The Enterprise Mill is a historical residential and office complex along the Augusta Canal in Augusta, Georgia. Enterprise is located at the corner of Greene Street and 15th Street.

Revitalization
Enterprise Mill is one of the city's prime historic landmarks. In 1983, Graniteville Company shut down the facility and closed. During the mid and late 1980s, the city originally planned to demolish the aging building at the time, which lasted for 10 years,  but city officials later wanted to redevelop the building. A major renovation took place in 1995 as part of the downtown redevelopment. The building remained vacant for another 3 years until in 1998, when developers re-purposed the building into offices and lofts. It is one of the perfect examples of redevelopment in a decaying urban area.

History
Enterprise Mill was developed by James L. Coleman in 1845 and the building opened in 1848 as a flour mill.  Originally, Coleman wanted to build it on his plantation, but the city council of Augusta granted a fund to build a canal to supply power, which would ultimately be the creation of the Augusta Canal. Between 1872 and 1875, the Augusta Canal was enlarged and several industrialists came to the area to build facilities around the canal. Much of the original mill, built in grey granite brick, is still standing today, though the bulk of what is recognizable today as the Enterprise Mill was built in red brick in 1877. Like all the great mills of Augusta, it is built on the Augusta Canal. In 1923 the Graniteville Company acquired the mill and eventually added the large red sign bearing the company name atop the structure. The sign still stands today and is most noticeable at night when it glows bright red.

Though for most of its existence the mill was used for various manufacturing ventures, in 1983 the mill ceased operations and closed its doors. For many years it was assumed that the structure would be demolished, but in the mid-1990s the Mill underwent a massive overhaul and was converted into apartments and retail and office spaces. The Enterprise Mill stands as today as an example of the revitalization of downtown Augusta that began in the 1990s.

See also

Augusta Canal

References

External links

Augusta, Georgia, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary

Augusta Canal National Heritage Area
Buildings and structures in Augusta, Georgia
Flour mills in the United States
Grinding mills in Georgia (U.S. state)
Historic American Engineering Record in Georgia (U.S. state)
History of Augusta, Georgia
Landmarks in Georgia (U.S. state)

Enterprise Mill


Washington Atlee Burpee (April 5, 1858 – November 26, 1915) was the founder of the W. Atlee Burpee & Company, now more commonly known as Burpee Seeds.

Biography
Atlee was born in 1858 in Sheffield, New Brunswick, British North America. He moved to Philadelphia in 1861, where his father practiced medicine. His parents were David III Burpee (born 1827) and Anne Catherine Atlee (born 1834).  She was the great-granddaughter of William Augustus Atlee. Both his father and grandfather were prominent in medicine and he was expected to become a doctor.

At fourteen, Atlee was already actively breeding chickens, geese and turkeys. As a skilled breeder, he corresponded with poultry experts worldwide and wrote scholarly articles in poultry journals. He enrolled in the University of Pennsylvania Medical School, dropping out after two years. In 1876, an 18-year-old Atlee started a mail-order chicken business out of the family home with $1,000 (equal to $ today) loaned to him by his mother and a partner. Poultry farmers from the Northeast already knew of his talents, and he soon opened a store in Philadelphia, selling poultry and also corn seed for poultry feed. It wasn't long before his customers started requesting cabbage, carrot, cauliflower and cucumber seeds. In 1878, Burpee dropped his partner and founded W. Atlee Burpee & Company. The company soon switched to primarily garden seed, but live poultry wasn't dropped from the Burpee catalog until the 1940s.

By 1888, the family home, Fordhook Farm in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, was established as an experimental farm to test and evaluate new varieties of vegetables and flowers, and to produce seeds. Before World War I, Atlee spent many summers traveling through Europe and the United States, visiting farms and searching for the best flowers and vegetables.

Atlee shipped many of the vegetables and flowers he found to Fordhook Farms for testing. Those plants that survived were bred with healthier types to produce hybrids better suited to the United States. Fordhook Farms was the first laboratory to research and test seeds in this way. Fordhook Farms specialized in testing onions, beets, carrots, peas and cabbage.

Burpee was known for his philanthropy in regards to the poor in Philadelphia.  He generously supported and sat on the board of Sunday Breakfast Rescue Mission which was one of the first homeless shelter and soup kitchens in America.

Famous cultivars
In 1909, Burpee established Floradale Farms in Lompoc, California, to test sweet peas, and Sunnybrook Farms near Swedesboro, New Jersey, to test tomatoes, eggplants, peppers and squashes.  In his travels, Atlee met Asa Palmer, a Pennsylvania farmer who raised beans, and who thought he had one plant that was resistant to cutworms. Burpee turned this bean plant into what is now known as the Fordhook lima bean, one of the company's most famous items.

Another successful plant was the Golden Bantam sweet corn that the farmer William Chambers of Greenfield, Massachusetts, had grown before his death. A friend of Chambers found some of the sweet corn seeds and sold Burpee seeds of the corn, and in 1902, Golden Bantam was featured in a Burpee catalog. Before 1900 most people thought that yellow corn was fit only for animals, so in order to change their customers' minds, many farmers slipped Golden Bantam corn in with the white corn they were selling. Within a few years, people in the United States were converted to yellow corn.

Iceberg lettuce was introduced by Burpee in 1894. It was named for its crispness.

Business

A key in Burpee's business was the 1863 free delivery system that required post offices to deliver mail to residents' homes and in 1896, free delivery was extended to rural areas. This allowed his catalogs to be delivered directly to people's homes. Thousands of letters were received annually from Burpee's customers thanking him for his seeds. Burpee knew that the key to his business was advertising and the catalog was his advertising medium.

In his first year of business, his catalog was 48 pages, but by 1915 his catalogs were 200 pages and he distributed a million catalogs. Burpee personally wrote most of the copy of his catalogs.  Burpee set up an advertising department and offered cash prizes for the best advertisements.  This competition is what originated the slogan "Burpee Seeds Grow" in 1890. The 1891 catalog was the first to feature engravings made from photographs, and by 1901 this process was done by machines.  Burpee's move to photography changed the whole industry and the hand-drawn illustration in catalogs disappeared. In another break with tradition, Burpee eliminated cultural information and put in testimonial letters and plant descriptions.

At Burpee's death in 1915, the company had 300 employees, and it was the largest seed company in the world.  At that time the Burpee company distributed over 1 million catalogs a year and received 10,000 orders a day.

Books
 The Poultry Yard: How to Furnish and Manage It. A Treatise for the Amateur Poultry Breeder and Farmer on the Management of Poultry and the Merits of the Different Breeds (1895)

References

External links
Burpee Seed
Washington Atlee Burpee at Seedsmen Hall of Fame

American horticulture businesspeople
American horticulturists
People from Sunbury County, New Brunswick
1858 births
1915 deaths
Emigrants from the British Empire to the United States
Businesspeople from Philadelphia
People from Doylestown, Pennsylvania
19th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American businesspeople

Washington Atlee Burpee


Gregory F. Comella (born July 29, 1975 in Wellesley, Massachusetts) is a former professional American football fullback in the National Football League.

Football career

Comella played 7 seasons in the NFL between 1998 and 2005 for the New York Giants, the Tennessee Titans, the Houston Texans and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.  He was the starting fullback for the New York Giants in Super Bowl XXXV against the Baltimore Ravens.

Comella played for the Stanford Cardinal football team between 1993 and 1996. He rushed for 498 yards and caught 48 passes in his college career.  Further, he had 19 career touchdowns and 12 rushing touchdowns, both among Stanford's all-time best.

Comella played for the Xaverian Hawks football team between 1989 and 1992.  He was named the 1992 Massachusetts Player of the Year by numerous publications and named to Super Prep's All-America team.  In his career, he had over 3,800 all-purpose yards and 40 touchdowns. Comella currently holds the Massachusetts state record for longest touchdown run, which was 94 yards set in 1992. Xaverian inducted Comella into the school's Athletic Hall of Fame in 2014.

Business career

Comella is now a business manager of his family-owned Comella's Restaurants with 12 locations throughout the Greater Boston area.

Education

Comella graduated from the Xaverian Brothers High School in Westwood, Massachusetts and was a National Football Foundation Scholar-Athlete Award winner in 1993.  Comella received his bachelor's degree in psychology from Stanford University in 1998 and his MBA from the Harvard Business School in 2009.

Personal life

References

External links
Comella's Restaurants

1975 births
Living people
People from Wellesley, Massachusetts
American football fullbacks
New York Giants players
Tennessee Titans players
Houston Texans players
Harvard Business School alumni
Tampa Bay Buccaneers players
Stanford Cardinal football players
Xaverian Brothers High School alumni

Greg Comella


The Passion of the Christ is the title of a movie that was produced and directed by Mel Gibson based on sister Catherine Emmerich's visions. It was released in 2004. The movie shows the last 24 hours in the life of Jesus of Nazareth (called by his followers Jesus Christ) as told in the Gospel accounts contained in the New Testament that Christians regard as a part of the Holy Bible.

The Passion of the Christ was unusual and controversial for many reasons. All of the speech was in three languages that were spoken at the time of Jesus: Latin, Greek and Hebrew. The movie spent a lot of time showing details of the suffering and death of Jesus, with lots of violent scenes. Mel Gibson said that this was a realistic showing of what happened, though others thought it showed too much violence.

Jewish groups and Christians objected to the movie because it showed the Jewish leaders arranging to have Jesus killed. There were also other depictions in the film of Jews that many Jews and Christians felt was controversial. They said that this would cause people to think that modern-day Jews were guilty because of this and increase antisemitism and inaccurate beliefs of Jews. The movie makers said that this was not their intention, however criticism from both sides continued and still persists to this day.

Mel Gibson was unable to get support from movie studios for this movie, and so supplied the money for it (around $25 million) mostly himself. The movie made much more money than expected -around $370 million.

