Robinson Crusoe House () is a stepped-gabled house on Böttcherstraße in the old town district of Bremen, Germany. It was built by the prosperous coffee merchant Ludwig Roselius who admired the pioneering spirit of Daniel Defoe's fictional hero Robinson Crusoe.

History and architecture
In 1931, the Robinson Crusoe House and the Atlantis House opposite completed the construction of buildings in Böttcherstraße. The coffee merchant Ludwig Roselius, who envisioned and financed the Böttcherstraße project, had himself proposed the design which was developed by Karl von Weihe. The interior was designed by the architects Eduard Scotland and Alfred Runge. Roselius chose the name in memory of the novel by Daniel Defoe from 1719 whose hero was the son of a Bremen merchant who had settled in York. He admired the pioneering Robinson Crusoe for his Hanseatic spirit. Roselius foresaw a rather conventional Lower Saxony brick building with a stepped gable. The house stood at the Martinistraße end of the street with a straight-gabled building on the opposite corner. A curved opening supported by a column in the lower corner of each building is a special feature.

The rooms in Robinson Crusoe House were devoted principally to the newly founded Club zu Bremen. In addition to the club room, dining room, bar, gallery and Scotland Room (Scotland Stube), there was also a Vogeler Room (Vogeler Saal) on the second floor with nine paintings showing the artistic evolution of the painter Heinrich Vogeler.

In 1944, the house was destroyed by bombing but was rebuilt in 1954. None of the original decorations remain but today there are carved panels in the stairway representing scenes from the story of Robinson Crusoe crafted by Theodor Schultz-Walbaum.

Located on the outside of the Robin Crusoe House are two sculptures from Bernhard Hoetger called "Panther carrying the Night (1912)" and "Puma carrying the Day (1912)".

Crusoe Hall

The building's Crusoe Hall (Crusoe Halle) is used as an exhibition room by the Bremen Artisans Association (Angewandte Kunst Bremen) in collaboration with the two Böttcherstraße museums, Paula Modersohn-Becker Museum and Ludwig Roselius Museum. A new exhibition is featured each month. From October every year, the hall houses the traditional Weihnachtsmarkt or Christmas market.

References

External links
Robinson-Crusoe-Haus site with photographs of the original interiors

Buildings and structures in Bremen (city)
Renaissance Revival architecture in Germany
Buildings and structures completed in 1931
Buildings and structures in Germany destroyed during World War II
1931 establishments in Germany

Robinson Crusoe House


Tina Ambani (née Munim) is a former Indian actress. She is married to Anil Ambani, chairman of Reliance Group. She is actively involved in many foundations and charities. Many of these were established in the memory of her in-laws, Dhirubhai and Kokilaben Ambani. Her work ranges from elder care to promotion of Indian art.

Personal life
Tina Munim was born on 11 February 1957. She graduated high school in 1975 from the MM Pupils Own School in Khar, Bombay. The same year, she was crowned Femina Teen Princess India 1975 and represented India at the Miss Teenage Intercontinental contest in Aruba, where she was crowned second runner-up. She subsequently enrolled in Jai Hind College for a degree in arts. Later in 70s, she joined the Hindi film industry and had a successful career as a leading actress, for thirteen years.

On 2 February 1991, she married Anil Ambani, the younger son of Indian business tycoon Dhirubhai Ambani who founded Reliance Industries. They have two sons Jai Anmol (born in December 1991) and Jai Anshul (born in September 1995). The eldest, Jai Anmol married Khrisha Shah on 20 February 2022. Munim's brother-in-law is Asia's richest man, Mukesh Ambani who is the chairman, managing director, and largest shareholder of Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL). Nita Ambani, founder of Reliance Foundation, and wife of Mukesh, is her sister-in-law.

Career

Films
Munim made her debut in Hindi films with filmmaker Dev Anand's Des Pardes. Her other films with Dev Anand include Lootmaar, and Man Pasand. She was cast opposite Amol Palekar in Basu Chatterjee's Baaton Baaton Mein.
 Her notable films with Rishi Kapoor include Karz, and Yeh Vaada Raha.She starred with actor Rajesh Khanna in many films including Fiffty Fiffty, Souten, Bewafai, Suraag , Insaaf Main Karoonga, Rajput, Aakhir Kyon?, Paapi Pet Ka Sawaal Hai, Alag Alag, Bhagwaan Dada and Adhikar. Her last film was Jigarwala, released in 1991. In an interview to Simi Garewal, Munim said: "Sometimes I feel [that I left films too soon] too, but then I felt that there was a lot more to the world that I wanted to explore and experience, and not just stick to movies. I decided to quit. I never regretted it. I never wanted to go back, ever."

Arts and culture
With the aim to offer young artists a platform to exhibit alongside seasoned veterans and acknowledged masters, she organised the first Harmony Art show in 1995. In 2008, Harmony Art Foundation showcased upcoming Indian artists at Christie's in London, drawing attention to the wealth of talent in India. She has served on the board of trustees of the Peabody Essex Museum in Salem, Massachusetts, which is the oldest continually operating museum in the US since 2008.

In addition, she has served on the advisory board of the National Gallery of Modern Art, Mumbai and  the National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad. She was also nominated to the reconstituted General Assembly of the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR). She has been actively associated with several welfare activities such as Aseema, an NGO engaged in the rehabilitation of street children,  and the restoration of Elephanta Island, a World Heritage Site near Mumbai, with the Archaeological Survey of India and UNESCO.

Elder welfare
In 2004, Ambani established Harmony for Silvers Foundation, a Mumbai-based non-government organisation that seeks to enhance the quality of life of the elderly. Its activities have included Harmony – Celebrate Age, the magazine, now in its 14th year; the portal www.harmonyindia.org; Harmony Interactive Centre for Silver Citizens, in South Mumbai; the Harmony Research Division; the Harmony Silver Awards; and the Harmony Senior Citizens' Runs at the Mumbai, Delhi and Bengaluru marathons.

Healthcare
In order to bridge the gaps in Indian healthcare, Ambani launched the Kokilaben Dhirubhai Ambani Hospital & Medical Research Institute (KDAH) in Mumbai in 2009, a quaternary care facility. It is the only hospital in Mumbai to receive accreditation from the JCI (Joint Commission International, USA), NABH (National Accreditation Board for Healthcare, India), CAP (College of American Pathologists, USA) and NABL (National Accreditation Board for Laboratories, India). Other standouts include the first comprehensive centre for liver transplant and the first integrated centre for children's cardiac care in western India; its robotic surgery programme; the centres for rehabilitation and sports medicine; and its initiative to open 18 cancer care centres in rural Maharashtra.

Filmography

References

External links

Living people
Tina
Indian film actresses
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Actresses from Mumbai
Gujarati people
Female models from Mumbai
Reliance Group people
1957 births
Businesswomen from Maharashtra
21st-century Indian businesswomen
21st-century Indian businesspeople
Indian women chief executives

Tina Ambani


Banyumasan (), also known as the autoglottonym Ngapak (), is a dialect of Javanese spoken mainly in three areas of Java that is the Banyumasan, located in westernmost Central Java province and surrounding the Slamet mountain and Serayu River; a neighboring area inside West Java province; and northern region of Banten province. This area includes Cilacap, Kebumen, Banjarnegara, Purbalingga, Banyumas, Pemalang, Tegal, and Brebes regencies, together with independent cities within that region. Banyumasan is considered as one of the most conservative Javanese dialects (comparable to the Nuorese variety of Sardinian), retaining the phonology and some aspects of Old Javanese grammar in the modern language.

History
Scholars divide the development of Javanese language into four different stages:
 9th–13th century, known as Old Javanese.
 13th–16th century, developed to Middle Javanese.
 16th–20th century, developed to Early Modern Javanese.
 Since 20th century, developed to Modern Javanese.

The phases above were influenced by the emergence of empires in Java. In Javanese cultural history, empires yielded some distinct grades of language, each grade representing the social grade of the speakers (mainly nobles and populaces). Those grades of language are not of significant influence to Banyumasan people. In the Banyumasan region, high grades are usually used only when speaking to a stranger assumed to come from the eastern area of Java i.e. Yogyakarta / Surakarta etc., or on certain occasions. Nowadays the Banyumasan people use high grade Javanese to a stranger, a noble man and older people. Surakartan and Yogyakartan style are usually considered the standard Javanese language.

Vocabulary
Banyumasan many differences compared to standard Javanese, mainly in phonology, pronunciation and vocabulary. This happened due to cultural or character distinction and widely current usage of Old Javanese vocabulary. Another distinction is that the pronunciation of the vowels is not as complicated.

Vocabulary distinction is basically found in:
Same word and phonetic but different meaning
Same word and meaning but different phonetic
Same phonetic and meaning but different pronunciation (changed on consonant or vowel).

Politeness
Javanese speech varies depending on social context, yielding three distinct styles, or registers. Each style employs its own vocabulary, grammatical rules and even prosody. This is not unique to Javanese; neighbouring Austronesian languages as well as East Asian languages such as Korean, Japanese and Thai share similar constructions.

In Javanese these styles are called:
Ngoko is informal speech, used between friends and close relatives. It is also used by persons of higher status to persons of lower status, such as elders to younger people or bosses to subordinates.
Madya is the intermediary form between ngoko and krama. An example of the context where one would use madya is an interaction between strangers on the street, where one wants to be neither too formal nor too informal.
Krama is the polite and formal style. It is used between persons of the same status who do not wish to be informal. It is also the official style for public speeches, announcements, etc.

In the Banyumasan region, Madya and Krama styles are rarely used, usually towards a stranger who is assumed to come from the eastern area of Java () such as Yogyakarta, Surakarta etc. or on certain occasions, an eastern style of language () named  (from ).

Dialects and sub-dialects
There are three main dialects of Banyumasan: North area (Tegalan), South area (Banyumasan), and Banten.

