Sleep deprivation, also known as sleep insufficiency or sleeplessness, is the condition of not having adequate duration and/or quality of sleep to support decent alertness, performance, and health. It can be either chronic or acute and may vary widely in severity.

Acute sleep deprivation is when an individual sleeps less than usual or does not sleep at all for a short period of time – normally lasting one to two days but tends to follow the sleepless pattern for longer with no outside factors in play. Chronic sleep deprivation is when an individual routinely sleeps less than an optimal amount for ideal functioning. Chronic sleep deficiency is often confused with the term insomnia. Although both chronic sleep deficiency and insomnia share decreased quantity and/or quality of sleep as well as impaired function, their difference lies in the ability to fall asleep. Sleep deprived individuals are able to fall asleep rapidly when allowed but those with insomnia have difficulty falling asleep.

The average adult needs seven or more hours of sleep per night to maintain health. The amount of sleep needed can depend on sleep quality, age, pregnancy, and level of sleep deprivation. Insufficient sleep has been linked to weight gain, high blood pressure, diabetes, depression, heart disease, and strokes. Sleep deprivation can also lead to high anxiety, irritability, erratic behavior, poor cognitive functioning and performance, and psychotic episodes.

A chronic sleep-restricted state adversely affects the brain and cognitive function. However, in a subset of cases, sleep deprivation can paradoxically lead to increased energy and alertness; although its long-term consequences have never been evaluated, sleep deprivation has even been used as a treatment for depression.

Few studies have compared the effects of acute total sleep deprivation and chronic partial sleep restriction. A complete absence of sleep over a long period is not frequent in humans (unless they have fatal insomnia or specific issues caused by surgery); it appears that brief microsleeps cannot be avoided. Long-term total sleep deprivation has caused death in lab animals.

Causes

Insomnia

Insomnia, one of the six types of dyssomnia, affects 21–37% of the adult population. Many of its symptoms are easily recognizable, including excessive daytime sleepiness; frustration or worry about sleep; problems with attention, concentration, or memory; extreme mood changes or irritability; lack of energy or motivation; poor performance at school or work; and tension headaches or stomach aches.

Insomnia can be grouped into primary and secondary, or comorbid, insomnia.

Primary insomnia is a sleep disorder not attributable to a medical, psychiatric, or environmental cause. There are three main types of primary insomnia. These include: psychophysiological, idiopathic insomnia, and sleep state misperception (paradoxical insomnia). Psychophysiological insomnia is anxiety-induced. Idiopathic insomnia generally begins in childhood and lasts the rest of a person's life. It's suggested that idiopathic insomnia is a neurochemical problem in a part of the brain that controls the sleep-wake cycle, resulting in either under-active sleep signals or over-active wake signals. Sleep state misperception is diagnosed when people get enough sleep but inaccurately perceive that their sleep is insufficient.

Secondary insomnia, or comorbid insomnia, occurs concurrently with other medical, neurological, psychological and psychiatric conditions. Causation is not necessarily implied.Causes can be from depression, anxiety, and personality disorders.

Sleep deprivation is known to be cumulative. This means that the fatigue and sleep one lost as a result, for example, staying awake all night, would be carried over to the following day. Not getting enough sleep for a couple of days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and causes symptoms of sleep deprivation to appear. A well rested and healthy individual will generally spend less time in the REM stage of sleep. Studies have shown an inverse relationship between time spent in the REM stage of sleep and subsequent wakefulness during waking hours.Short-term insomnia can be induced by stress or when your body experiences changes in environment and regimen.

Sleep apnea

Sleep apnea is a serious disorder that has symptoms of both insomnia and sleep deprivation, among other symptoms like excessive daytime sleepiness, abrupt awakenings, and difficulty concentrating. Obstructive sleep apnea is often caused by collapse of the upper airway during sleep, which reduces airflow to the lungs. Those with sleep apnea may experience symptoms such as awakening gasping or choking, restless sleep, morning headaches, morning confusion or irritability and restlessness. This disorder affects 1 to 10 percent of Americans. It has many serious health outcomes if untreated. Positive airway pressure therapy using a CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure), APAP or BPAP devices is considered to be the first line treatment option for sleep apnea. Mandibular displacement devices in some cases can reposition the jaw and tongue to prevent the airway from collapsing. For some patients supplemental oxygen therapy may be indicated. Nasal problems such as a deviated septum will shut down the airway and increase swelling in the mucus lining and nasal turbinates. Corrective surgery (septoplasty) in some cases may be an appropriate choice of treatment.

Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the central nervous system to signal the body to breathe during sleep. Treatments similar to obstructive sleep apnea may be used as well as other treatments such as Adaptive Servo Ventilation and certain medications. Some medications such as opioids may contribute to or cause central sleep apnea.

Self-imposed
Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to achieve personal fame in the context of record-breaking stunts.

Caffeine

Consumption of caffeine in large quantities can have negative effects on one's sleep cycle.
While there are short-term performance benefits to caffeine consumption, overuse can lead to insomnia symptoms or worsen pre-existing insomnia. Consuming caffeine to stay awake at night may lead to sleeplessness, anxiety, frequent nighttime awakenings, and overall poorer sleep quality.

Mental illness
The specific causal relationships between sleep loss and effects on psychiatric disorders have been most extensively studied in patients with mood disorders. Shifts into mania in bipolar patients are often preceded by periods of insomnia, and sleep deprivation has been shown to induce a manic state in about 30% of patients. Sleep deprivation may represent a final common pathway in the genesis of mania, and manic patients usually have a continuous reduced need for sleep.

Chronic sleep problems affect 50% to 80% of patients in a typical psychiatric practice, compared with 10% to 18% of adults in the general U.S. population. Sleep problems are particularly common in patients with anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

The symptoms of sleep deprivation and those of schizophrenia are paralleled, including those of positive and cognitive symptoms.

School

The US National Sleep Foundation cites a 1996 paper showing that college/university-aged students got an average of less than 6 hours of sleep each night. A 2018 study highlights the need for a good night's sleep for students finding that college students who averaged eight hours of sleep for the five nights of finals week scored higher on their final exams than those who didn't.

In the study, 70.6% of students reported obtaining less than 8 hours of sleep, and up to 27% of students may be at risk for at least one sleep disorder. Sleep deprivation is common in first year college students as they adjust to the stress and social activities of college life.

Estevan, et al., studied the relationships between sleep and test performance. They found that students tend to sleep less than usual the night before an exam, and that exam performance was positively correlated with sleep duration.

A study performed by the Department of Psychology at the National Chung Cheng University in Taiwan concluded that freshmen received the least amount of sleep during the week.

Studies of later start times in schools have consistently reported benefits to adolescent sleep, health and learning using a wide variety of methodological approaches. In contrast, there are no studies showing that early start times have any positive impact on sleep, health or learning. Data from international studies demonstrate that "synchronised" start times for adolescents are far later than the start times in the overwhelming majority of educational institutions. In 1997, University of Minnesota research compared students who started school at 7:15 am with those who started at 8:40 am. They found that students who started at 8:40 got higher grades and more sleep on weekday nights than those who started earlier. One in four U.S. high school students admits to falling asleep in class at least once a week.

It is known that during human adolescence, circadian rhythms and therefore sleep patterns typically undergo marked changes. Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies indicate a 50% reduction of deep (stage 4) sleep and a 75% reduction in the peak amplitude of delta waves during NREM sleep in adolescence. School schedules are often incompatible with a corresponding delay in sleep offset, leading to a less than optimal amount of sleep for the majority of adolescents.

Hospital stay
A study performed nationwide in the Netherlands found that general ward patients staying at the hospital experienced shorter total sleep (83 min. less), more night-time awakenings, and earlier awakenings compared to sleeping at home. Over 70% experienced being woken up by external causes, such as hospital staff (35.8%). Sleep disturbing factors included noise of other patients, medical devices, pain, and toilet visits.  Sleep deprivation is even more severe in ICU patients, where the naturally occurring nocturnal peak of melatonin secretion was found to be absent, possibly causing the disruption in the normal sleep-wake cycle. However, as the personal characteristics and the clinical picture of hospital patients are so diverse, the possible solutions to improve sleep and circadian rhythmicity should be tailored to the individual and within the possibilities of the hospital ward. Multiple interventions could be considered to aid patient characteristics, improve hospital routines, or the hospital environment.

Internet
A study published in the Journal of Economic Behavior and Organisation found out that broadband internet connection was associated with sleep deprivation. The study concluded that the people with a broadband connection tend to sleep 25 minutes less than those without the broadband connection, hence they are less likely to get the scientifically recommended 7–9 hours of sleep. Another study conducted on 435 non-medical staff at King Saud University Medical City reported that 9 out of 10 of the respondents used their smartphones at bedtime, with social media being the most used service (80.5%). The study found participants who spent more than 60 minutes using their smartphones at bedtime were 7.4 times more likely to have poor sleep quality than participants who spent less than 15 minutes.

