Washington International University is an online unaccredited institution of higher education founded in 1994 and currently incorporated in the British Virgin Islands. It describes itself as a "cyberspace university" and a "university without borders", serving clients from around the world online. The university website states that WIU's graduates have come from 112 countries.

The name "Washington International University" is used in promotional materials for other unaccredited distance learning institutions. There are no known accredited institutions by this name.

Academic programs
The school offers bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees in business, liberal arts and engineering.

The school offers "traditional" and "accelerated" degree programs. The traditional programs require students to complete just ten courses for a bachelor's degree and eight for a master's, along with a senior research project. The accelerated degree program allows completion of any degree within one year. For the accelerated program, according to the university's website, "There are no textbooks to read, curriculum to follow or formal exams to take." For either a bachelor's or a master's degree, a student must submit three book reports on books selected by the student's advisor and a research paper on a topic related to the student's field of study. For the doctorate, students must complete a thesis under the guidance of an instructor.  The university's advanced degree programs take into account academic credit for work experience, which is similar to that given by the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services. This would allow a student to earn his or her degree in a shorter time frame.

The university points out on its Web site that its course materials "use simple language so that an average person can understand what is written."  The site also claims a "cooperation" with Encyclopædia Britannica, to provide students with a reference library.

The school's website lists seven faculty members, including two with doctorates, one with Ed.D, three with master's degrees and one with a J.D. degree. According to a newspaper report in 2002, Karademir called the faculty "advisers", not "professors".

Accreditation status and recognition of degrees
The university has not sought educational accreditation and does not have a campus. As recently as October 2012, the Oregon Office of Degree Authorization stated on its website that WIU is located in the British Virgin Islands and that its degrees are not recognized.

Lack of accreditation has consequences for WIU degree holders in some circumstances. For instance, the Michigan Civil Service Commission lists WIU among unaccredited institutions "from which degrees will not be accepted [...] to satisfy educational requirements indicated on job specifications."

The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB) lists degrees awarded from WIU as "substandard,"  meaning according to the THECB in this case, "a degree... conferred outside the United States by an institution that the Coordinating Board determines is not the equivalent of an accredited or authorized degree."  The THECB describes WIU as having "[n]o accreditation from a CB (Coordinating Board) recognized accreditor. British Virgin Islands does not have postsecondary oversight capability."

History and locations
The school was founded in the mid-1990s and, as of 1998, was incorporated in Hawaii and the British Virgin Islands, although it was based in Pennsylvania and owned by Yil Karademir, of Lower Merion, Pennsylvania, who ran the university with his wife. According to The Philadelphia Inquirer, the Hawaii location was meant for forwarding mail and telephone calls to the school's location on the mainland. As of 1998 a building pictured on WIU's website was "where the head of Washington University receives mail and messages", but a two-story house on a residential street in Bryn Mawr was the school's registrar's office where a staff of four took calls from students. Karademir explained to the Inquirer that "We are entrepreneurs, we are not educators."

Before 1998, the institution now called "Washington International University" used the name "Washington University," but Karademir added "International" to the name in June 1998 as part of the settlement of a lawsuit filed by Washington University in St. Louis. Lawyers from the latter institution had accused Washington International of being "nothing more than a diploma mill", but Mr. Karademir of Washington International University disputed this characterization.

The institution's incorporation in Hawaii was dissolved March 1, 2000. Earlier, the state of Hawaii had brought legal action against the school, alleging that it had deceived consumers by failing to disclose its lack of accreditation. The parties settled the case in 1999; one of the requirements of the settlement was that Washington International dissolve its Hawaii corporation and not promote itself as being incorporated in or registered by the state of Hawaii.

According to Bears' Guide to Earning Degrees by Distance Learning, Washington International started listing a South Dakota mailing address in mid-2000. In 2002 the Argus Leader in Sioux Falls, South Dakota reported that the school had a "small, broom closet-sized office" in that city but no employees. The school used a local secretarial service to answer the telephone and forward mail, and a local lawyer as an agent. The university had a sister
company, Student Communication Center, which did administrative work for the university, and the applications were forwarded to its Pennsylvania address.  As of February 2008, the university began using another sister company named Washington Educational Organization in Wilmington, Delaware, and the applications were forwarded there, and the form states that the university is incorporated in the British Virgin Islands.

Notable alumni
Joseph Kabila, President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Linda West, private health-care activist and political candidate in Manitoba, Canada
Andrew K. Bashaija, Judge of the Uganda High Court, Judiciary of the Republic of Uganda, PhD in Business Administration
Joseph Kipchirchir Boinnet, Inspector General of Police The National Police Service of Kenya, degree in International Studies and Diplomacy.
John Panonetsa Mangudya, governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe

Similarity of names
According to Bears' Guide to Earning Degrees by Distance Learning, a different institution calling itself Washington International University,  stated to be registered in Delaware but using an address in Kowloon, Hong Kong, marketed itself on the Internet beginning in 2002.

See also
List of unaccredited institutions of higher learning

References

External links
Washington International University - official website

Unaccredited institutions of higher learning
Distance education institutions based in the British Virgin Islands
Educational institutions established in 1994
1994 establishments in British Overseas Territories

Washington International University


LibreOffice Base is a free and open-source database development and administration tool for relational database management systems that is part of the LibreOffice office suite. LibreOffice Base was built off of a fork of OpenOffice.org and was first released as version 184.108.40.206 on October 4, 2011.

Similarly to the other packages in the LibreOffice suite, Base is supported across multiple platforms including Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux. Base is recognized for its cross-platform compatibility relative to Microsoft Access, which is developed exclusively for Windows.

Features
LibreOffice Base is designed to allow users to easily create, access, modify, and view databases and their data. This is done by providing users with a graphical user interface that allows users to work with four main tools: Tables, queries, forms, and reports. Base includes software wizards to assist users with various aspects of the program. LibreOffice Base requires Java in order to create databases with forms, wizards, and more.

Base is able to work with both embedded and external database files. Embedded databases are stored as a single file using C++ based Firebird and Java-based HSQLDB as its storage engine. When connecting to external databases, Base acts as a graphical user interface front-end to facilitate interactions with various database systems including Access Database Engine (ACE/JET), ODBC/JDBC data sources, MySQL, MariaDB, and PostgreSQL.

Base has been described as an unusual project in the niche of database management system software which tends toward proprietary software designed for enterprise users. Proprietary database management software costs have been described as a reason for the use of Base in small businesses.

Migration From HSQLDB to Firebird

Work was started in 2014 to transition the embedded storage engine from HSQLDB to the Firebird SQL back-end. Firebird has been included in LibreOffice as an experimental option since LibreOffice 4.2.

In August 2018, The Document Foundation announced the release of LibreOffice version 6.1. If the experimental mode is used, the embedded Firebird engine support is fully available, and the old HSQLDB engine is deprecated—although still available—and replaced by Firebird as the default option.

In February 2019, The Document Foundation released LibreOffice version 6.2. The embedded Firebird engine support was moved from experimental mode to operational and the Firebird Migration Assistant can create a backup copy of content as an XML document for the migration process. In February 2020, embedded Firebird was moved back to experimental mode, taking effect in version 6.4.1.

References

External links
 LibreOffice Base at LibreOffice.org
 LibreOffice Base Handbook at The Document Foundation Wiki

Cross-platform free software
Database administration tools
Desktop database application development tools
LibreOffice

LibreOffice Base


Edward George Gibson (born November 8, 1936) is a former NASA astronaut, pilot, engineer, and physicist.

Before becoming an astronaut, Gibson graduated from the University of Rochester and the California Institute of Technology. He became a research assistant in jet propulsion while completing his studies, and eventually became a research scientist for Philco Corporation until joining NASA in 1965. Gibson is the last surviving crew member of Skylab 4.

Gibson was selected as part of NASA Astronaut Group 4, the first group of scientist-astronauts. He served on the support crew of Apollo 12, the second Moon landing mission, before working on the development of the Skylab space station. In 1973–74, Gibson made his only flight into space as science pilot aboard Skylab 4, the third and final crewed flight to Skylab. He, along with Commander Gerald Carr and Pilot William Pogue, spent just over 84 days in space.

Gibson resigned from NASA in December 1974, but returned in 1977 to preside over the selection of scientist-astronaut candidates. Gibson retired from NASA for the last time in October 1982.

Early life and education

Gibson was born in Buffalo, New York, on November 8, 1936. From ages 2 to 8, Gibson battled osteomyelitissoft spots in bonesand spent many months in and out of hospitals. Newly-available penicillin cured the disease. To strengthen his leg that was nearly amputated, Gibson took up sports: swimming, football, and track. He primarily used swimming to strengthen his leg. He was active in the Boy Scouts of America. He earned the rank of First Class.

He graduated from Kenmore Senior High School in Kenmore, New York, in 1955, and earned a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering from the University of Rochester in June 1959. At the University of Rochester, Gibson became a member of the Theta Chi fraternity. He received a Master of Science degree in engineering (jet propulsion option) from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in June 1960 and a PhD in engineering with a minor in physics from Caltech in June 1964. He was supervised by Maria Wonenburger.

Early career
While studying at Caltech, Gibson was a research assistant in the field of jet propulsion and classical physics. His technical publications are in the fields of plasma physics and solar physics. He was senior research scientist with the Applied Research Laboratories of the Philco Corporation at Newport Beach, California, from June 1964 until moving to NASA. While at Philco, he did research in lasers and the optical breakdown of gases.

Gibson has logged more than 4,300 hours flying time—2,270 hours in jet aircraft.

NASA career

Gibson was selected as a scientist-astronaut by NASA in June 1965. He completed a 53-week course in flight training at Williams Air Force Base, Arizona, and earned his Air Force wings. Since then, he has flown helicopters and the T-38.