The Tegalan dialect is spoken in northern areas of Banyumasan: Tanjung, Ketanggungan, Larangan, Brebes, Slawi, Moga, Pemalang, Surodadi, and Tegal.

The Banyumasan dialect is spoken in southern areas: Bumiayu, Karang Pucung, Cilacap, Nusakambangan Island, Kroya, Ajibarang, Wangon, Purwokerto, Purbalingga, Bobotsari, Banjarnegara, Purwareja, Kebumen, and Gombong.

The Banten dialect is spoken in north Banten.

In addition, there are several sub-dialects spoken in Banyumasan, such as Bumiayu, Dayeuhluhur, and Ayah.

See also
Javanese script
Java (island)
Hans Ras
Banyumasan people

References

External links

 Javanese writing system

Javanese language

Banyumasan dialect


Lieutenant-Colonel James Meldrum Knox DSO & bar was a British Army officer of the First World War. He commanded the 1st/7th battalion of the Royal Warwickshire Regiment from 1915 until his death in 1918 on the Italian Front, during the Battle of Asiago (1918).

Family Background
James Meldrum Knox was born in Nuneaton in 1878, the son of James and Florence Knox. The family were prominent in civil and railway engineering and had become affluent through their majority shareholding in the Haunchwood Brick and Tile Company. James was the first of nine sons who all fought in the First World War. One brother, Cecil, served with the Royal Engineers and was awarded the Victoria Cross while a second, Thomas, gained the Military Cross and bar.

Life
Knox was educated at Bedford Modern School. He worked as an engineer at Bristol Docks and was commissioned in 1899 in the Nuneaton Volunteer Company of the 2nd Volunteer Battalion, the Royal Warwickshire Regiment which in 1908 became the 7th battalion of the Royal Warwickshire Regiment. The territorial battalion formed part of the 143rd brigade part of 48th (South Midland) Division. Knox commanded the battalion from 1915 on the Western Front, notably at the Battle of the Somme and the 3rd Battle of Ypres.

Knox was awarded the DSO on 1 January 1917 and the second award was gazetted after his death; the citation in the Supplement to the London Gazette of 24 September reads; "Major and Bt. Lt.-Col. (A./Lt.-Col.) James Meldrum Knox, D.S.O., R,. War. Regt.
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty in command of his battalion. He kept touch with the situation till ordered by the division to counter-attack when the enemy had broken through. Thanks to his splendid handling of his battalion, this counter-attack was decisive, the enemy were at once held up, and after heavy fighting were driven back with severe losses, several hundred prisoners being captured and the front line restored. He was also mentioned in despatches on five occasions.

Death and Memorials
In November 1917, the Brigade was transferred to the Italian campaign and saw action at the Montello Front and on the Asiago Plateau. Knox was killed on 23 September 1918. A private in the battalion recorded the news: '23 Sep – Early this morning we received the very bad news that Lieutenant-Colonel Knox, the commanding officer of the battalion had been killed by a shell in his dug-out at headquarters on the San Sisto Road. He had commanded the battalion since 1915 and was a very decent man and respected by everyone. He was not a parade soldier and did not care for drill and show, but was always at hand in the line, knowing no fear but never sending anyone where he wouldn't go himself. He was a capable soldier and had won the D.S.O and bar'.

He is buried at the Granezza British Cemetery near Vicenza, and there is a memorial to him there. He and his brothers who fought in the War are also commemorated by a memorial at Oaston Road Cemetery, Nuneaton. After his death, Knox's parents commissioned his portrait by the Birmingham artist Edward Samuel Harper. The painting hangs in the Nuneaton Museum and Art Gallery.

References

External links
James Meldrum Knox by Edward Harper at BBC Your Paintings

1878 births
1918 deaths
People educated at Bedford Modern School
British Army personnel of World War I
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
People from Nuneaton
Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers officers
British military personnel killed in World War I
Military personnel from Warwickshire
Burials in Veneto

James Meldrum Knox


Sir Otto Kahn-Freund, QC (17 November 1900 – 16 August 1979) was a scholar of labour law and comparative law. He was a professor at the London School of Economics and the University of Oxford.

Biography
Kahn-Freund was born in Frankfurt am Main the only child of Richard Kahn-Freund and his wife, Carrie Freund. Although an agnostic he had a strict and conventional Jewish upbringing, and was very proud of this. He was educated at the Goethe-Gymnasium, Frankfurt, and then studied law at the Frankfurt University.

Career

Berlin
He became judge of the Berlin labour court, 1929. Kahn-Freund wrote a pathbreaking article, contending that the Reichsarbeitsgericht (Empire Labour Court) was pursuing a "fascist" doctrine in 1931. According to Kahn-Freund, fascism shared liberalism's dislike of state intervention and preference for private ownership, social conservatism's embrace of welfare provision for insiders, and collectivism's view that associations are key actors in class conflict.

In the case law, Kahn-Freund presented, the Reichsarbeitsgericht had been systematically undermining collective rights in work councils, demanding that trade unionists owed a duty to the Betrieb (the workplace) which was indistinguishable from the employer. On the other hand, the court had demanded that individual workplace rights (for instance, to social insurance) were strongly protected. The article was shunned by the German Legal Academy and the trade unions at the time, but in retrospect has been seen as tragically accurate.

Kahn-Freund continued working as a judge until 1933, shortly after Hitler seized the chancellorship in coalition with the conservative DNVP. He found that radio workers were falsely accused of being communist and were entitled to maximum damages for unfair dismissal. He was then dismissed by the Nazis in 1933. He fled to London and became a student at the London School of Economics.

London
He became an assistant lecturer in law there in 1936 and professor in 1951. He was called to the bar (Middle Temple) in 1936. He became a British subject in 1940.

Oxford
He was appointed Professor of Comparative Law at the University of Oxford, and fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford in 1964 and elected FBA in 1965. He became an honorary bencher of the Middle Temple in 1969 and a QC in 1972. He was knighted in 1976.

He played an important part in the establishment of labour law as an independent area of legal study, and is credited as the doyen of British Labour Law.

He laid the groundwork of a philosophical approach toward Labour Law in British scholarship, which had hitherto been characterised by empiricism. In particular, his concept of "collective laissez-faire" was both a description of the British model of industrial relations in the 1960s and a normative model of how industrial relations should be. Industrial relations is conceived as tripartite, with Employers, Employees (through Trade Unions) and the State all engaged as actors. "The relation between an employer and an isolated employee or worker is typically a relation between a bearer of power and one who is not a bearer of power. In its inception it is an act of submission, in its operation it is a condition of subordination."

The concept of collective laissez-faire sets out the idea that the law (and the State) should be abstentionist, meaning that the state should allow capital and collective labour to negotiate freely, without extensive legislative interference, unless collective representation is unlikely to yield industrial justice or stability. Philosophically, this can be contrasted with the "market individualism" approach or the "floor-of rights" approach.

He was a member of the Royal Commission on Reform of Trade Unions and Employers' Associations 1965. This became known as the Donovan Commission, and reported in 1968. Kahn-Freund, as the senior lawyer on the commission, has been regarded as having substantially written the Donovan Report published in 1968, although credit for moving the Commission's views towards a 'laissez faire' attitude has been largely given to another member, Hugh Clegg. The Donovan Report's significance in British Labour Law is that it formed the intellectual underpinnings of both the Industrial Relations Act 1971 and the Trade Union and Labour Relations Act 1974.

Otto Kahn-Freund had a substantial and extensive influence on a generation of British labour lawyers, many of whom themselves passed on his influence in their own academic work, such as Bill Wedderburn, Paul L. Davies, Mark Freedland, Keith Ewing, Roy Lewis and Jon Clarke.

Publications
Das soziale Ideal des Reichsarbeitsgerichts (Bensheimer, Mannheim, Berlin, Leipzig 1931) translated as 'The Social Ideal of the Reich Labour Court - A Critical Examination of the Practice of the Reich Labour Court' (1931) in O Kahn-Freund, R Lewis and J Clark (eds), Labour Law and Politics in the Weimar Republic (Social Science Research Council 1981) ch 3, 108-111.
The law of carriage by inland transport (Stevens, London 1939)
Beiträge zum Neuaufbau des deutschen Arbeitsrechts (Renaissance Publ., Welwyn Garden City 1944)
The Growth of Internationalism in English Private International Law (1960)
Die Rechtsinstitute des Privatrechts und ihre soziale Funktion (Fischer, Stuttgart 1965) with Karl Renner, translation by Elisabeth Kahn-Freund
Delictual Liability and the Conflict of Laws (1968)
Parallelen und Gegensätze im englischen und amerikanischen Privatrecht (Hanstein, Bonn 1970) with Viktor Weidner
General Problems of Private International Law (1975)
Labour and the Law (Hamlyn Trust 1972) , (2nd edn Stevens 1977)
Arbeit und Recht (Bund, Köln, Frankfurt am Main 1979) translation by Franz Mestitz.
Kahn-Freund's Labour and the Law (3rd edn Stevens & Sons 1983) introduction by PL Davies and M Freedland
Arbeitsbeziehungen (Nomos, Baden-Baden 1981)

Notes

References

 O Kahn-Freund, 'Autobiographical Memories of the Weimar Republic: A Conversation with Wolfgang Luthardt' (February 1978) (1981) 14(2) Kritische Justiz 183, translated by E McGaughey (2016)
 Sir Otto Kahn-Freund, Q.C., F.B.A 1900–1979 B.A.H. (1979) 8 Industrial Law Journal 193
 E McGaughey, 'Fascism-Lite in America (or the Social Ideal of Donald Trump)' (2016) TLI Think! Paper
 Lord Wedderburn, R Lewis and J Clark, Labour Law and Industrial Relations: Building on Kahn-Freund (1983) reviewed by F Einbinder (1987) 81(2) American Journal of International Law 547

1900 births
1979 deaths
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of Brasenose College, Oxford
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
British legal writers
Knights Bachelor
Members of the Middle Temple
English King's Counsel
20th-century German judges
Linklaters Professors of Comparative Law

Otto Kahn-Freund


The Whistle Blower is a 1986 British spy thriller film directed by Simon Langton and starring Michael Caine, James Fox, Nigel Havers, Felicity Dean, John Gielgud, Kenneth Colley, Gordon Jackson,  David Langton, and Barry Foster. It is based on the 1984 novel of the same name by John Hale.

