A gimmal ring, or gimmel ring, is a ring with two or three hoops or links that fit together to form one complete ring. The name gimmal comes from Latin gemellus, twin, via Old French. They were known as joint rings in Elizabethan England.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, such rings were fashionable in England, Germany, and other countries, and were often used as betrothal rings. The engaged couple would wear one hoop each and rejoin them to use as a wedding ring. With triple link rings, a third person could witness the couple's vows and hold the third part of the ring until the marriage.

An early gimmal band, consisting of two interlocked rings sculpted to form a single ring, is to be found in the Victoria and Albert Museum, dated to 1350. Henry III of England met the Count of Gynes in 1202 and gave him a gimmal ring set with a ruby and two emeralds. Martin Luther wed Catherine Bora in 1525 with a gimmal ring inscribed "Whom God has joined together, Let no man put asunder".

Around 1600, the gimmal ring began to sometimes incorporate the clasped hands of the fede ring and a third symbol, a heart, was added, sometimes with a third shank. Designs involving clasped hands, and sometimes a heart, remained popular after the Renaissance. Similar imagery is found on other love rings, including claddagh rings.

The Benjamin Zucker collection in the Walters Museum in Baltimore contains two elaborate gimmal rings incorporating small hidden enameled sculptural details visible only when the bands are separated. By the late 18th century, multiple shanks of five or more were made, sometimes collected at the back by a pivot, so they hinged like a fan.

Cultural references
There are several references to gimmal rings in Shakespeare's plays, including a joint-ring mentioned in Othello. Robert Herrick's poem The Jimmall Ring or True-Love Knot (1648) is founded on a gimmal (jimmall) ring.

A gimmal ring is important to characters in Dryden's Don Sebastian (1690), which includes the passage:

A curious artist wrought 'em,
With joynts so close as not to be perceiv'd;
Yet are they both each other's counterpart.

See also
 Puzzle ring, which was probably derived from gimmal rings

References

Sources
 Diana Scarisbrick, Takayuki Toyama, Kanji Hashimoto, Historic Rings: Four Thousand Years of Craftsmanship (2004)
 Gimmel ring

Rings (jewellery)

Gimmal ring


Quantum mechanics is the study of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atomic and subatomic particles. By contrast, classical physics explains matter and energy only on a scale familiar to human experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies such as the moon. Classical physics is still used in much of modern science and technology. However, towards the end of the 19th century, scientists discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small (micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain. The desire to resolve inconsistencies between observed phenomena and classical theory led to a revolution in physics, a shift in the original scientific paradigm: the development of quantum mechanics.

Many aspects of quantum mechanics are counterintuitive and can seem paradoxical because they describe behavior quite different from that seen at larger scales. In the words of quantum physicist Richard Feynman, quantum mechanics deals with "nature as She is—absurd".

One example of this is the uncertainty principle applied to particles, which implies that the more closely one pins down one measurement on a particle (such as the position of an electron), the less accurate another complementary measurement pertaining to the same particle (such as its speed) must become. The position and speed of a particle cannot both be measured with arbitrary precision, regardless of the quality of the measuring instruments.

Another example is entanglement. In certain circumstances, two particles with a shared history may become mutually 'entangled', in which case a measurement made on one particle (such as an electron that is measured to have spin up) will provide full information about the outcome of a later equivalent measurement on the other particle (that the other will be found to have spin down). This applies even though the particles may be so far apart that it is impossible for the result of the first measurement to have been transmitted to the second particle before the second measurement takes place.

A further example is superfluidity. Liquid helium in a container, cooled to a temperature near absolute zero spontaneously flows up and over the rim of its container, an effect which cannot be explained by classical physics.

History

 Maxwell's unification of electricity, magnetism, and light in the 1880s led to experiments on the interaction of light and matter. Some of these experiments had aspects which could not be explained. Quantum mechanics emerged in the early part of the 20th century from efforts to explain these results.

Evidence of quanta from the photoelectric effect

The seeds of the quantum revolution appear in the discovery by JJ Thomson in 1897 that cathode rays were not continuous but "corpuscles" now called electrons. Electrons had been named just six years earlier as part of the emerging theory of atoms. In 1900, Max Planck, a conservative physicist unconvinced by the atomic theory, discovered that he needed discrete entities like atoms or electrons to explain blackbody radiation.

Hot objects radiate heat; very hot objects – red hot, white hot objects – all look similar when heated to the same temperature. This temperature dependent "look" results from a common curve of light intensity at different frequencies (colors). The common curve is called blackbody radiation. The lowest frequencies are invisible heat rays – infrared light. White hot objects have intensity across many colors in the visible range. Continuous wave theories of light and matter cannot explain the blackbody radiation curve. Planck spread the heat energy among individual "oscillators" of an undefined character but with discrete energy capacity: the blackbody radiation behavior was then predicted by this model.

At the time, electrons, atoms, and discrete oscillators were all exotic ideas to explain exotic phenomena. But in 1905 Albert Einstein proposed that light was also corpuscular, consisting of "energy quanta", seemingly in contradiction to the established science of light as a continuous wave, stretching back a hundred years to Thomas Young's work on diffraction.

His revolutionary proposal started by reanalyzing Planck blackbody theory, arriving at the same conclusions by using the new "energy quanta". Einstein then showed how energy quanta connected to JJ Thomson's electron. In 1902, Philipp Lenard directed light from an arc lamp onto freshly cleaned metal plates housed in an evacuated glass tube. He measured the electric current coming off the metal plate, for higher and lower intensity of light and for different metals. This is the photoelectric effect. Lenard showed that amount of current – the number of electrons – depended on the intensity of the light, but that the velocity of these electrons did not depend on intensity. The continuous wave theories of the time would predict that more light intensity would accelerate the same amount of current to higher velocity contrary to experiment.  Einstein's energy quanta explained the volume increase: one electron is ejected for each quantum: more quanta mean more electrons.

Einstein then predicted that the electron velocity would increase in direct proportion to the light frequency above a fixed value that depended upon the metal. Here the idea is that energy in energy-quanta depends upon the light frequency; the energy transferred to the electron comes in proportion to the light frequency. The type of metal gives a  barrier, the fixed value, that the electrons must climb over to exit their atoms, to be emitted from the metal surface and be measured.

Ten years elapsed before Millikan's definitive experiment verified Einstein's prediction. During that time many scientists rejected the revolutionary idea of quanta. But Planck's and Einstein's concept was in the air and soon affected other theories.

Quantization of bound electrons in atoms

Experiments with light and matter in the late 1800s uncovered a reproducible but puzzling regularity. When light was shown through purified gasses, certain frequencies (colors) did not pass. These dark absorption 'lines' followed a distinctive pattern: the gaps between the lines decreased steadily. By 1889, the Rydberg formula predicted the lines for hydrogen gas using only a constant number and the integers to index the lines. The origin of this regularity was unknown. Solving this mystery would become first major step toward quantum mechanics.

Throughout the 19th century evidence grew for the atomic nature of matter. With JJ Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, scientist began the search for a model of the interior of the atom. Thomson proposed negative electrons swimming in a pool of positive charge. Between 1908 and 1911,  Rutherford showed that the positive part was only 1/3000th of the diameter of the atom.

Models of "planetary" electrons orbiting a nuclear "Sun" were proposed, but cannot explain why the electron does not simply fall into the positive charge. In 1913 Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford connected the new atom models to the mystery of the Rydberg formula: the orbital radius of the electrons were constrained and the resulting energy differences matched the energy differences in the absorption lines. This meant that absorption and emission of light from atoms was energy quantized: only specific energies that matched the difference in orbital energy would be emitted or absorbed.

Trading one mystery – the regular pattern of the Rydberg formula – for another mystery – constraints on electron orbits – might not seem like a big advance, but the new atom model summarized many other experimental findings.  The quantization of the photoelectric effect and now the quantization of the electron orbits set the stage for the final revolution.

Quantization of matter

In 1922 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach demonstrated that the magnetic properties of silver atoms do not take a continuous range of values: the magnetic values are quantized and limited to only two possibilities. Unlike the other then known quantum effects, this striking result involves the state of a single atom.

In 1924 Louis de Broglie proposed that electrons in an atom are constrained not in "orbits" but as standing waves. In detail his solution did not work, but his hypothesis – that the electron "corpuscle" moves in the atom as a wave – spurred Erwin Schrödinger to develop a wave equation for electrons; when applied to hydrogen the Rydberg formula was accurately reproduced.

Max Born's 1924 paper "Zur Quantenmechanik" was the first use of the words "quantum mechanics" in print. His later work included developing quantum collision models; in a footnote to a 1926 paper he proposed the Born rule connecting theoretical models to experiment.

In 1928 Paul Dirac published his  relativistic wave equation simultaneously incorporating  relativity, predicting anti-matter, and providing a complete theory for the Stern-Gerlach result (that there are only two directions that can be measured for silver atoms and for electrons themselves). These successes launched a new fundamental understanding of our world at small scale: quantum mechanics.

Planck and Einstein started the revolution with quanta that broke down the continuous models of matter and light. Twenty years later "corpuscles" like electrons came to be modeled as continuous waves. This result came to be called wave-particle duality, one iconic idea along with the uncertainty principle that sets quantum mechanics apart from older models of physics.

Quantum radiation, quantum fields

In 1923  Compton demonstrated that the Planck-Einstein energy quanta from light also had momentum; three years later the "energy quanta" got a new name "photon" Despite its role in almost all stages of the quantum revolution, no explicit model for light quanta existed until 1927 when Paul Dirac began work on a quantum theory of radiation that became quantum electrodynamics. Over the following decades this work evolved into quantum field theory, the basis for modern quantum optics and particle physics.