He served as a member of the astronaut support crew and as a CAPCOM for the Apollo 12 lunar landing, becoming the first from the scientist-astronaut group to get a crew assignment of any kind. He also participated in the design and testing of many elements of the Skylab space station.  As part of his preparation for the Skylab program, Gibson studied solar physics, ultimately writing an introductory monograph/textbook   on solar astrophysics The Quiet Sun, apart from 1973 English edition published in the United States there was 1977 Russian edition of this book, published in the Soviet Union  by Mir Publishers.

Skylab 4

Gibson was the science pilot of Skylab 4. The third and final crewed visit to the Skylab space station, it launched November 16, 1973, and concluded February 8, 1974. This was the longest crewed flight (84 days 1 hour 15 minutes) in the history of crewed space exploration at that time. Gibson was accompanied on the record-setting 34.5-million-mile flight by Commander Gerald P. Carr and Pilot William R. Pogue. They successfully completed 56 experiments, 26 science demonstrations, 15 subsystem detailed objectives, and 13 student investigations during their 1,214 revolutions of the Earth. They also acquired a wide variety of Earth resources observations data using Skylab's Earth resources experiment package camera and sensor array. Dr. Gibson was the crewman primarily responsible for the 338 hours of Apollo Telescope Mount operation, which made extensive observations of solar processes.

Until the Soviet Union's Soyuz 26 broke the record in March 1978, Gibson and his Skylab 4 teammates held the world record for individual time in space: 2,017 hours 15 minutes 32 seconds. Gibson logged 15 hours and 22 minutes in three EVAs outside the Skylab Orbital Workshop. Gibson is the last surviving Skylab 4 crew member (Carr died in 2020, and Pogue died in 2014).

Gibson resigned from NASA in December 1974 to do research on Skylab solar physics data as a senior staff scientist with the Aerospace Corporation of Los Angeles, California. Beginning in March 1976, he served for one year as a consultant to ERNO Raumfahrttechnik GmbH, in West Germany, on Spacelab design under the sponsorship of a U.S. Senior Scientist Award form the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. In March 1977, Gibson returned to the Astronaut Office astronaut candidate selection and training as Chief of the Scientist-Astronaut Candidates. During his second tenure at NASA, Gibson had hoped to fly on another space station mission due to his experience on Skylab, but at the same time was not keen on flying a Space Shuttle mission. He served as CAPCOM for STS-1. Gibson ultimately decided to retire from NASA again on October 31, 1982, and began working for TRW.

Post-NASA career
In October 1990, Gibson began his own consulting firm, Gibson International Corp. The firm provides consulting services on program management, market development and space infrastructure design and operations.

He has performed a significant amount of speaking and writing, and published a text book in solar physics, two novels, Reach (1989) and In the Wrong Hands (1992), and edited The Greatest Adventure, a 1994 compilation of stories and pictures on space missions from many astronauts and cosmonauts around the world.

Special honors and awards
Gibson was awarded a National Science Foundation Fellowship and the R.C. Baker Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. He received the Johnson Space Center Certificate of Commendation (1970). He received the City of New York Gold Medal (1974). Gibson, along with the rest of the Skylab astronauts, received the City of Chicago Gold Medal in 1974. Gibson received the 1974 FAI Yuri Gagarin Gold Medal. In 1976, he received the U.S. Scientist Prize from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, which provided funds to research in West Germany for a year. He received the JSC Special Achievement Award in 1978. Gibson has also been presented with honorary doctorates of science from the University of Rochester and Wagner College in New York City, both in 1974.

The three Skylab astronaut crews were awarded the 1973 Robert J. Collier Trophy "For proving beyond question the value of man in future explorations of space and the production of data of benefit to all the people on Earth." In 1974, President Nixon presented the Skylab 4 crew with the NASA Distinguished Service Medal.  The American Astronautical Society's 1975 Flight Achievement Award was awarded to the Skylab 4 crew.  Federation Aeronautique Internationale awarded the Skylab 4 crew the De La Vaulx Medal and V. M. Komarov Diploma for 1974. Carr accepted the 1975 Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy from President Ford, awarded to the Skylab astronauts. The Skylab 4 crew won the AIAA Haley Astronautics Award in 1975 "For demonstrated outstanding courage and skill during their record-breaking 84-day Skylab mission". He was one of 24 Apollo astronauts who were inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1997.

Personal life
Gibson is married to Julie Anne Volk of Tonawanda, New York. He has four children: Jannet Lynn (born November 9, 1960), John Edward (born May 2, 1964), Julie Ann (born October 12, 1968), and Joseph Michael (born July 11, 1971).

Media appearances
In the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, Gibson was played by actor Geoffrey Nauffts.

See also

The Astronaut Monument
Booz Allen Hamilton
List of spaceflight records

References

External links

Motivational Speaker
Astronautix biography of Edward Gibson
Spacefacts biography of Edward Gibson
Gibson at Spaceacts
Gibson at Encyclopedia of Science
Image of Dr. Edward Gibson and his wife Julie Anne Volk, 1965. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.
The Quiet Sun - Book by Edward Gibson

1936 births
Living people
1973 in spaceflight
Apollo program astronauts
NASA people
Engineers from New York (state)
Aviators from New York (state)
21st-century American physicists
Scientists from Buffalo, New York
California Institute of Technology alumni
University of Rochester alumni
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame inductees
Recipients of the NASA Distinguished Service Medal
Collier Trophy recipients
NASA civilian astronauts
Booz Allen Hamilton people
California Institute of Technology faculty
20th-century American businesspeople
Skylab program astronauts
Spacewalkers

Edward Gibson


Villa Kampen is a listed building in Aarhus, Denmark, constructed by architect Hack Kampmann between 1901 and 1902, during his tenure as the Royal Building Inspector for Northern Jutland. Villa Kampen is a villa situated in Midtbyen in central Aarhus, in the affluent neighbourhood around Strandvejen south of the neighbourhood Marselisborg. It lies next to  Havreballe Forest behind it and to the west, with an east-facing view of Tangkrogen and the Bay of Aarhus in front of it and the Marselisborg Forests visible on the hills to the south. The building and the surrounding estate was listed on 2 March 1983 by the precursor to the Danish Heritage Agency.

History
Hack Danish architect in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who made many public and private works across Denmark during his career. Kampmann was originally trained as bricklayer but in 1873 he went to study at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts where he graduated in 1878. In 1887 he began his career as an architect and in 1892 he was appointed the Royal Building Inspector of Northern Jutland and he moved his family to Aarhus.

Architecturally Kampmann have had a significant impact on Aarhus. Between 1898 and 1902 he built the National Business Archives and Marselisborg Palace and later went on to build the Custom House and Aarhus Theatre. He was a proponent of the National Romantic style which most of his buildings in Aarhus bear witness to. In 1901 he commenced construction on a private home for him and his family on a hill by the coast, south of the city centre.

Architecture
Villa Kampen was originally situated next to an identical building, built by Kampmann for a bank president, which has since been torn down.   The villa is strongly inspired by British architecture of the time and in particular the works of Charles Voysey. The building appears symmetrical from the outside but on the inside the layout of rooms and walls are highly asymmetrical, a typical component of villas in England during this period. Villa Kampen was constructed on a small hill between forests and the ocean and it was designed  in cooperation with the landscape architect Edvard Glæsel. The overall design seeks to incorporate and complement the surroundings in an unobtrusive way; the hilly terrain has been preserved and used to make it seem as if the building rises out of the bedrock, shapes are irregular with oriels and arched windows and the estate is enclosed by a wall of small boulders.

Villa Kampen is in two floors with large, bright rooms. It is roofed in red glazed tile and the outer walls are bricks of lime and sandstone, plastered and originally painted white (grey today) with espalier. It sits on a foundation of granite and boulders and is topped with a hip roof. The roof has a cornice consisting of a canopy with visible rafters. There are two arched oriel windows in the front with a balcony between them and another, larger balcony in the back. The buildings is adorned with columns and many minor details in the brick-work testifying to Kampmanns background as a bricklayer.

See also
 Listed buildings in Aarhus Municipality

References

National Romantic architecture in Aarhus
Listed buildings in Aarhus
Hack Kampmann buildings

Villa Kampen


Tolga Sarıtaş (born 30 May 1991) is a Turkish actor. He is known for his roles as Şehzade Cihangir in Muhteşem Yüzyıl, Ali Mertoğlu in Güneşin Kızları, and Yavuz Karasu in the successful drama Söz. He played in "Büyük Sürgün Kafkasya" mini historical series about Meskhetian Turks and crime series "Arıza" with Ayça Ayşin Turan  He has won numerous awards and was nominated for an International Emmy Award. Also he was final jury for choosing best lead actors in the 47th International Emmy Awards. In addition to his acting career, Sarıtaş has appeared in many advertising campaigns and won many awards in that category.

Filmography

Film

Web series

TV series

Awards and nominations

International

National

References

External links
 Tolga Sarıtaş on IMDb

1991 births
Living people
Male actors from Istanbul
21st-century Turkish male actors
Golden Butterfly Award winners

Tolga Sarıtaş


Azim Jah (27th May 1802 - 14th January 1874) was the brother of Azam Jah, the eleventh Nawab of the Carnatic and uncle of Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan, the twelfth and last Nawab of the Carnatic. He held the title Nawab of Arcot from 1867 to 1874.

Early life
Azim Jah was the younger brother of Azam Jah, the eleventh Nawab of the Carnatic. He became the heir-apparent and regent when Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan succeeded Azam Jah on the former's death in 1825. Azim Jah served as the regent from 1825 to 1842 during Ghouse Khan's minority. In 1842, Ghouse Khan was formally installed as the monarch.

