know who the fuck I am?" when the officers came to the vehicle.  The officers alleged that, while stopped, Beatty called Bully-Cummings to have the officers called off, which they were ordered to do.  When reports of the incident started to surface in the media,  Bully-Cummings said the officers harassed Beatty, and Kilpatrick said the stop "looked like a setup".

As part of a settlement, the Detroit City Council voted to approve a $25,000 mediation recommendation to the two officers in February 2008, after previously rejecting the settlement twice.  The offer was accepted.

On September 4, 2008, Bully-Cummings announced her retirement, minutes after Kilpatrick pleaded guilty to two counts of perjury and resigned from office as part of a plea deal.  She offered to assist her successor in transitioning to the duties of Police Chief if asked to do so.

Awards and recognition
Bully-Cummings is a 2005 recipient of the General Motors and Black Entertainment Television's "History Maker in the Making" Award, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Center for Women and Policing.

Personal life

Bully-Cummings is married to Attorney William Cummings, a retired Detroit police commander. She was previously married to former Wayne County Sheriff and former Detroit Police Chief Warren Evans.

References

External links
 Gale group Black History resource
 Associated Press article
 September 2004 Essence article

1958 births
Living people
Madonna University alumni
African-American police officers
American police officers
Detroit Police Department chiefs
Cass Technical High School alumni
Lawyers from Detroit
Michigan lawyers
Michigan State University College of Law alumni
21st-century American women lawyers
21st-century American lawyers
21st-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people
20th-century African-American women

Ella Bully-Cummings


Scots Law is a legal seestem foondit on Roman law, that brings thegither featurs o baith ceevil law an common law. The terms o union atween Scotland an Ingland specifeed the retention o separate seestems.

Aforetimes there wis sindrie regional law seestems in Scotland, ane bein Udal Law (cryed allodail or odal law forbye) in Shetland an Orkney. This wis a direct descendant o Auld Norse Law, but wis duin awa wi in 1611.  Mauger this, Scots coorts haes acknowledged the owerins o udal law in some property cases as recently as the 1990s. There's a muvement tae bring back udal law  tae the islands as pairt o a devolution o pouer frae Edinburgh tae Shetland an Orkney.

References

Fremmit airtins
Scots legal wabsteid
Criminal law resource

Scots law

Scots law


C. Fred Bentley,  (March 14, 1914  – April 12, 2008) was a Canadian soil scientist.

Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1939 and a Master of Science degree in 1942 from the University of Alberta. He received a Ph.D. in 1945 from the University of Minnesota.

In 1943, he joined the University of Saskatchewan as an instructor and then assistant professor of soil science. In 1946, he became an assistant professor of soil science at the University of Alberta, eventually becoming a professor.  From 1959 to 1968, he was also the dean of the Faculty of Agriculture. In 1979, he was appointed a professor emeritus.

From 1972 to 1982, he was a member and the first chairman of the governing board of ICRISAT in Hyderabad, India. From 1983 to 1987, he was chairman of the board of trustees of the International Board for Soil Research Management.

He was inducted into the Alberta Order of Excellence in 1987. In 1994, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his contribution to agriculture and food production"  He was  a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.

References

 Obituary

1914 births
2008 deaths
American emigrants to Canada
Canadian university and college faculty deans
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Members of the Alberta Order of Excellence
Officers of the Order of Canada
Scientists from Cambridge, Massachusetts
American soil scientists
Canadian soil scientists
University of Alberta alumni
Academic staff of the University of Alberta
University of Minnesota alumni
Academic staff of the University of Saskatchewan

C. Fred Bentley


Dancer in the Dark is a 2000 musical drama movie directed by Lars von Trier and stars Björk, Catherine Deneuve, David Morse, Peter Stormare, Cara Seymour, Joel Grey, Jean-Marc Barr, Vincent Paterson, Željko Ivanek, Udo Kier. It was distributed by Fine Line Features and was nominated for an Academy Award in 2001. It stars many people from different countries, those being: Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, Britain, France, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Argentina, Norway, Taiwan, and Belgium.

Other websites

2000 drama movies
2000s musical movies
Danish drama movies
German drama movies
Dutch drama movies
Italian drama movies
British drama movies
British musical movies
Swedish drama movies
Finnish movies
Icelandic movies
Argentine drama movies
Norwegian drama movies
Taiwanese movies
Belgian drama movies
Movies directed by Lars von Trier
Movies about blind people
Movies about capital punishment
Movies set in factories
Movies set in the 1960s
Movies set in Washington (state)

Dancer in the Dark


A scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) is a special type of ramjet jet engine where fuel combustion takes place while the air in the engine is moving faster than the speed of sound. In a ramjet, air is slowed to subsonic (slower than the speed of sound) speeds before fuel is burned. Unlike ramjets, scramjets do not use shock cones to compress incoming air; instead, shock waves from inside the engine compress the air by slowing it down very quickly. This means that scramjets can operate very efficiently at extremely high speeds. However, a scramjet relies on the aircraft moving much faster than the speed of sound in order to work; scramjets do not work at subsonic, or even low supersonic, speeds.

As of November 2022, scramjets are still experimental. This means that they have not been used on commercial airliners or in active military scenarios. Successful scramjet tests have been conducted, however.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

 Does not need to carry oxidizer
 No complex parts makes it easy to build
 Has a higher specific impulse than a rocket engine
 Could provide easy access to space in the future due to high top speed

Disadvantages

 Difficult and expensive testing/development
 Needs a separate engine to get it up to speed

References

Mechanics

de:Staustrahltriebwerk#Überschallverbrennung im Scramjet

Scramjet