Shift work
Many business are operational 24/7, such as airlines, hospitals and etc., where workers perform their duties in different shifts. Shift work patterns cause sleep depriviation and leads to poor concentration, detrimental health effects and fatigue. Shift work remains an unspoken challenge within industries, often disregarded by both employers and employees alike, leading to an increase in occupational injuries. A worker experiencing fatigue poses a potential danger not only to themselves but also to others around them. Both employers and employees must acknowledge the risks associated with sleep deprivation and on-the-job fatigue to effectively mitigate the chances of occupational injuries

Effects and consequences

Brain

Temporary
One study suggested, based on neuroimaging, that 35 hours of total sleep deprivation in healthy controls negatively affected the brain's ability to put an emotional event into the proper perspective and make a controlled, suitable response to the event.

The negative effects of sleep deprivation on alertness and cognitive performance suggest decreases in brain activity and function. These changes primarily occur in two regions: the thalamus, a structure involved in alertness and attention; and the prefrontal cortex, a region sub-serving alertness, attention, and higher-order cognitive processes. This was the finding of an American study in 2000. Seventeen men in their 20s were tested. Sleep deprivation was progressive with measurements of glucose (absolute regional CMRglu), cognitive performance, alertness, mood, and subjective experiences collected after 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours of sleep deprivation. Additional measures of alertness, cognitive performance, and mood were collected at fixed intervals. PET scans were used and attention was paid to the circadian rhythm of cognitive performance. Interestingly, the effects of sleep deprivation appear to be constant across "night owls" and "early birds", or different sleep chronotypes, as revealed by fMRI and graph theory.

A noted 2002 University of California animal study indicated that non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM) is necessary for turning off neurotransmitters and allowing their receptors to "rest" and regain sensitivity which allows monoamines (norepinephrine, serotonin and histamine) to be effective at naturally produced levels. This leads to improved regulation of mood and increased learning ability. The study also found that rapid eye movement sleep (REM) deprivation may alleviate clinical depression because it mimics selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). This is because the natural decrease in monoamines during REM is not allowed to occur, which causes the concentration of neurotransmitters in the brain, that are depleted in clinically depressed persons, to increase.

Lasting

Studies on rodents show that response to neuronal injury due to acute sleep deprivation is adaptative before 3 hours of sleep loss per night and becomes maladaptative and apoptosis occurs after. Studies in mice show neuronal death (in the hippocampus, locus coeruleus and medial PFC) occurs after 2 days of REM sleep deprivation. However, mice do not model well the effects in humans because they sleep a third of the duration of REM sleep of humans and caspase-3,  the main effector of apoptosis, kills 3 times the amount of cells in humans than in mice. Also not accounted in nearly all of the studies is that acute REM sleep deprivation induces lasting (> 20 days) neuronal apoptosis in mice, and apoptosis rate increases on the day following its end, so the amount of apoptosis is often undercounted in mice because experiments nearly always measure it the day the sleep deprivation ends.  For these reasons, both the time before cells degenerate and the extent of degeneration could be greatly underevaluated in humans.

Such histological studies cannot be performed on humans for ethical reasons, but long-term studies show that sleep quality is more associated to grey matter volume reduction than age, occurring in areas like the precuneus.

Sleep is necessary to repair cellular damage, such as caused by reactive oxygen species and DNA damages. During long-term sleep deprivation, cellular damage aggregates up to a tipping point that triggers cellular degeneration and apoptosis.
REM sleep deprivation causes an increase in noradrenaline (which incidentally causes the person sleep deprived to be stressed) due to the neurons in the locus coeruleus producing it not ceasing to do so, which causes an increase in the activity of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump, which itself activates the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis and prevents autophagy, which also induces the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis.

Sleep outside of the REM phase may allow enzymes to repair brain cell damage caused by free radicals. High metabolic activity while awake damages the enzymes themselves preventing efficient repair. This study observed the first evidence of brain damage in rats as a direct result of sleep deprivation.

Attention and working memory
Among the possible physical consequences of sleep deprivation, deficits in attention and working memory are perhaps the most important; such lapses in mundane routines can lead to unfortunate results, from forgetting ingredients while cooking to missing a sentence while taking notes. Performing tasks that require attention appears to be correlated with number of hours of sleep received each night, declining as a function of hours of sleep deprivation. Working memory is tested by methods such as choice-reaction time tasks.

The attentional lapses also extend into more critical domains in which the consequences can be life-or-death; car crashes and industrial disasters can result from inattentiveness attributable to sleep deprivation. To empirically measure the magnitude of attention deficits, researchers typically employ the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) which requires the subject to press a button in response to a light at random intervals. Failure to press the button in response to the stimulus (light) is recorded as an error, attributable to the microsleeps that occur as a product of sleep deprivation.

Crucially, individuals' subjective evaluations of their fatigue often do not predict actual performance on the PVT. While totally sleep-deprived individuals are usually aware of the degree of their impairment, lapses from chronic (lesser) sleep deprivation can build up over time so that they are equal in number and severity to the lapses occurring from total (acute) sleep deprivation. Chronically sleep-deprived people, however, continue to rate themselves considerably less impaired than totally sleep-deprived participants. Since people usually evaluate their capability on tasks like driving subjectively, their evaluations may lead them to the false conclusion that they can perform tasks that require constant attention when their abilities are in fact impaired.

Mood
Sleep deprivation can have a negative impact on mood. Staying up all night or taking an unexpected night shift can make one feel irritable. Once one catches up on sleep, one's mood will often return to baseline or normal. Even partial sleep deprivation can have a significant impact on mood. In one study, subjects reported increased sleepiness, fatigue, confusion, tension, and total mood disturbance, which all recovered to their baseline after one to two full nights of sleep.

Depression and sleep are in a bidirectional relationship. Poor sleep can lead to development of depression and depression can cause insomnia, hypersomnia, or obstructive sleep apnea. About 75% of adult patients with depression can present insomnia. Sleep deprivation, whether total or not, can induce significant anxiety and longer sleep deprivations tend to result in increased level of anxiety.

Sleep deprivation has also shown some positive effects on mood, and can be used to treat depression. Chronotype can affect how sleep deprivation influences mood. Those with morningness (advanced sleep period or "lark") preference become more depressed after sleep deprivation while those with eveningness (delayed sleep period or "owl") preference show an improvement in mood.

Mood and mental states can affect sleep as well. Increased agitation and arousal from anxiety or stress can keep one more aroused, awake, and alert.

Driving ability

The dangers of sleep deprivation are apparent on the road; the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) reports that one in every five serious motor vehicle injuries is related to driver fatigue, with 80,000 drivers falling asleep behind the wheel every day and 250,000 accidents every year related to sleep, though the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration suggests the figure for traffic accidents may be closer to 100,000. The AASM recommends pulling off the road and taking a 15- or 20-minute nap to alleviate drowsiness.

According to a 2000 study published in the British Medical Journal, researchers in Australia and New Zealand reported that sleep deprivation can have some of the same hazardous effects as being drunk. People who drove after being awake for 17–19 hours performed worse than those with a blood alcohol level of 0.05 percent, which is the legal limit for drunk driving in most western European countries and Australia. Another study suggested that performance begins to degrade after 16 hours awake, and 21 hours awake was equivalent to a blood alcohol content of 0.08 percent, which is the blood alcohol limit for drunk driving in Canada, the U.S., and the U.K.

Fatigue of drivers of goods trucks and passenger vehicles have come to the attention of authorities in many countries, where specific laws have been introduced with the aim of reducing the risk of traffic accidents due to driver fatigue. Rules concerning minimum break lengths, maximum shift lengths and minimum time between shifts are common in the driving regulations used in different countries and regions, such as the drivers' working hours regulations in the European Union and hours of service regulations in the United States.

The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill was the second largest oil spill in the United States waters, after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill. This accident occurred when an Exxon oil tanker struck a reef at the Prince William Sound in Alaska. Approximately 10.8 million gallons of oil spilled into the sea. The accident caused great environmental damage including the death of hundreds of thousands of birds and sea creatures. Fatigue and sleep deprivation were the major contributors to the accident. The captain of the ship was asleep after a night of heavy drinking; he was severely fatigued and had been awake for 18 hours. The entire crew was suffering from fatigue and inadequate sleep.

Sleep transition
Sleep propensity (SP) can be defined as the readiness to transit from wakefulness to sleep, or the ability to stay asleep if already sleeping. Sleep deprivation increases this propensity, which can be measured by polysomnography (PSG), as a reduction in sleep latency (the time needed to fall asleep). An indicator of sleep propensity can also be seen in the shortening of transition from light stages of non-REM sleep to deeper slow-waves oscillations can also be measured as indicator of sleep propensity.

On average, the latency in healthy adults decreases by a few minutes after a night without sleep, and the latency from sleep onset to slow-wave sleep is halved. Sleep latency is generally measured with the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT). In contrast, the maintenance of wakefulness test (MWT) also uses sleep latency, but this time as a measure of the capacity of the participants to stay awake (when asked to) instead of falling asleep.

Sleep-wake cycle
People aged 18 to 64 need seven to nine hours of sleep per night. Research studying sleep deprivation shows its impact on mood, cognitive and motor functioning, due to dysregulation of the sleep-wake cycle and augmented sleep propensity. Multiple studies that identified the role of the hypothalamus and multiple neural systems controlling circadian rhythms and homeostasis have been helpful in understanding sleep deprivation better. To describe the temporal course of the sleep-wake cycle, the two-process model of sleep regulation can be mentioned.