References

Other websites

2004 drama movies
2000s epic movies
2000s historical movies
American drama movies
American epic movies
Fiction set in the past
Movies set in Ancient Rome
Movies set in Asia
Movies based on the Bible
Movies about capital punishment
Multilingual movies
Movies directed by Mel Gibson
Movies set in the 1st century
Controversies

The Passion of the Christ


Enrico Mizzi (20 September 1885 – 20 December 1950) was a Maltese politician, leader of the Maltese Nationalist Party from 1926 and briefly Prime Minister of Malta in 1950.

Life
Born on 20 September 1885 in Valletta, Enrico Mizzi was the son of Maria Sofia (Marie Sophie) Folliero de Luna, daughter of the vice-consul of Naples, and of Fortunato Mizzi, a pro-Italian Maltese politician, founder of the Partit Anti-Riformista. His mother died in 1903 and his father in 1905, when Enrico was only 17 and 19 respectively.

Enrico studied in the Gozo seminary, and read law at the University of Rome La Sapienza and at the University of Urbino. He graduated in literature and science at the Royal University of Malta in 1906, and in Law at Urbino in 1911.

In 1926 Enrico Mizzi married Bice Vassallo; they had one son, Fortunat Mizzi (1927–2017), who became a priest in 1952 and founded the Moviment Azzjoni Socjali (MAS) in 1955.

Politics
Despite completing his legal studies in Rome, Mizzi had little chance to practice law. He was drawn instead to politics and journalism.
In 1915 Enrico Mizzi was elected member of the Comitato Patriottico Maltese and founded the newspaper L'Eco di Malta, organ of the Committee itself.

He stood as a parliamentary candidate for Gozo in 1915, and was elected. He worked tirelessly to develop a Constitution that was independent of English rule at the time.

In 1916 he was arrested and sentenced to a year in prison for proclaiming himself a representative of the Italian nationality of Malta – his sentence was reduced to a reprimand by the Governor of the time due to suspected interference. In May 1917 he was arrested and court-martialled for sedition during wartime, found guilty of all charges and imprisoned for a year. Although this sentence was again reduced, he lost his right to practice law in the country.

Leader of the Partit Nazzjonalista

In his youth, Enrico Mizzi decided to follow in the footsteps of his father Fortunato Mizzi, who was a member of the Pro-Italian Maltese community, whose political activity showed strong support towards Italy's Risorgimento and the official use of the Italian language in Malta.

After the end of the First World War, Mizzi was part of the large and moderate coalition called the Maltese Political Union (Unjoni Politika Maltija, UPM), led by Ugo Pasquale Mifsud. It splintered from it, together with the more extremist and pro-Italian current, to form the Democratic Nationalist Party (Partit Demokratiku Nazzjonalista, PDN), led by Mizzi.

The two movements participated separately in the 1921 Maltese general election, but adopted a form of desistance so as not to damage each other; the PDN elected 4 MPs from Gozo.

UPM and PDN run once again separately, albeit in coalition, in the 1924 elections.
After the elections of 1924, Mizzi's party formed a government in coalition with the Unione Politica Maltese and they elected 15 parliamentary seats. During this legislature, Mizzi was the Minister for Postal Services, Agriculture and Fisheries together with Industry and Commerce.

On 23 January 1926 the two parties joined together to form the Partit Nazzjonalista, with Mizzi acting as a co-leader together with Sir Ugo Mifsud till the death of the latter in 1942.

However, the new unitary party was defeated by the elections of 1927, in favor of the Compact, the electoral alliance between the Maltese Constitutional Party and Labour.

In the years from 1924 to 1933 Mizzi held numerous ministerial positions and was president of the Dante Alighieri Society and director of the Gazzetta maltese in his capacity as a promoter of the Italian character of Malta.

Mizzi the "knight without stain or fear". remained well known for promoting Maltese patriotism and nationalism at a time when Malta was a colony. He was also associated with the Italianate identity of the Maltese people, the cause for selecting Italian as an official language of the country, and a strong proponent of the Roman Catholic faith in opposition to the Protestant faith of the colonial authorities.

Deportation to Uganda
On 30 May 1940, while Mizzi was at the Malta Printing Press, he was arrested and together with 47 other Maltese was interned for having Italian sympathies. In February 1942, Governor Dobbie took out a warrant to illegally deport 47 Maltese to Uganda, Mizzi amongst them. During his exile, Mizzi did all he could to remain up to date on events in Malta. He remained in close contact with other members of the Partit Nazzjonalista, such as Gorg Borg Olivier and Giuseppe Schembri.

Reform of the Partit Nazzjonalista
The group of exiles were allowed back into the country on 8 March 1945. Mizzi quickly re-entered politics, and attended the Council Sitting on 15 March. Mizzi planned to reorganise the PN from the ground up. The ideology of the Party, and its support of Italian culture and language formed the basalt of this, and was frequently used against him by his political enemies. Between 1939 and 1942, the Times of Malta and Il-Berqa, two newspapers owned by Gerald Strickland, called him a quisling and a sympathiser of Italian Fascism.

Prime Minister of Malta
At the 1950 elections the Partit Nazzjonalista reported a great success and Mizzi was appointed Prime Minister in a hung parliament. He died in Valletta just three months later, on 20 December 1950, and had a state funeral. To date, he is the only Maltese prime minister to have died in office.

Legacy
Mizzi is remembered by the Maltese as a contributing force in the Maltese national and European identity.

The Central Bank of Malta issued a silver proof coin with Enrico Mizzi's head on it as part of its Distinguished Maltese Personalities Series in 2001.

A foundation, to promote and better appreciate his life and works and that of his father, Fortunato, was established in 2010.

See also
List of prime ministers of Malta
Italia irredenta
Italian irredentism in Malta

References

Prime Ministers of Malta
1885 births
1950 deaths
Nationalist Party (Malta) politicians
People from Valletta
20th-century Maltese politicians
Leaders of the Opposition (Malta)

Enrico Mizzi


Mikhail Konstantinovich Clodt, Freiherr (Baron) von Jürgensburg (; 1832–1902; both Saint Petersburg) was a Russian Imperial realistic painter.

Biography
Mikhail Clodt was born to the artistic family of barons Clodt von Jürgensburg, his father  was the first Russian wood engraver, his uncle Peter Clodt von Jürgensburg was a famous Russian sculptor.

He learnt drawing at the Saint Petersburg Mining Cadet Corps, then at the Imperial Academy of Arts (1851–1858). After receiving a Large Gold Medal he received a scholarship for three years to study painting in France, Switzerland and Italy but abandoned his foreign trip in a year. He complained that the foreign landscapes would not inspire him and that French and Italian school of painting is inferior to Russian one. After returning Clodt got permissions to use the rest of the scholarship funds in his travel over Russia.

In 1863 Clodt got recognition for his painting Highway in Autumn. Even higher praise was given for his work In the Field (1872) and the Forest view in Midday (1878). Observers celebrated his devotion to Russian landscape, attention to the details and perspective. On the other hand, popular art critic Vladimir Stasov noted petty naturalism and the "slavish following to reality" in many Clodt works. As an example of such a work he stated Cows at Watering (1879). In both his devotion to the Russian landscape and some petty naturalism Clodt was probably the forerunner of Ivan Shishkin.

Mikhail Clodt was a founding member of the Peredvizhniki movement, but the Peredvizhniki did not completely consider him as  their own. That was partially due to the sharp criticisms from Clodt and partially because of him keeping his professorship of the Imperial Academy of Arts (1871–1886). After Clodt's particularly sharp criticism over Arkhip Kuindzhi Clodt was forced to break with the Peredvizhniki. Soon he retired from the Academy as well.

Clodt did not paint anything of value after the 1870s. Half-blind and financially broken, he died in 1902.

Selected paintings

References

19th-century painters from the Russian Empire
Russian male painters
Painters from Saint Petersburg
Realist painters
Landscape artists
Russian people of German descent
1832 births
1902 deaths
19th-century male artists from the Russian Empire

Mikhail Clodt von Jürgensburg


Kyiv National Linguistic University () is a public university located in Kyiv, Ukraine. It was founded in 1948 as Kyiv State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages. Kyiv National Linguistic University was ranked the fourth best Ukrainian university specializing in Social Science and Arts and Humanities in 2012.

Address: Ukraine, Kyiv, vul. Velyka Vasylkivska, 73

History
Kyiv National Linguistic University is the successor of the Kyiv State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages, established by the Ministry of Education of the USSR on March 30, 1948. By decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of August 29, 1994, the Kyiv State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages was renamed Kyiv State Linguistic University. Since its founding, the university has made significant achievements in the field of foreign linguistics.

In the 1948/49 academic year, the university had three faculties (English, French and Spanish), with 238 first year students. The institute employed 19 full-time and 11 part-time teachers at the time. The Faculty of the German Language was formed in 1953, the Faculty of the Russian Language for Foreigners in 1977, and the preparatory department for foreign citizens in 1983. Post-graduate courses have been offered since 1962, and doctoral courses since 1992.

After Ukraine gained independence, KNLU has endeavored to train highly qualified specialists (teachers and interpreters) in foreign languages. Since 1990, the number of students has doubled, from 3,224 students in 1990 to nearly 6,000 students in 2012, including more than 400 students from foreign countries. Over the last decade, the university established the Economics and Law Faculty, the Faculty of Translation, the Faculty of Oriental Studies, and ten new specialized departments.

The university is a founder of the Ukrainian branch of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL). Today, the university maintains comprehensive cooperation with educational and cultural missions of foreign countries in Ukraine (American House, British Council, Goethe Institute, the French Cultural Center, and Japanese Cultural Center). In 1993, the first UNESCO Chair in Ukraine was established at the university.

Facilities
KNLU consists of three educational buildings, four dormitories, a computerized library with more than a million books in storage, ten computer classes able to accommodate up to 300 students, a gym and multiple canteens.

Structure
Kyiv National Linguistic University consists of seven departments

Germanic Philology Department;
Romance Philology Department;
Interpreting and Translation Department;
Department of Oriental Studies;
Department of Economics and Law;
Department of Slavic Philology;
Preparatory program of the Department of Slavic Philology for International Students.