Plot

Frank (Caine) is a retired British naval officer, now runs a small business. His bright but naive and idealistic son, Bob (Nigel Havers), works as a linguist at GCHQ, the top secret British intelligence listening station, translating intercepted conversations from behind the Iron Curtain.

The film opens with footage of the Remembrance Day parade in Whitehall in the present (c. 1985), attended by the Queen Elizabeth II, and shows Frank in the crowd, wearing medals, then moves to Bob's flat some months earlier, when Bob tells his father of an upheaval at GCHQ, where there is evidence of a Soviet mole, and security is encouraging staff to report on each other, as the leak must be found before their American counterparts find out about it. He tells him that he's planning to leave and marry Cynthia Goodburn (Felicity Dean) who has a young daughter. Frank isn't pleased. The scene cuts to a room in British Intelligence, where Bruce (Gordon Jackson) and another are recording their conversation. Frank is warned by an old Navy chum Greig (Barry Foster), who's now with MI6, that his business could be ruined by any indiscretion on his son's part.

At their next meeting, which is being secretly monitored, Bob tells his father he is about to reveal what he knows about illegal operations conducted by his department, and after some soul-searching, contacts  investigative reporter Bill Pickett (Kenneth Colley). Shortly afterward, Frank is informed that Bob has died in a rooftop fall, perhaps suicide, but a verdict of accidental death is recorded.
Back at Bob's flat, Frank is confronted by Pickett, but refuses to comment.
In the pocket of his son's jacket is a couple of newspaper clippings — one tells how Cynthia's husband, who ostensibly committed suicide, was a colleague of the convicted spy Dodgson. The other is about the death of Kedge, Dodgson's friend, who fell under a train.

Frank has a meeting with Pickett, who is subsequently killed in an elaborately staged traffic accident. Pickett was on his way to East Grinstead, having organised a rendezvous with Bob's contact and Frank.
At Bob's funeral, Frank is approached by Bob's friend and fellow British intelligence linguist Mark.
Frank learns from Mark that it was his Navy friend Greig who quizzed him about Bob's loyalty.
Frank gets Greig drunk and extracts from him the confession that he was at Bob's flat the night of his death, but did not kill him — his job was only to leave the door open for the strongarm boys. He also reveals the name of the mole as Sir Adrian Chapple.

Leaving Greig in his drunken stupor, Frank is picked up by British Intelligence and driven to a country house, where he is confronted by Secretary to the Cabinet (David Langton) and Lord (James Fox). They explain to him that his son was out of control, and was killed to protect a plan to mislead the Americans as to the extent of the depth of Russian intelligence's operatives inside British operations, in the hope that they could continue to gain intelligence from the CIA. They have presently left Chapple in place, until they can assess the extent of the damage caused. They advise Frank that should he go public with any of this information, he or Cynthia and her daughter would be the next to suffer.

The film returns to the present, and the Remembrance Day parade. Frank fronts up to Chapple's Whitehall residence, and being mistaken for a collector for charity, is admitted inside. After being confronted with the facts, Chapple admits to spying for Russia. Frank orders him to write a full confession, which he does, but as Frank is reading it, Chapple produces a gun and demands its return. Frank grabs the gun, which goes off, killing Chapple. Leaving his signed confession,  seemingly a suicide note, Frank returns to the parade, joining the marchers.

Cast
Michael Caine - Frank Jones
James Fox - Lord
Nigel Havers - Robert Jones, only referred to as "Bob"
John Gielgud - Sir Adrian Chapple, permanent secretary, Ministry of Defence
Felicity Dean - Cynthia Goodburn
Barry Foster - Charles Greig
Gordon Jackson - Bruce
Kenneth Colley - Bill Pickett
David Langton - Secretary to the Cabinet
Dinah Stabb - Rose
James Simmons - Mark, Robert's friend and fellow linguist
Katherine Reeve - Tiffany Goodburn, Cynthia's daughter
Bill Wallis - Ramsay Charles Dodgson, convicted spy
Trevor Cooper - Inspector Bourne
Peter Miles - Stephen Kedge, friend of spy Dodgson
David Shaughnessy - Medical officer
Patrick Holt - Irate driver

Production
The film was largely shot on location in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, home of GCHQ, which forms the premise of the film. Cheltenham Racecourse, Cheltenham Spa station, Cheltenham Crematorium and the Promenade feature in the film. The London 'tube' murder scene was actually filmed on British Rail's Waterloo & City Line (which at the time did not run on Saturday afternoons or Sundays so was an accessible location for filming).

Response
Though it was given a limited release, the film opened to positive reviews. It has an approval rating of 89% on Rotten Tomatoes from 9 reviews.

Home media
The film was released in Australia on DVD (PAL) by Flashback Entertainment.

References

External links

1986 films
1980s spy thriller films
British spy thriller films
Cold War spy films
Films set in London
Films based on British novels
Films based on thriller novels
Films about whistleblowing
Films scored by John Scott (composer)
Films directed by Simon Langton
1980s English-language films
1980s British films

The Whistle Blower


Sea Hill Lighthouse, also known as Sea Hill Point Light or Little Sea Hill Light, is a lighthouse on the northwest point of Curtis Island, Gladstone Region, Queensland, Australia. Its purpose was to mark the east side of the entrance to Keppel Bay, on passage to Fitzroy River and Port Alma. The first lighthouse at the locations was constructed in 1873 or 1876, moved in the 1920s, and is now on display at the Gladstone Maritime Museum. A second lighthouse was constructed in 1895 and its state is unclear.

History

First lighthouse
The need for a lighthouse at this location was identified in 1864. The first lighthouse, constructed in 1873 or 1876, was the first in Queensland of its design, made of a hardwood frame clad with corrugated iron. This design was then used in seven more lighthouses, by order of establishment, Grassy Hill Light, Goods Island Light, Bay Rock Light, Old Caloundra Light, North Point Hummock Light (demolished), Gatcombe Head Light (demolished) and Bulwer Island Light. With the installation of the second lighthouse in 1895 it became the front light in the range. In the 1920s, the lighthouse was relocated to Station Point, about  northeast. It stood there until it was deactivated in the 1960s and then sold into private hands. It is currently on display at the Gladstone Maritime Museum at .

The lighthouse is rather short, only  in height. Unlike the other seven Queensland lighthouse towers of the corrugated iron clad type, it is hexagonal in plan, rather than round. A gallery and a lantern top the tower, and much like other Queensland lighthouses, it is painted white with a red dome.

Second lighthouse

The second lighthouse was constructed in 1895 and for a while served as the rear light in the range. It is a , timber framed zinc-annealed, corrugated iron clad tower, with a lantern and a balcony. The original optical apparatus was a 4th order fixed lens with kerosene wick burner. In 1930 the light was converted to an open flame acetylene gas burner, with sun valve and flasher, which operated at least until 1975. By 1977 the original lens had been removed and a solar powered Tideland ML-300 electric beacon installed. A pilot station was established on the foreshore nearby in 1919  and was closed in 1963.

The current state of the lighthouse is unclear. There are reports that the lighthouse was deactivated in 2006. While there were reports that it was demolished in early 2009, other reported that it was standing in 2014. The 2018 List of Lights lists a light at the location,  with a focal plane of , displaying a light characteristic of two white flashes every six seconds (Fl.(2)W. 6s).

See also

 List of lighthouses in Australia

Notes

References

Lighthouses completed in 1876
Lighthouses in Queensland
Gladstone Region
1876 establishments in Australia
Queensland Heritage Register
History of transport in Queensland

Sea Hill Light


DeWayne Jessie (a.k.a.  "Otis Day"; born September 21, 1951) is an American character actor best known for his portrayal of Otis Day in National Lampoon's Animal House. In the movie, the songs "Shama Lama Ding Dong" and "Shout" were sung by Lloyd G. Williams and lip-synched by Jessie.

In the 1980s, Jessie purchased the rights to the band name Otis Day and The Knights from Universal Studios and formed a real-life version of the band with some members of his family and toured the country for years afterward, with Jessie assuming the identity of Otis Day. The group released a concert video, Otis My Man, in 1987 and recorded an album, produced by George Clinton, that came out in 1989 titled Shout which flopped. It included updated versions of "Shout" and "Shama Lama Ding Dong" sung by Jessie.

Jessie and the rest of the band members were initiated as honorary members of Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity at the University of Central Oklahoma in 1985. He lives with three of his grandchildren.

Filmography

External links
 [ Allmusic - Otis Day And The Knights]

1951 births
Living people
American male film actors
African-American male actors
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people

DeWayne Jessie


Vincent Kraft (born 1888) was a German double agent in South-East Asia during World War I who was extensively involved in British counter-intelligence in the Hindu–German Conspiracy.

Biography
Kraft was sent to South-East Asia during the war by the German high command as a part of the larger Indo-German Conspiracy and turned a British double-agent at Singapore in 1915. A German planter from Batavia, Kraft enlisted in the Imperial German Army at the beginning of World War I and served in France.  Various accounts indicate he was either wounded in battle or faced courtsmartial due to his activities in France for which he faced a possible death penalty, against which he was given the option of returning to Batavia and help organise for the secret shipments or arms to be transferred to the Indian revolutionary underground agreed between the Ghadar Party, the Berlin Committee, and the German Foreign Office.  Kraft returned to Batavia to coordinate with Knipping, the German Consul to Peking, but at the same time established contact with the British mission. The intelligence passed on by Kraft, along with that of another agent named Oren were instrumental in uncovering parts of the Hindu–German Conspiracy, especially the plans to ship arms to India on board the  and the Henry S in June 1915. Kraft's information was also key in uncovering the proposed sites on the coast of Bay of Bengal where the arms were to be shipped, the operations of Jatindranath Mukherjee's agent Narendranath Bhattacharya with German ministers in South-East Asia, as well as details of Jatin Mukherjee's plans for insurrection in Bengal in August in August 1915.