This model proposes a homeostatic process (Process S) and a circadian process (Process C) that interact to define the time and intensity of sleep. Process S represents the drive for sleep, increasing during wakefulness and decreasing during sleep, until a defined threshold level, while Process C is the oscillator responsible for these levels. When being sleep deprived, homeostatic pressure accumulates to the point that waking functions will be degraded even at the highest circadian drive for wakefulness.

Microsleeps
Microsleeps are periods of brief sleep that most frequently occur when a person has a significant level of sleep deprivation. Microsleeps usually last for a few seconds, usually no longer than 15 seconds, and happen most frequently when a person is trying to stay awake when they are feeling sleepy. The person usually falls into microsleep while doing a monotonous task like driving, reading a book, or staring at a computer. Microsleeps are similar to blackouts and a person experiencing them is not consciously aware that they are occurring.

An even lighter type of sleep has been seen in rats that have been kept awake for long periods of time. In a process known as local sleep, specific localized brain regions went into periods of short (~80 ms) but frequent (~40/min) NREM-like states. Despite the on and off periods where neurons shut off, the rats appeared to be awake, although they performed poorly at tests.

Cardiovascular morbidity
Decreased sleep duration is associated with many adverse cardiovascular consequences. The American Heart Association has stated that sleep restriction is a risk factor for adverse cardiometabolic profiles and outcomes. The organization recommends healthy sleep habits for ideal cardiac health along with other well known factors like blood pressure, cholesterol, diet, glucose, weight, smoking, and physical activity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has noted that adults who sleep less than 7 hours per day are more likely to have chronic health conditions including heart attack, coronary heart disease, and stroke compared to those with adequate amount of sleep.

In a study that followed over 160,000 healthy, non-obese adults, the subjects who self-reported sleep duration less than 6 hours a day were at an increased risk for developing multiple cardiometabolic risk factors. They presented with increased central obesity, elevated fasting glucose, hypertension, low high-density lipoprotein, hypertriglyceridemia, and metabolic syndrome. The presence or lack of insomnia symptoms did not modify the effects of sleep duration in this study.

The United Kingdom Biobank studied nearly 500,000 adults who had no cardiovascular disease, and the subjects who slept less than 6 hours a day were associated with a 20 percent increase in the risk of developing myocardial infarction (MI) over 7 years of follow-up period. Interestingly, long sleep duration of more than 9 hours a night was also a risk factor.

Immunosuppression
Among the myriad of health consequences that sleep deprivation can cause, disruption of the immune system is one of them. While it is not clearly understood, researchers believe that sleep is essential to providing sufficient energy for the immune system to work and allow inflammation to take place during sleep. Also, just as sleep can reinforce memory in a person's brain, it can help consolidate the memory of the immune system or adaptive immunity.

An adequate amount of sleep improves effects of vaccines that utilize adaptive immunity. When vaccines expose the body to a weakened or deactivated antigen, the body initiates an immune response. The immune system learns to recognize that antigen and attacks it when exposed again in the future. Studies have found that people who don't sleep the night after getting a vaccine were less likely to develop a proper immune response to the vaccine and sometimes even required a second dose. People who are sleep deprived in general also do not provide their bodies with sufficient time for an adequate immunological memory to form, and thus, can fail to benefit from vaccination.

People who sleep less than 6 hours a night are more prone to infection and are more likely to catch a cold or flu. A lack of sleep can also prolong the recovery time in patients in intensive care unit (ICU).

Weight gain

A lack of sleep can cause an imbalance in several hormones that are critical in weight gain. Sleep deprivation increases the level of ghrelin (hunger hormone) and decreases the level of leptin (fullness hormone), resulting in an increased feeling of hunger and desire for high-calorie foods. Sleep loss is also associated with decreased growth hormone and elevated cortisol levels, which are connected to obesity. People who do not get sufficient sleep can also feel sleepy and fatigued during the day and get less exercise. Obesity can cause poor sleep quality as well. Individuals who are overweight or obese can experience obstructive sleep apnea, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), depression, asthma, and osteoarthritis which all can disrupt a good night's sleep.

In rats, prolonged, complete sleep deprivation increased both food intake and energy expenditure with a net effect of weight loss and ultimately death. This study hypothesizes that the moderate chronic sleep debt associated with habitual short sleep is associated with increased appetite and energy expenditure with the equation tipped towards food intake rather than expenditure in societies where high-calorie food is freely available.

Type 2 diabetes
It has been suggested that people experiencing short-term sleep restrictions process glucose more slowly than individuals receiving a full 8 hours of sleep, increasing the likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes. Poor sleep quality is linked to high blood sugar levels in diabetic and prediabetic patients but the causal relationship is not clearly understood. Researchers suspect that sleep deprivation affects insulin, cortisol, and oxidative stress, which subsequently influence blood sugar levels. Sleep deprivation can increase the level of ghrelin and decrease the level of leptin. People who get insufficient amount of sleep are more likely to crave food in order to compensate for the lack of energy. This habit can raise blood sugar and put them at risk of obesity and diabetes.

In 2005, a study of over 1400 participants showed that participants who habitually slept few hours were more likely to have associations with type 2 diabetes. However, because this study was merely correlational, the direction of cause and effect between little sleep and diabetes is uncertain. The authors point to an earlier study which showed that experimental rather than habitual restriction of sleep resulted in impaired glucose tolerance (IGT).

Other effects

The National Sleep Foundation identifies several warning signs that a driver is dangerously fatigued. These include rolling down the window, turning up the radio, trouble keeping eyes open, head-nodding, drifting out of their lane, and daydreaming. At particular risk are lone drivers between midnight and 6:00 am.

Sleep deprivation can negatively impact overall performance, and has led to major fatal accidents. Due largely to the February 2009 crash of Colgan Air Flight 3407, which killed 50 people and was partially attributed to pilot fatigue, the FAA reviewed its procedures to ensure that pilots are sufficiently rested. Air traffic controllers were under scrutiny when in 2010 there were 10 incidents of controllers falling asleep while on shift.  The common practice of turn-around shifts caused sleep deprivation and was a contributing factor to all air traffic control incidents.  The FAA reviewed its practices of shift changes and the findings saw that controllers were not well rested. A 2004 study also found medical residents with less than four hours of sleep a night made more than twice as many errors as the 11% of surveyed residents who slept for more than seven hours a night.

Twenty-four hours of continuous sleep deprivation results in the choice of less difficult math tasks without decreases in subjective reports of effort applied to the task. Naturally caused sleep loss affects the choice of everyday tasks such that low effort tasks are mostly commonly selected. Adolescents who experience less sleep show a decreased willingness to engage in sports activities that require effort through fine motor coordination and attention to detail.

Great sleep deprivation mimics psychosis: distorted perceptions can lead to inappropriate emotional and behavioral responses.

Astronauts have reported performance errors and decreased cognitive ability during periods of extended working hours and wakefulness as well as due to sleep loss caused by circadian rhythm disruption and environmental factors.

One study has found that a single night of sleep deprivation may cause tachycardia, a condition in which the heartrate exceeds 100 beats per minute (in the following day).

Generally, sleep deprivation may facilitate or intensify:
 aching muscles
confusion, memory lapses or loss
 depression
 development of false memory
 hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations during falling asleep and waking, which are entirely normal
 hand tremor
 headaches
 malaise
 stye
 periorbital puffiness, commonly known as "bags under eyes" or eye bags
 increased blood pressure
 increased stress hormone levels
 increased risk of Type 2 diabetes
 lowering of immunity, increased susceptibility to illness
 increased risk of fibromyalgia
 irritability
 nystagmus (rapid involuntary rhythmic eye movement)
 obesity
 seizures
 temper tantrums in children
 violent behavior
 yawning
 mania
Sleep inertia
Sleep deprivation may cause symptoms similar to:
 attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
 psychosis

Assessment
Patients with sleep deprivation may present with complaints of symptoms and signs of insufficient sleep such as fatigue, sleepiness, drowsy driving, and cognitive difficulties. Sleep insufficiency can easily go unrecognized and undiagnosed unless patients are specifically asked about it by their clinicians.

Several questions are critical in evaluating sleep duration and quality, as well as the cause of sleep deprivation. Sleep patterns (typical bed time or rise time on weekdays and weekends), shift work, and frequency of naps can reveal the direct cause of poor sleep, and quality of sleep should be discussed to rule out any diseases such as obstructive sleep apnea and restless leg syndrome.

Sleep diaries are useful in providing detailed information about sleep patterns. They are inexpensive, readily available, and easy to use. The diaries can be as simple as a 24-hour log to note the time of being asleep or can be detailed to include other relevant information. Sleep questionnaires such as the Sleep Timing Questionnaire (STQ) can be used instead of sleep diaries if there is any concern for patient adherence.

Actigraphy is a useful, objective wrist-worn tool if the validity of self-reported sleep diaries or questionnaires is questionable. Actigraphy works by recording movements and using computerized algorithms to estimate total sleep time, sleep onset latency, the amount of wake after sleep onset, and sleep efficiency. Some devices have light sensors to detect light exposure.