Distinguished professors
Nikolayeva Sofiya Yuriivna – a renowned professor specializing in linguodidactics, author of approximately 150 research papers; supervised 20 PhD candidates; decorated with the Order of Merit (third grade, 1998) as well as many other honorary diplomas by the Ministry of Education of Ukraine; honoured with the title of the Educationalist Emeritus of Ukraine (1992).
Dvorzhetska Margaryta Petrivna –  supervised 14 PhD candidates, author of approximately 110 research papers; awarded with the Diploma of Honour of the Presidium of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine (1990), Makarenko Medal (1985), Yaroslav the Wise Diploma of the Academy of Sciences of Higher School of Ukraine (1996), honorary diplomas of the Ministry of Education of Ukraine.
Sklyarenko Nina Kostiantynivna – supervised 10 PhD candidates specializing in  Language Teaching Methodology, author of approximately 100 research papers; in 1981 was granted a bronze medal of the USSR National Economic Enterprise General Board of Exhibition of Achievements, in 1984 – the Socialist Republic of Vietnam medal; in 1996 was granted «The Excellent Teacher of Ukraine» medal, in 1998 – the  honorary diploma of the Ministry of Education of Ukraine.

Notable alumni (PhD)
Artemchuk Halik Isakovych – a chancellor of the Kyiv National Linguistic University from December 26, 1998, to June 10, 2009, professor, a member of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine, the Educationalist Emeritus of Ukraine; recipient of the Order of Merit of the Second and the Third grades; St. Volodymyr prize laureate; was granted many foreign prizes.
Vas'ko Roman Volodymyrovych –  a chancellor of Kyiv National Linguistic University from April 2010 until now; Doctor of Philological Sciences, professor; an Educationalist Emeritus of Ukraine.
Vorobyova Olha Petrivna – PhD in philology, professor; an Educationalist Emeritus of Ukraine; recipient of a «Social Science Achievements» medal.
Valihura Olha Romanivna – PhD in education, professor; has more than 90 academic publications.
Bihych Oksana Borysivna – PhD in education, professor; has 100 academic publications.
Rukina Emma Petrivna – PhD in philology, professor; an Educationalist Emeritus of Ukraine.
Fesenko Valentyna Ivanivna – Doctor of Philology, professor; honored with the Letter of Recognition by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine for a long-term conscientious work, personal contribution into training of highly skilled specialists, prolific academic and pedagogical work; the author of more than 100 scientific publications.
Kahanovska Olena Markivna – Doctor of Philology, professor; has more than 100 academic publications.
Maksymenko Analoliy Petrovych – Doctor of Education, professor; has more than 50 scientific publications.
Hrynyuk Halyna Arkadiyivna – PhD in education, professor; an Educationalist Emeritus of Ukraine.
Danylych Valentyna Stefanivna – Doctor of Philology, professor; recipient of the «Sofia Rusova» medal.

Notable alumni (artists)
Rohosa Yuriy Markovych – a well-known Ukrainian poet, writer, scriptwriter, author of many songs; is a prizewinner of All-Union «Pisnya Roku» contests in 1988–1992.
Kurkov Andriy Yuriyovych – a Ukrainian writer, journalist, scriptwriter; the only writer from the Former Soviet Union countries whose books are included in the top-10 list of the European bestsellers, and are translated into 36 languages.
Koltsova Oleksandra – a Ukrainian singer, journalist, composer, poet and producer; a former member of «Krykhitka Zakhes» musical band (1999–2007); a vocalist of «Krykhitka» musical band at the present moment.
Shurov Dmytro Ihorovych – a Ukrainian musician, pianist, member of «the Okean Elzy», «Esthetic Education», «Zemfira» and «Pianoboy» musical bands.
Karpa Irena Ihorivna – a Ukrainian writer, singer, journalist. She was granted Grand-Prix of the International «Hranoslov» young writers contest in 1999; she was awarded with «Best Ukrainian Awards-2006» prize (in the category of «the youngest writer») in 2006.
Tamara Viktorovna Trunova – a Ukrainian theater director, the chief director of the Kyiv Academic Theatre of Drama and Comedy on the left bank of Dnieper.

Gallery

References

External links

Universities and colleges established in 1948
Universities and colleges in Kyiv
Academic language institutions
1948 establishments in the Soviet Union
National universities in Ukraine
Institutions with the title of National in Ukraine

Kyiv National Linguistic University


XCOFF, for "eXtended COFF", defined by IBM and used in AIX, is an improved and expanded version of the COFF object file format. Early versions of the PowerPC Macintosh also supported XCOFF, as did BeOS.

XCOFF additions include the use of CSECTs to provide subsection granularity of cross-references, and the use of stabs for debugging. Information for the handling of shared libraries is also more elaborate than for plain COFF.

More recently, IBM defined an XCOFF64 version supporting 64-bit AIX, and used XCOFF32 to mean the original file format.

See also
 Comparison of executable file formats

External links
 IBM's description of XCOFF

Executable file formats
IBM operating systems

XCOFF


Edisto Island is one of South Carolina's Sea Islands, the larger part of which lies in Charleston County, with its southern tip in Colleton County. Edisto Beach is in Colleton County, and the Charleston County part of the island is unincorporated.

The island, the town, and the Edisto River are named after the historic Edistow people, a Native American sub-tribe of the Cusabo Indians, who inhabited the island as well as nearby mainland areas.

History
Indigenous peoples often had fishing camps on the islands, using them seasonally. The historic Edisto people are known to have occupied the island as well as mainland areas and traded with the upcountry Catawba. The sub-tribe became extinct during the colonial period. The Wassamasaw Tribe of Varnertown Indians is a group of descendants of various tribes, including Edisto, who intermarried and who have occupied a settlement between Summerville and Moncks Corner in Berkeley County, South Carolina. In 2009, they gained state recognition as an Indian Tribe, one of nine tribes to do so.

The first tracts of land, called plantations, were granted on Edisto Island before 1700.  There were several attempts by the French and the Spanish to settle in this area in the 1500s, however, those attempts all failed.  The first group of Europeans who succeeded in settling Edisto Island were English people who settled the island in the late 1600s and early 1700s.  For most of the 1700s, the area exported rice. Landowners first harvested timber and deerskins, planted indigo and some rice, and kept herds of free-ranging cattle to produce hides for the European market and salt beef for Caribbean plantations. Cotton gradually became the principal crop, and after the American Revolution, Edisto Island planters became wealthy and famous from their production of long-staple Sea Island cotton. The labor done by hundreds of enslaved Africans who developed the creole Gullah language and culture on the islands and in the Lowcountry, distinctive for its African traditions.

During the American Revolution, there were huge amounts of British soldiers present on Edisto Island.  After retaking Savannah in 1788, the British pushed into South Carolina, during this time Beaufort was made into their headquarters and large amounts of British troops were stationed on Edisto Island under the capture of Charleston in 1780.

The 1790 census reported the island had a population of 223 Whites and 1,692 Black slaves. The 1860 census indicated 329 Whites and 5,082 slaves.

Civil war

Edisto Island was largely abandoned by planters in November and December 1861, and escaped slaves began setting up their own refugee camps there. In January 1862, armed settlers from the island and Confederate forces clashed, and a Confederate raid in reprisal killed unarmed settlers. In February, Union forces were stationed on the island to develop it as a staging area for future campaigns against Charleston, twenty-five miles away, as well as to protect the colony, which would eventually number thousands of settlers. As Union forces took control of the island, a number of skirmishes occurred, and Confederates withdrew. Pineberry Battery was further up the Edisto River from the island, which was one likely path for a land campaign against Charleston. In June, most of the Union troops left the island in a campaign, which culminated in the Battle of Secessionville. In July, the remaining troops withdrew, and the colony was removed to St. Helena Island. For the rest of the war, a small number of escaped slaves and plantation owners remained and farmed the island, but it was largely abandoned. Near the end of the war, the island was again used as a location of colonies of freed slaves.

Reconstruction
From 1865 until 1877 the Island was primarily run by agents of the Freedmen's Bureau as well by recently freed African-Americans.  As a result, the island became a base of support for the Republican Party.  While Klan terror effected much of the state, Edisto Island was largely spared this by coincidence. There were large amounts of troops from the United States Army present on Edisto Island, and the population was overwhelmingly African-American. Most whites on the island were either troops from the United States Army or agents of the Freedmen's Bureau. As a result, the Klan deemed the area not worth it, and focused their activities elsewhere in the state.

Historic preservation
Since the twentieth century, the island has been redeveloped for use as a tourist destination and resorts, although some private plantations remain.

The Alexander Bache U.S. Coast Survey Line, Bailey's Store, Bleak Hall Plantation Outbuildings, Brick House Ruins, Brookland Plantation, Cassina Point, Crawford's Plantation House, Edisto Island Baptist Church, Edisto Island Presbyterian Church, Fig Island, Frogmore, Paul Grimball House Ruins, Hutchinson House, Middleton's Plantation, Oak Island, Old House Plantation, Peter's Point Plantation, Presbyterian Manse, Prospect Hill, William Seabrook House, Seaside School, Seaside Plantation House, Spanish Mount Point, Sunnyside, Hephzibah Jenkins Townsend's Tabby Oven Ruins, Trinity Church, Wescott Road, and Windsor Plantation are listed in the National Register of Historic Places.

Geography

Edisto Island is located  southwest of Charleston. Edisto Island is home to Edisto Beach and Wyndham Oceanridge resort.

Edisto Beach State Park is also located on the island. The park is open to day visitors as well as rent and RV camping. The park has a ranger station, bathrooms with running water and showers, a playground, and an education center. The campsites are unique in that there are many that are on the beachfront, overlooking the ocean. Hanging moss trees shade the park. Each site is equipped with electricity and water hook ups, a fire pit, and a picnic table.

There are some small restaurants in walking distance from the campground and a supermarket is located across the street.