Claim to the throne
Ghouse Khan ruled as the Nawab of the Carnatic from 1825 to 1855. On his death in 1855, the throne became vacant and in the absence of a legitimate male heir to Ghouse Khan, the state was formally annexed by the British according to the Doctrine of Lapse. Azim Jah protested claiming that he was the legitimate successor to the throne but met with little success.

Assumption of the title "Amir-i-Arcot"
After protracted negotiations and court cases, finally, in 1867, Azim Jah was granted the title of Nawab of Arcot or Amir-i-Arcot by Queen Victoria and given a political pension. The Letters Patent issued by the Queen was formally presented to Azim Jah at a banquet held by the Governor of Madras on 12 April 1871.

Death
Azim Jah died in 1874. He was succeeded to his title by his son Zahir-ud-Daula.

References

1874 இறப்புகள்
இந்திய முஸ்லிம்கள்
1802 பிறப்புகள்

அஜிம் ஜா


Captive breeding, also known as captive propagation, is the process of keeping plants or animals in controlled environments, such as wildlife reserves, zoos, botanic gardens, and other conservation facilities. It is sometimes employed to help species that are being threatened by the effects of human activities such as climate change, habitat loss, fragmentation, overhunting or fishing, pollution, predation, disease, and parasitism.

For many species, relatively little is known about the conditions needed for successful breeding.  Information about a species' reproductive biology may be critical to the success of a captive breeding program. In some cases a captive breeding program can save a species from extinction, but for success, breeders must consider many factors—including  genetic, ecological, behavioral, and ethical issues. Most successful attempts involve the cooperation and coordination of many institutions. The efforts put into captive breeding can aid in education about conservation because species in captivity are closer to the public than their wild conspecifics. These accomplishments from the continued breeding of species for generations in captivity is also aided by extensive research efforts ex-situ and in-situ.

History

Captive breeding techniques began with the first human domestication of animals such as goats, and plants like wheat, at least 10,000 years ago. These practices were expanded with the rise of the first zoos, which started as royal menageries such as the one at Hierakonpolis, capital in the Predynastic Period of Egypt.

The first actual captive breeding programs were only started in the 1960s. These programs, such as the Arabian Oryx breeding program from the Phoenix Zoo in 1962, were aimed at the reintroduction of these species into the wild. These programs expanded under The Endangered Species Act of 1973 of the Nixon Administration which focused on protecting endangered species and their habitats to preserve biodiversity. Since then, research and conservation have been housed in zoos, such as the Institute for Conservation Research at the San Diego Zoo founded in 1975 and expanded in 2009, which have contributed to the successful conservation efforts of species such as the Hawaiian Crow.

Coordination
The breeding of species of conservation concern is coordinated by cooperative breeding programs containing international studbooks and coordinators, who evaluate the roles of individual animals and institutions from a global or regional perspective. These studbooks contain information on birth date, gender, location, and lineage (if known), which helps determine survival and reproduction rates, number of founders of the population, and inbreeding coefficients. A species coordinator reviews the information in studbooks and determines a breeding strategy that would produce most advantageous offspring.

If two compatible animals are found at different zoos, the animals may be transported for mating, but this is stressful, which could in turn make mating less likely. However, this is still a popular breeding method among European zoological organizations. Artificial fertilization (by shipping semen) is another option, but male animals can experience stress during semen collection, and the same goes for females during the artificial insemination procedure. Furthermore, this approach yields lower-quality semen, because shipping requires extending the life of the sperm for the transit time.

There are regional programmes for the conservation of endangered species:
Americas: Species Survival Plan SSP (Association of Zoos and Aquariums AZA, Canadian Association of Zoos and Aquariums CAZA), Saving Animals from Extinction SAFE (Association of Zoos and Aquariums  AZA)
Europe: European Endangered Species Programme EEP (European Association of Zoos and Aquaria EAZA)
Australasia: Australasian Species Management Program ASMP (Zoo and Aquarium Association ZAA)
Africa: African Preservation Program APP (African Association of Zoological Gardens and Aquaria PAAZAB)
Japan: Conservation activities of Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums JAZA
South Asia: Conservation activities of South Asian Zoo Association for Regional Cooperation SAZARC
South East Asia: Conservation activities of South East Asian Zoos Association SEAZA

Challenges

Genetics
The objective of many captive populations is to hold similar levels of  genetic diversity to what is found in wild populations. As captive populations are usually small and maintained in artificial environments, genetics factors such as adaptation, inbreeding and loss of diversity can be a major concern.

Domestication adaptations
Adaptive differences between plant and animal populations arise due to variations in environmental pressures. In the case of captive breeding prior to reintroduction into the wild, it's possible for species to evolve to adapt to the captive environment, rather than their natural environment. Reintroducing a plant or animal to an environment dissimilar to the one they were originally from can cause fixation of traits that may not be suited for that environment leaving the individual disadvantaged. Selection intensity, initial genetic diversity, and effective population size can impact how much the species adapts to its captive environment. Modeling works indicate that the duration of the programs (i.e., time from the foundation of the captive population to the last release event) is an important determinant of reintroduction success. Success is maximized for intermediate project duration allowing the release of a sufficient number of individuals, while minimizing the number of generations undergoing relaxed selection in captivity. Can be minimized by reducing the number of generations in captivity, minimizing selection for captive adaptations by creating environment similar to natural environment and maximizing the number of immigrants from wild populations.

Genetic diversity
One consequence of small captive population size is the increased impact of genetic drift, where genes have the potential to fix or disappear completely by chance, thereby reducing genetic diversity. Other factors that can impact genetic diversity in a captive population are bottlenecks and initial population size. Bottlenecks, such as rapid decline in the population or a small initial population impacts genetic diversity. Loss can be minimized by establishing a population with a large enough number of founders to genetically represent the wild population, maximize population size, maximize ratio of effective population size to actual population size, and minimize the number of generations in captivity.

Inbreeding
Inbreeding is when organisms mate with closely related individuals, lowering heterozygosity in a population. Although inbreeding can be relatively common, when it results in a reduction in fitness it is known as inbreeding depression. The detrimental effects of inbreeding depression are especially prevalent in smaller populations and can therefore be extensive in captive populations. To make these populations the most viable, it is important to monitor and reduce the effects of deleterious allele expression caused by inbreeding depression and to restore genetic diversity. Comparing inbred populations against non-inbred or less-inbred populations can help determine the extent of detrimental effects if any are present. Closely monitoring the possibility of inbreeding within the captive bred population is also key to the success of reintroduction into the species' native habitat.

Outbreeding
Outbreeding is when organisms mate with unrelated individuals, increasing heterozygosity in a population. Although new diversity is often beneficial, if there are large genetic differences between the two individuals it can result in outbreeding depression. This is a reduction in fitness, similar to that of inbreeding depression, but arises from a number of different mechanisms, including taxonomic issues, chromosomal differences, sexual incompatibility, or adaptive differences between the individuals. A common cause is chromosomal ploidy differences and hybridization between individuals leading to sterility. The best example is in the orangutan, which, prior to taxonomic revisions in the 1980s would be commonly mated in captive populations producing hybrid orangutans with lower fitness. If chromosomal ploidy is ignored during reintroduction, restoration efforts would fail due to sterile hybrids in the wild. If there are large genetic differences between individuals originally from distant populations, those individuals should only be bred in circumstances where no other mates exist.

Behavior changes
Captive breeding can contribute to changes in behavior in animals that have been reintroduced to the wild. Released animals are commonly less capable of hunting or foraging for food, which leads to starvation, possibly because the young animals spent the critical learning period in captivity. Released animals often display more risk-taking behavior and fail to avoid predators. Golden lion tamarin mothers often die in the wild before having offspring because they cannot climb and forage. This leads to continuing population declines despite reintroduction as the species are unable to produce viable offspring. Training can improve anti-predator skills, but its effectiveness varies.

Salmon bred in captivity have shown similar declines in caution and are killed by predators when young. However, salmon that were reared in an enriched environment with natural prey showed less risk-taking behaviors and were more likely to survive.

A study on mice has found that after captive breeding had been in place for multiple generations and these mice were "released" to breed with wild mice, that the captive-born mice bred amongst themselves instead of with the wild mice. This suggests that captive breeding may affect mating preferences, and has implications for the success of a reintroduction program.

Human mediated recovery of species can unintentionally promote maladaptive behaviors in wild populations. In 1980 the number of wild Chatham Island Black Robins was reduced to a single mating pair. Intense management of populations helped the population recover and by 1998 there were 200 individuals. During recovery scientists observed "rim laying" an egg laying habit where individuals laid eggs on the rim of the nest instead of the center. Rim laid eggs never hatched. To combat this land managers pushed the egg to the center of the nest, which greatly increased reproduction. However, by allowing this maladaptive trait to persist, over half the population were now rim layers. Genetic studies found that this was an autosomal dominant mendelian trait that was selected for due to human intervention

Another challenge presented to captive breeding is an attempt to establish multi-partner mating systems in captive populations. It can be difficult to replicate the circumstances surrounding multiple mate systems and allow it to occur naturally in captivity due to limited housing space and lack of information. When brought into captivity, there is no guarantee that a pair of animals will pair bond or that all the members of a population will participate in breeding. Throughout facilities, there is limited housing space so allowing for mate choice may establish genetic issues in the population. A lack of information surrounding the effects of mating systems on captive populations can also present issues when attempting to breed. These mating systems are not always fully understood and the effects captivity may have on them cannot be known until they are studied in greater capacity.

Successes

The Phoenix Zoo had an Arabian Oryx breeding program in 1962. They were able to successfully breed over 200 individuals from a lineage of only 9 original founders. Members from this founding population were then sent to many other facilities worldwide, and many breeding herds were established. In 1982, the first of the population was reintroduced back into Oman, and over the next two decades, their population increased over time and was able to successfully reestablish in native regions . Arabian Oryx have now been reintroduced into areas such as Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Israel and they now number 1,100, showing a recovery thanks to captive breeding efforts.