Correspondence principle

Throughout the first and the modern era of quantum mechanics the concept that classical mechanics must be valid macroscopically constrained possible quantum models. This concept was formalized by Bohr in 1923 as the correspondence principle. It requires quantum theory to converge to classical limits.

One principal "paradox" is the apparent inconsistency between Newton's laws and quantum mechanics which can be explained using Ehrenfest's theorem, which shows that the average values obtained from quantum mechanics (e.g. position and momentum) obey classical laws.  However, Ehrenfest's theorem is far from capable of explaining all the counterintuitive phenomena (quantum weirdness) that have been observed, but rather is a mathematical expression of the correspondence principle.

Wave–particle duality

The concept of wave–particle duality says that neither the classical concept of "particle" nor of "wave" can fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects, either photons or matter.  Wave–particle duality is an example of the principle of complementarity in quantum physics. An elegant example of wave-particle duality is the double-slit experiment.

In the double-slit experiment, as originally performed by Thomas Young in 1803, and then Augustin Fresnel a decade later, a beam of light is directed through two narrow, closely spaced slits, producing an interference pattern of light and dark bands on a screen. If one of the slits is covered up, one might naïvely expect that the intensity of the fringes due to interference would be halved everywhere. In fact, a much simpler pattern is seen, a diffraction pattern diametrically opposite the open slit. The same behavior can be demonstrated in water waves, and so the double-slit experiment was seen as a demonstration of the wave nature of light.

Variations of the double-slit experiment have been performed using electrons, atoms, and even large molecules, and the same type of interference pattern is seen. Thus it has been demonstrated that all matter possesses both particle and wave characteristics.

Even if the source intensity is turned down, so that only one particle (e.g. photon or electron) is passing through the apparatus at a time, the same interference pattern develops over time. The quantum particle acts as a wave when passing through the double slits, but as a particle when it is detected. This is a typical feature of quantum complementarity: a quantum particle acts as a wave in an experiment to measure its wave-like properties, and like a particle in an experiment to measure its particle-like properties. The point on the detector screen where any individual particle shows up is the result of a random process. However, the distribution pattern of many individual particles mimics the diffraction pattern produced by waves.

Uncertainty principle

Suppose it is desired to measure the position and speed of an object—for example, a car going through a radar speed trap. It can be assumed that the car has a definite position and speed at a particular moment in time. How accurately these values can be measured depends on the quality of the measuring equipment. If the precision of the measuring equipment is improved, it provides a result closer to the true value. It might be assumed that the speed of the car and its position could be operationally defined and measured simultaneously, as precisely as might be desired.

In 1927, Heisenberg proved that this last assumption is not correct. Quantum mechanics shows that certain pairs of physical properties, for example, position and speed, cannot be simultaneously measured, nor defined in operational terms, to arbitrary precision: the more precisely one property is measured, or defined in operational terms, the less precisely can the other. This statement is known as the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty principle is not only a statement about the accuracy of our measuring equipment but, more deeply, is about the conceptual nature of the measured quantities—the assumption that the car had simultaneously defined position and speed does not work in quantum mechanics. On a scale of cars and people, these uncertainties are negligible, but when dealing with atoms and electrons they become critical.

Heisenberg gave, as an illustration, the measurement of the position and momentum of an electron using a photon of light. In measuring the electron's position, the higher the frequency of the photon, the more accurate is the measurement of the position of the impact of the photon with the electron, but the greater is the disturbance of the electron. This is because from the impact with the photon, the electron absorbs a random amount of energy, rendering the measurement obtained of its momentum increasingly uncertain, for one is necessarily measuring its post-impact disturbed momentum from the collision products and not its original momentum (momentum which should be simultaneously measured with position). With a photon of lower frequency, the disturbance (and hence uncertainty) in the momentum is less, but so is the accuracy of the measurement of the position of the impact.

At the heart of the uncertainty principle is a fact that for any mathematical analysis in the position and velocity domains, achieving a sharper (more precise) curve in the position domain can only be done at the expense of a more gradual (less precise) curve in the speed domain, and vice versa. More sharpness in the position domain requires contributions from more frequencies in the speed domain to create the narrower curve, and vice versa. It is a fundamental tradeoff inherent in any such related or complementary measurements, but is only really noticeable at the smallest (Planck) scale, near the size of elementary particles.

The uncertainty principle shows mathematically that the product of the uncertainty in the position and momentum of a particle (momentum is velocity multiplied by mass) could never be less than a certain value, and that this value is related to Planck's constant.

Wave function collapse

Wave function collapse means that a measurement has forced or converted a quantum (probabilistic or potential) state into a definite measured value. This phenomenon is only seen in quantum mechanics rather than classical mechanics.

For example, before a photon actually "shows up" on a detection screen it can be described only with a set of probabilities for where it might show up. When it does appear, for instance in the CCD of an electronic camera, the time and space where it interacted with the device are known within very tight limits. However, the photon has disappeared in the process of being captured (measured), and its quantum wave function has disappeared with it. In its place, some macroscopic physical change in the detection screen has appeared, e.g., an exposed spot in a sheet of photographic film, or a change in electric potential in some cell of a CCD.

Eigenstates and eigenvalues

Because of the uncertainty principle, statements about both the position and momentum of particles can assign only a probability that the position or momentum has some numerical value. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate clearly the difference between the state of something indeterminate, such as an electron in a probability cloud, and the state of something having a definite value. When an object can definitely be "pinned-down" in some respect, it is said to possess an eigenstate.

In the Stern–Gerlach experiment discussed above, the spin of the atom about the vertical axis has two eigenstates: up and down. Before measuring it, we can only say that any individual atom has an equal probability of being found to have spin up or spin down. The measurement process causes the wave function to collapse into one of the two states.

The eigenstates of spin about the vertical axis are not simultaneously eigenstates of spin about the horizontal axis, so this atom has an equal probability of being found to have either value of spin about the horizontal axis. As described in the section above, measuring the spin about the horizontal axis can allow an atom that was spun up to spin down: measuring its spin about the horizontal axis collapses its wave function into one of the eigenstates of this measurement, which means it is no longer in an eigenstate of spin about the vertical axis, so can take either value.

The Pauli exclusion principle

In 1924, Wolfgang Pauli proposed a new quantum degree of freedom (or quantum number), with two possible values, to resolve inconsistencies between observed molecular spectra and the predictions of quantum mechanics. In particular, the spectrum of atomic hydrogen had a doublet, or pair of lines differing by a small amount, where only one line was expected. Pauli formulated his exclusion principle, stating, "There cannot exist an atom in such a quantum state that two electrons within [it] have the same set of quantum numbers."

A year later, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit identified Pauli's new degree of freedom with the property called spin whose effects were observed in the Stern–Gerlach experiment.

Dirac wave equation

In 1928, Paul Dirac extended the Pauli equation, which described spinning electrons, to account for special relativity. The result was a theory that dealt properly with events, such as the speed at which an electron orbits the nucleus, occurring at a substantial fraction of the speed of light. By using the simplest electromagnetic interaction, Dirac was able to predict the value of the magnetic moment associated with the electron's spin and found the experimentally observed value, which was too large to be that of a spinning charged sphere governed by classical physics. He was able to solve for the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom and to reproduce from physical first principles Sommerfeld's successful formula for the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum.

Dirac's equations sometimes yielded a negative value for energy, for which he proposed a novel solution: he posited the existence of an antielectron and a dynamical vacuum. This led to the many-particle quantum field theory.

Quantum entanglement

The Pauli exclusion principle says that two electrons in one system cannot be in the same state. Nature leaves open the possibility, however, that two electrons can have both states "superimposed" over each of them. Recall that the wave functions that emerge simultaneously from the double slits arrive at the detection screen in a state of superposition. Nothing is certain until the superimposed waveforms "collapse". At that instant, an electron shows up somewhere in accordance with the probability that is the square of the absolute value of the sum of the complex-valued amplitudes of the two superimposed waveforms. The situation there is already very abstract. A concrete way of thinking about entangled photons, photons in which two contrary states are superimposed on each of them in the same event, is as follows:

Imagine that we have two color-coded states of photons: one state labeled blue and another state labeled red. Let the superposition of the red and the blue state appear (in imagination) as a purple state. We consider a case in which two photons are produced as the result of one single atomic event. Perhaps they are produced by the excitation of a crystal that characteristically absorbs a photon of a certain frequency and emits two photons of half the original frequency. In this case, the photons are interconnected via their shared origin in a single atomic event. This setup results in superimposed states of the photons. So the two photons come out purple. If the experimenter now performs some experiment that determines whether one of the photons is either blue or red, then that experiment changes the photon involved from one having a superposition of blue and red characteristics to a photon that has only one of those characteristics. The problem that Einstein had with such an imagined situation was that if one of these photons had been kept bouncing between mirrors in a laboratory on earth, and the other one had traveled halfway to the nearest star when its twin was made to reveal itself as either blue or red, that meant that the distant photon now had to lose its purple status too. So whenever it might be investigated after its twin had been measured, it would necessarily show up in the opposite state to whatever its twin had revealed.