The only grocery store near the beach is a Food Lion out on Jungle Road. There are three gas stations and about a dozen independently owned restaurants, most of which specialize in local seafood.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,301 people, 1,030 households, and 685 families residing in the CDP. The population density was about 34 people per square mile. There were 1,193 housing units at an average density of 34ppl/sq mi (84.4/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 59.6% White, 39.1% African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.0% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 0.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.4% of the population.

There were 1,030 households, out of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.4% were married couples living together, 21.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.4% were non-families. 28.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.16.

In the CDP the population was spread out, with 27.0% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 27.8% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.8 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $25,962, and the median income for a family was $31,000. Males had a median income of $24,609 versus $19,131 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $17,500. About 18.2% of families and 20.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.3% of those under age 18 and 34.5% of those age 65 or over.

Notable people
 Kardea Brown, cook and host of Food Network's Delicious Miss Brown, films the show on the island at her family's house.
 James C. Greenway, a member of the Lauder Greenway Family and founder of the Yale School of Public Health, combined several properties to create Botany Bay on the island.
 James Jamerson, bass player and member of the Funk Brothers, who played Motown hits in the 1960s, was born here.
 Micah Jenkins, Confederate general in the American Civil War, mortally wounded by friendly fire at the Battle of the Wilderness
 Jasper Johns, artist b 1930 SC, bought a home and studio at Edisto Beach in 1961. This burned down in a fire in 1966.
 Eleanor Frances Lattimore, author and illustrator of over 50 children's books including the Little Pear series about a boy in China.
 Patti LuPone, Broadway singer and actress, makes a winter home on the island
 Emily Meggett, Geechee-Gullah community leader, chef, and author
 Lucia Murchison, social worker born on Edisto Island; president of the South Carolina Public Health Association in 1965

See also
Edisto Island during the American Civil War
Marsh Hen Mill

References

Sources
Tomblin, Barbara. Bluejackets and Contrabands: African Americans and the Union Navy. University Press of Kentucky, 2009. - via Project MUSE

External links
 Photos of Edisto Island
 Edisto Island Presbyterian - Charleston County S.C.

Unincorporated communities in Charleston County, South Carolina
Islands of Colleton County, South Carolina
Islands of Charleston County, South Carolina
Populated places in Colleton County, South Carolina
South Carolina Sea Islands
Populated coastal places in South Carolina
Unincorporated communities in South Carolina
Gullah country

Edisto Island


Published in 1983, In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose is a collection composed of 36 separate pieces written by Alice Walker. The essays, articles, reviews, statements, and speeches were written between 1966 and 1982. Many are based on her understanding of "womanist" theory. Walker defines "womanist" at the beginning of the collection as "A black feminist or feminist of color. From the black folk expression of mother to female children and also a woman who loves other women, sexually and/or nonsexually. Appreciates and prefers women's culture. Committed to survival and wholeness of entire people, male and female. Womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender."

In addition to writing about womanhood and creativity, Walker addresses subjects such as nuclear weapons, anti-Semitism, and the Civil Rights Movement. In a 1984 review of the collection, Lynn Munro noted that: "Reading these essays not only gives one a clearer sense of Alice Walker but also countless insights into the men and women who have touched her life." As Munro put it, Walker  "captures the voices of unsung heroines" with whom she has crossed paths.

Part I
Essays in In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens Part I:
 "Saving the Life That Is Your Own: The Importance of Models in the Artist's Life"
 "The Black Writer and the Southern Experience"
 "But Yet and Still the Cotton Gin Kept on Working…"
 "A Talk: Convocation 1972"
 "Beyond the Peacock: The Reconstruction of Flannery O'Connor"
 "The Divided Life of Jean Toomer"
 "A Writer Because of, Not in Spite of, Her Children"
 "Gifts of Power: The Writings of Rebecca Jackson"
 "Zora Neale Hurston: A Cautionary Tale and a Partisan View"
 "Looking for Zora"
 "Bash the Whites"

Within these essays, She speaks about her search for early black writers such as Rebecca Jackson. She speaks of unsung heroines whom she has come into contact with who wish to tell their stories; for example Mrs. Winson Hudson. Hudson, the director of a Headstart center, wished to tell her story so that people would know "the agitation she caused in her community…was not for herself or for any one group but for everybody in the county". However, of all the writers she introduces, Zora Neale Hurston becomes a focal part in this section of essays.

As Walker begins to research the practice of voodoo by rural Southern blacks in the thirties, she becomes aware of Hurston's works. Other than white anthropologists with racist views, Walker finds no one other than Hurston studied voodoo extensively. Hurston's book Mules and Men, a collection of folklore, sparks Walker's interest immediately because it provides all the stories that Southern blacks "had forgotten or of which they had grown ashamed…and showed how marvelous, and, indeed, priceless, they are". In her essay, "Looking for Zora," Walker speaks about her trip to Hurston's hometown of Eatonville, Florida, to discover the life of her ancestral teacher. Despite Hurston's notoriety, when she died in 1959, she was buried in an "unmarked grave in a segregated cemetery".  When Walker arrives in Florida, she purchases a tombstone that reads: "Zora Neale Hurston 'A Genius of the South' Novelist, Folklorist, Anthropologist 1901-1960". The line "a genius of the South" comes from a poem by Jean Toomer, whom Walker applauds for his "sensitivity to women and his ultimate condescension toward them". Walker's exploration for the black writers of the past connects to her search for the kind of books that are underrepresented in American literature. She confirms this based on her referral to a comment by Toni Morrison: When Toni Morrison said she writes the kind of books she wants to read, she was acknowledging the fact that in a society in which 'accepted literature' is so often sexist and racist and otherwise irrelevant or offensive to so many lives, she must do the work of two. She said she must be her own model as well as the artist attending, creating, learning from, realizing the model, which is to say, herself. Walker's search for 'models' is an attempt to "capture the voices" of writers who are often overlooked and/or forgotten such as Zora Neale Hurston.

Part II
In Part II of In Search of Our Mother's Gardens Alice Walker focuses on the Civil Rights Movement and the important leaders who made contributions to it.  Through these essays, she also exemplifies how important the Civil Rights Movements' aims were for African Americans. Part Two includes the following essays:

"The Civil Rights Movement: What Good Was it?"
"The Unglamorous but Worthwhile Duties of the Black Revolutionary Artist, or of the Black Writer Who Simply Works and Writes"
"My Father's Country is Poor"
"Making the Moves and the Movies We Want"
"Good Morning, Revolution:Uncollected Writings of Social Protest"
"Choice: A tribute to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr."
"Coretta King: Revisted"
"Choosing to Stay at Home: Ten Years after the March on Washington"
"Lulls"
"Recording the Season"
"The Almost Year"

In many of these essays Walker describes her involvement in the Civil Rights Movement and explores the positives and negatives of the Civil Rights Movement's purpose. At the time of Civil Rights, Walker comprehends that she needs to make a change.  She commences to take action by visiting several homes and handing out registration ballots so the privileged and underprivileged could vote. She met a Jewish law student named Mel Leventhal, who gave her inspiration to write "The Civil Rights Movement: What Good Was it?."  Many people believed that Civil Rights Movement was dead. Alice Walker points out that if it is dead, she will explain why she believes that it is not. For many African Americans, the Civil Rights Movement gave them a sense of hope and freedom. She shows that whites would see the Civil Rights Movement as being dead because they did not have to go through the struggles and sacrifices that African-Americans had to encounter. They did not have to show interest because this movement was intended to help African-Americans to be equal and get the same rights as white people. White people already had the rights that the law granted and African Americans were still fighting for it. Besides that she points out that other ethnicities were unable to understand the significance behind the Civil Rights Movement and its importance for African Americans.

Of the Civil Rights Movement, Walker says, "It gave us history and men far greater than presidents. It gave us heroes. Selfless men of courage and strength, for our little boys and girls to follow. It gave us hope for tomorrow. It called us to life. Because we live, it can never die". "Choice: A Tribute to Dr. Luther King Jr." emphasizes how much passion and respect Walker has for Dr. King. In this particular essay, she speaks from a restaurant that refused to serve African Americans in 1972. Walker is able to learn from Dr. King's experience because as an African American, she had to endure those same struggles. Walker's mother taught her and her siblings to embrace their culture but at the same time to move up north to escape the harsh realities of the South. Walker and her mother were present for Dr. King's infamous speech.  Ultimately, this changes Walker's perspective on racism and the effects of the Civil Rights Movement within the African-American community. Dr. King's example greatly inspires Walker's viewpoint of how she sees the South.

The backlash of racial tension between blacks and whites were extreme. Dr. King was seen as a savior for the African-American community. Walker recalls, "He gave us continuity of place, without which community is ephemeral. He gave us home". Due to her great admiration for Dr. King, she returns to the South to empower African-American communities.

In "The Almost Year", Alice Walker explains how the author Florence Randall explains how she wants blacks and whites to embrace one another. She clarifies that "she seeks to find a way in which black abused and poor and white privileged and rich can meet and exchange some warmth of themselves. Walker's perspective is that if both blacks and whites can stop the racial equality that blacks and whites will not be divided. In this house, a black girl feels somewhat threatened being an all-white household. Due to these circumstances, Walker provides a sense of division between the black girl and the family that is providing a home for her to feel free. The black girl cannot embrace the warmth from the Mallory's family because she feels that all white people are to hurt black people. Walker explains how the Civil Rights Movement intended to bring both blacks and whites together. Walker wants to show how a black girl should not have to feel unequal when they are around white people.

Moreover, in "Coretta King: Revisited," Alice Walker describes an interview with Coretta Scott King. Walker presents her as more than a mother and wife; she is similar to her husband, and is making a conscientious effort to fight for equality and civil liberties for African Americans. Walker sees strength in Coretta Scott King, a woman who just lost her husband due to the acts of violence from others.  Walker finds it difficult to understand how a woman who just lost a loved one to the brutality, could continue in the battle for Civil Rights. Walker praises the fact that Coretta Scott King did not just sit back but took actions to help with different campaigns. Walker converses with her on about "black people in power and the whites who work with them" and Ms. King says, "I don't believe that black people are going to misuse power in the way it has been misused. I think they've learned from their experiences. And we've seen instances where black and white work together effectively".