The De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre, established in South Africa in 1971, has a cheetah captive breeding program. Between 1975 and 2005, 242 litters were born with a total of 785 cubs. The survival rate of cubs was 71.3% for the first twelve months and 66.2% for older cubs, validating the fact that cheetahs can be bred successfully (and their endangerment decreased). It also indicated that failure in other breeding habitats may be due to "poor" sperm morphology.

Przewalski's horse, the only horse species never to have been domesticated, was recovered from the brink of extinction by a captive breeding program, and successfully reintroduced in the 1990s to the Mongolia, with more than 750 wild roaming Przewalski's horses today.

The Galápagos tortoise population, once reaching as low in population as 12 remaining individuals, was recovered to more than 2000 today by a captive breeding program. A further 8 tortoise species were supported by captive breeding programs in the island chain.

Wild Tasmanian devils have declined by 90% due to a transmissible cancer called Devil Facial Tumor Disease. A captive insurance population program was started, but the captive breeding rates as of 2012 were lower than they needed to be. Keeley, Fanson, Masters, and McGreevy (2012) sought to "increase our understanding of the estrous cycle of the devil and elucidate potential causes of failed male-female pairings" by examining temporal patterns of fecal progestogen and corticosterone metabolite concentrations. They found that the majority of unsuccessful females were captive-born, suggesting that if the species' survival depended solely on captive breeding, the population would probably disappear.

In 2010, the Oregon Zoo found that Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit pairings based on familiarity and preferences resulted in a significant increase in breeding success.

In 2019, researchers trying to breed captive American paddlefish and Russian sturgeon separately inadvertently bred sturddlefish - a hybrid fish between the two fish.

Research
Captive breeding can also be a research tool to understand the reproductive physiology and reproductive behaviors of species. In order to successfully breed animals, there must be an understanding of their mating systems, their reproductive physiology, and behavior or mating rituals. Through captive breeding programs, these factors can be measured in a finite setting and the results can be interpreted and used to aid in ex-situ and in-situ conservation. Through a greater understanding of these systems, captive breeding efforts can have greater success when attempting to reproduce a species. A lot of research about elephant reproductive physiology and estrus cycles has been conducted in captivity and a greater understanding of how these factors play into breeding attempts can be established. Behavioral research quantifies the effects of how estrus plays a role in the herds behaviors and how this effects the bulls of a herd.  This research can help facilities monitor for behavior changes in their herd and conduct successful breeding attempts through this understanding. Research helps with better understanding these physiological systems which in turn helps increase successful breeding attempts and allows for more generations to be brought up in captivity.

Not only does physiological research aid in captive breeding attempts, but multi-generational research is also another important research tool that is conducted on different species and genetic changes can be tracked through different lineages brought up in captivity. Genetic changes throughout a specific lineage can help provide breeding recommendations and allow for genetic diversity within a captive population to remain high. Studbooks are an important resource that contains records of species lineages to track all of the data throughout breeding histories to allow facilities to understand the genetic history of an individual, the births and deaths of involved in the captive breeding of a certain species, and the parentage of certain individual animals. These studbooks come from years of effort of conducting research involving captive breeding programs, which allows facilities view the history surrounding certain individuals and then work together to evaluate the best plan of action to increase breeding success and genetic diversity within certain species populations in captivity. This genetic record keeping is also used in order to understand phylogeny and to better understand fitness changes that may occur over generations in captive populations. This form of record keeping helps aid in research surrounding population genetics in order to evaluate the best method to sustain high genetic variation within captive populations.

Research conducted on captive breeding populations is also important when creating SAFE's and SSP's for a certain species. Studies in behavior are important when developing captive breeding programs because they allow facilities to understand an animals response to captivity and allows facilities to adapt proper housing conditions for the animals. Populations that are currently being propagated in captivity are very important research tools for understanding how to carry out successful propagation of a certain species. This research allows the knowledge to be passed on to more facilities allowing for more breeding programs to be developed in order to increase the genetic diversity of captive populations. The research conducted on breeding populations is also an important gateway into understanding other aspects of an animal such as social dynamics, nutrition and diet requirements, and demographics to allow for captive populations to prosper.

Methods used

To found a captive breeding population with adequate genetic diversity, breeders usually select individuals from different source populations—ideally, at least 20-30 individuals. Founding populations for captive breeding programs have often had fewer individuals than ideal because of their threatened state, leaving them more susceptible to challenges such as inbreeding depression.

To overcome challenges of captive breeding such as adaptive differences, loss of genetic diversity, inbreeding depression, and outbreeding depression and get desired results, captive breeding programs use many monitoring methods. Artificial insemination is used to produce the desired offspring from individuals who don't mate naturally to reduce effects of mating closely related individuals such as inbreeding. Methods as seen in panda pornography allow programs to mate chosen individuals by encouraging mating behavior. A concern in captive breeding is to minimize the effects of breeding closely related individuals, microsatellite regions from an organism's genome can be used to determine amounts of relationship among founders to minimize relatedness and pick the most distant individuals to breed. This method has successfully been used in the captive breeding of the California condor and the Guam rail. The maximum avoidance of inbreeding (MAI) scheme allows control at a group level rather than an individual level by rotating individuals between groups to avoid inbreeding.

Facilities can use intensive housing compared to group housing to allow for easier reproductive success and create more genetic diversity within a population. Intensive housing is when a species is forced into monogamy so only two individuals' mate with each other, compared to group housing where the entire population is kept in the same space to try and replicate multi-partner breeding systems. When using intensive housing and forcing monogamy to take place, it is seen that inbreeding is lowered and a greater genetic diversity results.  Intensive housing efforts were used with Tasmanian Devil populations in captivity compared to allowing for group mate choice.  This helped increase the populations reproductive success in captivity and saw less inbreeding depression within the population.  Using intensive housing to help establish a genetically healthy population in captivity can allow facilities to further increase conservation efforts of a species and combat genetic issues that may arise in the captive population.

New technologies

Assisted reproduction technology (ART): Artificial insemination
Getting captive wild animals to breed naturally can be a difficult task. Giant pandas for example lose interest in mating once they are captured, and female giant pandas only experience estrus once a year, which only lasts for 48 to 72 hours. Many researchers have turned to artificial insemination in an attempt to increase the populations of endangered animals. It may be used for many reasons, including to overcome physical breeding difficulties, to allow a male to inseminate a much larger number of females, to control the paternity of offspring, and to avoid injury incurred during natural mating. It also creates more genetically diverse captive populations, enabling captive facilities to easily share genetic material with each other without the need to move animals. Scientist of the Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Germany, from the working group of Michael Lierz, developed a novel technique for semen collection and artificial insemination in parrots producing the world's first macaw by assisted reproduction

Cryopreservation
Animal species can be preserved in gene banks, which consist of a cryogenic facilities used to store live sperm, eggs, or embryos in ultracold conditions. The Zoological Society of San Diego has established a "frozen zoo" to store frozen tissue from the world's rarest and most endangered species samples using cryopreservation techniques. At present, there has been more than 355 species, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. Cryopreservation can be performed as oocyte cryopreservation before fertilization, or as embryo cryopreservation after fertilization. Cryogenically preserved specimens can potentially be used to revive breeds that are endangered or extinct, for breed improvement, crossbreeding, research and development. This method can be used for virtually indefinite storage of material without deterioration over a much greater time-period relative to all other methods of ex situ conservation. However, cryo-conservation can be an expensive strategy and requires long term hygienic and economic commitment for germplasms to remain viable. Cryo-conservation can also face unique challenges based on the species, as some species have a reduced survival rate of frozen germplasm, but cryobiology is a field of active research and many studies concerning plants are underway.

An example of the use of cryoconservation to prevent the extinction of a livestock breed is the case of the Hungarian Grey cattle, or Magya Szurke. Hungarian Grey cattle were once a dominant breed in southeastern Europe with a population of 4.9 million head in 1884. They were mainly used for draft power and meat. However, the population had decreased to 280,000 head by the end of World War II and eventually reached the low population of 187 females and 6 males from 1965 to 1970. The breed's decreased use was due primarily to the mechanization of agriculture and the adoption of major breeds, which yield higher milk production. The Hungarian government launched a project to preserve the breed, as it possesses valuable traits, such as stamina, calving ease, disease resistance, and easy adaptation to a variety of climates. The government program included various conservation strategies, including the cryopreservation of semen and embryos. The Hungarian government's conservation effort brought the population up to 10,310 in 2012, which shows significant improvement using cryoconservation.

Cloning
The best current cloning techniques have an average success rate of 9.4 percent, when working with familiar species such as mice, while cloning wild animals is usually less than 1 percent successful. In 2001, a cow named Bessie gave birth to a cloned Asian gaur, an endangered species, but the calf died after two days. In 2003, a banteng was successfully cloned, followed by three African wildcats from a thawed frozen embryo. These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species. Anticipating this possibility, tissue samples from the last bucardo (Pyrenean ibex) were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after it died in 2000. Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda and cheetah. However, cloning of animals is opposed by animal-groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from malformations before they die.

Interspecific pregnancy
A potential technique for aiding in reproduction of endangered species is interspecific pregnancy, implanting embryos of an endangered species into the womb of a female of a related species, carrying it to term. It has been used for the Spanish Ibex and Houbara bustard.