Kraft leaked details of the plans by German consul at Shanghai, Knipping, to raid the penal colony of Andaman Islands on Christmas Day 1915 and raise an expeditionary force to raide towns on the Indian coast including Madras and Calcutta. His own bogus plans for the raid were in the meantime revealed to Beckett by "Oren", but given the successive failures of the Indo-German plans, the plans for the operations were abandoned on the recommendations of both the Berlin Committee and Knipping. Vincent Kraft was also responsible for passing on to British intelligence detailed information of the Berlin Committee and details of its activities in Washington D.C, in Siam, Dutch East Indies, and in Persia. Kraft later fled through Mexico to Japan where he was last known to be at the end of the war. Kraft, like Oren was not identified in intelligence reports and was only known by the codename "Agent X". His true identity was only uncovered in 1950s when secret India government  archives were declassified.

Notes

References
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1888 births
World War I spies for the United Kingdom
Double agents
German people of World War I
Hindu–German Conspiracy
Year of death missing
World War I spies for Germany

Vincent Kraft


The Battle of Cocherel was a battle fought on 16 May 1364 between the forces of  Charles V of France and the forces of Charles II of Navarre (known as Charles the Bad), over the succession to the dukedom of Burgundy. The result was a French victory.

Background
The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (near southern Gascony) since 1354. In 1363 the Navarrese used the captivity of John II of France in London and the political weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power. Although there was no formal treaty, Edward III of England supported the Navarrese moves, particularly as there was a prospect that he might gain control over the northern and western provinces as a consequence. There had been a peace treaty known as the Treaty of Brétigny  in place between England and France since 1360. As England was supposed to be at peace with France the English  military forces used to support Navarre were drawn from the mercenary routier companies, not the king of England's army, thus avoiding a breach of the peace treaty.

Armies
The king of France's forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin, though Jean, Count of Auxerre was the highest-ranking noble present. There were knights from Burgundy (f. e. Jean de Vienne), Breton, Picard, Parisian and Gascon people.

The forces of Navarre were commanded by the Gascon chief, Jean de Grailly, Captal de Buch and mainly consisted of 800 to 900 knights and 4000 to 5000 soldiers from Normandy, Gascony and England, including 300 English archers. The most expert, with the largest company of men at arms and archers in his train, was an English knight, called Sir John Jouel.  Sir John Jouel commanded the first battalion of English, which consisted of men at arms and archers. The Captal de Buch had the second battalion, which, one with another, was about four hundred combatants The English and Gascons consisted mainly of routier companies that had been operating in Brittany and Western France.

Battle
The Navarrese army was lined up in three battalions. It took up a defensive position, with the archers forming wedged divisions along the front, as had been a standard tactic for English armies of the period. In the past when the opposing army had advanced then they would be cut to pieces by the archers,  however in this battle, du Guesclin managed to break the defensive formation by attacking and then pretending to retreat, which tempted Sir John Jouel and his battalion from their hill in pursuit. Captal de Buch and his company followed. A flank attack by du Guesclin's reserve then won the day.

Notes

References
 Turnbull, Stephen.  The Book of the Medieval Knight.  London: Arms and Armour Press, 1985.

Battles involving France
History of Eure
1364 in Europe
1360s in France
Conflicts in 1364
Military history of Normandy
Battles of the Middle Ages
Hundred Years' War, 1369–1389

Battle of Cocherel


Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata (CGE or GELP) is an Argentina sports club, of the city of La Plata, Buenos Aires. It was founded on June 3, 1887 as Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima. Its principal activity is football, and it competes in the First División Argentina, Argentina's premier league.

Its stadium is the "Juan Carlos Zerillo", known as the "Estadio del Bosque", capacity for 33.000 spectators.

Gimnasia were champions of División Intermedia of the Argentine Football in 1915, of the First División in 1929, of the "Copa Centenario de la AFA" in 1994 and of the Second division in 1944, 1947 and 1952; it was runner-up of the First División in 1924, Clausura 1995, Clausura 1996, Apertura 1998, Clausura 2002 and Apertura 2005.

History
The "Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata" was founded on June 3, 1887 as a civil association, and thus is the oldest surviving football club in the whole of South America. Its foundation came barely five years after the creation of the City of La Plata in 1882. The first sports offered to its members were, as its Spanish name indicates, gymnastics and fencing. Clubs supporting these sports were common among the upper classes at the end of the 19th century (cf. the prior foundation of Gimnasia y Esgrima de Buenos Aires in 1880). Later on, other disciplines were added, including track and field, football, basketball and rugby.

The institution changed name a few times: from April to December 1897 it was called a "Club de Esgrima" due to the fact that fencing was the only activity practised at that moment. On December 17, 1897 it returned to its original name: "Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima". From July 1952 to September 30, 1955, the club was named "Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima de Eva Perón", due to the fact that the city of La Plata itself had been renamed "Eva Perón" in 1952, after Eva Perón's death. The city returned to its previous name during the government of the "Liberating Revolution", and so did the club. However, it remained unduly identified legally as "Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata", a mistake that was corrected on August 7, 1964 after the new statute was approved.

Amateur era (1891–1930)

Gimnasia had to abandon its original field at the corner of 13th and 71st streets, in 1905; at that time, it chose to discontinue the practice of football and to devote the club mainly to social activities. As a result, some members who were interested in playing football left and founded a club devoted principally to that activity: Estudiantes de La Plata. Later, in 1912, a group of football players who were in conflict with Estudiantes de La Plata joined Club Independencia, which later merged with Gimnasia y Esgrima in 1914, thereby returning to the practice of football. In 1915 Gimnasia y Esgrima joins "División Intermedia", wins the championship and thus promotion to the Primera División Argentina. On that year, Gimnasia obtains the two cups that were in dispute: Competencia Adolfo J. Bullrich Cup and Campeonato Intermedia Cup.

On April 27, 1916, Gimnasia played against Estudiantes de La Plata, its classic rival, for the first time. The match took place at the Estudiantes de La Plata' field (1st and 57th streets), where Gimnasia y Esgrima defeated its classic rival 1–0. That year, Gimnasia finished the championship in fourth place, behind Racing Club, Club Atlético Platense and River Plate, with nine victories, nine ties and three defeats. In 1921 Gimnasia would again reach fourth place, behind Racing Club, River Plate and Independiente, as a result of 23 victories, six ties and nine defeats.

On April 27, 1924 the new stadium was inaugurated, in La Plata's main park ("El Bosque", the Forest) at the intersection of 60th avenue and 118th street; it was named Stadium Juan Carlos Zerillo. Gimnasia y Esgrima remained undefeated in its new stadium for 15 months (from its first official meeting until July 1925). On that year, Gimnasia achieved second place, behind San Lorenzo, with 15 victories, seven ties and one defeat.

Title of 1929

In 1929, Gimnasia y Esgrima obtains its only First Division title in the amateur era, after a campaign that included fourteen victories and three defeats. The championship of 1929 was organized along the Copa Estímulo format, that is, teams where separated in two zones ("even" and "odd"), the title being defined in a game between the winners of each zone. Gimnasia y Esgrima won the first place in the "odd zone", which included River Plate, Racing Club, Huracán, and Estudiantes de La Plata, among other teams. The "even zone" was won by Boca Juniors, that qualified thus for the final meeting.

The final took place on February 9, 1930 at the old stadium of River Plate (at the intersection of Alvear and Tagle in Recoleta). On that day, Gimnasia fielded: Felipe Scarpone, Di Giano and Evaristo Delovo; Rusciti, Santillán and Belli; Curell, Varallo, Maleani, Díaz, and Morgada. After being down 0–1 at half time, the team turned the result and won 2-1 with two goals by Martin Maleani. That same year Gimnasia won the "Reserve" championship. Consequently, Gimnasia y Esgrima became the first club of La Plata to earn a title in a competition organized by an Association recognized by FIFA.

The European Tour of 1930/1931

Between December 1930 and April 1931, Gimnasia's team, which later would be known as "El Expreso" (in English, "The Express"), toured Europe and Brazil. Gimnasia became the first Argentine club outside Greater Buenos Aires to compete in Europe, and the first ever to play in Portugal, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Italy. In the European portion of the tour, Gimnasia played twenty-two games, winning eleven and losing six. On February 15, 1931, Gimnasia defeated Sportverein München 4-0 at Munich, in a game remarkable for being the first match played by an Argentine team on a snow-covered pitch. On March 8, Gimnasia won 3-1 over AC Sparta Praha at Prague, a team that was arguably the strongest in Europe at the time, and that no South American team had yet defeated. Gimnasia also won its matches against three of the most important European clubs: a 3-1 victory against Real Madrid (at Madrid, on January 1, 1931), 2-1 against FC Barcelona (at Barcelona, on January 6, 1931), and 1-0 against Benfica (at Lisbon, on March 29, 1931).

Professional era (1931–2008)

El Expreso of 1933

Already in the professional era, Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata entered in the history of Argentine soccer with a famous team known as "El Expreso" (The Express). The "1933 Express" comfortably won the first round of the First Division championship. In the second round, Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata led the championship, until it faced Boca Juniors and San Lorenzo de Almagro. In these matches, Gimnasia was subject to openly biased arbitration. In the latter game, the referee Rojo Miró favoured so blatantly San Lorenzo that the Gimnasia players famously refused to continue with the charade, and "went on strike." They simply sat on the field, while San Lorenzo scored unopposedly, before the referee terminated the game with a 7–1 outcome. The 1933 team ended in the fourth place (San Lorenzo was the champion) with a record of 21 victories, four draws and nine defeats. However, the legendary Express had been born, and it never left the memory of its fans. The top scorer of The Express was Arturo "El Torito" Naón with 33 goals.