Part III
Part Three of In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens includes the following essays:
"In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens"
"From an Interview"
"A Letter to the Editor of Ms."
"Breaking Chains and Encouraging Life"
"If the Present Looks Like the Past, What Does the Future Look Like?"
"Looking to the Side, and Back"
"To The Black Scholar"
"Brothers and Sisters"

Part three addresses black women coping with self-worth and self-respect.  It offers encouragement to future generations of Black men and women.  Walker begins part III with a poem by Marilou Awiakta, "Motheroot." In this section of the collection Walker is on a mental journey seeking ways to uplift the Black race.  Along this exploration she uses literature of other Black poets and writers to gain a deeper insight on Black women in their era, which assisted Walker in understanding society in her era.

In the opening of "In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens", Walker quotes from Jean Toomer's Cane, taking note that in early literature by black men, black women were seen has hopeless and characterized as mere sex objects.  "I asked her to hope, and build up an inner life against the coming of that day…I sang, with a strange quiver in my voice, a promise song." The focus of this essay is on that of the Black women throughout history who have created masterpieces from the scraps they were afforded. Black women's potential for creative freedom is stifled by their position in society that places a series of tropes and caricatures onto their being, operating to delegitimize the work they produce. Walker says black women did not have the opportunity to pursue their dreams because they were given the main responsibility of raising children, obeying their husbands, and maintaining the household: "Or was she required to bake biscuits for a lazy backwater tramp, when she cried out in her soul to paint watercolors of sunsets, or the rain falling on the green and peaceful pasturelands?  Or was her body broken and forced to bear children." Walker personalizes these women by referring to them as "our mothers and grandmothers".

Toomer felt that black women were unhappy and felt unloved.  Both Walker and Toomer felt that black women were not allowed to dream, yet alone pursue them.  "They were Creators, who lived lives of spiritual waste, because they were so rich in spirituality, which is the basis of art, that the strain of enduring their unused and unwanted talent drove them insane". Walker proceeds in saying how oppression has caused many talented black women to go unnoticed or unheard of. Walker cites Bessie Smith, Billie Holiday, Nina Simone, Roberta Flack, and Aretha Franklin to note talent lost among the black race and culture.

Additionally, Walker refers to Virginia Woolf's, A Room of One's Own and writer Phillis Wheatley; Walker compares both artists conveying that all of Woolf's fears were Wheatley's reality; due to restraints all of Woolf's goals were unachievable for Wheatley.  Woolf writes, "any woman born with a great gift in the sixteenth century would certainly have gone crazed, shot herself, or ended her days in some lonely cottage outside the village, half witch, half wizard, feared and mocked at.  For it needs little skill and psychology to be sure that a highly gifted girl who had tried to use her gift for poetry would have been so thwarted and hindered by contrary instincts, that she must have lost her health and sanity to a certainty."  Wheatley experienced everything Woolf dreaded, although Wheatley was granted limited freedom of expression and education by her owners.  Walker focuses on the phrase, "contrary instincts" used by Woolf, believing that this what Wheatley felt since she was taught that her origin was an untamed and inadequate culture and race.  In Wheatley's poetry she describes a "goddess", which Walker perceives as her owner, whom Wheatley appreciates although she was enslaved by this person.  Walker pays tribute to Wheatley when she writes, "But at last Phillis, we understand.  No more snickering when your stiff, struggling, ambivalent lines are forced on us.  We know now that you were not an idiot or a traitor".

According to Walker, society viewed Black women as, "the mule of the world", this caused black women to become emotionless and hopeless.  Further, in the essay Walker gives a personal account of her own mother, "And yet, it is to my mother-and all our mothers who were not famous-that I went in search of the secret if what has fed that muzzled and often mutilated, but vibrant, creative spirit that the black woman has inherited, and that pops out in wild and unlikely places to this day".  Walker describes her mother's simple, but appreciated talent of gardening. For Walker, her mother's ability to continue gardening despite her poor living conditions portrays her mother's strong persona and ability to strive even in hardship.  "She spent the summers canning vegetables and fruits.  She spent the winter evenings making quilts enough to cover all our beds.  There was a never a moment for her to sit down, undisturbed, to unravel her own private thoughts; never a time free from interruption-by work or the noisy inquiries of children.  The theme and idea of legacy reoccurs towards the end of the essay.  Walker describes, the legacy of her mother, "Her face, as she prepares the Art that is her gift is a legacy of respect she leaves to me, for all that illuminates and cherishes life".  Walker reveals how she has found and understood herself, while researching her heritage.

"From An Interview" gives readers a deeper insight on Walker's personal struggle with self-worth.  Walker extensively reveals her inner conflicts and the imperative events in her life that has made her the person she is.  Walker refers to herself as a "solitary"  person from as early as her childhood.  Walker was discloses that she was teased as a child due to her disfigurement, which made her feel worthless and later on as a college student she began to seriously contemplate suicide.  Walker says, "That year I made myself acquainted with every philosopher's position on suicide, because by that time it did not seem frightening or even odd, but only inevitable".  Walker also began to lose her faith in a higher being because she felt as though her thoughts of suicide disappointed God, therefore weakening her relationship with him.  Walker explains that with the help of friends and poetry she unraveled herself from this path of self-destruction.  According to Walker her main release of energy is through poetry.  Walker then explains her passion for poetry, "Since that time, it seems to me that all of my poems-and I write groups of poems rather than singles-are written when I have successfully pulled myself out of a completely numbing despair, and stand again in the sunlight.  Writing poems is my way of celebrating with the world that I have not committed suicide the night before".   Walker expresses that with her experiences she has developed a passion to help Black women who lack the self-esteem as she once did.

"If the Present Looks Like the Past, What Does the Future Look Like?" addresses the divide within the black community.  In the opening of the essay Walker bluntly begins with the division among lighter and darker skinned black women.  Walker speaks about how lighter women unintentionally and unknowingly offend dark skinned women when she says, "What black women would be interested in, I think, is a consciously heightened awareness on the part of light black women that they are capable, often quite unconsciously, of inflicting pain upon them; and that unless the question of Colorism– in my definition, prejudicial or preferential treatment of same-race people based solely on their color– is addressed in our communities and definitely in our black "sisterhoods" we cannot, as a people, progress.  For colorism, like colonialism, sexism, and racism, impedes us". Walker encourages the two groups to be sensitive towards one another, or else progression of Black people will be haunted.  Walker urges Black people to pave the way for future generations to eliminate the distress experienced by her and many others.  Walker expresses this thought when she says, "…I believe in listening-to a person, the sea, the wind, the trees, but especially to young black women whose rocky road I am still traveling".

See also
 Womanism

Notes

Sources

 Walker, Alice. In Search of our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose. New York: Harcourt Inc, 1983.

Books by Alice Walker
Womanist literature
1983 books

In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens


Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy is a 2011 book by Benjamin K. Sovacool, published by World Scientific. Sovacool's book explores the global nuclear power industry, its fuel cycle, nuclear accidents, environmental impacts, social risks, and economics. There is a postscript on the Japanese 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster. Based on detailed analysis, Sovacool concludes "that a global nuclear renaissance would bring immense technical, economic, environmental, political, and social costs". He says that it is renewable energy technologies which will enhance energy security, and which have many other advantages.

Reviewer Mark Diesendorf says that one weakness of the book is the limited coverage of nuclear weapons proliferation. He says that governments of several countries (e.g., France, India, North Korea, Pakistan) have used nuclear power and/or research reactors to assist nuclear weapons development.

Related pages
List of books about nuclear issues
List of books about renewable energy
Nuclear or Not?
Reaction Time (book)
Non-Nuclear Futures

References

Other websites
Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power  at World Scientific.
Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power at Google Books.
Nuclear Power's Global Expansion: Weighing Its Costs and Risks

2011 books
Books about nuclear issues

Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power


MotorLand Aragón (alternative Spanish name: Circuito de Alcañiz) is a  race track used for motorsports located in Alcañiz, Spain.

The circuit was designed by German architect Hermann Tilke in conjunction with the British architectural business Foster and Partners. Formula One driver Pedro de la Rosa was a technical and sporting consultant on the project.

The facility has been designed to incorporate three main zones; a technology park, a sports area and a leisure and culture area. The technology park will feature research and educational institutes related to the motor industry, the sports area will include the racing circuit (with multiple layouts), a karting track and various gravel circuits, whilst the leisure and culture section will feature a hotel, business centre and shopping facilities.

History
It was announced on 26 May, 2008 that the circuit will host a round of the World Series by Renault in 2009, the first international championship to race at the venue. The event has returned to Aragón every year since, until the end of the championship in 2015. Renault Sport Technologies had access to the circuit for thirty days per year for testing and promotional events. When the World Series by Renault championship was discontinued at the end of 2015 and was relaunched in 2016 as Formula V8 3.5, the circuit continued to be part of the schedule. The race remained on the championship for the 2017 season, at the end of which the championship was discontinued.

On 18 March, 2010, MotorLand Aragón was announced as a replacement for the Balatonring on the 2010 MotoGP calendar. Aragón was already in place as a reserve event and replaced the Hungarian race which was postponed because of overrunning construction work. This made the Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix the fourth Spanish race on the calendar. In March 2011 Dorna Sports signed a contract with the circuit to make it a permanent entry on the main calendar until at least 2016. On 19 May, 2010, it was announced that the circuit will hold a round of the Superbike World Championship from 2011, with a three-year deal being agreed.

The circuit was used as part of stage 7 of the 2012 Vuelta a España.

The circuit was planned to host round 6 of the 2020 World Touring Car Cup on 5 July, replacing Circuit Zandvoort on the calendar. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the race was postponed. The circuit instead hosted two WTCR rounds (Race of Spain, Race of Aragón) on 31 October–1 November and 14–15 November respectively. The circuit continues to host WTCR races after 2020.