Conservation Education
Captive breeding is an important tool used in modern education of conservation issues because it provides a framework for how we care about species and allows institutions to show the beauty that is contained in our natural environment. These practices of captive breeding can be used to explain the function of the modern-day facilities and their importance in conservation. Through continued breeding efforts populations can continue to be displayed in closer proximity to the public and their role in conservation can be explained. These explanations help show a side of the world many people will not engage with because conservation is not something that is inherently known about, it must be shown and taught to others to raise awareness of the issues around the globe. By allowing people to view these species in captivity, it allows facilities to explain the issues they face in the wild and advocate for the conservation of these species and their natural habitats.

Institutions focus efforts on large charismatic species, such as elephants, giraffes, rhinos etc., because these draw more visitors to institutions and garner more attention from the public.  While a lot of these charismatic megafauna do draw more attention than other species, we can still use captive breeding programs and facilities involving other species to educate the public about a broader range of issues. Bristol Zoo Gardens in the United Kingdom has maintained a species of medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) in their facility to use as an education exhibit. Leeches normally have a negative connotation surrounded by them but they have been used as an important tool in medicine. The display at Bristol Zoo Gardens provides an educational piece and tells the story of a woman who sold leeches to the locals around her for medicinal purposes. This display advocates for a smaller species that would not normally be covered by facilities, but they are well maintained in this facility and are active conservation of the species is being done because of its significance around humans and in the environment. Facilities can use captive breeding for a number of possibilities, such as educating the populace about captive breeding which provides conservation advocacy and a maintenance of these populations helps make the conservation issues surrounding the species more prevalent in the minds of the general public.

Ethical considerations
With successes, captive-breeding programs have proven successful throughout history. Notable examples include the American black-footed ferret; in 1986, a dwindling wild population of only 18 was eventually raised to 500. A Middle-Eastern antelope, the Arabian oryx was hunted over centuries, reducing their population by the late 1960s to merely eleven living animals; not wanting to lose such a symbolic animal of the Middle East, these individuals were rescued and donated by King Saud to the Phoenix Zoo, the San Diego Zoo and their (at the time) newly-developed,  Wild Animal Park, prior to his death in 1969. From these actions, those eleven oryx were successfully bred from the brink of extinction, and would go on to be re-released in the deserts of Jordan, Oman, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates and Qatar. Starting in 1980, the first animals were set free. Currently, the wild animals number around 1,000 individuals, with a further 6,000-7,000 in zoos and breeding centres internationally.

While captive breeding can be an ideal solution for preventing endangered animals from facing serious threats of extinction there are still reasons why these programs can occasionally do more harm than good. Some detrimental effects include delays in understanding optimal conditions required for reproduction, failure to reach self-sustaining levels or provide sufficient stock for release, loss of genetic diversity due to inbreeding, and poor success in reintroductions despite available captive-bred young. Although it has been proven that captive breeding programs have yielded negative genetic effects in decreasing the fitness of captive-bred organisms, there is no direct evidence to show that this negative effect also decreases the overall fitness of their wild-born descendants.

It has been argued that animals should be released from captivity programs for four main reasons: a lack of sufficient space due to overly successful breeding programs, closure of facilities due to financial reasons, pressure from animal rights advocacy groups, and to aid the conservation of endangered species. Additionally, there are many ethical complications to reintroducing animals born in captivity back into the wild. For example, when scientists were reintroducing a rare species of toad back into the Mallorcan wild in 1993, a potentially deadly fungus that could kill frogs and toads was unintentionally introduced. It is also important to maintain the organism's original habitat, or replicate that specific habitat for species survival.

There are ethical issues surrounding if a species truly needs human intervention and if the resources going toward the captive breeding of these species cannot be allocated to other areas. Some populations may not need intervention because they were never extinction-prone in the first place such as the Peregrine Falcon. The population of peregrine falcons had a crash in the 1950s and 1960s due to the effect of pesticides on egg production and species survival, causing a decline in the population. Many facilities at the time in the U.S. and in European countries brought in Peregrine Falcons in order to help their declining population and establish a steady population through captive breeding. It was later shown through research conducted on the reproductive success of Peregrine Falcons and an analysis of their population that human intervention was not necessary in order for the population to recover and reach a steady point of equilibrium. This raises the question of should efforts on captive breeding and population establishment be done with human intervention or should efforts be carried out to prevent the source of the issue. The efforts and finances used to help bring about new Peregrine Falcon populations could have been used to prevent some level of pollution or to help breeding effort for extinction-prone species who truly need intervention.

See also
 Breeding in the wild
 European Endangered Species Programme (EEP)
 Ex-situ conservation
 Panda pornography
 Species Survival Plan or SSP
 World Conference on Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity as an Aid to their Survival or WCBESCAS
 ZooBorns

References

Conservation biology
Zoology
Animals in captivity
Animal breeding

Captive breeding


Lawrence Venuti (born 1953) is an American translation theorist, translation historian, and a translator from Italian, French, and Catalan.

Career
Born in Philadelphia, Venuti graduated from Temple University. In 1980 he completed a Ph.D. in English at Columbia University, where he studied with historically oriented literary scholars such as Joseph Mazzeo and Edward Tayler as well as theoretically engaged cultural and social critics such as Edward Said and Sylvere Lotringer. That year he received the Renato Poggioli Award for Italian Translation for his translation of Barbara Alberti's novel Delirium.

Venuti is Professor Emeritus of English at Temple University, where he taught for forty years (1980-2020). He has taught as a visiting professor at the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, Columbia University, Università degli Studi di Trento, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, Barnard College, and Queen's University Belfast. He has also lectured and led seminars in summer programs sponsored by the Centre for Translation Studies at KU Leuven, the Institute for World Literature, the Nida School for Translation Studies, the Société d'Etudes des Théories et Pratiques en Traduction, and the University of Ljubljana.

During 1987-1995 he was the general editor of Border Lines: Works in Translation, a series with Temple University Press. He oversaw the acquisition and publication of three translations: The World of Kate Roberts: Selected Stories, 1925-1981 (1991), ed. and trans. Joseph P. Clancy; PPPPPP: Poems Performance Pieces Proses Plays Poetics, Selected Writings of Kurt Schwitters (1993), ed. and trans. Jerome Rothenberg and Pierre Joris; and Abd al-Hakim Qasim's Rites of Assent: Two Novellas (1995), trans. Peter Theroux.

He has served as a member of the editorial or advisory boards of The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication, TTR : traduction, terminologie, rédaction, Translation Review, Translation Studies, and Palimpsestes. He has edited special journal issues devoted to translation and minority (The Translator in 1998) and poetry and translation (Translation Studies in 2011).

His translation projects have won awards and grants from the PEN American Center (1980), the Italian government (1983), the National Endowment for the Arts (1983, 1999), and the National Endowment for the Humanities (1989). In 1999 he held a Fulbright Senior Lectureship in translation studies at the University of Vic (Catalonia). In 2007 he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for his translation of Giovanni Pascoli's poetry and prose. In 2008 his translation of Ernest Farrés's Edward Hopper: Poems won the Robert Fagles Translation Prize. In 2018 his translation of J.V. Foix's Daybook 1918: Early Fragments won the Global Humanities Translation Prize sponsored by Northwestern University's Buffett Institute for Global Studies and Alice Kaplan Institute for the Humanities.

Thought and influence
Venuti has concentrated on the theory and practice of translation. He is considered one of the most critically minded figures in modern translation theory, often with positions that substantially differ from those of mainstream theorists. He criticizes the fact that, too frequently, the translator is an invisible figure. He has been engaged in translation criticism ever since he started translating.

His seminal work, The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation, has been a source of debate since its publication. In it, he lays out his theory that so-called "domesticating practices" at work in translating cultures have contributed to the reduction or suppression of the linguistic and cultural differences of source texts as well as the marginality of translation. He claims that a range of constraints—discursive, cultural, ideological, legal—entails that "'faithful rendition' is defined partly by the illusion of transparency," whereby a translation comes to be read as the source text and the translator's interpretive labor is effaced, a labor that always involves assimilating the source text to receiving cultural values. As a result, "foreignizing" or experimental types of translation are "likely to encounter opposition from publishers and large segments of Anglophone readers who read for immediate intelligibility", although he is careful to observe that the same development occurs worldwide, regardless of the degree of prestige that a language and culture may hold in the shifting global hierarchy. This situates translation under a "discursive regime" in which "fluency" is narrowly defined as adherence to the current standard dialect of the translating language, preempting discursive forms that might register difference along with the translator's presence. As a solution to this problem, Venuti puts forward the strategy of foreignization, which aims at "sending the reader abroad" in the sense of challenging dominant values in the receiving culture, instead of "bringing the author back home", as is the case when a translation contributes to the reinforcement of those values.

Comparative literature scholar Susan Bassnett points out Venuti's emphasis on a translator-centered translation and his insistence that translators should inscribe themselves visibly into the text. This emphasis requires that a translation be read not only as a text that establishes a semantic correspondence and a stylistic approximation to the source text, but also as a text in its own right that transforms its source and therefore is relatively autonomous from it.