Governor Alende Cup (1960)

This Cup was disputed in 1960 and was organized by the club Estudiantes de La Plata. It was called "Gobernador de la  Province of Buenos Aires Dr. Oscar Alende Cup", in honoring the governor Oscar Alende. The cup was an international quadrangular, comprising friendly matches between Estudiantes, Gimnasia, Club Nacional de Football and Club Atlético Peñarol, the latter being the two main football clubs from Uruguay.

Gimnasia won both meetings against the Uruguayan teams: 5–2 against Nacional and 1–0 against Peñarol. Estudiantes lost its respective games for 0–1 and 2–5.

In the last match, Gimnasia tied with Estudiantes 2–2. On February 13, 1960, Gimnasia was therefore crowned champion of the Gobernador Alende Cup, at the stadium of its classic archrival, located at the intersection of the 57 & 1 streets of La Plata.

La Barredora (1970)

One of the teams most remembered by Gimnasia fans is "La Barredora" ("The Sweeper"). After almost a decade alternating good and bad performances, the championships organized by the Asociación del Fútbol Argentino were restructured.

The result was the creation of two championships: the "Metropolitano", played by teams affiliated directly to the AFA (and divided in two zones), and the "Nacional", played by the teams placed in the top positions of the "Metropolitano", in addition to teams from the leagues of the Argentine interior. The rest of the teams played the "Promocional" and "Reclasificatorio" cups. Other variants existed, whereby the "Metropolitano" was played as an all-team home-and-away round robin, and the "Nacional" in a two-zone competition.

In the first year, 1967, Gimnasia y Esgrima was champion of the "Promocional" tournament.

In 1970, Gimnasia y Esgrima finished second the zone "B" behind Chacarita Juniors, and qualified to the "Nacional" semifinal against Rosario Central, who had occupied the first position in the zone "A". At that time, a conflict developped between the players and the club's administration on a disagreement about performance remuneration. Unable to solve the issue, the President Oscar Venturino fielded the club's third division on the semifinal at Rosario. The final result was a 3–0 victory for Rosario Central.

The typical eleven in that remarkable team were: Hugo Orlando Gatti; Ricardo Rezza, José Bernabé Leonardi, José Masnik, Roberto Zywica, Roberto Gonzalo; Héctor Pignani, José Santiago, Delio Onnis, José Néstor Meija, Jorge Castiglia. José Varacka was the coach.

The Return to First Division (1984)

After a bad campaign, Gimnasia y Esgrima is relegated to Primera "B" in 1979. The team played in the Second Division between 1980 and 1984, year in which it returns to First Division. The team included football players such as Ricardo "El Pulpo" Kuzemka and Carlos Carrió; its coach was Nito Veiga.

In 1984 Gimnasia y Esgrima obtained the third place in the overall table, and thus qualified to dispute an Octogonal for the second promotion to First Division. The other teams in the octogonal were Racing Club, Argentino de Rosario, Club Atlético Tigre, Defensores de Belgrano, Club Atlético Lanús, Nueva Chicago, and Deportivo Morón. Gimnasia reached the final, where it defeated Racing Club twice, first 3-1 in Avellaneda, and then 4-2 in La Plata on December 30, 1984. After these victories, Gimnasia returned to First Division in 1985 and has been playing there ever since.

Copa Centenario de la AFA (1993–94)
The AFA organized in 1993 a cup-style (elimination) tournament named Copa Centenario ("Centennial Cup"), to celebrate its hundredth anniversary. Each first division team played its derby rival in two rounds in a double elimination system. Gimnasia eliminated its classic rival Estudiantes 1–0 with a goal by Guillermo Barros Schelotto, and qualified for the next round after a 0–0 tie in the return match. Then, Gimnasia successively eliminated Newell's Old Boys, Argentinos Juniors and Belgrano de Córdoba to win the "round of winners". River Plate won the "round of losers" and qualified for the final, with Gimnasia having home court advantage.

Gimnasia won the final 3–1 with goals by Hugo Romeo Guerra, Fernández and Guillermo Barros Schelotto. River's goal was scored by Villalba. Gimnasia's winning team included Lavallén; Sanguinetti, Morant, Ortiz, Dopazo, Fernández, Bianco, Talarico, Gustavo Barros Schelotto, Guillermo Barros Schelotto and Guerra.

After winning this cup, Gimnasia was invited to participate on the Sanwa Bank Cup in 1994.

From Griguol to Troglio (1994–2007)
With veteran coach Carlos Timoteo Griguol at the helm, Gimnasia took second place in the 1995 Clausura tournament, repeating the performance in 1996 and 1998. Also took second place in 2002 (coached by Ramaciotti).

Gimnasia also obtained second place in 2005 under Pedro Troglio's management, after an excellent campaign that had them fighting neck to neck with Boca Juniors until the very end of the championship.

These strong showings allowed Gimnasia to take part in the top club-level competitions in South America: the Copa Sudamericana during the 2006 and 2007 editions of the Copa Libertadores.

On September 10, 2006, during the halftime of a match against Boca Juniors, club president Juan José Muñoz confronted (and allegedly threatened) referee Daniel Giménez, who called off the match immediately, with Gimnasia leading 1–0. Muñoz was reprimanded by the football association and temporarily removed from its executive committee, although he was confirmed as Gimnasia's President by the club's board. A few days later, Gimnasia was eliminated from the Copa Sudamericana by the Chilean champions Colo Colo, following a quarter final match where a player of Gimnasia was injured by a cement piece thrown by Chilean supporters. Due to Gimnasia's physical play in the second leg of the quarter finals in Argentina, Argentine Football Association's president Julio Grondona wrote a personal letter to the president of the ANFP (the Chilean football federation) apologizing for the "roughness" of the Gimnasia players.

The pending second half against Boca Juniors was played on November 8, 2006. Boca Juniors scored four goals and won the match. After the match, Troglio and some of the players hinted that the team had received death threats from some supporters, who wanted to benefit Boca in its championship bid against Gimnasia's archrivals Estudiantes. Nevertheless, Estudiantes obtained the title in the end.

La Plata District Attorney Marcelo Romero opened an investigation and cited some players and club officers to testify, but the entire affair was soon dismissed.  Player Marcelo Goux refused to participate in the next match and quit the team soon afterwards, as did fellow players Martín Cardetti and Ariel Franco. Many articles condemned Muñoz's handling of the situation, accusing him of lying to the press, and of treating violent fans as his protégés.

2007–08: New management
After a string of losses in the local championship and the Copa Libertadores, there were renewed calls for Muñoz to resign. Coach Troglio felt the burden of responsibility and quit his post on April 2, 2007. Gimnasia hired first famed Colombian trainer Francisco Maturana, and then Julio César Falcioni, both with limited success.

In the December 2007 election, Muñoz did not run, and the candidate he supported lost to the opposition. New club president Walter Gisande hired former player Guillermo Sanguinetti as team coach and tried to convince former players, notably Diego Alonso and Guillermo Barros Schelotto, to return to Gimnasia. Only Alonso, who was playing in China, made the leap.

Sanguinetti quit after a string of bad results that left Gimnasia in serious danger of relegation. Under new coach Leonardo Madelón, team results improved markedly, and as of the beginning of the 2009 Clausura tournament, Gimnasia is better positioned to stay in the Primera level.

The new management also campaigned for a return to its traditional ground at El Bosque. Starting April 2008, the stadium underwent a structural engineering evaluation after all security measures requested by authorities were put in place. On June 2008, Gimnasia was allowed to play again at El Bosque; the return took place in a match against Lanús, the last game of the Clausura 2008 championship. Mayor Pablo Bruera has indicated that the city will let Gimnasia buy or lease some city-owned lands for erecting a sports complex.

Records and curiosities

 Gimnasia is the oldest club participating in the Argentine Football League, as it was founded on June 3, 1887.
 Gimnasia was the first South American team to defeat Real Madrid C.F. on Spanish soil. The match was played on January 1, 1931 and ended with a score of 3–2 for Gimnasia.
 Gimnasia was the first Argentine club to hire a foreign manager in the professional era:  Emérico Hirschl.
 Between August 12, 1932 and September 9, 1934 Gimnasia won five consecutive La Plata derbies, the longest run of victories in that derby to date.
 Gimnasia best score was an 8–1 victory against Racing Club on November 22, 1961. Curiously, Racing Club was the champion on that year.
 Gimnasia has the record for the fastest goal in the Argentine league: Carlos Dantón Seppaquercia scored against Club Atlético Huracán after five seconds, on March 20, 1979.
 At the reinauguration of Boca Juniors' stadium (La Bombonera) on May 5, 1996, Gimnasia defeated the home team by 6–0.
 Gimnasia has been in Primera División Argentina for 69 seasons.

Shield or Logo

The shield of the Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata is a wreath in which top part is outlined a helmet with a heraldic crest. At the center, on enamel and with the colors of the club (white and navy blue), the club monogram appears in relief. In the top cantons, like a guard, there appear the hilts of a saber and a foil, with their sharp points emerging at lower part of the shield. To the sides of the center a rama of laurels spreads the helmet, for every side.

Since its inception, the club shield has undergone some modifications. From 1887 until 1928, the shield used was devised by Emilio Coutauret, and it was characterized by a handcrafted and adorned design. In 1964, following a reform of the foundational statute, Gimnasia's shield adopted a simpler form, while still keeping the essence of the original one. This is the logo in current use, and often displayed on the team's jerseys.

There have been some minor changes introduced in the past few years. During Héctor Domínguez's presidency, the abbreviation at the center of the shield was changed, replacing the historical CGE (Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima), for the GELP (Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata), modification that persisted during the mandates of Gliemmo and Muñoz. Since the beginning of Walter Gisande's presidency, it was decided to return to the original abbreviation of 'CGE'.