In trying to show that quantum mechanics was not a complete theory, Einstein started with the theory's prediction that two or more particles that have interacted in the past can appear strongly correlated when their various properties are later measured. He sought to explain this seeming interaction classically, through their common past, and preferably not by some "spooky action at a distance". The argument is worked out in a famous paper, Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (1935; abbreviated EPR) setting out what is now called the EPR paradox. Assuming what is now usually called local realism, EPR attempted to show from quantum theory that a particle has both position and momentum simultaneously, while according to the Copenhagen interpretation, only one of those two properties actually exists and only at the moment that it is being measured. EPR concluded that quantum theory is incomplete in that it refuses to consider physical properties that objectively exist in nature. (Einstein, Podolsky, & Rosen 1935 is currently Einstein's most cited publication in physics journals.) In the same year, Erwin Schrödinger used the word "entanglement" and declared: "I would not call that one but rather the characteristic trait of quantum mechanics." Ever since Irish physicist John Stewart Bell theoretically and experimentally disproved the "hidden variables" theory of Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, most physicists have accepted entanglement as a real phenomenon. However, there is some minority dispute. The Bell inequalities are the most powerful challenge to Einstein's claims.

Quantum field theory

The idea of quantum field theory began in the late 1920s with British physicist Paul Dirac, when he attempted to quantize the energy of the electromagnetic field; just like in quantum mechanics the energy of an electron in the hydrogen atom was quantized. Quantization is a procedure for constructing a quantum theory starting from a classical theory.

Merriam-Webster defines a field in physics as "a region or space in which a given effect (such as magnetism) exists". Other effects that manifest themselves as fields are gravitation and static electricity. In 2008, physicist Richard Hammond wrote:

Sometimes we distinguish between quantum mechanics (QM) and quantum field theory (QFT). QM refers to a system in which the number of particles is fixed, and the fields (such as the electromechanical field) are continuous classical entities.  QFT ... goes a step further and allows for the creation and annihilation of particles ...

He added, however, that quantum mechanics is often used to refer to "the entire notion of quantum view".

In 1931, Dirac proposed the existence of particles that later became known as antimatter. Dirac shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1933 with Schrödinger "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory".

Quantum electrodynamics

Quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the name of the quantum theory of the electromagnetic force. Understanding QED begins with understanding electromagnetism. Electromagnetism can be called "electrodynamics" because it is a dynamic interaction between electrical and magnetic forces. Electromagnetism begins with the electric charge.

Electric charges are the sources of and create, electric fields. An electric field is a field that exerts a force on any particles that carry electric charges, at any point in space. This includes the electron, proton, and even quarks, among others. As a force is exerted, electric charges move, a current flows, and a magnetic field is produced. The changing magnetic field, in turn, causes electric current (often moving electrons). The physical description of interacting charged particles, electrical currents, electrical fields, and magnetic fields is called electromagnetism.

In 1928 Paul Dirac produced a relativistic quantum theory of electromagnetism. This was the progenitor to modern quantum electrodynamics, in that it had essential ingredients of the modern theory. However, the problem of unsolvable infinities developed in this relativistic quantum theory. Years later, renormalization largely solved this problem. Initially viewed as a provisional, suspect procedure by some of its originators, renormalization eventually was embraced as an important and self-consistent tool in QED and other fields of physics.  Also, in the late 1940s Feynman diagrams provided a way to make predictions with QED by finding a probability amplitude for each possible way that an interaction could occur. The diagrams showed in particular that the electromagnetic force is the exchange of photons between interacting particles.

The Lamb shift is an example of a quantum electrodynamics prediction that has been experimentally verified. It is an effect whereby the quantum nature of the electromagnetic field makes the energy levels in an atom or ion deviate slightly from what they would otherwise be. As a result, spectral lines may shift or split.

Similarly, within a freely propagating electromagnetic wave, the current can also be just an abstract displacement current, instead of involving charge carriers. In QED, its full description makes essential use of short-lived virtual particles. There, QED again validates an earlier, rather mysterious concept.

Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics is the quantum field theory that describes three of the four known fundamental forces (electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions – excluding gravity) in the universe and classifies all known elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists worldwide, with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, proof of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z bosons with great accuracy.

Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent and has demonstrated success in providing experimental predictions, it leaves some physical phenomena unexplained and so falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions. For example, it does not fully explain baryon asymmetry, incorporate the full theory of gravitation as described by general relativity, or account for the universe's accelerating expansion as possibly described by dark energy. The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that possesses all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology. It also does not incorporate neutrino oscillations and their non-zero masses. Accordingly, it is used as a basis for building more exotic models that incorporate hypothetical particles, extra dimensions, and elaborate symmetries (such as supersymmetry) to explain experimental results at variance with the Standard Model, such as the existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations.

Interpretations

The physical measurements, equations, and predictions pertinent to quantum mechanics are all consistent and hold a very high level of confirmation. However, the question of what these abstract models say about the underlying nature of the real world has received competing answers. These interpretations are widely varying and sometimes somewhat abstract. For instance, the Copenhagen interpretation states that before a measurement, statements about a particle's properties are completely meaningless, while in the many-worlds interpretation describes the existence of a multiverse made up of every possible universe.

Light behaves in some aspects like particles and in other aspects like waves. Matter—the "stuff" of the universe consisting of particles such as electrons and atoms—exhibits wavelike behavior too. Some light sources, such as neon lights, give off only certain specific frequencies of light, a small set of distinct pure colors determined by neon's atomic structure. Quantum mechanics shows that light, along with all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, comes in discrete units, called photons, and predicts its spectral energies (corresponding to pure colors), and the intensities of its light beams. A single photon is a quantum, or smallest observable particle, of the electromagnetic field. A partial photon is never experimentally observed. More broadly, quantum mechanics shows that many properties of objects, such as position, speed, and angular momentum, that appeared continuous in the zoomed-out view of classical mechanics, turn out to be (in the very tiny, zoomed-in scale of quantum mechanics) quantized. Such properties of elementary particles are required to take on one of a set of small, discrete allowable values, and since the gap between these values is also small, the discontinuities are only apparent at very tiny (atomic) scales.

Applications

Everyday applications
The relationship between the frequency of electromagnetic radiation and the energy of each photon is why ultraviolet light can cause sunburn, but visible or infrared light cannot. A photon of ultraviolet light delivers a high amount of energy—enough to contribute to cellular damage such as occurs in a sunburn. A photon of infrared light delivers less energy—only enough to warm one's skin. So, an infrared lamp can warm a large surface, perhaps large enough to keep people comfortable in a cold room, but it cannot give anyone a sunburn.

Technological applications

Applications of quantum mechanics include the laser, the transistor, the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging. A special class of quantum mechanical applications is related to macroscopic quantum phenomena such as superfluid helium and superconductors. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics.

In even the simple light switch, quantum tunneling is absolutely vital, as otherwise the electrons in the electric current could not penetrate the potential barrier made up of a layer of oxide. Flash memory chips found in USB drives also use quantum tunneling, to erase their memory cells.

See also

 Einstein's thought experiments
 Macroscopic quantum phenomena
 Philosophy of physics
 Quantum computing
 Virtual particle
 Teaching quantum mechanics
 List of textbooks on classical and quantum mechanics

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Scientific American Reader, 1953.

 ; cited in:

 Van Vleck, J. H.,1928, "The Correspondence Principle in the Statistical Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 14: 179.

Further reading

The following titles, all by working physicists, attempt to communicate quantum theory to laypeople, using a minimum of technical apparatus.
 Jim Al-Khalili (2003). Quantum: A Guide for the Perplexed. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. .
 Chester, Marvin (1987). Primer of Quantum Mechanics. John Wiley. .
 Brian Cox and Jeff Forshaw (2011) The Quantum Universe. Allen Lane. .
 Richard Feynman (1985). QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press.  .
 Ford, Kenneth (2005). The Quantum World. Harvard Univ. Press. Includes elementary particle physics.
 Ghirardi, GianCarlo (2004). Sneaking a Look at God's Cards, Gerald Malsbary, trans. Princeton Univ. Press. The most technical of the works cited here. Passages using algebra, trigonometry, and bra–ket notation can be passed over on a first reading.
 Tony Hey and Walters, Patrick (2003). The New Quantum Universe. Cambridge Univ. Press. Includes much about the technologies quantum theory has made possible. .
 Vladimir G. Ivancevic, Tijana T. Ivancevic (2008). Quantum leap: from Dirac and Feynman, Across the universe, to human body and mind. World Scientific Publishing Company. Provides an intuitive introduction in non-mathematical terms and an introduction in comparatively basic mathematical terms. .
 J. P. McEvoy and Oscar Zarate (2004). Introducing Quantum Theory. Totem Books. '
 N. David Mermin (1990). "Spooky actions at a distance: mysteries of the QT" in his Boojums all the way through. Cambridge Univ. Press: 110–76. The author is a rare physicist who tries to communicate to philosophers and humanists. .
 Roland Omnès (1999). Understanding Quantum Mechanics. Princeton Univ. Press. .
 Victor Stenger (2000). Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. Chpts. 5–8. .
 Martinus Veltman (2003). Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics. World Scientific Publishing Company. .

External links

 "Microscopic World – Introduction to Quantum Mechanics". by Takada, Kenjiro, Emeritus professor at Kyushu University
 The Quantum Exchange (tutorials and open-source learning software).
 Atoms and the Periodic Table
 Single and double slit interference
 Time-Evolution of a Wavepacket in a Square Well An animated demonstration of a wave packet dispersion over time.

Articles containing video clips

Introduction to quantum mechanics


Dianne Walker (born March 8, 1951), also known as Lady Di, is an American tap dancer. Her thirty-year career spans Broadway, television, film, and international dance concerts. Walker is the artistic director of TapDancin, Inc. in Boston, Massachusetts.

Career
She began her dance training in Boston with Mildred Kennedy-Bradic and later studied with Leon Collins, Jimmy "Sir Slyde" Mitchell, and Jimmy Slyde. In 1979, she began a professional dance career. She later performed with Collins & Company and became one of the Directors of the Leon Collins Dance Studio, Inc. in Brookline, Massachusetts.