Management

Although there are numerous causes of sleep deprivation, there are some fundamental measures that promote quality sleep as suggested by organizations such as Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institute of Health, the National Institute of Aging, and the American Academy of Family Physicians. The key is to implement healthier sleep habits, also known as sleep hygiene. Sleep hygiene recommendations include setting a fixed sleep schedule, taking naps with caution, maintaining a sleep environment that promotes sleep (cool temperature, limited exposure to light and noise, comfortable mattress and pillows), exercising daily, avoiding alcohol, cigarettes, caffeine, and heavy meals in the evening, winding down and avoiding electronic use or physical activities close to bedtime, and getting out of bed if unable to fall asleep.

For long term involuntary sleep deprivation, cognitive behavioral therapy for Insomnia (CBT-i) is commonly recommended as a first-line treatment, after exclusion of physical diagnosis (f.e. sleep apnea). CBT-i contains five different components: cognitive therapy, stimulus control, sleep restriction, sleep hygiene, and relaxation. These components together have shown to be effective in adults, with clinical meaningful effect sizes. As this approach has minimal adverse effects, and long-term benefits, it is often preferred to (chronic) drug therapy.

There are several strategies that help increase alertness and counteract the effects of sleep deprivation. Caffeine is often used over short periods to boost wakefulness when acute sleep deprivation is experienced; however, caffeine is less effective if taken routinely. Other strategies recommended by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine include prophylactic sleep before deprivation, naps, other stimulants, and combinations thereof. However, the only sure and safe way to combat sleep deprivation is to increase nightly sleep time.

Uses

To facilitate abusive control
Sleep deprivation can be used to disorientate abuse victims to help set them up for abusive control.

Interrogation
Sleep deprivation can be used as a means of interrogation, which has resulted in court trials over whether or not the technique is a form of torture.

Under one interrogation technique, a subject might be kept awake for several days and when finally allowed to fall asleep, suddenly awakened and questioned. Menachem Begin, the Prime Minister of Israel from 1977 to 1983, described his experience of sleep deprivation as a prisoner of the NKVD in the Soviet Union as follows:

Sleep deprivation was one of the five techniques used by the British government in the 1970s. The European Court of Human Rights ruled that the five techniques "did not occasion suffering of the particular intensity and cruelty implied by the word torture ... [but] amounted to a practice of inhuman and degrading treatment", in breach of the European Convention on Human Rights.

The United States Justice Department released four memos in August 2002 describing interrogation techniques used by the Central Intelligence Agency. They first described 10 techniques used in the interrogation of Abu Zubaydah, described as a terrorist logistics specialist, including sleep deprivation. Memos signed by Steven G. Bradbury in May 2005 claimed that forced sleep deprivation for up to 180 hours ( days) by shackling a diapered prisoner to the ceiling did not constitute torture, nor did the combination of multiple interrogation methods (including sleep deprivation) constitute torture under United States law. These memoranda were repudiated and withdrawn during the first months of the Obama administration.

The question of extreme use of sleep deprivation as torture has advocates on both sides of the issue. In 2006, Australian Federal Attorney-General Philip Ruddock argued that sleep deprivation does not constitute torture. Nicole Bieske, a spokeswoman for Amnesty International Australia, has stated the opinion of her organization thus: "At the very least, sleep deprivation is cruel, inhumane and degrading. If used for prolonged periods of time it is torture."

Treating depression

Studies show that sleep restriction has some potential in treating depression. Those with depression tend to have earlier occurrences of REM sleep with an increased number of rapid eye movements; therefore, monitoring patients' EEG and awakening them during occurrences of REM sleep appear to have a therapeutic effect, alleviating depressive symptoms. This kind of treatment is known as wake therapy. Although as many as 60% of patients show an immediate recovery when sleep-deprived, most patients relapse the following night. The effect has been shown to be linked to an increase in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).  A comprehensive evaluation of the human metabolome in sleep deprivation in 2014 found that 27 metabolites are increased after 24 waking hours and suggested serotonin, tryptophan, and taurine may contribute to the antidepressive effect.

The incidence of relapse can be decreased by combining sleep deprivation with medication or a combination of light therapy and phase advance (going to bed substantially earlier than one's normal time). Many tricyclic antidepressants suppress REM sleep, providing an additional evidence for a link between mood and sleep. Similarly, tranylcypromine has been shown to completely suppress REM sleep at adequate doses.

Treating insomnia
Sleep deprivation can be implemented for a short period of time in the treatment of insomnia. Some common sleep disorders have been shown to respond to cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia is a multicomponent process that is composed of stimulus control therapy, sleep restriction therapy (SRT), and sleep hygiene therapy. One of the components is a controlled regime of "sleep restriction" in order to restore the homeostatic drive to sleep and encourage normal "sleep efficiency". Stimulus control therapy is intended to limit behaviors intended to condition the body to sleep while in bed. The main goal of stimulus control and sleep restriction therapy is to create an association between bed and sleep. Although sleep restriction therapy shows efficacy when applied as an element of cognitive-behavioral therapy, its efficacy is yet to be proven when used alone. Sleep Hygiene therapy is intended to help patients develop and maintain good sleeping habits. Sleep hygiene therapy is not helpful however, when used as a monotherapy without the pairing of Stimulus control therapy and Sleep restriction therapy.

In addition to the cognitive behavioral treatment of insomnia there are also generally four approaches to treating insomnia medically. These are through the use of barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and benzodiazepine receptor agonists. Barbiturates are not considered to be a primary source of treatment due to the fact that they have a low therapeutic index, while melatonin agonists are shown to have a higher therapeutic index.

Military training

Sleep deprivation has been used by the military in training programs to prepare personnel combat experiences when proper sleep schedules aren't realistic. Sleep deprivation is used to create a different time schedule pattern that is beyond a typical 24 hour day. Sleep deprivation is pivotal in training games such as "Keep in Memory" exercises where personnel practice memorizing everything they can while under intense stress physically and mentally and being able to describe in as much detail as they can remember of what they remember seeing days later. Sleep deprivation is used in training to create soldiers who are used to only going off of a few hours or minutes of sleep randomly when available.

Changes in American sleep habits

National Geographic Magazine has reported that the demands of work, social activities, and the availability of 24-hour home entertainment and Internet access have caused people to sleep less now than in premodern times. USA Today reported in 2007 that most adults in the USA get about an hour less than the average sleep time 40 years ago.

Other researchers have questioned these claims. A 2004 editorial in the journal Sleep stated that according to the available data, the average number of hours of sleep in a 24-hour period has not changed significantly in recent decades among adults. Furthermore, the editorial suggests that there is a range of normal sleep time required by healthy adults, and many indicators used to suggest chronic sleepiness among the population as a whole do not stand up to scientific scrutiny.

A comparison of data collected from the Bureau of Labor Statistics' American Time Use Survey from 1965 to 1985 and 1998–2001 has been used to show that the median amount of sleep, napping, and resting done by the average adult American has changed by less than 0.7%, from a median of 482 minutes per day from 1965 through 1985, to 479 minutes per day from 1998 through 2001.

Longest periods without sleep
Randy Gardner holds the scientifically documented record for the longest period of time a human being has intentionally gone without sleep not using stimulants of any kind. Gardner stayed awake for 264 hours (11 days), breaking the previous record of 260 hours held by Tom Rounds of Honolulu. Lieutenant Commander John J. Ross of the U.S. Navy Medical Neuropsychiatric Research Unit later published an account of this event, which became well known among sleep-deprivation researchers.

The Guinness World Record stands at 449 hours (18 days, 17 hours), held by Maureen Weston, of Peterborough, Cambridgeshire in April 1977, in a rocking-chair marathon.

Claims of total sleep deprivation lasting years have been made several times, but none are scientifically verified. Claims of partial sleep deprivation are better documented. For example, Rhett Lamb of St. Petersburg, Florida was initially reported to not sleep at all, but actually had a rare condition permitting him to sleep only one to two hours per day in the first three years of his life. He had a rare abnormality called an Arnold–Chiari malformation where brain tissue protrudes into the spinal canal and the skull puts pressure on the protruding part of the brain. The boy was operated on at All Children's Hospital in St. Petersburg in May 2008. Two days after surgery he slept through the night.

French sleep expert Michel Jouvet and his team reported the case of a patient who was quasi-sleep-deprived for four months, as confirmed by repeated polygraphic recordings showing less than 30 minutes (of stage-1 sleep) per night, a condition they named "agrypnia". The 27-year-old man had Morvan's fibrillary chorea, a rare disease that leads to involuntary movements, and in this particular case, extreme insomnia. The researchers found that treatment with 5-HTP restored almost normal sleep stages. However some months after this recovery the patient died during a relapse which was unresponsive to 5-HTP. The cause of death was pulmonary edema. Despite the extreme insomnia, psychological investigation showed no sign of cognitive deficits, except for some hallucinations.

Fatal insomnia is a neurodegenerative disease eventually resulting in a complete inability to go past stage 1 of NREM sleep. In addition to insomnia, patients may experience panic attacks, paranoia, phobias, hallucinations, rapid weight loss, and dementia. Death usually occurs between 7 and 36 months from onset.