Fatalities
On 25 July, 2021, during the 2021 European Talent Cup, Hugo Millán died in a crash. He was 14 at the time.

Events

 Current

 April:
 May: , F4 Spanish Championship, Porsche Sprint Challenge Iberica
 June:
 August: European Le Mans Series 4 Hours of Aragón, Le Mans Cup, Ligier European Series
 September: Superbike World Championship, Supersport World Championship, Supersport 300 World Championship
 October: FIM CEV Moto3 Junior World Championship, FIM CEV Moto2 European Championship
 November: Motorland Classic Festival

 Future

 Grand Prix motorcycle racing
 Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix (2010–2022, 2024)

 Former

 Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 (2009–2016)
 F4 Eurocup 1.6 (2009–2010)
 Grand Prix motorcycle racing
 Teruel motorcycle Grand Prix (2020)
 Pure ETCR (2021)
 Racecar Euro Series (2011)
 Renault Sport Trophy (2016)
 Sidecar World Championship (2013–2014)
 V de V Sports (2016)
 Vuelta a España (2012)
 World Series Formula V8 3.5 (2009–2017)
 World Touring Car Cup
 Race of Aragón (2020)
 Race of Spain (2020–2022)

Lap records

As of September 2023, the fastest official race lap records at the MotorLand Aragón are listed as:

References

External links

Official website:
Project profile at Fosters and Partners:
Renault-Sport official website:

MotorLand Aragón
MotorLand Aragón
MotorLand Aragón
MotorLand Aragón
MotorLand Aragón
MotorLand Aragón
MotorLand Aragón

MotorLand Aragón


The Pont Saint-Bénézet (; Provençal: Pònt de Sant Beneset) is a famous medieval bridge in the town of Avignon, in the south of France. It is also known as the Pont d'Avignon ().

A wooden bridge was built between 1177 and 1185. It went across the Rhône river between Villeneuve-lès-Avignon and Avignon. This early bridge was destroyed forty years later in 1226. This was during the Albigensian Crusade when Louis VIII of France attacked Avignon. In 1234 building started again for a new bridge with 22 stone arches. The stone bridge was about  long and only  wide. This width included the parapets at the sides. The bridge was abandoned in the mid-17th century. The arches collapsed (broke and fell into the water) each time the Rhône flooded. This made it very expensive to maintain (fix) the bridge.

Four arches and the gatehouse at the Avignon end of the bridge still exist. The Chapel of Saint Nicholas sits on the second pier of the bridge. It was built in the second half of 12th century. It has changed a lot since then. The western terminus, the Tour Philippe-le-Bel also still exists.

The bridge was the inspiration for the French song Sur le pont d'Avignon. The bridge is an important landmark in the city. In 1995, the arches of the bridge, together with the Palais des Papes and Cathédrale Notre-Dame des Doms were classified as a World Heritage Site.

History
The bridge went across the Rhône between Avignon and Villeneuve-lès-Avignon. The first bridge was built between 1177 and 1185. It was destroyed during the siege of Avignon by Louis VIII of France in 1226. They started rebuilding the bridge again by 1234. Many historians think that the first bridge was made of wood or maybe a wooden structure supported on stone piers. When the bridge was built a second time, it was all made of stone. The stone bridge had 22 arches and 21 piers. Its length was . It did not run directly between the two gatehouses. It had a curved path. This was probably because of the position of the islands on the river at the time. Over the centuries the Rhône has moved across its floodplain. The position of the islands in the 13th century is not well documented. A 17th-century map shows that the southern end of the Île de la Barthelasse was upstream of the bridge. The bridge crossed small islands that were upstream of the Île de Piot. The space between the piers was between . The bridge was only  in width with the parapets at the sides. The arches sometimes broke when the river flooded. They were sometimes replaced with temporary wooden structures, and after they were rebuilt in stone.

The bridge fell into a bad state during the 17th century. By 1644 the bridge was missing four arches. A flood in 1669 broke even more of the structure. After this, the other arches have collapsed one after the other, or they have been demolished. As of 2020, only four of the arches are left. The only other visible part of the bridge is some masonry from pier 11. This is attached to a private building on the Île de la Barthelasse. Remains of other piers are buried under a thick layer of sediment on the island or at the bottom of the Rhône. Piers 9 and 10 are both now on the Île de la Barthelasse. They were confirmed by cores drilled at the positions historians thought. They found masonry from the piers at a depth of  below ground level. Just below the masonry, at a depth of around  there were wooden fragments (small pieces). These were made of silver fir (Abies alba). Carbon-14 dating of this material gave dates of 1238–1301 AD for pier 9 and 1213–1280 AD for pier 10 (the range is for 2σ).

The arches are segmental rather than the semi-circular shape usually used in Roman bridges. Of the 4 arches that still exist, the largest span is . This is between the third and fourth piers. The piers have cutwaters. These are pointed both upstream and downstream. These mean there is less scour around the piers. This is one of the main problems for the stability of stone bridges. The piers were built with holes in the stone. This was to help lessen pressure from the flow of water when the river was in flood.

After the collapse of the Saint-Bénézet bridge, people crossed the Rhône at Avignon by ferry. This happened until the beginning of the 19th century. Between 1806 and 1818 a wooden bridge was built across the river. The new bridge was a few hundred metres south of the old bridge at the . A suspension bridge replaced the section across the Avignon branch of the Rhône in 1843. This was demolished in 1960 with the opening of the Edouard Daladier bridge. The section of the wooden bridge across the Villeneuve branch of the Rhône was not replaced until 1909. The replacement stone bridge, the Nouveau Pont, was damaged by bombing in 1944. It was repaired after the war but was replaced by the Pont du Royaume in 1972.

Saint Bénézet legend
Saint Bénézet inspired the building of the bridge. He was a shepherd boy from the hamlet of Villard in the Ardèche. According to tradition, he heard the voice of Jesus Christ while he was looking after his sheep. Jesus asked him to build a bridge across the river. Although he was ridiculed at first, he "proved" his divine inspiration by miraculously lifting a very large block of stone. He won support for his project and formed a Bridge Brotherhood to help with building the bridge. After his death, he was interred on the bridge itself. This was in a small chapel standing on one of the bridge's surviving piers on the Avignon side.

Saint Nicholas Chapel
The Saint Nicholas Chapel sits on a platform on the upstream side of the second pier (between the second and third arches). The bridge chapel has been restored and built again a few times. It now has two floors. Each floor has a nave and an apse. The upper floor is at the same level as the platform of the bridge. It makes the width of the walkway smaller. In this place, the walkway is only . There is a set of steps to get to the lower floor from the bridge.

The outside of the chapel shows marks of the rebuilding work. For example, there are blocked windows on the south-eastern wall. The nave is covered with stone roof tiles. These tiles rest on a series of corbels. The polygonal apse has a flat roof. It sits above the cutwater of the pier.

The lower chapel's apse is decorated with five arches. It is from the second half of the 12th century. At a later date, maybe as early as the 13th century, there was a floor supported by a ribbed quadripartite vault inserted into the structure. The simple rectangular upper chapel was consecrated in 1411. A side door was created in the lower chapel. This is because the stonework of the raised bridge blocked the original entrance. In 1513 a pentagonal apse with gothic columns was added to the upper chapel.

In 1670, after the bridge was abandoned, the relics of Saint Bénézet were transferred to the Hôpital du Pont (also called the Hôpital St Bénézet). This is within the city walls next to the gatehouse.

The bridge was also the site of devotion by the Rhône boatmen. This is because their patron saint was Saint Nicholas. They initially worshipped in the Saint Nicholas Chapel on the bridge itself (where Saint Bénézet's body was also interred). However, the bad condition of the bridge made it difficult to go there. In 1715 the confraternity of boatmen built a chapel on dry land on the Avignon side of the bridge. This was outside the ramparts next to the gatehouse. This chapel was destroyed by a major flood of the Rhône in 1856. A house for a caretaker was built on the ruins during the restoration work. This started around 1878. The residence was demolished after the restoration work on the bridge and gatehouse in the 1980s.

Gatehouses
The bridge had great strategic importance. When it was built, it was the only fixed river crossing between Lyon and the Mediterranean Sea. It was also the only river crossing between the Comtat Venaissin (an enclave controlled by the Pope) and France controlled by the kings of France. As such, it was closely guarded on both sides of the river. The right bank was controlled by the French crown. The fortress of the Tour Philippe-le-Bel was close enough to see the bridge. This was built at the beginning of the 14th century. On the Avignon side, a large gatehouse was built in the 14th century. It was changed a lot in the 15th century. The walkway passed over the city wall and down a ramp (now destroyed). This led into the city.

Between 1265 and 1309 another stone bridge was built across the Rhône, . This was upstream from Avignon, at what is now Pont-Saint-Esprit. At the time, it was called Saint-Saturnin-du-Port. The Pont-Saint-Esprit bridge originally had 20 arches. It was  long. Although it is now changed, the medieval bridge still exists as of 2020.

The Chapel of Saint Nicholas and the four remaining arches were listed as a Monument historique in 1840.

Roman bridge hypothesis
There has been a debate on whether there was a bridge before the Saint Bénézet bridge was built in the 12th century. Henri Revoil first said there may have been an older bridge. He said this at the French Archaeological Conference held in Avignon in 1882. His main argument was that the stonework at the base of the four surviving piers became visible. At very low water, stone blocks were visible. They were larger than those above. They had features that looked foreign to the existing bridge. The style of the masonry indicated to Revoil that there had been an earlier bridge dating from either the late Roman or Carolingian periods. In 1892 Louis Rochetin published an article. It said that the stone blocks at the base of the first pier and those on either side of the second pier supporting the chapel were the remains of springers that would have supported earlier Roman arches.