She is considered a pioneer in the resurgence of tap dancing. The Boston Herald has called her "America's First Lady of Tap." Prominent contemporary tap dancer Savion Glover and his peers affectionately call her "Aunt Dianne" in acknowledgment of her unique place as a mentor, teacher, and confidante.

She is often seen in jazz clubs and festivals around the US. A memorable appearance was at the Rainbow Room in New York City with Ruth Brown, Grady Tate, Al McKibbon, and Sir Roland Hanna. Jazz Festival appearances include North Sea (The Hague), Pouri (throughout Europe), Chicago Jazz Festival and Montreal Jazz Festival with Gregory Hines. Dianne was featured in both the original Paris production and the two year Broadway run of Claudio Segovia and Hector Orezzoli's musical Black and Blue. She is also in the PBS production of Black and Blue directed by Robert Altman. She was the only female to dance in the famed "Hoofers Line" which included Jimmy Slyde, Ralph Brown, Buster Brown, Lon Chaney, Chuck Green, Bunny Briggs, and Savion Glover.

While on Broadway, she performed "Memories of You", a soft shoe choreographed by Cholly Atkins. She was also Assistant Choreographer and Dance Captain for the show's Tony Award winning choreography and recreated choreography for a European tour of Black and Blue. She was featured in Fascinating Rhythms, a thirteen-city Dance Umbrella tour with Jimmy Slyde, Savion Glover, and bucket drummers Drummin Too Deep. She has appeared at the Smithsonian on several occasions honoring such distinguished artists as Cholly Atkins and Jeni Le Gon, and a special lecture/performance entitled "Women in Tap." She also completed a year-long engagement of Savion Glover's Concert Tour, entitled "Footnotes," with Jimmy Slyde, Buster Brown, and Cartier Williams.

She is featured in the motion picture Tap starring Gregory Hines and Sammy Davis Jr., PBS Great Performances' "Tap Dance in America", the documentary Honi Coles: The Class Act of Tap, the documentary Songs Unwritten...Leon Collins, and most recently as the principal commentator in the PBS release JUBA.

Ms. Walker holds a master's degree in education. She has taught at numerous colleges, including Harvard, Williams College, the University of Michigan, and UCLA. She has been the recipient of grants from the National Endowment for the Arts, Massachusetts Cultural Council Jacobs Pillow, and the New England Foundation for the arts. She was a participant in the Dance USA Task Force on Dance Education and in 1997 represented the United States as an adjudicator for the World Tap Dance Championships held in Dresden, Germany. She is on the board of several tap dance organizations and was appointed, by the governor of Massachusetts, to a seat on the board of the Massachusetts Cultural Council, a post she has held since 1996.

She is quick to recognize her debt to many of the tap legends that have given to her so generously throughout her career, such as Honi Coles, Cholly Atkins, Eddie Brown, the Nicholas Brothers, Peg Leg Bates, Steve Condos, Henry LeTang, Prince Spencer, Gregory Hines, LaVaughn Robinson, and many others. Leon Collins died in 1985, leaving Dianne to continue as one of the directors of his school (1982–1995).

Awards
In 1997 in Boston, she was presented with the Tapestry Award for excellence in teaching from Thelma Goldberg of the Dance Inn in Lexington, Massachusetts. In 1998, she became the youngest dancer and first woman to receive the Living Treasure in American Dance Award from Oklahoma City University. She received the "Savion Glover Award for Keeping the Beat Alive" in St. Louis, Missouri in 2000. In 2003, she received a Flo-Bert Award, presented by the New York Committee To Celebrate National Tap Dance Day, in recognition of her lifetime achievement regarding tap dancing. In 2006, Dianne's lifetime achievements were honored at a luncheon in Flint, Michigan. This award ceremony was sponsored by Tapology, Artistic and executive director, Alfred Bruce Bradley and the Mott Foundation. In 2005, she received another lifetime achievement recognition (Rhythm Bound) from director Sas Selford of the Vancouver Tap Dance Society. In 2004, Walker received the Hoofers Award from Tap City NYC and was also presented with an award in Los Angeles, in memory of Gregory Hines. That same year she was presented with The Humanitarian Award from Jason Samuels Smith of the Debbie Allen Dance Academy.

References

External links

 Archival footage of Gregory Hines, Dianne Walker and Jimmy Slide in 1996 at Jacob's Pillow
Archival footage of Dianne Walker in PillowTalk: Tap Dancing in America at Jacob's Pillow, 7/1/2012

1951 births
Living people
20th-century African-American academics
20th-century African-American educators
20th-century American academics
20th-century American educators
21st-century African-American academics
21st-century African-American educators
21st-century American academics
21st-century American educators
Academics from Massachusetts
African-American actresses
African-American female dancers
American female dancers
American musical theatre actresses
American tap dancers
American women academics
American women educators
Artists from Boston
Dance teachers
Dancers from Massachusetts
Educators from Massachusetts
Harvard University faculty
Musicians from Boston
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
University of Michigan faculty
Williams College faculty

Dianne Walker


Lavanya is an Indian television series which premiered on 28 March 2004 on Zee TV.

Plot
The story is based on the life of a rich young woman name Lavanya who is residing in Belampally with her parents. Being the only daughter, she is a little spoiled, and her parents let her do whatever she wants. Lavanya is secretly in love with a middle-class guy, who doesn't propose because he is not as rich as her. Her parents want her to get marry to a rich guy so, to see her secret friend Sandy, Lavanya lies to her parents.

Lavanya has two best friends, Shekhar and Nikhil. Shekhar, who also belongs to a middle-class family, works for Lavanya's father. Knowing that Shekhar and Lavanya are good friends, Shekhar's mother wants him to marry her; however, Lavanya's parents want her to marry Nikhil because he is from a rich family. But being in love with Sandy, Lavanya tells her parents that if she is going to marry it will only be Sandy. Hearing that her parents get annoyed, but they agree to meet him. They tell Lavanya that she can only get marry to Sandy if they like him; otherwise she will have to marry Nikhil. Lavanya gets excited because she knows that her parents will approve of him. Unfortunately Sandy doesn't show up. Knowing that she will be forced to marry Nikhil now, Lavanya than decides to run away.

When Lavanya goes to the station to meet Sandy, he does not show up. She learns that her father is in the hospital. Lavanya, thinking Sandy betrayed her, goes to the hospital and agrees to marry Nikhil. She does so because of her father's health. Later she learns that Sandy died while coming to the station. After facing this major tragedy, on the day of her marriage with Nikhil, Lavanya's dad suffers from a heart attack and dies. Nikhil goes back to Mumbai for his job. Lavanya who is still in love with Sandy stays with to support her mother. When Lavanya goes to Nikhil, she makes it very clear to him on the first day that she never loved him and wants a divorce. Nikhil, who loves Lavanya, agrees and talks to a lawyer. However, the judge tells them that they have to be married for six months to get the divorce.

Lavanya calls her mother in Delhi and tells her she will divorce. Heartbroken Nikhil is afraid to tell his mom: He lies to Lavanya that his mother is suffering from a heart problem and she cannot take any kind of shock. Lavanya then pretends to be in love with Nikhil in front of her mother-in-law. On the other hand, to take revenge from Lavanya's family for not allowing their daughter's marriage with Shekhar, his mother sends Lavanya's photos with Sandy to Nikhil's mother, who gets a major shock after seeing them. Nikhil makes an excuse that they are pictures from a school play. Lavanya thinks that Shekhar sent the photos and is filled with hatred for him. Shekhar who comes to Mumbai for a business deal goes to Lavanya's house where he is literally kicked out. Nikhil also believes that Shekhar is responsible for those pictures and hates him. But when his misunderstanding his cleared and he realizes that Shekhar's mother sent the pictures, he invites Shekhar home.

Lavanya also apologizes. Lavanya, Shekhar, Tanya (Nikhil's sister who is a journalist) and Nikhil all live in one apartment now. While trying to get Lavanya closer to Nikhil, Tanya falls in love with Shekhar.

Anny, Nikhil's classmate from the US, comes to Mumbai. She loves Nikhil and dreams of marrying him. Lavanya gets jealous seeing Nikhil and Anny together. When Anny realizes that Lavanya loves Nikhil, she leaves. Lavanya and Nikhil love each other but are afraid to express their feelings. Nikhil convinces Lavanya to have a painting exhibition so that he can spend some time with her and get her to express her feelings.

During a press conference when asked who was Lavanya's inspiration, instead of saying Nikhil she says Sandy. Nikhil is very upset. Sandy is shown to be alive watching the press conference on TV. Will Lavanya choose Nikhil over Sandy?

Cast
 Shilpa Saklani as Lavanya
 Rohit Bakshi as Nikhil
 Ashish Kapoor as Shekhar
 Gaurav Chopra as Sandy
 Himanshi Choudhry
 Parineeta Borthakur as Gauri

References

External links
Lavanya news article in The Hindu
News article on Indiantelevision.com

2004 Indian television series debuts
2004 Indian television series endings
Indian television soap operas
Zee TV original programming

Lavanya (TV series)


Athelfrith († 616), in 593 became King of Bernicia. In 604 he conquered Deira and became the first King of Northumbria. Aethelfrith was the first great leader among the Angles north of the River Humber. Bede called him an ambitious and powerful king who cruelly ravaged the Britons more than any other English leader. He was killed in battle against the East Angles.

King of Bernicia

Athelfrith was the son of Athelric of Bernicia and grandson of Ida of Bernicia. In 593 Athelfrith became King of Bernicia. According to Frank Stenton "The continuous history of Northumbria, and indeed of England, begins with the reign of Athelfrith..." Among the northern Angles, Aethelfrith was the first great leader. He gained more territory from the Britons than any other English leader.