See also

 Insomnia
 Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance
 Narcolepsy
 Polyphasic sleep
 Sleep medicine
 Sleep onset latency
 Wake therapy
 Tony Wright, who claims to hold the world record for sleep deprivation
 Foreign Correspondent, a 1940 film depicting interrogation by sleep deprivation

References

Sleep medicine

Nursing diagnoses
Psychological torture techniques
Physical torture techniques
Disorders causing seizures

Sleep deprivation


Francesco Scibec, called Scibec da Carpi, was a 16th-century Italian furniture maker from Carpi near Modena. He worked for the French royal court amongst a group of artists now called the first school of Fontainebleau.

Francesco arrived at the building of Fontainebleau for Francis I of France at the same time as his compatriot, Rosso Fiorentino in 1530. There he completed the panelling of the Gallerie François Ier. One of his contracts for the renewed furnishing in oak and walnut of the great gallery and pavilion near the lake at Fontainebleau was made according to the king's personal instructions in February 1541.   He also worked at the Château d'Anet for Diane de Poitiers. In 1549 he was contracted to decorate boats for a pageant on the Seine for the entry of Henry II of France to Paris. Francesco also made furniture and panelling for private and ecclesiastical clients.

In July 1552 he accepted as apprentice Bartholomew, the son of another Italian painter colleague at Fontainebleau, Francesco Pellegrini. In the two years from 1557 to 1559 he made furniture for the Louvre, for the Château and the Chapel in the woods of Vincennes, and for the Château of Saint Germain-en-Laye. For Fontainebleau, he made a special picture frame for a map of Italy and other carved frames for the portraits of two ladies.

In March 1537, he married Marguerite Samson, daughter of a French painter, Pierre Samson.

References
 Léon Laborde, ed., Les comptes des bâtiments du roi (1528-1571): suivis de documents inédits sur les châteaux royaux et les beaux-arts au XVIe siècle, vol. 1 (1877) Internet archive, for the 1530s Fontainebleau building records

Businesspeople from Modena
Italian woodworkers
16th-century Italian businesspeople
People from Carpi, Emilia-Romagna
French Renaissance
Renaissance architecture in France
Furniture makers

Francesco Scibec da Carpi


Fort Rock–Christmas Lake Valley  is a basin of a former inland sea that existed in that region from Pliocene through late Pleistocene time.

The Fort Rock basin maar field includes over 30 hydrovolcanic landforms spread over an area of . During the Pleistocene and early Holocene, Paleolake Fort Rock encompassed the entire basin.

Paleolake Fort Rock

The Fort Rock basin is an endorheic basin. Increased moisture in this semiarid environment during the Pleistocene through increased cloud cover and cooler temperatures resulted in higher lake levels. At its maximum, the lake filled the basin up to 75 m deep (245 ft), with a surface area of over 2,300 km2  (900 mi2). While this is larger than any modern lakes in Oregon, Paleolake Fort Rock was smaller than any of the other paleolakes to the south.

There are four major shorelines of Fort Rock basin from the paleolake. These shorelines are identified through recording wave-cut and depositional terraces, lagoons, and convex sedimentary deposits such as bars, spits, and beach ridges. The floor of the Fort Rock basin is relatively flat at around 1,315 m (4,315 ft) throughout much of the basin, so the depths of the lake at each level were fairly consistent.

The highest shoreline at 1,384 m (4,540 ft) is best seen at Fandango Canyon, but traces of beach sediments and wave-washed scarps have also been identified at Cougar Mountain and the southern end of the Connley Hills. The lake had an average depth of 70 meters (230 feet), with a maximum depth of 76 meters (250 feet) at the eastern edge of the basin. The Connley Hills and Buchgrass Butte formed two major islands.

The next shoreline at 1,364–67 m (4,475–85 ft) is seen at only a few places in the Fort Rock basin, such as Fandango Canyon and Cougar Mountain. This level formed the caves at the top of the southern toe of the Connley Hills. The lake was 52 meters (170 feet) deep at this level and covered an area of 1,945 km2 (1208 mi2). The only islands exposed were the Connely Hills, Buchgrass Butte, and the Fort Rock tuff ring.

The 1,353–1356 m (4,440–4450 ft) shoreline is the most strongly developed, as it carved the notches in Fort Rock and the caves in the Connley Hills and Cougar Mountain. The lake was, on average, 38 meters (125 feet) deep and covered 1736 km2 (1078 mi2).

The lowest shoreline at 1,332 m (4,370 ft) is seen as wave-washed cliffs at Flatiron Ridge and beach ridges and bars all over the basin. The lake was relatively shallow at about 17 meters (55 feet) deep and 1323 km2 (511 mi2). This level was almost 1000 km2 smaller than the lake at its high stand.

Archaeology

Fort Rock Cave

Prior to the excavation of the Paisley Caves, Fort Rock Cave was the earliest evidence of human occupation in the Oregon. The cave was initially excavated by Luther Cressman in 1938 and during this summer his team discovered numerous well preserved sagebrush-bark sandals. This collection has been named the oldest-dated footwear, as the oldest sandal dates to around 10,000 years old. The cave is located approximately 1.5 miles (2.4 km) west of Fort Rock near Fort Rock State Natural Area in Lake County. Fort Rock Cave was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.

Connley Caves

The Connley Caves are six wave-cut notches in the Connley Hills that have been intermittently occupied from at least 11,200 BP to 3,140 BP. Volcanic ash from the Mazama eruption created a notable layer dating to 6,850 BP that was found in all the caves. The pre-Mazama archaeological deposits were rich in the bones of marshland animals, including birds such as ducks, sage-grouse, and grebes, small mammals like rabbits, gophers, and ground squirrels, and large animals such as pronghorn antelope, elk, and bison. These animals provide evidence for the previous wetland environment at the Connley Caves. Pine charcoal below the Mazama layer is an additional environmental indicator, as the tree only grows at cooler, wetter elevations. Artifacts from 11,000 BP to 7,000 BP show that the site was a popular camping spot. The assemblage consists of obsidian and fine-grain-basalt projectile points, knives, scrapers, drills, milling stones, cordage, and a variety of other items. Research is ongoing at the Connley Caves with the University of Oregon Archaeological Field School.

Carlon and Boulder Village

Carlon and Boulder Village are two boulder house sites in the Fort Rock basin. Carlon Village consists of a number of stone house rings that are visible on the surface. Three test pits near the houses encountered three floors, which contained fish, rodent, rabbit, and large mammal bone were dated to 2040, 1890, and 1780 BP.

Boulder Village is the largest of the stone house sites, with 122 stone rings visible on the surface. Excavations in 17 of the houses recovered 14 radiocarbon dates, ranging from 1510 to 100 BP. The artifact assemblage included projectile points, bifaces, unifaces, obsidian flakes, and ground stone tools. Seeds were recovered from flotation and include specimens of salt sage, chenopods, and juniper.

Moffitt Butte

Moffitt Butte is a dissected basaltic tuff ring,  in diameter and  high. Moffitt Butte is not associated with a lake basin, as is the case for Fort Rock and Hole-in-the-Ground, but rising magma probably encountered permeable aquifers beneath the cone. A line of tuff rings between Moffitt Butte and the Fort Rock–Christmas Lake Valley basin are located roughly along what would have been an early drainage route between the Fort Rock basin and the La Pine basin. The crater floor of Moffitt Butte is about  above the surrounding plain. A smaller vent and small tuff ring,  in diameter, are located on Moffitt Butte's southwestern flank. The crater of the smaller vent is filled with lava that issued from a dike on its northwest edge.

Table Rock

Table Rock is an erosional remnant of a tuff cone, which at present is a symmetrical cone about  in diameter at the base, tapering to a diameter of about  at a height of  above the surrounding plain. The cone is capped with flat-lying basalt which once filled the crater, but erosion has modified the original cone, exposing the once ponded basalt lava lake. Dikes extend north and south of the crater's lava lake. On the lower flanks of the cone, the rocks are mostly palagonite lapilli-tuff. Near the summit, the uppermost palagonites are overlain by massive cinders and bombs from fire-fountaining that preceded the filling of the crater with lava.

Notable vents

See also
 Fort Rock
 Paisley Caves
 Rimrock Draw Rockshelter
 List of volcanoes in the United States of America

References

 Portions of this article include public domain text from the USFS Deschutes & Ochoco National Forests - Crooked River National Grassland.

Volcanic fields of the Great Basin section
Volcanoes of Oregon
Maars of Oregon
Landforms of Lake County, Oregon
Volcanoes of the United States

Fort Rock–Christmas Lake Valley basin


Rush James "R. J." Archer II (born August 5, 1987) is a former American football quarterback. He went undrafted in the 2010 NFL Draft, afterwards signing with the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League (NFL).

High school
Archer was a three-year starter at Albemarle High School. He holds the school's record for passing yards (4,568), touchdown passes (41), completions, and attempts.

College
Archer enrolled at The College of William & Mary and was redshirted his first year, during which time he ran the scout team. During the 2006 and 2007 seasons, he changed positions from quarterback to wide receiver, where he totaled 69 receptions.  In 2008, he moved back to quarterback, but was not the full-time starter until the 2009 season when he threw for 16 touchdowns and nine interceptions.

College career statistics

Professional career
Archer was rated the 17th best quarterback in the 2010 NFL Draft by NFLDraftScout.com.

Archer went undrafted in the 2010 NFL Draft, but was signed by the Vikings as an undrafted free agent.  He was released prior to training camp on June 29.  On November 10, 2010, Archer signed with the Spokane Shock of the Arena Football League.