Kit / Team jerseys
The official historical uniform of Gimnasia y Esgrima is based on the colours displayed in the club shield, as established in the institutional statute.
 Official uniform ("camiseta titular"): a white jersey with a single horizontal navy-blue stripe over the chest, white (or blue) trousers, white (or blue) socks.
 Alternative uniform: a navy-blue jersey with a horizontal white stripe over the chest, navy blue trousers, navy blue socks.

Kit Evolution

In the first years of life of the institution, the colors adopted were the white and light blue, seeking of this form to highlight the fact that it was an Argentine club. The first vest used by the team had vertical white and light blue stripes.

Later, in 1905, it was decided to change the colors to make it distinct from Racing Club. This resulted in a vest with vertical stripes of white and navy-blue color.

Finally, from 1910, the design was modified, changing the vertical stripes into the horizontal band of navy-blue color over a white jersey, which has been used ever since.

Apparel and Sponsor

(Last updated: February 14, 2009)

The following table details chronologically the providing companies of apparel and the sponsors that it has had Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata from the years 1980 and 1990 respectively:

During the year 2009, the apparel of Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata will be provided by the company "Kappa", the one who will provide from uniform sports up to the extra-sports clothes. In turn, jersey will be supported by the company "La Nueva Seguros", of which it will take the name written in the principal band.

Supporters

Fan base

Within the city of La Plata and its environs, the Gimnasia fan base used to be identified with the working class, contrasting with the mostly middle class Estudiantes constituency. This characterization is no longer true. Most of Gimnasia y Esgrima fans are from the Greater La Plata area.

The fans' collective name for itself is "La 22", after 22nd street in La Plata where many famous fans lived, notably Marcelo Amuchástegui. Known as Loco Fierro, Amuchástegui was famous for his exploits, such as hanging a 100-meter Gimnasia flag in the Bombonera stadium. He was shot to death by Rosario police in a murky episode on May 28, 1991, allegedly during an armed robbery.

As it is the case with some other clubs in the Argentine First Division, the fans celebrate with a large party and outside gathering the "Worldwide Day of Gimnasia's Fans" on each December 10.

Nicknames: The Wolf, and others

Since the 1960s, Gimnasia has been known as El Lobo (short for "El Lobo del Bosque", Spanish for "the wolf in the Forest") after the story of "Red Riding Hood", since its historical football field is in the middle of La Plata's main park, known as El Bosque ("the forest"). Many other Argentine clubs also called "Gimnasia y Esgrima" adopted later the nicknames of "El Lobo" after the La Plata team.

Another nickname, mensanas, derives from the Latin motto used in the shield: Mens sana in corpore sano (a healthy mind in a healthy body).

An original nickname was (and still is) triperos ("tripe" or "gut-handlers"). This name has its origin in the fact that many of Gimnasia's original supporters worked in the meat-processing plants of nearby Berisso. In newspaper caricatures from the early 1900s, Gimnasia was accordingly depicted as a "butcher", instead of the current "wolf". Yet, still today, Gimnasia is often greeted into the stadia by its fans with a resounding "Tripa corazón!" (Spanish for "Go Tripe Go!"). Curiously, the same nickname is applied when referring to the population of Porto in Portugal, although the meaning of the nickname in Portuguese is closer to "tripe-eaters".

Another nickname is basureros ("garbage or waste collectors"), acquired during the presidency of Mr. Venturino in the 1970s, who also managed the private company dealing with trash pickup in La Plata.

Stadium
The Stadium Juan Carlos Zerillo, known as El Bosque (Spanish for "the forest", because it is in the La Plata park of the same name) has a capacity of 31,460 and was used continuously until 2005.

When a new city stadium was built for La Plata, both Gimnasia and Estudiantes initially chose to stay at their respective fields, but this arrangement collapsed when both fields were closed down due to new security regulations. In the 2006 Clausura tournament, Gimnasia began to use the city stadium for home games.

Beginning on March 2008, Gimnasia made various reforms to its old stadium, seeking to secure the permit for its use at selected games. Finally on June 2008, the "El Bosque" grounds were reapproved for First Division competitions. On Saturday June 21, 2008, on the occasion of the last game of the Clausura 2008 championship, Gimnasia returned to its old home in a match against Lanús.

Achievements

Amateur Era

National Official Tournaments
 Primera División:
 Winners (1):1929
 Runners-up (1): 1924
 División Intermedia del Fútbol Argentino:
Winners (1): 1915

National Friendly Tournaments
 Copa Competencia Adolfo J. Bullrich (1): 1915
 Copa Campeonato Intermedia (1): 1915

Professional Era

National Official Tournaments
 Primera División:
 Runners-up (5): Clausura 1995, Clausura 1996, Apertura 1998, Clausura 2002, Apertura 2005
 Copa Centenario de la AFA (1): 1994
 Segunda División:
 Winners (3): 1944, 1947, and 1952
 Runners-up (1): 1946

National Friendly Tournaments
 Copa Amistad (2): 1977 y 2006
 Copa Ciudad de Mar del Plata (1): 2009
 Copa Municipalidad de La Plata (2): 1999 and 2001

International Friendly Tournaments
 Copa Gobernador Alende (1): 1960
 Copa Colonia del Sacramento (1): 1998
 Cuadrangular de Asunción (1): 1975
 Copa Cristal (1): 2005
 Second place of Sanwa Bank Cup (1): 1994

Other sports

Volleyball
GELP has a female volleyball team. They are the only one of the nine founder clubs from the Federación de Voleibol y Pelota al Cesto

, still playing volleyball and in the highest division. The federation is now Federación Metropolitana de Voleibol (FMV).

Basketball

Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata is also known for several excellent campaigns in basketball. The GELP basketball team peaked during the 1978 and 1979 campaigns, when they won twice in a row Argentina's premier basketball championship (Metropolitano titles). In both cases, they prevailed over favorite Obras Sanitarias, Argentina's powerhouse at the time. The team included players such as "Gallego" González, "Finito" Gehrmann, Peinado, as well as some Americans: Michael Jackson, Lawrence Jackson Jr., and the team leader and star, point-guard Clarence Edgar Metcalfe, chosen as the league MVP in 1979. The twice-champions were coached by Rolando Sfeir.

Gimnasia were runners-up in the 2003/04 Argentine league tournament, when GELP was defeated by Boca Juniors 4–2 in the final series. In the following season, the team was relegated to the TNA (Second Division) after president Juan José Muñoz decreased substantially the basketball budget, thereby causing the loss of its principal players. Nowadays, Gimnasia's first team of basketball plays in the TNA.

Former sports
In addition to the aforementioned sport activities, Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata participated in other disciplines throughout its history. The following sports are no longer practiced in the club:
 Rugby football: In 1933, the "Unión de Rugby del Río de la Plata" decided not to allow the affiliation of clubs that participated professionally in other sports (e.g., football). As a result, the mens sana team playing rugby was forced to rename itself distinctly as "Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata Rugby Club". Four years later, however, it was decided to channel rugby activities through an independent institution, thereby creating what is today "La Plata Rugby Club".
 Table tennis: The "Asociación Platense de Tenis de Mesa" ("La Plata Association for Table-tennis", part of the Argentine Federation of the sport) existed between 1945 and 1951. Gimnasia was a founding member of the Association, and it obtained the majority of the tournaments organized during these six years.
 Fencing: From its creation, the practice of fencing was an important activity at the club. The sport reached its peak during the first two decades of the XX century. Between 1914 and 1924, it was dominated by the outstanding performances of Horacio Casco, then president of the club, and Carmelo Merlo, both Argentine representatives in the 1924 Paris Olympic Games. At the end of the 1940s, the practice of this discipline was discontinued.
 Greco-Roman wrestling: Between 1924 and 1928 the club had a team of Greco-Roman wrestling.
 Field hockey: In 1949, the club starts informally the practise of Field Hockey, and it affiliates formally on April 1949. The hockey field was in the Stadium Juan Carlos Zerillo, at the "El Bosque" grounds.
 Gymnastics: During the 1930s, the practice of gymnastics played a central role in the club's activities. Members of the Gimnasia team were part of the Argentine delegation that competed in the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. This discipline was discontinued after 1976.

Other activities were available at the club at various periods, namely: water polo, boxing, cycling, petanque, auto racing, judo and tennis, among others.

Related pages
 List of Argentine football teams

References

Other websites
 Official Web Site
 Historical table of the club at RSSSF
  AFA site
  Champions of the Primera División del Fútbol Argentino
  Champions of the Segunda División del Fútbol Argentino
  Directorio web de google sobre Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata

Argentine football clubs
1887 establishments
1880s establishments in Argentina

Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata


Owen Mwatia popularly known as Daddy Owen was born on Friday 1, 1982, is a Kenyan contemporary Christian music (CCM) artist and songwriter from Kakamega, Kenya. Owen is the brother to Kenyan Award-winning gospel musician Rufftone. He is a member of the Kenya Assemblies of God Church, Buru Buru, Nairobi and is signed to Beats & Blessings family. Daddy Owen was married to Farida Wambui (2 April 2016) and has since separated in 2021.

Early life
Daddy Owen was born in Kakamega, Western Kenya in 1982. He is the second born in a family of four brothers, all musicians and a sister. His elder brother Rufftone is a gospel musician who Daddy Owen refers to as "my inspiration". He is an alumnus of Eshihiru Secondary school but was not lucky enough to join a tertiary institution due to financial constraints. He thus had to travel to Nairobi where he worked as a matatu tout. The income he earned from this job was to meagre that it could not sustain his needs and that of his family. Daddy Owen has always confessed that he used to be a pick pocket in Downtown Nairobi and thus was until he was attacked by a mob and almost lynched.