In 595 a large force of Britons, Gaels and Picts came together at Din Eydin (Edinburgh). They attacked the Angles of Bernicia at a place identified as Catterick. Among those killed at this battle called Catraeth, was Owen of Rheged, Athelfrith's enemy. Owen had killed Athelfrith's father, Athelric. The remaining force of Britons, Gaels and Picts was completely defeated, most of them being killed. In 603 Athelfrith fought another great battle at a place called Degsastan. Dál Riatan Scots, under their king Aedan mac Gabrain came against the English and were completely defeated. Athelfrith's victory eliminated the Scots as a threat for a long period of time in northern Britain. Bede, writing in 731, wrote that up to his day no king of the Scots had attempted to wage war against the northern English again. The only remaining enemy to cause Athelfrith any concern was the Britons of Strathclyde.

King of Northumbria

In 604 Athelfrith attacked Deira to his south. King Athelric of Deira was killed. Athelfrith also tried to kill Edwin of Deira, Athelric's brother, but Edwin escaped. He took Edwin's sister, Achaas, as his second wife. In 605 Athelfrith united the two kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira, into a single kingdom called Northumbria. He must have spent the next few years setting up ways to govern such a large territory. He almost certainly set up fortifications as well. By 613 Athelfrith began trying to capture Edwin who had since been in exile in Gwnedd and Powys. He moved his army across the Pennines to Chester. When several monks were sent by the Britons to negotiate with Athelfrith they were killed. Between 613 and 616 Athelfrith defeated the Britons in battle at Chester. Edwin escaped again this time to Mercia, then to East Anglia. Athelfrith wanted the king, Raedwald of East Anglia, to murder Edwin, but he would not. Concerned that Athelfrith might attack East Anglia, Raedwald took his army and attacked Athelfrith. The two armies met at the River Idle near Doncaster. Not seeing the East Angles as a major threat, Athelfrith brought a smaller army. Athelfrith was killed after he was separated from his bodyguards. Edwin returned to Northumbria to become the king. At Athelfrith's death his family fled north to find safety. Eanfrith, the eldest son, found safety with the Picts. He married the sister of Gartnait, King of the Picts. His half-brothers Oswald and Oswiu found safety with the Scots in Argyll.

Family

Athelfrith took a British or Pictish wife named Bebbe. The Bernician royal city of Bamburgh is named for her. Their only son was:
 Eanfrith of Bernicia (590–634)

Athelfrith married secondly,  Acha, sister of Edwin of Deira and daughter of Aelle of Deira. Together they had:
 Oswald of Northumbria (–642)
 Oswiu of Northumbria|Oswiu (–15 February 670)
 Oswudu of Northumbria
 Oslac of Northumbria
 Oslaf of Northumbria
 Offa of Northumbria
 Ebba, Abbess of Coldingham

Notes

References

Other websites
 The Kings of Northumbria, Britannia
610s deaths
6th-century births
Anglo-Saxon royalty

Athelfrith of Bernicia


Gesso is a primer or foundation for art painting on wood or canvas. It is a white paint mixture. It has a binder mixed with a pigment. Traditionally, the binder is glue or gelatin, the pigment is chalk, plaster or gypsum.

Gesso is used in art to prepare a surfaces (wood panels, canvas and sculpture) for painting. Paint and/or other materials are applied on top of the gesso. One reason for covering the surface with gesso is that wood or canvas has a rough or uneven surface, and a colour. Gesso "priming" lets the artist's chosen subject show more clearly than it would otherwise.

Even if a surface has no roughness, many artists still prime it before starting the painting proper, though they might use a paint or "wash" of their own choosing. They do this because the primer, though it cannot be seen directly, may change and help the quality of light reflected from the surface. Gesso, however, is specially useful for a rough or uneven surface.

Acrylic gesso
Acrylic gesso, a widely used "ground", is a modern version which is cheaper and easier to use than the traditional type of gesso. It is a combination of calcium carbonate with an acrylic polymer medium latex, a pigment and other chemicals to ensure flexibility and increase life. It is technically not gesso at all.p321

The Painter's Handbook notes a problem with using oil paints over an acrylic gesso ground instead of a traditional oil ground, citing a mismatch in flexibility over time that could cause the oil paint to delaminate (flake off).p60

References

Paints

Gesso


Sawan Fakir or Sawan Faqir (died 1918) was a classical Sindhi poet who used to recite poetry of a typical Sindhi form- "Bait". His "baits" were of great length.

Sawan Fakir belonged to Khaskheli tribe and was born in village Shahdad Khaskheli near Nindo Shaher (Badin District) in 1875–1870. Sawn Faqir used to graze cattle in his village. During drought of Chhapno he left Badin area and went to village Fazal Khaskheli where he started working as peasant with Wadero Khabbar Odejo in Juddho area.

Sawan Fakir wife and two brothers died due to cholera spread in 1918. Maula Bux Khaskheli, Sidiq Faqir of village Ghulam Hussain Jamali Taluka Badin, Bachayo Faqir Todo Faqir of Odero Lal were among his students.

Ali Kahn Korai, Hassan Faqir Hingoro, Taji Khan Chandio used to sung his "Bait". While among Alghozo players were Muso Khaskheli, resident of village Kandri, near Rajo Khanani, Hussain Khaskheli village Kandri, Khabbar Khaskheli ( blind person) resident of Seenhao taluka Tando Bago, Faqir Gulo Othari of Badin.

References
 Dr Nabi Bux Baloch's article on Sawan Faqir
 Badin Magazine 2009

Sindhi people
Poets from British India
1918 deaths
Year of birth missing

Sawan Fakir


Der NAS Award for Chemistry in Service to Society ist eine Auszeichnung der National Academy of Sciences der Vereinigten Staaten, die für Leistungen in der Grundlagenforschung oder anwendungsbezogenen Forschung vergeben wird, die wichtige gesellschaftliche Bedürfnisse befriedigen. Der Preis ist mit 20.000 US-Dollar dotiert und wird alle zwei Jahre vergeben. Hierbei werden Chemiker ausgezeichnet, die in der Industrie arbeiten, in der akademischen Forschung, für die Regierung oder in Non-Profit-Organisationen. Die Auszeichnung wurde vom US-amerikanischen Chemie-Unternehmen DuPont gestiftet.

Preisträger

 1991: Vladimir Haensel. For his outstanding research in the catalytic reforming of hydrocarbons, that has greatly enhanced the economic value of our petroleum natural resources.
 1993: Harold S. Johnston. For his pioneering efforts to point out that man-made emissions could affect the chemistry of the stratosphere, in particular, the danger of the depletion by nitrogen oxide of the earth's critical and fragile ozone layer.
 1995: P. Roy Vagelos. For his fundamental contributions to the understanding of fatty acid biosynthesis, cholesterol metabolism, and phospholipid metabolism, and for his leadership at Merck that led to the discovery of a number of important therapeutic and preventive agents.
 1997: Ernest L. Eliel. For his seminal and far-reaching contributions in organic stereochemistry and for his wise and energetic leadership in professional societies that represent the interests of chemists and of society, both in the United States and abroad.
 1999: Grant Willson. For his fundamental contribution to the chemistry of materials that produce micropatterns in semiconductors, and for its widespread application in the microelectronics industry for the benefit of society.
 2001: Paul Christian Lauterbur. For his research on nuclear magnetic resonance and its applications in chemistry and medicine, and his contributions to the development of magnetic resonance imaging in medicine.
 2003: Paul S. Anderson. For his scientific leadership in two drugs approved for the treatment of AIDS and for his widely cited basic research related to the glutamate receptor.
 2005: Marvin H. Caruthers. For his invention and development of chemical reagents and methods currently used for the automated synthesis of DNA oligonucleotides (i.e., the "gene machine").
 2007: Arthur A. Patchett. For innovative contributions in discoveries of Mevacor, the first statin that lowers cholesterol levels, and of Vasotec and Prinivil for treating hypertension and congestive heart failure.
 2009: John D. Roberts. For seminal contributions in physical organic chemistry, in particular the introduction of NMR spectroscopy to the chemistry community.
 2011: Paul J. Reider. For his contributions to the discovery and development of numerous approved drugs, including those for treating asthma and for treating AIDS.
 2013: Edward C. Taylor. For his contributions to heterocyclic chemistry, in particular the discovery of the new-generation antifolate pemetrexed, approved for the treatment of mesothelioma and non-small cell lung cancer and under clinical investigation for treatment of a variety of other solid tumors.
 2015: Bruce D. Roth. For his discovery, synthesis and commercial development of atorvastatin (Lipitor), the most successful cholesterol lowering medicine in history, which has extended the lifespan of millions of people worldwide.
 2017: Leroy Hood. For his invention, commercialization and development of multiple chemical tools that address biological complexity, including the automated DNA sequencer that spearheaded the human genome project.
2019: John C. Martin: For his contributions to the development of antiviral medications used to treat even the most refractory of the deadly diseases, including HIV/AIDS, HCV, HBV, CMV, and flu, impacting hundreds of millions of individuals around the world and for his tireless efforts to ensure all of humanity, rich and poor alike, benefit.
2021: Susan Solomon: For her influential and incisive application of atmospheric chemistry to understand our most critical environmental issues – ozone layer depletion and climate change – and for her effective communication of environmental science to leaders to facilitate policy changes.
2023: Hye Kyung Timken: Timken's groundbreaking work on innovative catalysts has been instrumental in making oil refineries safer, and fossil fuels more environmentally friendly.