With injuries to Vikings quarterbacks Brett Favre and Joe Webb, Minnesota re-signed him to the practice squad on December 7.  He was subsequently placed on the Other League Exempt list by the Spokane Shock.  He was elevated to the Vikings' 53-man roster on December 20 when quarterback Tarvaris Jackson was placed on injured reserve.  He took the roster spot of guard Steve Hutchinson.  The  next day, it was reported that Archer was waived by the Vikings in favor of quarterback Rhett Bomar, who was signed off the practice squad of the New York Giants.

Archer played for the Milwaukee Mustangs of the Arena Football League in 2011 and the Georgia Force of the AFL in 2012.

On June 22, 2012, Archer was signed by the Detroit Lions. He was waived on August 23.

On October 11, 2012, Archer was added to the practice roster of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the CFL. He was promoted to the active roster on November 1 and played in one game for the Blue Bombers during the 2012 season.

From 2013 to 2014, Archer played for the Jacksonville Sharks of the Arena Football League, recording 104 touchdowns on 5,381 passing yards.

On February 9, 2015, Archer was signed by Seattle Seahawks. He was released on September 5, 2015.

On September 22, 2015, Archer signed with the BC Lions. He was released following the season.

On December 3, 2015, the Sharks activated Archer from the other league exempt list.

AFL statistics

Stats from ArenaFan:

References

External links
Detroit Lions bio

1987 births
Living people
American football quarterbacks
American football wide receivers
Canadian football quarterbacks
American players of Canadian football
Georgia Force players
Milwaukee Mustangs (2009–2012) players
Minnesota Vikings players
Detroit Lions players
William & Mary Tribe football players
Players of American football from Charlottesville, Virginia
Jacksonville Sharks players
Seattle Seahawks players
Winnipeg Blue Bombers players
BC Lions players
Albemarle High School (Virginia) alumni
Players of Canadian football from Virginia

R. J. Archer


The South African Sendinggestig Museum (also known as the South African Slave Church Museum) was established in 1977 and is currently situated in the centre of Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa. It is a province-aided museum which receives support from the Government of the Western Cape Province.

History

The South African Sendinggestig Museum is housed in the oldest indigenous mission church in the country built by local Christians.

In 1801, the Board of Directors of the South African Society for the Advancement of Christ's Kingdom acquired a property in Long Street, Cape Town, for 50,000 guilders. The existing buildings were demolished and the Sendinggestig built. It was inaugurated on 15 March 1804 by Rev. J.P. Sеrumer of the Dutch Reformed Church's Groote Kerk, Cape Town congregation.

The Sendinggestig was not originally used for worship services. Instead people went there for prayer meetings, Bible studies or other religious and literacy classes. For this reason it was not called a church, but a "gestig" or "oefeninghuis" which is the Dutch equivalent of an American "meeting house".

Twenty years later it did become a fully-fledged church. This congregation included the poor, Khoekhoen or Khoikhoi and Slaves who converted to Christianity.

Building

The museum building is architecturally unique as it was South Africa's first building in the form of a basilica with an Apsis. All its windows are small scale replicas of this floor plan. It has the only surviving example of a steeply pitched lime-concrete roof - a form of construction developed at the Cape specifically for flat roofs. Its façade features Corinthian pilasters carrying a moulded Cornice and a Gable with a circular ventilator and four Urns.

By the 1970s the building was in a dilapidated state and required major restoration work to both its exterior and interior. During the winter of 1977 storms caused more damage and part of its northern wall collapsed. Restoration work began in 1978. The restoration team was able to reproduce the building's 1830s Facade according to a contemporary print by Frederick Willem de Wet.

The historical interior of the church was also faithfully reproduced, including replicas of the wall-paintings discovered during the restoration process.

Slaves and the Sendinggestig

Since its construction the South African Gestig was closely linked to slaves. Between 1801 and 1804 slaves and free-blacks demolished the existing house on the property and cleared the site. They built the walls with stones from the Vlaeberg quarry and bricks they made. Some assisted the carpenters working on the building while others painted its walls with lime wash made with slave-labour. The front steps and floor were made from Robben Island slate. The roof used to be water-proofed with Whale oil.

After the Sendinggestig opened its doors in March 1804 slaves were encouraged to attend prayer meetings there. However, these prayer meetings could not be held at the same time as church services or inconvenience slave-owners.

From early 1813 "heathen" children, including slave children, were taught to read and write there on Wednesdays and Fridays. From July 1813 adult slaves could come to an evening school at the Sendinggestig after finishing their day's work and if their owners allowed it.

In 1818 the South African Mission Society was granted some land in Somerset Road to use as burial ground for converted slaves. Slaves that were buried there received a funeral service and dignified burial. Before this most slaves were buried in unmarked graves in Cape Town's pauper burial sites.

The Emancipation of Slaves in the British Empire, which was implemented at the Cape in 1838, caused an influx of people to Cape Town in search of work, and this led to the growth of the Sendinggestig.

History of the SA Gestig Congregation

Slave-owners weren't keen to have their slaves baptised as Christian converts could not be sold. Mostly freed slaves were therefore baptised and could then become members of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (NGK). This led to the directors of SA Mission Society establishing their own congregation. It was called the SA Gesticht congregation of the SA Missionary Society. In 1820 Jacobus Henricus Beck became its first minister.

On 24 December 1820 the first baptism was held at the Sendinggestig. Domingo, slave of Mr Hammes, Job, slave of Mr Stronck, Arend, slave of the widow Pauelsen and Durenda, slave of the widow Stegman, became the first members of the congregation.

In 1831 the stable-building behind the church was converted into a small double-storeyed home for the church's caretaker.

The congregation began using the store next to the church as a school in 1839. This school would operate until 1917. The building was also used as a venue for the congregation's church bazaars. In 1895 the school was moved to the second storey and different businesses rented the ground floor as extra income for the congregation. During the 1930s it served as the office of the African People's Organisation.

By 1901 the SA Gestig congregation had 1 153 members. The congregation had a brass band and choir. Its members actively participated in a variety of associations including the Christian Sisters Association ("Christelijke Susterbond"), the Christian Young Daughters Association ("Christelijke Jongdogtersbond"), the Children's Association ("Kinderbond") and Youth Brigade ("Jeugbrigade").

From 1922 a well-known member of congregation, Anna Tempo (or Sister Nannie as she was commonly known), worked with women and girls living on Cape Town's streets. She established "Nannie Girls' Rescue Home" as a shelter for them.

During the 1930s the SA Gestig church became the spiritual home for domestic workers who came to Cape Town from different rural areas.

In 1937 the SA Gestig congregation became part of the Dutch Reformed Mission Church and was supported by the South African Missionary Society until its dissolution in 1983.

By 1954 only 520 members remained as people moved away to the suburbs to find work and due to urban racial segregation. Distance and economic circumstances made it difficult for members of the congregation to keep attending church in Cape Town.

By the end of the 1960s the buildings fell into disrepair, there were misunderstandings between the church council and directors of the SA Mission Society and uncertainty about the Group Areas Act. The church, old school and care-taker's home were all sold to the Metropolitan Hotel in 1971 with the provision that the congregation could use the church for another 5 years.

The SA Gestig congregation had to find a suitable piece of land for building a church in a "Coloured Group Area". Until their new church was completed in Belhar the congregation shared Cape Town's St Stephens Church from 1975-1978.

A special memorial service was held on 31 August 1975, during which the congregation bid farewell to their original church in Long Street.

The new church in Belhar was inaugurated in 1978. This would become the site where the Belhar Confession was produced.

The Museum
The South African Sendinggestig Museum (also known as the Slave Church), is a church museum located in Long Street, Cape Town, South Africa.

During the 1970s The S.A. Sendinggestig Museum was established as a result of an interest group advocating saving both the building and preserving the legacy of the Christian Missionaries in the then Cape Colony (Dutch).

The building was therefore bought for the purpose of establishing a museum, funded by the then Provincial Administration of the Cape of Good Hope. Additional funding for this project was raised by the Simon van der Stel Foundation, a local heritage conservation body, and members of the public.

The SA Sendinggestig Museum opened its doors in March 1979.

Function and Themes
The theme of the museum is Christian missionaries and the impact the missionaries had on slaves and the indigenous people of South Africa. Exhibitions at the museum also carry themes about the history of the South African Gestig Congregation, the history of the museum building and Christian mission work and mission stations.

Other Activities

The former South Africa Gestig churchgoers, their families and museum staff members work together to ensure that the museum's content becomes more representative.

In addition to this the museum hosts events aimed at the Youth and, via different communities promote social inclusion and cohesion. The museum also hosts activities linked to South Africa's national days.

References

External links

 Official Facebook page

1977 establishments in South Africa
Cape Town
Museums in Cape Town

South African Sendinggestig Museum


Jorida Tabaku (born in Tirana, on 1 July 1979) is an Albanian liberal politician with the Democratic Party of Albania. During the Tirana mayoral leadership of former DP leader Lulzim Basha, she served as deputy-mayor in the years 2011–2015.

Education
Jorida graduated with distinction in Business Administration from the Faculty of Economy of University of Tirana. She completed her post graduate studies in UK and USA. Jorida received a MA in management with Distinction from Durham University and holds a doctorate in Management on Promotion of Entrepreneurship and Corporate Governance.