"It all happened in a split second. All I remember was lying down surrounded by a huge crowd who beat me up mercilessly. One poked my eye using a sharp instrument. Meanwhile, I could hear the rest urging someone to bring a car tyre to burn me alive,"

After spending a whole week in an eye hospital in Kikuyu, he decided to turn over a new leaf. He however remains with a scar on his left eye that he conceals with his pair of sunglasses

Career
Owen started singing way back when he was still in high school but was not particularly able to hit the limelight because he lacked money to record his songs as he was from a humble background. He however credits his breakthrough to great support both financial, spiritual and emotional from his family, particularly his brother Rufftone and the late gospel artist Kaberere who he has constantly called his mentor.

Daddy Owen released his first album, Haijalishi, in 2004. Some of his most well-known songs are "Mbona" which was co-authored by Denno, "Foundation", "Tobina", "Kazi ya Msalaba", "Saluti", and "System ya Kapungala". He is currently a praise and worship member at the Kenya Assemblies of God, Nairobi.
Daddy Owen has Four albums to his name: Saluti, System ya Kapungala, Son of Man and Haijaisha. He was the Groove Awards male artist of the year from the year 2009 to 2011. His song 'Saluti' earned three groove award nominations and went on win in all three categories. Mwatia popularizes in Lingala music.

He is the founder member of Malaika Awards,a Charitable organization for the disabled.

Philanthropy
Daddy Owen is the founder of Malaika Awards which seeks to honour artistes with disabilities. He also launched the "Macho Macho" campaign (see Fred Hollows Foundation and Macho Macho campaign) aimed at providing medical attention to needy people with eye problems in Kakamega. The Second Chance Campaign launched by Daddy Owen in 2012 gives moral and financial support to cancer victims in all parts of the country and creates cervical cancer awareness, encourages women to seek cervical cancer screening services.  Daddy Owen also supports the Phoenix football team in Nairobi.

Awards
He won the Anglophone' award during the MTV Africa Music Awards (MAMA).

Artist of the year at the 2012 Kisima Awards ceremony.

Discography
 System Ya Kapungala (2003)
 Haijalishi (2006)
 Son of Man (2013)
 Vanity (2016)

References

External links

21st-century Kenyan male singers
Living people
Kenyan Luhya people
1982 births

Daddy Owen


Female Ghost is an ukiyo-e woodblock print dating to 1852 by celebrated Edo period artist Utagawa Kunisada, also known as Toyokuni III. Female Ghost exemplifies the nineteenth century Japanese vogue for the supernatural and superstitious in the literary and visual arts. The print is part of the permanent collection of the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada.

Yūrei-zu
This print belongs to a genre of Japanese painting and ukiyo-e known as yūrei-zu (幽霊図), ghost pictures, which peaked in popularity in the mid-nineteenth century.  Literally 'faint (幽- yū) spirit (霊- rei),' yūrei is just one of several Japanese words used to refer to spirits. Other terms include: obake (お化け), yōkai (妖怪), bōrei (亡霊), shiryō/ shirei (死霊), yūki (幽鬼), yōma (妖魔), yūkai (幽怪), rei (霊), bakemono (化け物), konpaku (魂魄), henge (変化), onryō (怨霊) and yūreijinkō (幽霊人口).

There is a long tradition of belief in the supernatural in Japan which relates to various influences, including such imported sources as Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folklore. The most notable influence, however, is Shintō, a native animistic religion which presupposes that the physical world is inhabited by eight million omnipresent spirit beings.

Yūrei-zu such as this one represent the conflation of two prevailing trends in the nineteenth century Japanese literary and visual arts: depictions of the female form, and depictions of macabre or supernatural themes. During this period, ghosts— particularly the female variety— commonly figured in folktales, as well as theatre. Vengeful spirits returning to punish their wrong-doers were a staple of kabuki, bunraku and nō dramas, and proved popular with audiences. Wishing to tap into this market for the macabre, painters and woodblock artists began to create images of ghosts, as well as of kabuki actors in the roles of ghost characters.

Yakusha-e
Kunisada entered Utagawa Toyokuni's studio from a young age, and was therefore granted access to training from the finest masters of the age, as well as valuable connections to publishers, poets' associations, theatres and actors He began creating yakusha-e (actor images) in 1808, and this genre was to become the mainstay of his fame and fortune. So esteemed and prolific was he in this area, that he earned the epithet "Kunisada, the Portraitist of Actors (yakusha-e no Kunisada)." The Tempō Reforms of 1842, which had banned depictions of geisha, oiran courtesans and kabuki actors, began to be gradually repealed from the late 1840s, which left Kunisada free to return to his favourite medium.

Utagawa Kunisada (Toyokuni III)
Born in 1786 in the Honjō district of Edo, Utagawa Kunisada (歌川国貞) was an apprentice of Toyokuni I, whom he later succeeded as Toyokuni III (三代歌川豊国). Although he debuted as a book illustrator in 1807 with illustrations for the series of beauties "Twelve Hours of the Courtesans" (Keisei jūnitoki), his production really took off from 1809. He founded his own studio in the early 1810s, and demand for his illustrations soon outstripped that for his master's. Not only was he respected for his artistic talent, he was also admired for his "convivial and balanced demeanor, and [the fact that] he delivered his commissions on time."

Kunisada has been described as "without a doubt... was the most prolific and successful print artist of all time." Until the time of his death in 1865, he was incredibly prodigious, creating between 35 and 40 thousand designs for individual ukiyo-e prints. He produced images from diverse genres, including kabuki-e (pictures of kabuki actors), bijin-ga (pictures of beautiful women), yūrei-zu (ghost pictures), sumō-e (sumo wrestler pictures), shunga (erotica) and musha-e (warrior prints).

According to modern critics, Kunisada was "a trendsetter... in tune with the tastes of urban society." He is credited with infusing ukiyo-e with a sense of realism, particularly in his representations of female subjects. Compared with the females idealized in prints by Utamaro, his women are shorter limbed, with shorter and rounder physiques. They are often posed with "slightly bent backs and knees, giving them a hunched up, stumpy look." Like the female spirit in this print, they generally have longer faces with strong jaws giving an impression of "greater self-possession, if not outright aggressiveness."

The print dates to 1852 and was therefore done when Kunisada was 66, before his work declined into what has been described as "gaudy and ostentatious" use of colour. Critics tend to agree that Kunisada's later works suffered in quality "because of over-production and lowering of artistic standards."

Female Ghost

The subject in this print corresponds to the typical depiction of female ghosts in Edo art: "a fragile form with long, flowing hair... dressed in pale or white clothing, the body below the waist tapered into nothingness." The central area is dominated by the figure of a female spirit with extremely long, wildly flowing black hair, crowned by a pale blue and white decoration. Unlike in many other yūrei-zu, the ghost in this print is not disfigured or particularly ghoulish. She wears a long, pale blue kimono with the long sleeves (furisode - 振袖) common to the kimono of single women and female ghosts. Underneath are two inner robes, one solid red, and the other with a pale blue and white geometric design. Her kimono is fastened with a large dark blue obi tied in a disheveled bow at the front. Her kimono is closed left over right, as it would be worn by a living woman.

The ghost floats, footless and with arms bent up at the elbows as is customary for ghost images of the period, in flames above a grassy field. Her head is framed by pine boughs. She stares off to the right, her gaze following her outstretched right arm. Covering the palm of her right hand is a blue cloth on top of which rests a rolled up kakemono or makimono scroll. In her left hand she grasps a red cloth—possibly a furoshiki—which is tied up as a round, flat parcel. Peaking out over her right shoulder is the brown feathered fletching of a single arrow.

The image dates to 1852, the most productive year of Kunisada's career, during which he produced almost one thousand compositions. The image depicts a scene from a kabuki play entitled Otogi banashi Hakata no imaori (御伽譚博多新織), which was staged at Edo's Nakamura-za theatre in 1852. The image takes its original title from the character represented: Yaeki hime no rei (八重機姫の霊 - the ghost of Princess Yaeki). Although not named on the print, the character was played by actor Onoe Baikō (尾上梅幸).

Although it is displayed in isolation in the ROM, the print is actually the centre image from a triptych capturing different characters from the play. The image on the left—to which her outstretched right arm appears to be reaching—is of Akamatsu Shigetamaru (赤松重太丸) as played by actor Ichikawa Kodanji (市川小団次). In the triptych's right position,
is another character from the play named Shichi[?]shirō (七?四郎). The image belongs to a series of over twenty images depicting scenes from the play, including another of the Yaeki hime no rei character.