Weblinks
 NAS Award for Chemistry in Service to Society bei der National Academy of Sciences (nasonline.org)

Chemiepreis
Auszeichnung der National Academy of Sciences
Erstverleihung 1991


Transdisciplinarity connotes a research strategy that crosses disciplinary boundaries to create a holistic approach. It applies to research efforts focused on problems that cross the boundaries of two or more disciplines, such as research on effective information systems for biomedical research (see bioinformatics), and can refer to concepts or methods that were originally developed by one discipline, but are now used by several others, such as ethnography, a field research method originally developed in anthropology but now widely used by other disciplines.
The Belmont Forum elaborated that a transdisciplinary approach is enabling inputs and scoping across scientific and non-scientific stakeholder communities and facilitating a systemic way of addressing a challenge. This includes initiatives that support the capacity building required for the successful transdisciplinary formulation and implementation of research actions.

Usage
Transdisciplinarity has two common meanings:

German usage
In German-speaking countries, Transdisziplinarität refers to the integration of diverse forms of research, and includes specific methods for relating knowledge in problem-solving. A 2003 conference held at the University of Göttingen showcased the diverse meanings of multi-, inter- and transdisciplinarity and made suggestions for converging them without eliminating present usages.

When the very nature of a problem is under dispute, transdisciplinarity can help determine the most relevant problems and research questions involved. A first type of question concerns the cause of the present problems and their future development (system knowledge). Another concerns which values and norms can be used to form goals of the problem-solving process (target knowledge). A third relates to how a problematic situation can be transformed and improved (transformation knowledge). Transdisciplinarity requires adequate addressing of the complexity of problems and the diversity of perceptions of them, that abstract and case-specific knowledge are linked, and that practices promote the common good.

Transdisciplinarity arises when participating experts interact in an open discussion and dialogue, giving equal weight to each perspective and relating them to each other. This is difficult because of the overwhelming amount of information involved, and because of incommensurability of specialized languages in each field of expertise. To excel under these conditions, researchers need not only in-depth knowledge and know-how of the disciplines involved, but skills in moderation, mediation, association and transfer.

Wider usage
Transdisciplinarity is also used to signify a unity of knowledge beyond disciplines.

Jean Piaget introduced this usage of the term in 1970, and in 1987, the International Center for Transdisciplinary Research (CIRET) adopted the Charter of Transdisciplinarity at the 1st World Congress of Transdisciplinarity, Convento da Arrabida, Portugal, November 1994.

In the CIRET approach, transdisciplinarity is radically distinct from interdisciplinarity. Interdisciplinarity, like pluridisciplinarity, concerns the transfer of methods from one discipline to another, allowing research to spill over disciplinary boundaries, but staying within the framework of disciplinary research.

As the prefix "trans" indicates, transdisciplinarity concerns that which is at once between the disciplines, across the different disciplines, and beyond each individual discipline. Its goal is the understanding of the present world, of which one of the imperatives is the overarching unity of knowledge.

Another critical defining characteristic of transdisciplinary research is the inclusion of stakeholders in defining research objectives and strategies in order to better incorporate the diffusion of learning produced by the research. Collaboration between stakeholders is deemed essential – not merely at an academic or disciplinary collaboration level, but through active collaboration with people affected by the research and community-based stakeholders. In such a way, transdisciplinary collaboration becomes uniquely capable of engaging with different ways of knowing the world, generating new knowledge, and helping stakeholders understand and incorporate the results or lessons learned by the research.

Transdisciplinarity is defined by Basarab Nicolescu through three methodological postulates: the existence of levels of Reality, the logic of the included middle, and complexity. In the presence of several levels of Reality the space between disciplines and beyond disciplines is full of information. Disciplinary research concerns, at most, one and the same level of Reality; moreover, in most cases, it only concerns fragments of one level of Reality. On the contrary, transdisciplinarity concerns the dynamics engendered by the action of several levels of Reality at once. The discovery of these dynamics necessarily passes through disciplinary knowledge. While not a new discipline or a new superdiscipline, transdisciplinarity is nourished by disciplinary research; in turn, disciplinary research is clarified by transdisciplinary knowledge in a new, fertile way. In this sense, disciplinary and transdisciplinary research are not antagonistic but complementary. As in the case of disciplinarity, transdisciplinary research is not antagonistic but complementary to multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity research.

According to Nicolescu, transdisciplinarity is nevertheless radically distinct from multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity because of its goal, the understanding of the present world, which cannot be accomplished in the framework of disciplinary research. The goal of multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity always remains within the framework of disciplinary research. If transdisciplinarity is often confused with interdisciplinarity or multidisciplinarity (and by the same token, we note that interdisciplinarity is often confused with multidisciplinarity) this is explained in large part by the fact that all three overflow disciplinary boundaries. Advocates maintain this confusion hides the huge potential of transdisciplinarity. One of the best known professionals of transdisciplinarity in Argentina is Pablo Tigani, and his concept about transdisciplinarity is:Currently, transdisciplinarity is a consolidated academic field that is giving rise to new applied researches, especially in Latin America and the Caribbean. In this sense, the transdisciplinary and biomimetics research of Javier Collado  on Big History represents an ecology of knowledge between scientific knowledge and the ancestral wisdom of native peoples, such as Indigenous peoples in Ecuador. According to Collado, the transdisciplinary methodology applied in the field of Big History seeks to understand the interconnections of the human race with the different levels of reality that co-exist in nature and in the cosmos, and this includes mystical and spiritual experiences, very present in the rituals of shamanism with ayahuasca and other sacred plants. In abstract, the teaching of Big History in universities of Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, and Argentina implies a transdisciplinary vision that integrates and unifies diverse epistemes that are in, between, and beyond the scientific disciplines, that is, including ancestral wisdom, spirituality, art, emotions, mystical experiences and other dimensions forgotten in the history of science, specially by the positivist approach.

Transdisciplinary education
Transdisciplinary education is education that brings integration of different disciplines in a harmonious manner to construct new knowledge and uplift the learner to higher domains of cognitive abilities and sustained knowledge and skills. It involves better neural networking for lifelong learning.

Transdisciplinarity has been flagged internationally as an important aim of education. For example, Global Education Magazine, an international journal supported by UNESCO and UNHCR:
"transdisciplinarity represents the capable germ to promote an endogenous development of the evolutionary spirit of internal critical consciousness, where religion and science are complementary. Respect, solidarity and cooperation should be global standards for the entire human development with no boundaries. This requires a radical change in the ontological models of sustainable development, global education and world-society. We must rely on the recognition of a plurality of models, cultures and socio-economical diversification. As well as biodiversity is the way for the emergence of new species, cultural diversity represents the creative potential of world-society."

Influence in disciplines and fields

Arts and humanities

Transdisciplinarity can be found in the arts and humanities. For example, the Planetary Collegium seeks "the development of transdisciplinary discourse in the convergence of art, science, technology and consciousness research." The Plasticities Sciences Arts (PSA) research group also develops transdisciplinary approaches regarding humanities and fundamental sciences relationships as well as the Art & Science field.

Human sciences
The range of transdisciplinarity becomes clear when the four central questions of biological research ((1) causation, (2) ontogeny, (3) adaptation, (4) phylogeny [after Niko Tinbergen 1963, see also Tinbergen's four questions, cf. Aristotle: Causality / Four Major Causes]) are graphed against distinct levels of analysis (e.g. cell, organ, individual, group; [cf. "Laws about the Levels of Complexity" of Nicolai Hartmann 1940/1964, see also Rupert Riedl 1984]):

In this "scheme of transdisciplinarity", all anthropological disciplines (paragraph C in the table of the pdf-file below), their questions (paragraph A: see pdf-file) and results (paragraph B: see pdf-file) can be intertwined and allocated with each other for examples how these aspects go into those little boxes in the matrix, see e.g. the table  This chart includes all realms of anthropological research (no one is excluded). It is the starting point for a systematical order for all human sciences, and also a source for a consistent networking and structuring of their results. This "bio-psycho-social" orientation framework is the basis for the development of the "Fundamental Theory of Human Sciences" and for a transdisciplinary consensus. (In this tabulated orientation matrix the questions and reference levels in italics are also the subject of the humanities.). Niko Tinbergen was familiar with both conceptual categories (i.e. the four central questions of biological research and the levels of analysis), the tabulation was made by Gerhard Medicus. Certainly, a humanist perspective always involves a transdisciplinary focus. A good and classic example of mixing very different sciences was the work developed by Leibniz in seventeenth-eighteenth centuries in order to create a universal system of justice.

Health science
The term transdisciplinarity is increasingly prevalent in health care research and has been identified as important to improving the effectiveness and efficiency in health care.