Works
 Our Halcyon Dayes: English Prerevolutionary Texts and Postmodern Culture (1989)
 Rethinking Translation: Discourse, Subjectivity, Ideology (1992) (anthology of essays, editor)
 The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995; 2nd ed. 2008; rpt. with a new introduction in 2018)
 The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Difference (1998) (read a review here).
 The Translation Studies Reader (2000; 2nd ed. 2004; 3rd ed. 2012; 4th ed. 2021) (a survey of translation theory and commentary from antiquity to the present; editor)
 Translation Changes Everything: Theory and Practice (2013)
 Teaching Translation: Programs, Courses, Pedagogies (2017) (anthology of essays, editor)
 Contra Instrumentalism: A Translation Polemic (2019)
 Theses on Translation: An Organon for the Current Moment (2019)

Translations
Barbara Alberti's novel, Delirium (1980)
Aldo Rossi's A Scientific Autobiography (1981)
 Restless Nights: Selected Stories of Dino Buzzati (1983)
Francesco Alberoni's Falling in Love (1983)
 The Siren: A Selection from Dino Buzzati (1984)
 Iginio Ugo Tarchetti's Fantastic Tales (1992, rpt. in 2013; abbreviated ed. in 2020)
 Iginio Ugo Tarchetti's novel, Passion (1994, rpt. as Fosca in 2009)
 Finite Intuition: Selected Poetry and Prose of Milo De Angelis (1995)
 J. Rodolfo Wilcock's collection of real and imaginary biographies, The Temple of Iconoclasts (2000, rpt. in 2014)
 Antonia Pozzi's Breath: Poems and Letters (2002)
 Italy: A Traveler's Literary Companion (2003)
 Melissa P.'s fictionalized memoir, 100 Strokes of the Brush before Bed (2004)
 Massimo Carlotto's novel, The Goodbye Kiss (2006)
Massimo Carlotto's novel, Death's Dark Abyss (2006)
 Ernest Farrés's Edward Hopper: Poems (2009)
 Paola Loreto's poems, houses | stripped (2018)
 J.V. Foix's Daybook 1918: Early Fragments (2019)

References

External links

Writers from Philadelphia
Temple University alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
American translators
Catalan–English translators
French–English translators
Italian–English translators
1953 births
Living people
American translation scholars
Translation historians
Translation theorists

Lawrence Venuti


The Structure of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is complex and multi-faceted. The decision-making body is the North Atlantic Council (NAC), and the member state representatives also sit on the Defence Policy and Planning Committee (DPPC) and the Nuclear Planning Group (NPG). Below that the Secretary General of NATO directs the civilian International Staff, that is divided into administrative divisions, offices and other organizations. Also responsible to the NAC, DPPC, and NPG are a host of committees that supervise the various NATO logistics and standardisation agencies.

The NATO Military Committee advises and assists the NAC on military matters. The Defence Planning Committee which directs its output to the Division of Defence Policy and Planning, a nominally civilian department that works closely with the Military Committee's International Military Staff.

All agencies and organizations are integrated into either the civilian administrative or military executive roles. For the most part they perform roles and functions that directly or indirectly support the security role of the alliance as a whole.

History

The Defence Planning Committee was a former senior decision-making body on matters relating to the integrated military structure of the Alliance. It was dissolved following a major committee review in June 2010 and its responsibilities absorbed by the North Atlantic Council and the Defence Policy and Planning Committee (DPPC).

Civilian structure
In NATO: The First Five Years Lord Ismay described the civilian structure as follows:
The ..Office of the Secretary General [is] directed by an Executive Secretary, Captain R.D. Coleridge (UK), who is also Secretary to the Council. He is responsible for supervising the general processing of the work of the Council and their committees, including provision of all secretarial assistance, as well as supervision of the administrative services of the Staff/Secretariat itself. Thus the Secretariat provides secretaries to all the Council's principal committees and working groups - apart from those of a strictly technical nature - and ensures co-ordination between them. .. On the Staff side there are three main divisions corresponding to the three principal aspects of NATO's work, each under an Assistant Secretary General. Ambassador Sergio Fenoaltea (Italy) heads the Political Affairs Division, M. Rene Sergent (France) the Economics and Finance Division, and Mr. Lowell P. Weicker (USA) the Production and Logistics Division. The Divisions' tasks are to prepare, in close touch with delegations, proposed action in their respective fields for consideration by the appropriate committee or by the Council. In addition to the main divisions there are three other offices working directly to the Secretary General. These are the Office of Statistics (Mr. Loring Wood of the USA), the Financial Comptroller's Office (M. A. J. Bastin of Belgium), and the Division of Information (Mr. Geoffrey Parsons, Jr. of the USA). The Information Division, besides providing material about NATO for the use of member governments, (it does not engage in independent operations), is also the press and public relations branch of the civilian authority.

Military structure
The Strategic Commanders are the former 'Major NATO Commanders', who sat atop a command hierarchy consisting of Major Subordinate Commanders (MSCs), Principal Subordinate Commanders (PSCs) and Sub-PSCs. The Military Committee had an executive body, the Standing Group, made up of representatives from France, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The Standing Group was abolished during the major reform of 1967 that resulted from France's departure from the NATO Military Command Structure.

Beginnings

A key step in establishing the NATO Command Structure was the North Atlantic Council's selection of General Dwight D. Eisenhower as the first Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) in December 1950. After Eisenhower arrived in Paris in January 1951, he and the other members of the multinational Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) Planning Group immediately began to devise a structure for the new Allied Command Europe. NATO official documents say '..The corner stone of the NATO Military Command Structure was laid.. when the North Atlantic Council approved D.C. 24/3 on 18 December 1951.' They quickly decided to divide Allied Command Europe into three regions: Allied Forces Northern Europe, containing Scandinavia, the North Sea and the Baltic; Allied Forces Central Europe, and Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH), covering Italy and the Mediterranean. SHAPE was established at Rocquencourt, west of Paris.

The British post of Commander in Chief Mediterranean Fleet was given a dual-hatted role as NATO Commander in Chief of Allied Forces Mediterranean in charge of all forces assigned to NATO in the Mediterranean Area. The British made strong representations in discussions regarding the Mediterranean NATO command structure, wishing to retain their direction of NATO naval command in the Mediterranean to protect their sea lines of communication running through the Mediterranean to the Middle East and Far East.

In 1952, after Greece and Turkey joined the Alliance, Allied Land Forces South-Eastern Europe (LANDSOUTHEAST) was created in Izmir, Turkey, under a U.S. Army General. This was due to the two states' geographic distance from the LANDSOUTH headquarters, as well as political disagreements over which nation should be the overall commander for their ground forces.

With the establishment of Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT) on 30 January 1952, the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic joined the previously created Supreme Allied Commander Europe as one of the alliance's two Major NATO Commanders. A third was added when Allied Command Channel was established on 21 February 1952 to control the English Channel and North Sea area and deny it to the enemy, and protect the sea lanes of communication. The establishment of this post, and the agreement that it was to be filled by the British Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth, was part of the compromise that allowed an American officer to take up the SACLANT post. Previously Commander-in-Chief Portsmouth had controlled multinational naval operations in the area under WUDO auspices. In due course the CINCHAN role was assumed by the British Commander-in-Chief Fleet.

In 1966, when French president Charles de Gaulle withdrew French forces from the military command structure, NATO's headquarters was forced to move to Belgium. SHAPE was moved to Casteau, north of the Belgian city of Mons. Headquarters Allied Forces Central Europe was moved from the Chateau de Fontainebleau outside Paris to Brunssum, in the Netherlands.

Structure in 1989
 NATO Military Committee, led by the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee, in Brussels, Belgium
 Allied Command Europe (ACE), led by Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), in Mons, Belgium
 ACE Mobile Force, in Seckenheim, Germany
 United Kingdom Air Forces, in High Wycombe, United Kingdom
 NATO Airborne Early Warning Force, in Maisieres, Belgium
 Allied Forces Northern Europe (AFNORTH), in Kolsås, Norway
 Allied Forces North Norway (NON), in Bodø, Norway
 Allied Forces South Norway (SONOR), in Stavanger, Norway
 Allied Forces Baltic Approaches (BALTAP), in Karup, Denmark
 Allied Land Forces Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland (LANDJUT), in Rendsburg, Germany
 Allied Land Forces in Zealand (LANDZEALAND), in Ringsted, Denmark
 Allied Air Forces Baltic Approaches (AIRBALTAP), in Karup, Denmark
 Allied Naval Forces Baltic Approaches (NAVBALTAP), in Karup, Denmark
 Allied Forces Central Europe (AFCENT), in Brunssum, Netherlands
 Northern Army Group (NORTHAG), in Rheindahlen, West Germany
 Central Army Group (CENTAG), in Heidelberg, West Germany
 Allied Air Forces Central Europe (AAFCE), in Ramstein, West Germany
 Second Allied Tactical Air Force (2 ATAF), in Rheindahlen, West Germany
 Fourth Allied Tactical Air Force (4 ATAF), in Ramstein, West Germany
 Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH), in Naples, Italy
 Allied Land Forces Southern Europe (LANDSOUTH), in Verona, Italy
 Allied Land Forces South-Eastern Europe (LANDSOUTHEAST), in İzmir, Turkey
 Allied Air Forces Southern Europe (AIRSOUTH), in Naples, Italy
 Fifth Allied Tactical Air Force (5 ATAF), in Vicenza, Italy
 Sixth Allied Tactical Air Force (6 ATAF), in İzmir, Turkey
 Allied Naval Forces Southern Europe (NAVSOUTH), in Naples, Italy
 Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH), afloat, centered around US Sixth Fleet
 Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT), led by Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT), in Norfolk, United States
 Eastern Atlantic Area (EASTLANT), in Northwood, United Kingdom
 Northern Sub-Area (NORLANT), in Rosyth, United Kingdom
 Central Sub-Area (CENTLANT), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
 Submarine Force Eastern Atlantic (SUBEASTLANT), in Gosport, United Kingdom
 Maritime Air Eastern Atlantic (MAIREASTLANT), in Northwood, United Kingdom
 Maritime Air Northern Sub-Area (MAIRNORLANT), in Rosyth, United Kingdom
 Maritime Air Central Sub-Area (MAIRCENTLANT), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
 Island Command Iceland (ISCOMICELAND), in Keflavík, Iceland
 Island Command Faroes (ISCOMFAROES), in Tórshavn, Faroe Islands
 Western Atlantic Area (WESTLANT), in Norfolk, United States
 Ocean Sub-Area (OCEANLANT), in Norfolk, United States
 Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area (CANLANT), in Halifax, Canada
 Island Command Bermuda (ISCOMBERMUDA), in Hamilton, Bermuda
 Island Command Azores (ISCOMAZORES), in Ponta Delgada, Azores
 Island Command Greenland (ISCOMGREENLAND), in Grønnedal, Greenland
 Submarine Force Western Atlantic (SUBWESTLANT), in Norfolk, United States
 Iberian Atlantic Area (IBERLANT), in Oeiras, Portugal
 Island Command Madeira (ISCOMADEIRA), in Funchal, Madeira
 Striking Fleet Atlantic (STRIKFLTLANT), in Norfolk, United States
 Carrier Striking Force (CARSTRIKFOR), in Norfolk, United States
 Carrier Striking Group One (CARSTRIKGRUONE), in Norfolk, United States
 Carrier Striking Group Two (CARSTRIKGRUTWO), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
 Submarines Allied Command Atlantic (SUBACLANT), in Norfolk, United States
 Allied Command Channel (ACCHAN), in Northwood, United Kingdom
 Nore Sub-Area Channel Command (NORECHAN), in Rosyth, United Kingdom
 Plymouth Sub-Area Channel Command (PLYMCHAN), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
 Benelux Sub-Area Channel Command (BENECHAN), in Den Helder, Netherlands
 Allied Maritime Air Force Channel (MAIRCHAN), in Northwood, United Kingdom
 Maritime Air Nore Sub-Area Channel Command (MAIRNORECHAN), in Rosyth, United Kingdom
 Maritime Air Plymouth Sub-Area Channel Command (MAIRPLYMCHAN), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
 Standing Naval Force Channel (STANAVFORCHAN), afloat