Career
Starting from 2002, Jorida has been a lecturer at the Faculty of Economy and co-author of the university textbook on Corporate Governance.  Jorida has been the executive director of SIFE Albania (Students in Free Enterprise) and was actively engaged in the civil society activities.

In 2005, immediately after finishing her graduate studies in UK, Jorida was hired as a local consultant in the DFID project on Strengthening Public Expenditure Management in Albania, implemented by REPIM, working closely with the Parliament on the budget analysis, and with Ministry of Finance and line ministries on the budget preparation and implementation process. During this period she participated in various research studies and published articles in national and international academic journals in the areas of entrepreneurship, corporate governance, financing of higher education institutions, privatisation process, public financial management, etc.

Political career
In 2009, Jorida was appointed Deputy Minister of European Integration, a position she held until mid-2011. In the Ministry of European Integration Jorida was responsible for the coordination of the EU financial support and following with priority the European integration political agenda. Under her leadership, the Ministry established the necessary structures responsible for the decentralization of the EU funds. She was particularly engaged on the EU Questionnaire and preparation of the action plan on the 12 priorities.

In 2011, Jorida chaired the list of the Municipal Advisors of Tirana for the Democratic Party of Albania, and in July 2011 she was appointed Deputy Mayor of Tirana. During the two years she worked for the Municipality of Tirana she was actively involved in drafting the Tirana Urban Plan, with particular regard on development of Tirana's old neighbourhood still inhabited by Tirana autochthon families. As a Deputy Major, Jorida led the process of investment planning in the capital city, the Local Economic Development and Financial Management. She has intensively worked on the new fiscal package and policies promoting entrepreneurship and fostering employment, especially for the youth.

In the 2013 Albanian parliamentary election Jorida was elected Member of the Parliament of Albania in the Capital City of Tirana, representing the Democratic Party of Albania. She is a member of the Parliamentary Committees of Economy & Finance and European Integration.

During the 2017 Parliamentary election she was elected for a second mandate as MP and retained her position at the Parliamentary Committee for Economy and Finance.

Political views

Economy
Tabaku has been a vocal supporter of the flat tax. In 2018 she proposed that the flat tax is the only way to bring back the economy on the right track.
This suggestion made by Democrats comes after Socialists in power replaced the flat tax with a progressive tax. The flat tax was a form of taxation which had been applied by Berisha's government during the time that the right wing was in power.

EU integration
Tabaku is a strong supporter of Albania joining the EU.

Personal life
Jorida was born in Tirana, In 2007 she married Saimir Sallaku, with whom she has twin daughters and a son.

References

1979 births
Politicians from Tirana
Alumni of Durham University
University of Tirana alumni
Democratic Party of Albania politicians
Members of the Parliament of Albania
Women members of the Parliament of Albania
Living people
21st-century Albanian women politicians
21st-century Albanian politicians

Jorida Tabaku


Sheffield Victoria was the main railway station in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England, on the Great Central Railway,

History

Early history
Engineered by Joseph Locke, the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway linking Manchester and Sheffield opened in 1845. Originally, this line terminated at the Bridgehouses station, which was about  to the west of the future Victoria station. In 1847, the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne and Manchester Railway merged with two other railway companies to form the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway. The station at Bridgehouses had been outgrown, so an extension and new station were planned. John Fowler, who later gained fame for co-designing the Forth Railway Bridge in Scotland, was employed to engineer the extension and station. Fowler's design included a viaduct over the Wicker that was  high,  long and two island platforms  long. The extension was completed in 1847–1848 and the new Victoria station opened on 15 September 1851.

A description of the station just before it opened appeared in the Sheffield Independent on 13 September 1851:
The station is approached from Blonk street by a straight incline, built upon arches, which is  wide,  long and rises at the rate of 1 in 30…the station consists of a centre and wings, the latter being extended by a high fence wall, with gateways for the exit of arrived passengers and, beyond these, on each side, is covered stands for cabs. The length of the frontage of masonry is . The station is built of rock-faced Greenmoor stone, with chiseled beds and joints, and facings of ashlar stone from Wadsley; and distinguished as this line is for the excellence of its masonry, the front of this station is admired by those who are judges of such work, as surpassing in excellence any previous specimen. A covered verandah, with glazed roof supported by iron brackets, extends the whole length of the centre building, in order that carriages may set down passengers under cover. The entrance or waiting hall is  by , and  high, having an enclosed office for the booking clerks. The entrances are very spacious and convenient, and good arrangements are made to prevent undue pressure. Tickets will be issued at three windows. At the centre, first class passengers of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire will get their tickets. On the right hand, the second and third class passengers of the same line will receive tickets. And at the left hand window the Great Northern passengers will take their tickets. The two wings of the building are thus occupied – Eastern wing, refreshment and waiting rooms, conveniences, parcels office, and on the chamber floor the station master's house. Western wing – telegraph office and station master's office, rooms for lamps and ports, guards and the engineer's office. The upper floor will contain board room and other convenient offices.

Having passed through the booking offie and reached the platform, the passenger will see before him a most ample, light and conveniently arranged station. It is covered by a light roof of iron and glass of the width of  and of the length of . Here is recognised at a glance one of the first fruits of The Crystal Palace. This roof is the work of Messrs. Fox, Henderson and Co. It is the ridge and furrow roof, with Paxton gutters, which is so constructed as to receive and carry away not only the wet which may fall upon the roof, but the vapour condensed to water, which may at any time be found underneath. The centre of the roof throughout its length is raised so as to permit a line of ventilation. The roof is not sustained by any pillars, but its principals  apart, rest on the inner wall of the station buildings on one side, and an equally lofty wall on the other side. The glass of the roof is strong crown glass about the thickness of ordinary pottery. Its area is of the measurement of 34,600 superficial square feet…The platform is of the breadth of  and is about  in length. Through the covered station run four lines of rails, while from the end of the station another line runs into a dock in the platform for the stopping and starting of the short east and west trains….The goods trains will not pass through the station at all. Two lines of rails are provided for them outside the north-eastern wall of the station and they will run past without coming at all in the way of the passenger traffic…The immense quantity of water that will be collected by the large roof will be made available for the water closets and urinals. The latter will be constructed of Minton's white encaustic tiles, and will be open to the roof…The refreshment rooms have been taken at a handsome rent by Mr. Moyes, the spirited landlord of the Great Northern Hotel, at Lincoln…It has been constructed under the direction of John Fowler, Esq., engineer-in-chief of the company, who has been ably represented by Mr. King, the resident engineer; Messrs. Weightman, Hadfield and Goldie…being the architects. The arches upon which the station rests were built by Messrs. Miller, Blackie, and Shortridge.  The approaches to the station, the platform, and the completion of the viaduct are the work of Messrs. J. and A. Ridal; and the station has been erected by Mr. Carlisle, the builder of the Beighton viaduct and the new Market Hall.

The station roof likened at the time to The Crystal Palace (in London) which spanned the main line platforms in 1867 and was further enlarged in 1874; the well-known railway contractors Logan and Hemingway were awarded the contract.

With the opening of the London Extension in 1899, Sheffield gained a new direct service to London. To attract the lucrative trade between the cities, the Great Central Railway launched Sheffield Without A Stop on 1 July 1903 and became something of a trademark for the company, with  being run in exactly 3 hours, an average of nearly . Slip coaches were provided for passengers for Leicester and Nottingham.

The station received a new frontage in 1908 and was further improved between 1939 and 1940. The station took on great importance when the line through the Pennines, known as the Woodhead Route after the long Woodhead Tunnel on it, was electrified for freight purposes after World War II.

Electrification

The 1950s saw the station at its zenith. Regular Manchester London Road – Sheffield Victoria – London Marylebone express services traversed the Great Central line; other expresses ran to London King's Cross over the East Coast Main Line and the named expresses the Master Cutler, the Sheffield Pullman and the South Yorkshireman served the station.  There were also many semi-fast trains running trans-Pennine from Manchester to destinations on the East Coast, with local trains to Chesterfield, Barnsley, Nottingham, Doncaster, Retford, Penistone and Lincoln.

The electrification of the line reached Sheffield Victoria by 1954, reducing the journey time to Manchester to 56 minutes. This was the only UK main line to be electrified at 1,500 V DC. From this point onwards, all passenger trains heading to Manchester required a change of locomotive at Victoria to a Class 76 or Class 77.

Closure

Although the 1950s saw services at the station reach their peak, this period also marked the beginning of its decline. In 1953, Barnsley was an early casualty as the line ran almost parallel to the former Midland Railway's Sheffield Midland – Barnsley line, serving mostly the same communities. By the end of the decade, the expresses to Marylebone were either cut or re-routed to King's Cross (in the case of the Master Cutler). In the mid-1960s, there was a concerted effort to concentrate Victoria's remaining local and express train services at Sheffield (Midland) station. From 4 October 1965, most services were diverted to Sheffield Midland, adding 2 to 4 minutes to their schedules. The only trains remaining were to Manchester, via Woodhead, the Harwich boat train and trains to Bournemouth, York and Swindon. After September 1966, Victoria was left with just an hourly Manchester service and the daily Liverpool-Harwich "Continental" boat train service.