See also
 Discipline (academia)
 Interdisciplinarity
 Multidisciplinarity
 Science of team science

References

Citations

Sources and further reading

 Brand, Frank; Schaller, Franz; Völker, Harald (Eds.). 2004. Transdisziplinarität. Bestandsaufnahme und Perspektiven. Göttingen: Universitätsverlag.
 Carmona, Bernard. Inter and Transdisciplinary international conference – Lisbon 2014 December 11
 Carmona, Bernard. ITD14 – Swiss Conference : Inter and Transdisciplinarity 2014
 Carmona, Bernard –
 Carmona, Bernard. Ingénium transdisciplinaire – La pratique du débat dans le bouddhisme tibétain, Editions l'Harmattan, 2013
 Carmona, Bernard. 2009. Le réveil du génie de l'apprenant, Editions l'Harmattan.
 Collado-Ruano, Javier (2018), Co-evolution in Big History: A Transdisciplinary and Biomimetic Approach to the Sustainable Development Goals. Social Evolution & History, 2018 Javier Collado´s official website.
 Collado-Ruano, Javier. 2016. Cosmodern Education in the Sustainable Development Goals, A Transdisciplinary and Biomimetic Approach from the Big History. TheATLAS. vol. 6, pp. 98–122.
 Collado-Ruano, Javier. 2016. Coevolución en la Gran Historia - una introducción transdisciplinar y biomimética a los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible. Tesis doctoral premiada por la Fundación Columbia como la mejor investigación de América Latina y el Caribe en Ciencia y Espiritualidad del año 2016 Co-evolution in Big History - a transdisciplinary and biomimetic introduction to the Sustainable Development Goals.
 Collado-Ruano, Javier. TED talk Learning to feel-think-act with Nature
 Bambara, E. 2000. "Alle radici della Transdisciplinarità. Edgar Morin e Basarab Nicolescu", PhD Thesis, University of Messina.
 Jaeger J., Scheringer M. 1998. Transdisziplinarität. Problemorientierung ohne Methodenzwang. GAIA 7(1): 10–25.
 Jones, Ronald. Interdisciplinarian, The Experience Design Group, Konstfack University of Art Design and Craft, Stockholm, Sweden
  Jürgen Mittelstrass On Transdisciplinarity (URL accessed on 6 November 2014)
 ; see also 2017: Being Human – Bridging the Gap between the Sciences of Body and Mind . Berlin, VWB,
 Hartmann, Nicolai. 1939. Der Aufbau der realen Welt, Berlin (2nd Ed. 1964), de Gruyter.
 Hirsch Hadorn, Gertrude; Hoffmann-Riem, Holger; Biber-Klemm, Susette; Grossenbacher-Mansuy, Walter; Joye, Dominique; Pohl, Christian; Wiesmann, Urs & Zemp, Elisabeth (Eds.). 2008. Handbook of Transdisciplinary Research, Heidelberg: Springer.
 Hamberger, E., Luger, K. (Ed.). 2008. Transdisziplinäre Kommunikation. Aktuelle Be-Deutungen im fächerübergreifenden Dialog, Wien: Österr. Kunst- und Kulturverlag, .
 Max-Neef, Manfred A. "Foundations of Transdisciplinarity" Ecological Economics 53(2005) 5-16.
 Mittelstrass, Jürgen. 2000. Transdisciplinarity – New Structures in Science, presented at the conference "Innovative Structures in Basic Research" at Schloss Ringberg, 4 October 2000
 Mittelstrass, Jürgen. 2003. Transdisziplinarität – wissenschaftliche Zukunft und institutionelle Wirklichkeit. 2003 .
 V.S.Mokiy, Methodology of transdisciplinarity-4 (solution of complicated multi-factor problems of nature and society) Institute of transdisciplinary technologies, Russia, 2013.
 Mokiy, V.S. 2013. Transdisciplinary research of the Big Bang potency transformation in regards to Earth and human beings Institute of transdisciplinary technologies, Russia.
 Nicolescu, Basarab. 2002. Manifesto of Transdisciplinarity, State University of New York (SUNY) Press, New York, 2002, translation from French by Karen-Claire Voss.
 Nicolescu, Basarab (Ed.). 2008. Transdisciplinarity – Theory and Practice, Hampton Press, Cresskill, NJ.
 Pohl, Christian & Hirsch Hadorn, Gertrude (2007): Principles for Designing Transdisciplinary Research – proposed by the Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences, München: oekom Verlag.
 Riedl, Rupert. 1984. The Biology of Knowledge. Chichester, Wiley.
 Steinmetz, George. 2007. Transdisciplinarity as a Nonimperial Encounter. Thesis Eleven, 91 (1), 48–65. http://the.sagepub.com/content/91/1/48.short?rss=1&ssource=mfc/
 Stokols, Daniel. 2006. Toward a science of transdisciplinary action research. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10464-006-9060-5
 Thompson Klein, Julie; Grossenbacher-Mansuy, Walter; Häberli, Rudolf; Bill, Alain; Scholz, Roland W.; Welti, Myrtha (Eds.). 2001. Transdisciplinarity: Joint problem solving among science, technology, and society. An effective way for managing complexity. Basel: Birkhäuser
 Tinbergen, Nico. 1963. On Aims and Methods in Ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 1963, 20: 410–433
 Vilsmaier, Ulli, Juliana Merçon, and Esther Meyer. 2023. Transdisciplinarity. In: Handbook Transdisciplinary Learning, eds. Thorsten Philipp and Tobias Schmohl, 381–390. Bielefeld: transcript. ISBN 978-3-8376-6347-1.
 Wickson, F., Carew, A.L. & Russell, A.W. 2006. 'Transdisciplinary research: characteristics, quandaries and quality', Futures, vol. 38, no. 9, pp. 1046–1059.

External links
 Integral Research Center
 transdisciplinary-net, Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences
 Transdisciplinary Case Studies at ETH Zurich
 International Center for Transdisciplinary Research The site of the International Center for Transdisciplinary Research (CIRET). E-zine "Transdisciplinary Encounters".
 Transdisciplinary Studies The book series dedicated to transdisciplinary research.

 World Knowledge Dialogue Foundation
 Сoncept Russian school of Transdisciplinarity
 Article of the Russian School of Transdisciplinarity 2007-2021
 Books of the Russian School of Transdisciplinarity 2007-2021
 Transdisciplinary Studies at Claremont Graduate University
 PLASTIR : The Transdisciplinary Review of human plasticity
  Journal of the International Association of Transdisciplinary Psychology
 GAIA: Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society A quarterly inter- and transdisciplinary journal for scientists and other interested parties concerned with the causes and analyses of environmental and sustainability problems and their solutions.
  Global Education Magazine disseminate specialized knowledge with multi, inter and transdisciplinary contents, with original works of research, studies, reviews and innovative experiences to improve management and practice of institutions and organizations with humanitarian and philanthropic educational activities. Their preferred writers are come from educational scientific community with international projects, humanitarian and voluntary activities, as well as cooperation and development: Public and Private Educational Institutions, NGOs, Development and Cooperation Associations, International Volunteers, etc

Academic discipline interactions
Holism

Transdisciplinarity


CITE-FM (107.3 MHz) is a French-language radio station located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Owned and operated by Bell Media, it airs an adult contemporary format. It is also the flagship station of the "Rouge FM" network, which operates across Quebec and in the Ottawa-Gatineau radio market. The studios and offices are located at the Bell Media building at 1717 Boulevard René-Lévesque East in Downtown Montreal.

CITE-FM has an effective radiated power (ERP) of 42,900 watts, using an omnidirectional antenna from the Mount Royal candelabra tower. It broadcasts in the HD Radio hybrid format.

History

Radio-Cité (1977-1990)
CITE-FM signed on the air on May 7, 1977 as a sister station to 730 CKAC, owned by Telemedia. While it was still being approved and built, the station was called CKAC-FM, though it would instead go on the air as CITE-FM.  The previous year, a co-owned FM station in Sherbrooke at 102.7 began using the call letters CITE-FM. With the sign-on of 107.3 in Montreal, the Sherbrooke station became CITE-FM-1, a designation that usually indicates a full-time rebroadcaster of the non-numbered station, though CITE-FM-1 continued to have its own local personalities and advertising with a similar playlist. CITE-FM-1 is also easily heard in the southeastern portion of the Montreal market, and Telemedia likely used the similar calls for overall ratings purposes involving both stations. Currently, CITE-FM-1 continues to simulcast some programming from Montreal but retains its own local advertising and some local personalities.

Telemedia originally planned CITE-FM to be on 93.5 MHz, but the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission instead arranged for CBM-FM to shift from 100.7 MHz to 93.5  MHz to accommodate CBF-FM. Telemedia then took the 107.3 allocation instead.

CITE-FM aired a beautiful music format as Radio-Cité. It played instrumental cover versions of popular songs, along with some French and English middle of the road (MOR) vocals. Over time, to attract younger listeners, the number of vocals increased while the instrumental music was scaled back.

Rock-Détente (1990-2011)

In 1990, CITE-FM completed its move from instrumental to vocal music, switching to a soft adult contemporary format. "Radio-Cité" was renamed Cité Rock-Détente. Telemedia's radio stations in Quebec and the Maritimes were purchased in 2002 by Astral Media. CITE-FM became the sister station of Astral's CKMF-FM. Because of federal competition laws, Astral Media was not permitted to keep 730 CKAC. Following the transaction, CITE-FM left the CKAC building that was on the corner of Sainte-Catherine Street and Peel Street, relocating to CKMF's building at the corner of René Lévesque Boulevard and Papineau Avenue.

In 2004, Astral revamped the Rock Détente network with a new logo. This resulted in Cité Rock-Détente being renamed as simply "107,3 RockDétente." The station no longer uses its call letters on the air, except when required by CRTC regulations.

Rouge FM (2011-present)

On August 18, 2011, at 4:00 p.m. EDT, the station ended its 21-year run with the "RockDétente" branding. All "RockDétente" stations, including CITE, were rebranded as Rouge FM.

The last song under "RockDétente" was "Pour que tu m'aimes encore" by Celine Dion, followed by a tribute to RockDétente's 23-year history. The first song under "Rouge" was "I Gotta Feeling" by Black Eyed Peas.

Transmitters
The following stations are known rebroadcasters of CITE-FM:

CITE-FM-1, a Rouge FM station in Sherbrooke, is not a rebroadcaster, but a separate station, despite the call sign suggesting otherwise. CITE-FM-2, also serving Sherbrooke, is a low-powered repeater of CITE-FM-1.