After the Cold War
By June 1991, it was clear that Allied Forces Central Europe (a Major Subordinate Command) could be reduced, with the Soviet threat disappearing. Six multinational corps were to replace the previous eight. Announcements in June 1991 presaged main defensive forces consisting of six multinational corps. Two were to be under German command, one with a U.S. division, one under Belgian command with a pending offer of a U.S. brigade, one under U.S. command with a German division, one under joint German-Danish command (LANDJUT), and one under Dutch command. The new German IV Corps was to be stationed in Eastern Germany, and was not to be associated with the NATO structure.

On 1 July 1994, the Alliance disestablished Allied Command Channel, through retaining many of its subordinate structures after reshuffling. Most of the headquarters were absorbed within ACE, particularly within the new Allied Forces Northwestern Europe.

From 1994 to 1999 ACE had three Major Subordinate Commands, AFNORTHWEST, AFCENT, and AFSOUTH. In 1995 NATO began a Long Term Study to examine post-Cold War strategy and structure. Recommendations from the study for a new, streamlined structure emerged in 1996. The European and Atlantic commands were to be retained, but the number of major commands in Europe was to be cut from three to two, Regional Command North Europe and Regional Command South Europe. Activation of the new RC SOUTH occurred in September 1999, and in March 2000 Headquarters AFNORTHWEST closed and the new RC NORTH was activated.  The headquarters of the two Regional Commands were known as Regional Headquarters South (RHQ South) and RHQ NORTH respectively. Each was to supervise air, naval, and land commands for their region as well as a number of Joint Subregional Commands (JSRCs). Among the new JSRCs was Joint Headquarters Southwest, which was activated in Madrid in September 1999.

Organizations and agencies
Prior to the reorganization, the NATO website listed 43 different agencies and organizations and five project committees/offices as of 15 May 2008. They included:

 Logistics committees, organisations and agencies, including:
NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency
Central Europe Pipeline System
NATO Pipeline System
 Production Logistics organisations, agencies and offices including the NATO Eurofighter and Tornado Management Agency
 Standardisation organisation, committee, office and agency including the NATO Standardization Agency which also plays an important role in the global arena of standards determination.
 Civil Emergency Planning committees and centre
 Air Traffic Management and Air Defence committees, working groups organisation and centre including the:
NATO ACCS Management Agency (NACMA), based in Brussels, manages around a hundred persons in charge of the Air Control and Command System (ACCS) due for 2009.
NATO Programming Centre
 The NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Programme Management Organisation (NAPMO)
 NATO Consultation, Command and Control Organisation (NC3O)
NATO Consultation, Command and Control Agency (NC3A), reporting to the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Organization (NC3O). This agency was formed when the SHAPE Technical Centre (STC) in The Hague (Netherlands) merged in 1996 with the NATO Communications and Information Systems Operating and Support Agency (NACISA) based in Brussels (Belgium). The agency comprises around 650 staff, of which around 400 are located in The Hague and 250 in Brussels.
NATO Communications and Information Systems Services Agency (NCSA), based in Mons (BEL), was established in August 2004 from the former NATO Communications and Information Systems Operating and Support Agency (NACISA).
NATO Headquarters C3 Staff (NHQC3S), which supports the North Atlantic Council, Military Committee, International Staff, and the International Military Staff.
 NATO Electronic Warfare Advisory Committee (NEWAC)
 Military Committee Meteorological Group (MCMG)
 The Military Oceanography Group (MILOC)
 NATO Research and Technology Organisation (RTO),
 Education and Training college, schools and group
 Project Steering Committees and Project Offices, including:
Alliance Ground Surveillance Capability Provisional Project Office (AGS/PPO)
Battlefield Information Collection and Exploitation System (BICES)
NATO Continuous Acquisition and Life Cycle Support Office (CALS)
NATO FORACS Office
Munitions Safety Information Analysis Center (MSIAC)
Committee of Chiefs of Military Medical Services in NATO (COMEDS)

Civilian structure today
In the twenty-first century NATO has an extensive civilian structure, including:
Public Diplomacy Division
NATO Office of Security (NOS)
Executive Management
 Division of Political Affairs and Security Policy
 Division of Operations
 Division of Defence Policy and Planning
 Division of Defence Investment
 NATO Office of Resources (NOR)
 NATO Headquarters Consultation, Command and Control Staff (NHQC3S)
 Office of the Financial Controller (FinCon)
Office of the Chairman of the Senior Resource Board (SRB)
Office of the Chairman of the Civil and Military Budget Committees (CBC/MBC)
International Board of Auditors for NATO (IBAN)
NATO Production and Logistics Organizations (NPLO)

The Defence Planning Committee (DPC) is normally composed of Permanent Representatives, but meets at the level of Defence Ministers at least twice a year. It deals with most defence matters and subjects related to collective defence planning. In this it serves as a coordinating body between the Civilian and Military organizational bureaucracies of NATO.

The Defence Planning Committee was a former senior decision-making body on matters relating to the integrated military structure of the Alliance. It was dissolved following a major committee review in June 2010 and its responsibilities absorbed by the North Atlantic Council and the Defence Policy and Planning Committee (DPPC).

Military command structure

NATO's military operations are directed by the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee and split into two Strategic Commands, both long commanded by U.S. officers, assisted by a staff drawn from across NATO. The Strategic Commanders are responsible to the NATO Military Committee for the overall direction and conduct of all Alliance military matters within their areas of command.

On 12 June 2003 NATO ministers announced an end to the decades-old structure of a command each for the Atlantic and Europe. Allied Command Operations (ACO) was to be established, responsible for the strategic, operational and tactical management of combat and combat support forces of the NATO members, and Allied Command Transformation (ACT) responsible for the induction of the new member states' forces into NATO, and NATO forces' research and training capability. The European allies had become concerned about the possibility of a loosening of U.S. ties to NATO if there were no longer any U.S.-led NATO HQ in the United States, and the refocusing of the Atlantic command into a transformation command was the result. The alliance created several NATO Rapid Deployable Corps and naval High Readiness Forces (HRFs), which all report to Allied Command Operations. In Europe the Regional Commands were replaced by JFC Brunssum and JFC Naples, and the JSRCs disappeared (though the Madrid JSRC became a land command for JFC Naples).

The commander of Allied Command Operations retained the title "Supreme Allied Commander Europe", and remains based at SHAPE at Casteau. He is a U.S. four-star general or admiral with the dual-hatted role of heading United States European Command. ACO includes Joint Force Command Brunssum in the Netherlands, Joint Force Command Naples in Italy, and Joint Force Command Lisbon in Portugal, all multi-national headquarters with many nations represented. From 2003, JFC Brunssum had its land component, Allied Land Component Command Headquarters Heidelberg at Heidelberg, Germany, its air component, Allied Air Command Ramstein, at Ramstein in Germany, and its naval component at the Northwood Headquarters in the northwest suburbs of London. JFC Naples has its land component in Madrid, air component at İzmir, Turkey, and its naval component, Allied Maritime Command Naples, in Naples, Italy. It also directed KFOR in Kosovo. Joint Command Lisbon was a smaller HQ with no subordinate commands.

In 2012–2013, the Military Command Structure was reorganised. Allied Force Command Madrid was disestablished on 1 July 2013, the Heidelberg force command also deactivated, the maritime component command at Naples was closed and the air component command at Izmir also shut down. Allied Air Command Izmir was reorganised as Allied Land Command.

A number of NATO Force Structure formations, such as the NATO Rapid Deployable Corps, are answerable ultimately to SACEUR either directly or through the component commands. Directly responsible to SACEUR is the NATO Airborne Early Warning Force at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen in Germany where a jointly funded fleet of E-3 Sentry AWACS airborne radar aircraft is located. The Boeing C-17 Globemaster IIIs of the Strategic Airlift Capability, which became fully operational in July 2009, are based at Pápa airfield in Hungary.