Print details
 Size: ōban
 Format: tate-e
 Title: Yaeki hime no rei (八重機姫の霊); labelled Female Ghost by ROM
 Subject: Yaeki hime no rei (Ghost of Princess Yaeki) character from the kabuki play Otogibanashi Hakata no imaori
 Signature: Toyokuni ga (豊国画); in red oval toshidama-in cartouche, lower right corner
 Publisher: Yamamoto-ya Heikichi, Eikyūdō; dark blue hanmoto mark in bottom left corner
 Censor seals: 2 nanushi seals reading top to bottom Murata (村田) & Kinugasa (衣笠) indicating Murata Heiemon & Kinugasa Fusajiro
 Date seal: rat 6, i.e. 6th month of 1852; oval in lower left corner, below censor seals
 Genre: Yūrei-zu, yakusha-e
 Provenance: donated to the ROM by linguist and librarian Leonard Wertheimer (1914-1998)

See also
 Princess Takamado
 Spring and autumn landscapes (Hara Zaishō) - items in same gallery
 Unit 88-9 (Kiyomizu Masahiro) - item in same gallery
 Eijudō Hibino at Seventy-one (Toyokuni I) - print in same collection
 Ichikawa Omezō as a Pilgrim and Ichikawa Yaozō as a Samurai (Toyokuni I) - print in same collection
 Fan print with two bugaku dancers (Kunisada) - print in same gallery
 Bust portrait of Actor Kataoka Ichizō I (Gochōtei Sadamasu II) - print in same gallery
 View of Tempōzan Park in Naniwa (Gochōtei Sadamasu) - print in same gallery
 Actor Arashi Rikan II as Osome (Ryūsai Shigeharu) - print in same gallery

Notes

References
 Bell, David. Ukiyo-e Explained. Kent, U.K.: Global Oriental, 2004.
 Calza, Gian Carlo. Ukiyo-e. New York: Phaidon Press Ltd., 2003.
 Chiappa, J. Noel. "Nanushi Censor Seals." Accessed July 18, 2013. http://mercury.lcs.mit.edu/~jnc/prints/nanushi.html
 Foster, Michael Dylan. Pandemonium and Parade: Japanese Monsters and the Culture of Yōkai. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2009.
 Harris, Frederick. Ukiyo-e: The Art of the Japanese Print. Tokyo: Tuttle, 2010.
 Hillier, J. Japanese Colour Prints. New York: Phaidon Press, 1991.
 Iwasaka, Michiko and Barre Toelken. Ghosts and the Japanese: Cultural Experience in Japanese Death Legends. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 1994.
 Jesse, Bernd. "The Golden Age of the Utagawa School: Utagawa Kunisada and Utagawa Kuniyoshi." In Samurai Stars of the Stage and Beautiful Women: Kunisada and Kuniyoshi Masters of the Color Woodblock Print, edited by Stiftung Museum Kunstpalat, Gunda Luyken and Beat Wismer, 93-101. Düsseldorf: Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2012.
 Lane, Richard. Images from the Floating World: The Japanese Print. New York: Konecky & Konecky, 1978.
 Marks, Andreas. Japanese Woodblock Prints: Artists, Publishers and Masterworks 1680-1900. Tokyo: Tuttle, 2010.
 Munsterberg, Hugo. The Japanese Print: A Historical Guide. New York: Weatherhill, 1998.
 Ross, Catrien. Japanese Ghost Stories: Spirits, Hauntings and Paranormal Phenomena. Tokyo: Tuttle, 1996.
 Rubin, Norman A. Ghosts, Demons and Spirits in Japanese Lore. Asianart.com. June 26, 2000. Accessed July 12, 2013. http://www.asianart.com/articles/rubin/

External sources
 http://www.rom.on.ca/en/exhibitions-galleries/galleries/world-cultures/prince-takamado-gallery-japan Webpage for the ROM's Price Takamado Gallery
 http://www.kunisada.de/ The Utagawa Kunisada Project Vast repository of information about Kunisada's works
 https://web.archive.org/web/20150430031233/http://www.enpaku.waseda.ac.jp/db/enpakunishik/results-1.php Images of prints from Kunisada's 1852 Otogi banashi Hakata no Imaori series

Works by Utagawa Kunisada
Collections of the Royal Ontario Museum
Japanese ghosts

Female Ghost (Kunisada)


Cleveland Publishing was an Australian digest paperback fiction publishing company that operated between 1953 and 2019.  The company was originally based at 276 Military Road, Cremorne, New South Wales.

History

The company's founder was John Patrick 'Jack' Atkins – a former secretary of the New South Wales Democratic Labor Party. Les Atkins – John Atkin's son – took control of the company in 1979.

Cleveland Publishing published novellas (24,000 to 48,000 words) in a number of genres. At peak the company produced 18 titles – 12 originals and six reprints – per month. Print runs for individual titles peaked at 25,000 copies. In all, close to 10,000 titles were published.

The genres published included crime, romance, war and westerns. The first three genre titles that were published under a number of series included: the Detective series, the Larry Kent series & the Silhouette Detective series.

Other series that were published: the Enchanting series, the Diamond Library series, the Doctors and Nurses series, the Doctor Riley series, the Doctor Conway series, the Frontline series, the Raider series, the Commando series and the Patrol series.

Westerns

The western genre was the company's mainstay product and included the following series:

American Wild West
Arizona Western
The Avenger
Big Horn Western
Bison Western
Bobcat Western
Chisholm Western
Classic Western
Cleveland Western
Condor Western
Coronado Western
Dollar Western
Fighting Western
Halliday Western
High Brand Western
Iron Horse Western
Legends of the West
Lobo Western
Loner Western
Peacemaker Western
Phoenix Western
Pinto Western
Rawhide Western
Santa Fe Western
Sierra Western
Sundown Western
Texas Western
Top Hand Western
Tumbleweed Western
Winchester Western

Authors that contributed significantly to the western genre included:

 Des Dunn
 Roger Green
 Keith Hetherington
 Richard Wilkes-Hunter
 Len Meares
Paul Wheelahan

Each author was published under a number of pseudonyms.

References

Book publishing companies of Australia
Australian companies established in 1953
Australian companies disestablished in 2020
Companies based in New South Wales

Cleveland Publishing


Three Percenters also known as III%ers is an American and Canadian armed group (also called a "militia"). According to the Anti-Defamation League, some Three Percenters take weapons and form militias, but others do not.  Some Three Percenters plan terrorist crimes but others only talk to each other online.  The Three Percenters started in 2008, but they are part of a larger militia movement that started in 1993 or 1994.  According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, the Three Percenters are more of a way of thinking and group of ideas than a group of people. Former Neo-Nazi Maxime Fiset called them the most dangerous terrorist group in Canada.

Name
The name "three percenters" comes from the idea that only three percent of Americans fought in the American Revolutionary War for independence from Britain in the 1700s.  This idea is not true.  The percentage was really much higher.

Sometimes smaller groups, or chapters, of the Three Percenters have different names, for example the 3%ers,  3% of Idaho, Washington State Three Percenters, and Georgia Security Force III%.

Beliefs

Three Percenters are anti-government. They say their group is about "preventing tyranny." Right-wing people and Libertarians sometimes praise them.  They say that they are not a militia and not anti government.  Three Percenters believe that a small number of people with weapons can fight and defeat a large government, the way the American Revolutionaries fought and won against the British.

The Three Percenters do not like these things:
Gun control
Anti-COVID-19 lockdowns and laws
George Floyd protests and Black Lives Matter protests
Antifa
Muslims
Immigrants
The New World Order, an imaginary globalist and socialist organization that hates freedom

History

The Three Percenters started on a blog written by an Alabama man called Mike Vanderboegh.  He had already written an online newspaper called the John Doe Times.  He had written about the Oklahoma City bombing in 1996.  He wrote conspiracy theories about the bombing.  Vanderboegh died in 2016.

In 2008 and 2009, there was an economic collapse in the United States.  Many people disliked the government and liked militias.  At first, Three Percenters had to do a lot of military training, so people who couldn't travel to training places or whose bodies were not strong could not be Three Percenters.  Later, the only rule to be a Three Percenter was to decide to be one.

The Three Percenter Logo is a Roman numeral III surrounded by thirteen stars.  It was easy to make thigns with this logo on it and sell them.

In 2016, the Three Percenters endorsed a candidate for President of the United States for the first time.  They chose Donald Trump.  But once Trump was president, it was harder for them to hate the government.  Three big groups of Three Percenters collapsed, though experts are not sure why.

On February 21, 2022, the leaders of the American Three Percenters national group said they were dissolving, or ending, the Three Percenters.  They said they were doing this because of the 2021 US Capitol attack:

"...we must dissolve this organization effective immediately. It appears that other 'Three Percenter' groups no longer hold the values and morals that we have held in our organization for so long. The DC riots and Capitol breach has hurt the patriot movement drastically and as a result brought an end to our organization. It's quite unfortunate that we've come to this. The media refuses to differentiate between the different 'Three Percenter' organizations and groups, leaving all of the fingers constantly pointing towards us."

This only ended the nationwide American group.  Other groups of Three Percenters, for example local chapters, continued to operate after this.

Activities

The Three Percenters show up with weapons when they think that the federal government is abusing someone.  For example, Three Percenters showed up to a ranch where a man had said he would not pay federal grazing fees for his animals.  They said they wanted to protect him.  Three Percenters also show up to liberal and left-leaning events.  Sometimes they are there as counter-protesters.  Sometimes they say they want to "monitor" the liberals.

Ties to white supremacy

According to the Anti-Defamation League, the Three Percenters are not as close to people who think white people should rule other humans as other militia groups are.  They showed up to the Unite the Right Rally in Charlottesville in 2017, but they later tried to distance themselves from the murders committed there.

Some Three Percenters go to the U.S.-Mexico border and try to stop people from entering the United States illegally as vigilantees.

Crimes and terrorism
While Three Percent is often considered more of an ideology than an organized militia, many people who subscribe to the ideology have attempted violent anti-government actions.  After the 2021 Capital raid the official website said they do not support this violence and deleted their website. In 2021, they were added to Canada's list of terrorist organizations.  Despite many claims, they are not a neo Nazi organization as neo-Nazis believe in the supremacy of the white race, and the Three Percenters previously said "we will not align ourselves with any type of racist group".

In Oklahoma in 2015, Three Percenter Jeremy Doss fired a gun onto Interstate 40, killing two drivers.  This was a spree killing.  He pled guilty and was sentenced to life in prison.
In Kansas in 2016, members of a Three Percenter group called "The Crusaders" planned to use truck bombs to destroy a building where Muslims lived.  They were given 25 or more years in prison each.
In Oklahoma in 2017, Three Percenter Jerry Drake Varnell tried to use a truck bomb to blow up a bank. He was sentenced to 25 years in prison.
In Illinois in 2017, Three Percenters bombed a mosque and tried to bomb an abortion clinic.   Most of them pled guilty.
In Washington D.C. on January 6, 2021, Three Percenters tried to enter the Capitol building with other Trump supporters to stop the Senate from counting the votes from the 2020 presidential election.  One Three Percenter, Guy Wesley Reffit was the first person from the 2021 United States Capitol attack to go on trial.

References

Politics of the United States
2008 establishments
Terrorism

Three Percenters