Denis-Marcel Marié self-published a book about the bridge in 1953. It looked at all the previous publications. In the last chapter it supported the hypothesis that there was an earlier bridge built by the Gallo-Romans around the end of the Roman occupation. He said that the bases of the piers that were still there belonged to this earlier bridge. He also said that the semi-circular arches used during the Roman period meant that the level of the roadway would have been higher than the top of the surviving chapel. Marié supposed that this early bridge had collapsed over the following seven centuries. He said that the 12th century Bénézet bridge had a decking supported on wooden piles linking the ruined Roman piers. The piles were needed because the gaps between the Roman stone piers would have been too large to span with wooden beams without the support in between. The height of the Bénézet bridge would have been at the level of the lower chapel.

Perrot et al. published an article in 1971 about a Roman bridge too. The article talked about a survey in 1969 on the vestiges of the piers in the Villeneuve branch of the river the Compagnie Nationale du Rhône (CNR) destroyed them. The article also had long quotes from an unpublished report by Mr Mathian, an engineer working for the CNR. This was about a survey carried out in 1965 on the four intact piers on the Avignon side of the river. This survey found a layer of wood, at least 20 cm in thickness. This was under the foundations of each of the four intact piers.

A sample of the wood was dated by the Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS). They used the radiocarbon technique. It was from between 290 and 530 AD, corresponding to the end of the Roman Empire. In the survey of the ruined piers in the Villeneuve channel, a pier (listed as number 14) was found to contain wooden beams inside the masonry. A sample of this wood was radiodated to 890 AD. During the dredging of the Villeneuve channel the remains of three large wooden piles were recovered. Two of these were still covered with iron tips.

The archaeologist Dominique Carru, accepted the radiocarbon date for the sample of wood. However, he argued in 1999 that it is very unlikely that an earlier bridge existed. It is not mentioned in the surviving texts from the high medieval period . Also, a bridge would have led to the development of a town on the right bank of the Rhône opposite Avignon, similar to those at other locations in the Rhône valley, such as Trinquetaille opposite Arles and Saint-Romain-en-Gal near Vienne. There is no evidence for an important early settlement near the terminus of the bridge. The main east-west route in the Roman period passed through Tarascon-Beaucaire,  to the south. It avoided the river at Avignon which was wide and variable in position.

The song "Sur le Pont d'Avignon"

The bridge has became famous with the song "Sur le Pont d'Avignon" ("On the Bridge of Avignon"). An earlier song with the same title was popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. Ottaviano Petrucci published the melody in his Harmonice Musices Odhecaton of 1503-4. The 16th-century composer Pierre Certon used the melody in a mass with the title: "Sus le Pont d'Avignon". The modern version of the song dates from the mid-19th century. Adolphe Adam included it in the opéra comique Le Sourd ou l'Auberge pleine. This was first played in Paris in 1853. The opera was an adaptation of the 1790 comedy by Desforges.

Related pages
List of medieval bridges in France

Pictorial record

Notes

References

Sources

 No further volumes were published. The link provides the text of chapters 1, 7, 10-12.

Further reading

Other websites

 Romanes.com : Map and pictures of the bridge

Bridges in France
World Heritage Sites in France
Avignon
13th-century buildings and structures

Pont Saint-Bénézet


Arch Linux (usually just called Arch) is a Linux-based operating system for 64-bit computers. It mostly has free software included with it, and supports community involvement.

Arch Linux focuses on elegance, code correctness, minimalism, and simplicity, and to use it, the user needs to have a motive to learn about it.  A package manager made only for Arch Linux named "pacman" can be used to install, remove and update packages of software on the computer.

History

Arch Linux was inspired by CRUX, another minimalist Linux distribution.

Originally, Arch  Linux was only for 32-bit x86 systems, but 64-bit was supported in April 2006. In January 2017, 32-bit support was discontinued, but a derivative by the community called Arch Linux 32 has been produced for 32-bit systems.

Installation

Unlike other Linux distributions like Ubuntu, Arch Linux's installation requires the user to enter commands manually. This can be scary for beginners, but the wiki suggests that new users can still install Arch Linux by investing time and effort.

Package Management

Pacman is the official package manager of Arch Linux. It was written in the C programming language by Judd Vinet. The package manager handles all the packages on the system, and does installation, removal, upgrades, and more.

As a rolling release system, Arch Linux's repositories are being constantly updated.

Arch Build System (ABS)

The Arch Build System is a system that automatically makes packages from a PKGBUILD file. The makepkg tool can convert these files into packages which are recognized by pacman, downloading all the source code specified and compiling it.

Arch User Repository (AUR)

The Arch User Repository is a repository for PKGBUILD scripts made by users. This allows users to install packages otherwise not in the official repositories.

Notes

References

Linux distributions

Arch Linux


The Chrysler Hemi engine, known by the trademark Hemi nickname, is a series of V6 and V8 engines built by Chrysler with a hemispherical combustion chamber. Three different types of Hemi engines have been built by Chrysler for automobiles. The first (known as the Chrysler FirePower engine) from 1951 to 1958. The second type was made from 1964 to 1971. The third beginning in 2003. Although Chrysler is most identified with the use of "Hemi" as marketing term, many other auto and truck manufacturers have used similar designs. In general the Hemi engines are smaller and more powerful than older engine designs.  They are also less expensive to build. They can produce a great amount of torque and horsepower for their size.

Australian Hemis
During the 1970s and 1980s, Chrysler also used the Hemi name for their Australian-made Hemi-6 Engine and applied it to the 4-cylinder Mitsubishi 2.6L engine. It was installed in various North American market vehicles.

References

Motors

Chrysler Hemi engine


Jackson County was a political subdivision of the Choctaw Nation of Indian Territory, prior to Oklahoma being admitted as a state.  The county formed part of the Nation's Pushmataha District, or Third District, one of three administrative super-regions.

History
The county was named for Jacob Jackson, a prominent Choctaw.  It was organized from portions of Blue County, Jack's Fork County and Kiamitia County by an Act of the General Council on October 21, 1886.

Jackson County's boundaries were established and designated according to easily recognizable natural landmarks, as were the boundaries of all Choctaw Nation counties. Island Bayou, Muddy Boggy Creek, the Blue River, and the Red River, all of which were regionally significant waterways, formed its boundaries.

Jackson County was bordered on its east by Kiamitia County and on its west by Blue County.  Its county seat was Pigeon Roost, south of present-day Boswell.  The county also hosted Mayhew, the capital of the Pushmataha District.  Mayhew was located north of present-day Boswell.

The county served as an election district for members of the National Council, and as a unit of local administration. Constitutional officers, all of whom served for two-year terms and were elected by the voters, included the county judge, sheriff, and a ranger. The judge's duties included oversight of overall county administration. The sheriff collected taxes, monitored unlawful intrusion by intruders (usually white Americans from the United States), and conducted the census. The county ranger advertised and sold strayed livestock.

Statehood
As Oklahoma's statehood approached, its leading citizens, who were gathered for the Oklahoma Constitutional Convention, realized in laying out the future state's counties that, while logically designed, the Choctaw Nation's counties could not exist as economically viable political subdivisions. In most the county seat existed generally for holding county court and not as a population center.

This conundrum was also recognized by the framers of the proposed State of Sequoyah, who met in 1905 to propose statehood for the Indian Territory. The Sequoyah Constitutional Convention also proposed a county structure that abolished the Choctaw counties. Jackson County was divided principally into the proposed Blue County, Tom Needles County, and Hitchcock County.  Caddo would have been county seat of Blue; Durant the county seat of Tom Needles; and Hugo the county seat of Hitchcock.

Much of this proposition was borrowed two years later by Oklahoma's framers, who adopted certain of these concepts for the future Bryan County and Choctaw County in Oklahoma. The territory formerly comprising Jackson County, Choctaw Nation now falls primarily within these two counties, with a small portion in Atoka County.

Jackson County ceased to exist upon Oklahoma's statehood on November 16, 1907.

References

1886 establishments in Indian Territory
Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma
Indian Territory
1907 disestablishments
Pre-statehood history of Oklahoma

Jackson County, Choctaw Nation


The Australian Milking Zebu (AMZ) is a composite breed of dairy cattle, developed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia during the mid-1950s.  To develop the breed, the CSIRO bred Sahiwal and Red Sindhi cattle from Pakistan with Jersey cattle. Some Illawarra, Guernsey and Friesian genetics were also included. The development of the breed was governed by strict selection for heat tolerance, milk production and cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) resistance to result in the modern AMZ breed.

AMZ cattle have the color, markings and general shape of Jersey cattle, but also show their Sahiwal and Red Sindhi ancestry with their loose skin.

Cows produce approximately 2,700 kg of milk per lactation.

See also
 Australian Friesian Sahiwal

References

Cattle breeds originating in Australia
Dairy cattle breeds
Agricultural research

Australian Milking Zebu


"The Day-Dream" is a poem written by Alfred Tennyson that was published in 1842. It was an expanded version of his 1830 poem "The Sleeping Beauty". It was further altered in 1848 for a dramatic performance for a private gathering with Tennyson starring as the Prince. "The Day-Dream" discusses the nature of sleeping and of dreaming, especially in relation to individuals that would want to escape from reality. The poem also compares the act of poetry with dreaming and asserts that the two are the same.

Background
Tennyson originally published "The Sleeping Beauty" in his 1830 collection of poems. In 1833, Tennyson's close friend Arthur Hallam died. The death greatly affected both Tennyson and his sister Emily, and he kept away from society as he dealt with the pain. By mid-summer 1834, they slowly began to participate together in social events once again. At one occasion, Tennyson, Emily, and their sister Mary were invited to visit friends at Dorking and then travel onwards to see the Hallam family. However, Tennyson set out on his own and spent time alone at Leith Hill, Dorking. It was during this time that he worked on "The Sleeping Beauty" and early versions of Sir Galahad and The Blackbird.

The poem was later expanded into the poem The Day-Dream, which was published in 1842. The poem was altered in 1848 for a dramatic performance for a private gathering. In that version, Tennyson played the part of the Prince who was to wake up the sleeping woman.