Allied Command Transformation (ACT) is based in the former Allied Command Atlantic headquarters in Norfolk, Virginia , United States. It is headed by the Supreme Allied Commander Transformation (SACT), a French officer. There is also an ACT command element located at SHAPE in Mons, Belgium. In June 2009 Le Figaro named the French officer who was to take command of ACT following France's return to the NATO Military Command Structure. Subordinate ACT organizations include the Joint Warfare Centre (JWC) located in Stavanger, Norway (in the same site as the former Norwegian Armed Forces National Joint HQ); the Joint Force Training Centre (JFTC) in Bydgoszcz, Poland; and the Joint Analysis and Lessons Learned Centre (JALLC) in Monsanto, Portugal. The NATO Undersea Research Centre (NURC) at La Spezia, Italy, was also part of ACT until it was shifted under the auspices of the NATO Science & Technology Organization.

In early 2015, in the wake of the War in Donbass, meetings of NATO ministers decided that Multinational Corps Northeast would be augmented so as to develop greater capabilities, to, if thought necessary, prepare to defend the Baltic States, and that a new Multinational Division Southeast would be established in Romania. Six NATO Force Integration Units would also be established to coordinate preparations for defence of new Eastern members of NATO.

Multinational Division Southeast was activated on 1 December 2015. Headquarters Multinational Division South – East (HQ MND-SE) is a North Atlantic Council (NAC) activated NATO military body under operational command (OPCOM) of Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) which may be employed and deployed in peacetime, crisis and operations.

On 25 April 2017, the commander-designate of the new Multinational Division Northeast arrived at the headquarters location at Elblag, Poland. On 3 July 2017, the new division reached initial operational capability (IOC). The division is tasked to coordinate the four NATO Enhanced Forward Presence battlegroups and to carry out Article 5 collective defence activities.

In late 2017-early 2018, two new commands were approved, a rear area transit command which was finally announced as the Joint Support and Enabling Command, to be located at Ulm, Germany, and a new command for the Atlantic. In March 2018 Chair of the Military Committee General Petr Pavel announced that the new Atlantic command would become part of the NATO Command Structure at the level of a Joint Force Command, similar to the two that exist at Brunssum and Naples. On 7 June 2018 the Secretary-General said a new JFC will have its headquarters in Norfolk, Virginia, in the United States. The name was confirmed as Joint Force Command Norfolk at the NATO Summit in July. It will be commanded by the Vice Admiral who leads the United States Second Fleet. On 15 July 2021 Joint Force Command Norfolk (JFC-NF) attained Full operational capability (FOC) under the command of Vice Adm. Andrew Lewis.

Canada-US Regional Planning Group

The Canada-US Regional Planning Group (CUSRPG) is the only survivor of the originally five regional planning groups of the late 1940s and early 1950s. All the others were subsumed into Allied Command Europe and Allied Command Atlantic. In August 1953 it was tasked to '..(a) Prepare, approve and forward to the Military Committee, through the Standing Group, plans for and other material pertaining to, the defense of the Canada-U.S. Region. (b) Coordinate plans with SACLANT and other NATO Commands. The NATO Handbook stated in 1990s editions that it was responsible for the defence of the US-Canada area and meets alternatively in Washington, D.C., and Ottawa. As such it appears to duplicate, in part, the work of the Permanent Joint Board on Defence.

NATO Networks

There are several communications networks used by NATO to support its exercises and operations:

 Battlefield Information Collection and Exploitation Systems (BICES)
 Crisis Response Operations in NATO Operating Systems (CRONOS), which is a system of interconnected computer networks used by NATO to transmit classified information at the level of NATO Secret.
 Combined Federated Battle Laboratories Network (CFBLNet), which is a wide area network connecting the US, the UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, six NATO countries and Sweden for sharing research and development information.

Organizations and agencies
A major reorganization of the NATO Agencies was agreed at a meeting of the defence ministers from NATO's 28 member states on 8 June 2011. The new Agencies' structure will build upon the existing one:

Headquarters for the NATO Support Agency will be in Capellen Luxembourg (site of the current NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency – NAMSA).
The NATO Communications and Information Agency Headquarters will be in Brussels, as will the very small staff which will design the new NATO Procurement Agency.
A new NATO Science and Technology Organization (STO) will be created before July 2012, consisting of Chief Scientist, a Programme Office for Collaborative S&T, and the NATO Undersea Research Centre (NURC).
The current NATO Standardization Agency will continue and be subject to review by Spring 2014.

See also
NATO summit

References

Sources

Further reading
John Borawski, Thomas-Durell Young, NATO After 2000: The Future of the Euro-Atlantic Alliance
Dr. Thomas-Durell Young, Reforming NATO's Military Structures: The Long-Term Study and Its Implications for Land Forces, Strategic Studies Institute, 1 May 1998.  Often taken for granted, the Alliance's integrated command structure provides the basis for NATO's collective defense, and increasingly, as seen in Bosnia, its ability to undertake peace support operations. However, the very value by which nations hold the structure has resulted in a difficult and time-consuming reorganization process, which has produced only limited reforms.
Dr. Thomas-Durell Young, Multinational Land Formations and NATO: Reforming Practices and Structures, Strategic Studies Institute, 1 December 1997. Reduced national force structures, new NATO roles and missions emanating from the military implementation of Alliance Strategy and the rapid reaction requirements associated with the embryonic Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) concept are but three of a multitude of inter-related issues.
The current official reference for the NATO Military Command Structure appears to be MC 324/1 (The NATO Military Command Structure, May 2004) and a successor MC 324/2. The previous issue was MC 324, issued on 6 January 1999.
NATO Office of Information and Press, NATO Handbook : Fiftieth Anniversary Edition, NATO, Brussels, 1998–99, Second Reprint,

External links

Military organizational structures

Structure of NATO


Sergeant Arthur Banks GC (6 October 1923 – 20 December 1944) was a member of the Royal Air Force during the Second World War who was tortured and killed after being captured behind enemy lines.  He was posthumously awarded the George Cross for his courage during captivity.

Early life
Banks was born in Llanddulas (a village near Abergele in North Wales).  His father, Captain Charles Banks, was a distinguished pilot in the First World War who was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his wartime service. Banks attended St Edward's School, Oxford until 1941.

Military career
Banks enlisted in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve in 1942 and become a member of 112 Squadron, Desert Air Force.  On 29 August 1944, three weeks into his active service with 112 Squadron, he was shot down over northern Italy whilst undertaking an armed reconnaissance operation in a Mustang. He tried to reach the Allied lines and made contact with a partisan group (the Boccato group). During the following months he "became an outstanding figure, advising and encouraging them in action against the enemy".

In December 1944, an attempt to cross to Allied territory was planned to enable resupplying of the partisans to take place, but the group Banks was with was betrayed and captured by German forces. He was tortured by German authorities and then by the Italian militia over a period of several days, but Banks remained silent. He was then stripped, doused in petrol and set alight before being thrown, weighted down, into the River Po.  He managed to survive and swam to the river bank, where he was recaptured by the Brigate Nere (Italian fascists) and shot in the head. Initially buried in a communal dung-heap by his captors, Banks is now buried at the Argenta Gap War Cemetery. There is also a commemoration stone for Banks at the War Memorial in Llanddulas.

He was awarded the George Cross posthumously for his "courage and endurance", with his conduct being described as "at all times, in keeping with the highest traditions of the Service, even in the face of most brutal and inhuman treatment.". Notice of the award was published in the London Gazette on 5 November 1946. The Cross was presented to his father by King George VI.

His captors were tried by a War Crimes Tribunal and were imprisoned for between 4.5 and 20 years; the one who directed his torture was shot after being captured by Italians. The man who murdered Arthur Banks was Lieutenant Turati. Turati had been a member of the infamous Brigate Nere. Postwar, Captain Ian Bell of the War Crimes Investigation Unit, captured Turati at his home in Italy.

According to the Central Registry of War Criminals and Security Suspects (CROWCASS) other Italians, most of them members of the fascist Black Brigades, may have been involved in crimes against British soldiers, at the same time and in the same area.

References

External links

CWGC: Arthur Banks

1923 births
People educated at St Edward's School, Oxford
1944 deaths
Royal Air Force pilots of World War II
Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II
British recipients of the George Cross
Royal Air Force recipients of the George Cross
Royal Air Force airmen
British World War II fighter pilots
People from Abergele
British torture victims
Deaths by firearm in Italy
People executed by Italy by firearm
Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II
Burials at Argenta Gap War Cemetery

Arthur Banks


Dairy machinery encompasses and describes a wide range of machine types that are involved in the production and processing of dairy related products such as yogurt, ice cream, processed cheese, desserts and is a slightly different genre to pure milking machinery.

Machine types
Dairy processing machine types include Homogenizer, Separator (milk), Batch mixers, Continuous freezers, Aseptic, UHT & ESL Filling & Process machinery, Butter & Cheese Processing & Packing, CIP and Washing, Non Aseptic Filling Machines, Ageing Vats, Batch Freezers, Batch Pasteurisers, Ice Cream Filling Machines, Ice Cream Fruit Feeders, Ice Cream Ripple machines, Mixers, Emulsifiers, Cutters, Pasteurisers, Separators, Bactofuge and Clarifier packing machines.

Companies
There are a number of manufacturers that specialise in dairy machinery including Alfa Laval, APV plc, Benhil, GEA, Technogel, Tetra Pak, Cattabriga, Promag, ROKK, Carpigiani, Gram, Seital SPX, Stephan and Mark.

History
Nancy Johnson invented the ice cream maker in 1843. It was operated with a hand crank and revolutionised ice cream production. Jacob Fussell ice cream from Baltimore established the first factory for industrially produced ice cream on 15 June 1851 in Seven Valleys, Pennsylvania. Carl von Linde discovered a refrigeration cycle and invented the first industrial-scale air separation and gas liquefaction processes which is the basis of today's industrial and continuous freezers which allow mass production of ice cream, possibly the largest sector in dairy machinery production.

References

Dairy industry

Dairy machinery