In 1965, the second Beeching Report recommended that the Sheffield to Manchester service be consolidated; after much local wrangling, British Railways favoured the Hope Valley Line which was slower and not electrified, but served more local communities. In 1967, plans were announced to withdraw passenger services along the Woodhead route. Following public outcry, an inquiry was launched that took two years to be completed. Eventually, the inquiry backed British Rail's plans and passenger services were withdrawn from the line on 5 January 1970. The last train to Victoria station, an enthusiasts' special, arrived at 00:44 on 5 January and, from that point, the station was closed.

Between 20 and 22 January 1973, the station was briefly reopened whilst Sheffield (Midland) station was completely closed for commissioning of the new power signalling box.

The Manchester-Sheffield-Wath electric railway was entirely closed east of Hadfield in July 1981; the tracks through the Woodhead Tunnel were lifted in 1986. Passenger trains to and from , via , continued to pass through the station without stopping until May 1983, when they were diverted via Barnsley (the Penistone via Wadsley Bridge section then being closed to passenger traffic). All of the track through the station was lifted by 1985, except for the now single track goods avoiding line which still exists to serve the steelworks at Stocksbridge, and the station buildings were demolished in 1989 to make way for an extension to the adjacent Victoria Hotel complex. The slope that once led up to platform 1 survives as part of a pedestrian path to the car park.

Preservation

Outlines of the platforms still remain and the trackbed has been protected for a possible future extension of the Sheffield Supertram The trackbed may also be used for the proposed Don Valley Railway, which will terminate at Nunnery, linking into the Supertram approximately   to the east where the proposed DVR will also interchange with train services on the Sheffield to Lincoln Line.

Future and potential reopening
It was suggested by Sheffield City Council that the site could be used for Sheffield's HS2 station, instead of the then planned station at Meadowhall, although an alternative route announced in 2016 would see HS2 using the existing Sheffield station, formerly known as Sheffield Midland station.

In May 2020, as part of the Restoring Your Railway fund by the Department for Transport, it was announced that the Barrow Hill Line had been awarded funding for a feasibility study. If proven to be feasible, the line would initially run to Sheffield Midland but later phases could see services diverted to a reopened Sheffield Victoria – services would run to Chesterfield (via the Barrow Hill Line) and services to Huddersfield (via a reopened Don Valley Line between  and Sheffield) which would help free up capacity at  for the additional services planned under HS2 and Northern Powerhouse Rail. Later pathing extensions could see a restored Sheffield Victoria see services running to  (via ),  (via Chesterfield),  (via Attercliffe),  (via Penistone). In October 2021, further funding was given to the reopening of the line to Stocksbridge which would involve the reopening of Sheffield Victoria.  If reopened, the line would have at least two trains per hour with potential services extending to Chesterfield, Worksop and Rotherham.

In popular culture
Sheffield-based industrial music pioneers Cabaret Voltaire filmed the video to their track "Yashar" in the remains of the station in the early-1980s; at one point a Class 20 hauled freight train is seen passing through.  The band was noted for the use of decaying urban scenery in its videos.

See also
Sheffield railway station (formerly Midland Station)
Sheffield Wicker railway station

References

Notes

Sources

External links

Sheffield Victoria Station group at Flickr
Photos of Sheffield Victoria station in the 1980s
Train services from Sheffield Victoria 1942–1969
History and photos of the Woodhead route
 Station on 1947 OS Map

Victoria railway station
Former Great Central Railway stations
Woodhead Line
Transport infrastructure completed in 1848
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1851
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1970
1851 establishments in England

Sheffield Victoria railway station


The Kialegee Tribal Town is a federally recognized Native American tribe in Oklahoma, as well as a traditional township within the former Muscogee Creek Confederacy in the American Southeast. Tribal members pride themselves on retaining their traditions and many still speak the Muscogee language. The name "Kialegee" comes from the Muscogee word, eka-lache, meaning "head left."

Government
The Kialegee Tribal Town is headquartered in Wetumka, Oklahoma. Of the 700 enrolled tribal members, 629 live within the state of Oklahoma. Its tribal jurisdictional area falls in Creek County, Muskogee County,  Tulsa County, County, Okmulgee County,  Hughes, McIntosh, Okfuskee counties.

The tribe's elected Mekko or Chief is Brian Givens. He succeeded Jeremiah Hobia, who succeeded Tiger Hobia. The mekko's term is for two years. Tiger Hobia succeeded Jennie Lillard.

The tribe's citizenship or membership rules requires individuals to be a full-blood Native American: half to full-blood Muscogee Creek and up to one-half Indian of any other tribe. Documentation for enrollment follows matrilineal descent, as this was their traditional kinship system. Children were considered born to the mother's family and clan, and property or hereditary roles passed through her people. Today, any descendant of a female Kialegee tribal member is automatically eligible for tribal membership. Spouses of Kialegee tribal members may petition for membership. In special circumstances, any full-blood Indian may petition the tribe for enrollment as an "Adopted Member."

The Kialegee Tribal Town operates its own tribal courts. It has an environmental educational program for youth, the Kialegee Tribal Town's Environmental "Kub" Program.

Culture
Town members and visitors celebrate the annual Kialegee Nettv (Day), a gathering that celebrates the town's history and culture.

History
Kialegee emerged as an independent town from a larger Creek town, Tuckabatche, located along rivers in what is now Alabama. Kialegee in return produced two daughter towns, Hutchechuppa and Achinahutchee. Before removal, the Muscogee Confederacy included about 50 towns. As with the remainder of the Creek people, the Kialegee had a matrilineal kinship system, with descent figured through the mother's line. Children are considered to be born into the mother's clan and receive their status from her and her people. It was an agrarian community. Women and children grew and processed a variety of crops, in addition to gathering roots, berries and nuts, while men hunted for game or harvested fish.

On June 29, 1796 leaders from Kialegee signed a peace treaty with the new United States. But, within a decade the townspeople joined the Red Stick Upper Creeks in the Creek Civil War, in which traditionalists (Red Sticks) fought against the Lower Towns, which tended to have members who were more assimilated to European-American culture, as they had far more interaction with them. In 1813, US troops burned Kialegee. In 1814, 1818, 1825, and 1826, Kialegee representatives signed treaties with the United States ceding some of their lands. Finally, 166 families of Kialegee were forced to relocate to Indian Territory in 1835 after Congress passed the Indian Removal Act.

The tribe settled south of what would become Henryetta, Oklahoma. They maintained a ceremonial ground and played stick ball against Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town. By 1912, their ground had been put to sleep, as ethnologist John R. Swanton noted when he visited the town. He recorded that Kialegee was a Red Town, or community of warriors.

After the passage of the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act in 1936, which provided for revival of self-government among the Native American tribes, the US federal government offered each of the Muscogee Creek tribal towns the opportunity to enroll as an individual tribe and establish their own government. Of more than 40 towns, only three accepted: Kialegee, Thlopthlocco, and the Alabama-Quassarte.

The tribe ratified its constitution and by-laws on June 12, 1941. The tribe is governed by a mekko or town king. Additional officers are the First Warrior, Second Warrior, Secretary, and Treasurer. The first tribal headquarters was the home of Martin Givens.

Tribal flag
The flag of the tribe contains a sky blue circle, featuring a pair of stickball sticks, used in the traditional game still played at ceremonial grounds today. The black cross at the top represents the Christian religion. To the left is a hollowed log and beater, which women used to grind corn meal, central to Muscogee diets.  At the bottom is a ceremonial lodge with a rounded bark roof, built on an earthwork mound. This lodge was the center of the tribal town for religious and civic gatherings and also a shelter for the needy. The earthwork mound refers to the Mississippian culture heritage of modern Muscogee people and the complex mounds that still exist of that culture. The bald eagle at the right is a sacred animal, featured in many tribal stories.

Economic development
The Kialegee Etvlwv Business Committee operates a daycare, gas station, and smoke shop. Kialegee Tribal Town also operates its own housing division. In 2008, its annual tribal economic impact was $1,017,684.

In 2011 Kialegee Tribal Town was preparing land for development of a Red Clay Casino in Broken Arrow, Oklahoma. The National Indian Gaming Commission was reviewing the project closely, as local residents and businesses strongly opposed it.  The Red Clay Casino plan was halted by a legal injunction in 2012, and despite subsequent progress by the Kialegee in court, was not continued.

In 2017 controversy arose regarding proposed Kialegee development of a different tract of land in Broken Arrow, owned by Steve Bruner (Creek), for an Embers Grille restaurant and possible Red Creek Casino. The Muscogee (Creek) Nation Attorney General warned Bruner about legal consequences for illegal gaming at the site, saying the tribe did not control that land and so lacked authority for gaming there. An attorney for the Kialegee said Muscogee Nation interference with the project would be resisted.  On August 16, 2017, the site was raided by Muscogee Lighthorse police prior to the facility's opening, and they seized gambling equipment, which they alleged was illegal.

Notes

References
Clark, C. Blue. Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009. .

External links
 Kialegee Tribal Town, Oklahoma Historical Society
 Constitution and By-Laws of the Kialegee Tribal Town, Oklahoma

Native American tribes in Oklahoma
Muscogee tribal towns
Federally recognized tribes in the United States
Native American history of Alabama

Kialegee Tribal Town