Poem
The poem begins by comparing the act of dreaming with the act of composing poetry:
A summer crisp with shining woods.
And I too dream'd, until at last
Across my fancy, brooding warm,
The reflex of a legend past,
And loosely settled into form. ("Prologue" II, lines 1-5)

The poem reverses time and declares that the living, contemporary artists are ancient while those who have died before are the young:
And all that else the years will show,
The Poet-forms of stronger hours,
The vast Republics that may grow,
The Federations and the Powers;
Titanic forces taking birth
In divers seasons, divers climes;
For we are Ancients of the earth
And in the morning of the times ("L'envoi" I 13–20)

Themes
The poem compares the act of poetry with dreaming and says that the two are the same. The dream is able to stimulate the memory of the sleeping woman. Tennyson's earlier works discuss journeys through memory, including "Sense and Conscience", "The Merman", "The Mermaid", and "Recollections of the Arabian Nights". Out of all of Tennyson's poems, The Day-Dream is one of the few that lack a use of irony. The poem relies on a similar theme as Tennyson's "The Lotos-Eaters" in that it talks about a living death state. However, The Day-Dream emphasizes the pleasure in being able to return to a sleep state and avoid reality. However, the poem is similar to other Tennyson poems in that it relies on a frame for the story in a manner similar to "Lady Godive", Morte D'Arthur and The Princess. The character Flora is similar to many of Tennyson's females that resist their fate by desiring death, including the Idyl ladies Rose of The Gardener's Daughter, Ida of The Princess, and Mariana of Mariana.

In relationship to Tennyson's poems, The Day-Dream keeps up with the anti-didact trend and goes as far as to create a moral about not being able to create a moral. Of any possible moral meaning, there is an emphasis on charity and order. The parts of The Day-Dream are related to poems in particular. "L'Envoi" is similar to the themes and ideas of "The Lotos-Eaters". The section "The Revival" is similar to The Princess or "Home They Brought Her Warrior Dead" in its discussion of rebirth and a return to life. Turnbull 1978 In relationship to other works, it is possible that the story of a sleeping woman is the same used by Richard Wagner in Siegfried. The theme is also similar to John Keats's Endymion.

Critical response
Literary critic Arthur Turnbull claims, "This is one of the most artistically executed of Tennyson's creations; he was always fond of the slumberous side of things where music is the voice of the poppy dreams of fancy."

Notes

References
 Buckley, Jerome. The Victorian Temper. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1951.
 Collins, John Churton. The Early Poems of Alfred, Lord Tennyson. London: Methuen & Co., 1900.
 Hill, Robert. Tennyson's Poetry. New York: Norton, 1971.
 Hughes, Linda. The Manyfacèd Glass. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1988.
 Jordan, Elaine. Alfred Tennyson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
 Joseph, Gerhard. Tennyson and the Text. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
 Kincaid, James. Tennyson's Major Poems. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975.
 Shaw, W. David. Tennyson's Style. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976.
 Thorn, Michael. Tennyson. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992.
 Turnbull, Arthur. Life and Writings of Alfred Lord Tennyson. Norwood: Norwood, 1978.

External links

 1886 illustrated edition, from the U.S. Library of Congress

1830 poems
1842 poems
Narrative poems
Poetry by Alfred, Lord Tennyson

The Day-Dream


Sergej Osadchuk (født 18. mai 1957) er en ukrainsk-norsk pianist.

Osadchuk er utdannet ved Moskva Musikkonservatorium under Pavel Messner. Etter å ha spilt som solist med Moskva filharmoniske, Moskva radioorkester m.m., har han siden 1992 bodd i Norge og spilt med Tromsø Symfoniorkester, Kristiansand Symfoniorkester o.a. Han er professor ved musikkonservatoriet ved Universitetet i Tromsø.

Eksterne lenker
http://sergejosadchuk.no/

Norske klassiske pianister
Professorer ved Universitetet i Tromsø
      Sergej Osadchuk was born in the Crimea (the Ukraine).At the age of 12 he had his   symphonic orchestra debute.At 15 he played the First Rachmaninov Concerto. In the same year he entered the Moscow Music College of the Moscow State Conservatory. He graduated from this College with honours and 5 years later from the Moscow State Conservatory also with the honour diploma.Then he completed the postgraduate course at the same conservatory with the honour diploma. All these years he studied with prof. Pavel Messner - pupil and later assistent of Emil Gilels.
      Since 1981  he  has pursued an active career as a pianist playing recitals in Russia,Ukraine,Lithuania,Finland, Norway,Italia,Australia,Great Britain, Germany and also participating in chamber ensembles. He has played with Russian orchestras including the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra under  Dmitrij Kitaenko,  Moscow Radio Orchestra under Fuat Mansurov, the Orchestra of the Moscow Conservatory under Leonid Nikolaev, Tromsø Symphony Orchestra under Kjell Seim, Kristiansand  Symphony Orchestra  under M. Tilkin,
Jonkopping Symphony Orchestra under J.Stigmer, Oslo Camerata under S.Barratt-Due and others. He has played recitals in the most prestigious Russian concert halls - the Grand Hall of the Moscow Conservatory and The International House of Music. Sergej Osadchuk has made recordings on the Moscow Radio including Concerto II by List, Concerto by Pirumov etc. At the same time he has had a piano teacher position at the Music College of the Moscow Conservatory.
      Since 1992 he has been employed as a professor at the North Norway Conservatory in Tromsø, Norway. He has had masterclasses in Great Britain (Cardiff), Sweden (Orebro)
Finland (Jyvaskula, Oulu), Germany (Karlsruhe), Norway (Oslo, Trondheim), played recitals in Bergen Festival, Grieg Festival in Oslo and others. CD recordings (together with M.Carlsen, M.B.Kjelland and others)

Sergej Osadchuk


Seaboard Coast Line Industries, Inc., incorporated in Delaware on May 9, 1969, was a railroad holding company that owned the Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, its subsidiary Louisville and Nashville Railroad, and several smaller carriers. Its railroad subsidiaries were collectively known as the Family Lines System. Its headquarters were in Jacksonville, Florida, in the United States. Through 1979, the Family Lines network totaled  in 13 states.

The company succeeded SCL Industries, Inc., incorporated August 1, 1968, in Virginia and renamed Seaboard Coast Line Industries, Inc. on February 5, 1969.

On November 1, 1980, Seaboard Coast Line Industries merged with Chessie System, Inc. to form CSX Corporation (Chessie-Seaboard Multiplied), and in 1983 the Family Lines units were combined as the Seaboard System Railroad. In 1986, Seaboard System was renamed CSX Transportation, and then merged with sister CSX Corp. subsidiary Chessie System to form a single new railroad, reporting mark CSXT.

External links
Atlantic Coast Line and Seaboard Air Line Historical Society website timeline page

Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
Predecessors of CSX Transportation
Seaboard Air Line Railroad
Seaboard System Railroad
Louisville and Nashville Railroad
United States railroad holding companies
Railway companies established in 1969
Railway companies disestablished in 1980
1969 establishments in Delaware
1968 establishments in Delaware

Seaboard Coast Line Industries


The Republic of Kosova () or First Republic of Kosovo was a self-declared proto-state in Southeastern Europe established in 1991. During its peak, it tried to establish its own parallel political institutions in opposition to the institutions of the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija held by Yugoslavia's Republic of Serbia.

The flag used by the Republic of Kosova was very similar to the flag of Albania, depicting the same symbol on the same coloured background.

History

Proclamation
Late in June 1990, Albanian members of the provincial assembly proposed a vote on whether to form an independent republic; the ethnic Serb president of the assembly immediately shut it down and promised to reopen the assembly on 2 July, which was later postponed.

On 2 July, the vast majority of Albanian members of the Provincial Assembly returned to the Assembly, but it had been locked; so in the street outside they voted to declare Kosovo a Republic within the Yugoslav federation. The Serbian government responded by dissolving the Assembly and the government of Kosovo, removing any remaining autonomy. The Serb government then passed another law on labour relations which dismissed another 80,000 Albanian workers.

Ethnic Albanian members of the now officially dissolved Kosovo Assembly met in secret in Kaçanik on 7 September and declared the "Republic of Kosova" in which laws from Yugoslavia would only be valid if compatible with the Republic's constitution. The assembly went on to declare the "Republic of Kosova" an independent state on 22 September 1991. This declaration was endorsed by 99% of voters in an unofficial referendum held a few days later. The Republic of Kosova received diplomatic recognition from Albania.

Parallel structures
Kosovo Albanians organized a resistance movement, creating a number of parallel structures in education, medical care, and taxation. New schools opened, with houses being turned into facilities for schools, including high schools and universities. And on parallel elections, new leaders were elected, forming a new country within a country. Because of the repression, the new government had its seat in exile. There was a parallel football league, following all the sports men and women being expelled from the stadiums and sports facilities.

NATO intervention

From 1995 onwards, tensions in the region escalated leading to the Kosovo War which began in February 1998, fought between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) guerrilla force. The KLA-led campaign continued into January 1999 and was brought to the attention of the world media by the Račak massacre, the mass killing of about 45 Albanians (Including 9 KLA insurgents) by Serbian security forces. An international conference was held in Rambouillet, France later that spring and resulted in a proposed peace agreement (the Rambouillet Agreement) which was accepted by the ethnic Albanian side but rejected by the Yugoslav government.

The failure of the talks at Rambouillet resulted in a NATO air campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia lasting from 24 March to 11 June when the Yugoslav authorities signed a military technical agreement allowing NATO peacekeepers (KFOR) and an international civilian mission (UNMIK) to enter Kosovo.

UNMIK assumed control of Kosovo. Provisional Institutions of Self-Government were established to allow Kosovo political and community leaders to be represented in decisions. The KLA was disbanded and replaced by the Kosovo Protection Corps, a lightly armed civilian emergency response organization.

Government

See also
Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosovo
Kosovo Liberation Army

References

Sources

Books

History of Kosovo

1990 establishments in Kosovo
1999 disestablishments in Kosovo
States and territories established in 1990
States and territories disestablished in 1999

Republic of Kosova