References

External links
107,3 Rouge

Ite
Ite
Radio stations established in 1977
Ite
Ite
1977 establishments in Quebec

CITE-FM


Italian futurist cinema () was the oldest movement of European avant-garde cinema. Italian futurism, an artistic and social movement, impacted the Italian film industry from 1916 to 1919. It influenced Russian Futurist cinema and German Expressionist cinema. Its cultural importance was considerable and influenced all subsequent avant-gardes, as well as some authors of narrative cinema; its echo expands to the dreamlike visions of some films by Alfred Hitchcock.

History
Between 1911 and 1919, Italy was home to the first avant-garde movement in cinema, inspired by the country's futurism, an artistic and social movement. Futurism emphasized dynamism, speed, technology, youth, violence, and objects such as the car, the airplane, and the industrial city. Its key figures were the Italians Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Fortunato Depero, Gino Severini, Giacomo Balla, and Luigi Russolo. It glorified modernity and aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past.

The 1916 Manifesto of Futuristic Cinematography was signed by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Armando Ginna, Bruno Corra, Giacomo Balla and others. To the Futurists, cinema was an ideal art form, being a fresh medium, and able to be manipulated by speed, special effects and editing. The Futurists were among the first to understand how cinematographic tricks, now widely experimented in the previous decade, were usable not only as a freak phenomenon, but also as a creative, poetic and symbolic means. For example, a superimposition was no longer just a means to make a ghost or a giant appear next to a dwarf, but could become a tool for a new artistic and subversive language. The same montage allowed the decomposition of reality according to the "whims" of the artists, allowing visions never experienced before. In this sense, cinema was also a "means of transport". The Manifesto of Futurist Cinematography stated that:

In the Manifesto of Futurist Cinematography it was argued that cinema was "by nature" futurist art, due to the lack of a past and traditions, but did not appreciate the "very old" narrative cinema, looking instead for a cinema made up of "travel, hunts and wars", under the banner of an "anti-graceful, deforming, impressionist, synthetic, dynamic, free word" show. In their words there is enthusiasm towards the search for a new language unrelated to traditional beauty, which was perceived as an old and suffocating legacy. Futurism was the first artistic movement to take an interest in cinema as a language in itself and as a "movement of language". A typically futurist vision could be the panorama that changes abruptly from the window of a car, a train or an airplane, where the theme of modernity and speed were one that did not need further additions.

The production of avant-garde films was rather limited, as for subsequent experiments, and in particular for futurism many works have been lost. The first experimental films were those of the Corradini brothers, nicknamed Ginna and Corra, who in 1911 made four hand-colored films (cinepitture), with scattered and confused patches of color, now lost. Such experiments influenced the so-called aeropittura or second futurism of 1929, and also were later taken up again in abstract cinema in Germany, by painters such as Viking Eggeling and Hans Richter. Much loved by the Futurists was popular comic cinema, where pure movement (races, chases, tumbles) often dominated the scene, fervent by editing. Marinetti himself had in fact written a carnival opera, the Re Baldoria.

Most of the futuristic-themed films of this period have been lost, but critics cite Thaïs (1917) by Anton Giulio Bragaglia as one of the most influential, serving as the main inspiration for German Expressionist cinema in the following decade. Thaïs was born on the basis of the aesthetic treatise Fotodinamismo futurista (1911), written by the same author. The film, built around a melodramatic and decadent story, actually reveals multiple artistic influences different from Marinett's futurism; the secessionist scenographies, the liberty furniture, and the abstract and surreal moments contribute to create a strong formal syncretism.

The scenographer Enrico Prampolini, in Thaïs, used geometric shapes based on a strong black/white contrast: spiral, diamond, chess, symbolic figures (cats, masks spewing smoke). Painted scenes often interact with the characters, creating a world of illusions where it is difficult to distinguish fact from fiction. As the film progresses, it becomes more and more abstract to reflect the growing confusion of the film's protagonist. This movie is the sole surviving Italian futurist film, and currently kept at the Cinémathèque Française. It is not based on the novel of the same name by Anatole France.

Also noteworthy is Vita futurista (1916), by Arnaldo Ginna, is a sort of practical verification of the theses set out in the Manifesto: ironic and intentionally provocative, the film makes use of numerous special effects (hand-colored parts, color changes, eccentric shots, anti-naturalistic montage) to stimulate the emotional reactions of the viewer. In the same period Bragaglia realizes other works such as Il mio cadavere (1917), Perfido incanto (1918) and the short film Dramma nell'Olimpo (1917), all of which have been lost. Another lost film is Il re, le torri, gli alfieri by Ivo Illuminati, where the characters were dressed like chess figures and moved on a checkerboard floor.

The Italian film industry struggled against rising foreign competition in the years following World War I. Several major studios, among them Cines and Ambrosio, formed the Unione Cinematografica Italiana to coordinate a national strategy for film production. This effort was largely unsuccessful, however, due to a wide disconnect between production and exhibition (some films were not released until several years after they were produced).

Major figures

 Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
 Anton Giulio Bragaglia
 Riccardo Cassano

Film of Italian futurism
Vita futurista ("Futurist life"), directed by Arnaldo Ginna and Lucio Venna (1916), lost film
Un dramma nell'Olimpo ("A drama in Olympus"), directed by Anton Giulio Bragaglia (1917), lost film
Il mio cadavere ("My Corpse"), directed by Anton Giulio Bragaglia (1917), lost film
Thaïs ("Thaïs"), directed by Anton Giulio Bragaglia (1917), only 35 min. of the original 70 min. runtime survive
Il re, le torri, gli alfieri ("The king, the rook, the bishop"), directed by Ivo Illuminati (1917), lost film
Il perfido incanto ("The Wicked Enchantment"), directed by Anton Giulio Bragaglia (1918), lost film

Gallery from Thaïs (1917)

Influence

Italian futurism did not produce works in the cinema that immediately lived up to their revolutionary aims, but the importance of the movement as a source of inspiration for all subsequent avant-gardes was enormous. It influenced Russian Futurist cinema and German Expressionism.

In Germany, films such as  Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1919) or Metropolis (1926) have the Italian Futurist movement as a source of profound inspiration, and the same can be said of the French avant-gardes, especially René Clair.  Still in the 1930s, Mario Camerini's film What Scoundrels Men Are! (1932) contained a whirlwind of optical illusions at a frenetic pace, with uses such as acceleration, split-screen and overlays.

Though Futurist cinema itself was short-lived, traces of the movement are frequently found in commercial cinema of the 20th and 21st centuries. These stylistic influences can be found in high energy, fast paced, brightly colored, and abstract editing styles and imagery.

Famed movie critic Pauline Kael stated that the director Dimitri Kirsanoff, in his silent experimental film Ménilmontant "developed a technique that suggests the movement known in painting as Futurism". Also in the dreamlike visions of some of Alfred Hitchcock's films, (for example Vertigo) the same subversive techniques used by the futurists are demonstrated.

Bibliography

See also

Modernism
Cinema of Italy
Futurism

References

Futurist film
Italian Futurism
Lost Italian films
Movements in cinema
1910s in film

Italian futurism in cinema


Koinon (, pl. Κοινά, Koina), meaning "common thing", in the sense of "public", had many applications, some societal, some governmental. An abstract noun formed from the neuter of the adjective, koinos, "common", the koinon could mean any sort of organization. It had more than one meaning in the governmental sense.

Polis

One was a polis or its politeia, Latin res publica, "the public thing", or "commonwealth", such as the Athenian. A government that is of common concern, rather than private, is a republic, which a polis was, by definition. The polis also was a federal state with a politeia, "constitution," which created a citizenship. The citizens ran the state through elected magistracies and the assembly. These institutions, claiming the supreme political power, acted directly to perform their constitutional duties, whether executive, judicial, or legislative. Political theory had not yet realized this 3-branch scheme so common in modern republics; nevertheless, the functions were all present in one form or another, such as the military, the law courts, economic regulation, etc.

Alliance

The meaning that is the topic of this article is a further development of unity beyond the polis. A group of poleis with an interest in building a strong common military for offense or defense, such as the Ionians, who had to defend the coast of Anatolia, which was Greek, against the inroads of the incoming Iranians, might make an alliance of poleis, extending "the public thing" to the alliance. In that case they would distinguish the alliance from the republic by using an ethnic name, such as "the alliance of the Ionians."

The alliance was then "the common thing of the allies," as it is in Isocrates 14.21, where the allies are symmachoi ("fighters in common,"), and the alliance is a symmachia. The league was not strictly a "federation," as the member states guarded their independence jealously. Even so, in the Delian League, the most powerful state, Athens, managed to control the other states to such a degree as now to be called "the Athenian Empire."

As government of a league, koinon comprised such functions as defense, diplomacy, economics, and religious practices among its member states. The association was more of a confederation than a federal union, such as Alexander created. The members of the alliance mainly made contributions of taxes, men and equipment, rather than manage directly or issue any binding commands.

Some examples follow. In Epirus itself there had in ancient times existed the Koinon of the Molossians. There was a Lacedaemonian League (κοινὸν τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων), centered on Sparta and its old dominions for a period under Roman rule, and a Koinon of the Macedonians, also under Roman rule. In modern Greek history, during the Greek War of Independence, a local self-government termed Koinon was set up in the islands of Hydra, Spetses and Psara.

See also
 Symmachia (alliance)
 List of ancient Greek alliances

Notes

References

External links

Greek words and phrases

Koinon


Catherine Janet Cavadini is an American voice actress. She is most well known as the original voice of Blossom on Cartoon Network's animated television series The Powerpuff Girls, and as Tanya Mousekewitz in An American Tail: Fievel Goes West.

Awards
In 1998, she was nominated for an Annie Award for "Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Feature Production" for performing the voice and singing for the role of Mary in the animated movie Babes in Toyland. She also sang Dreams to Dream as the character Tanya Mousekewitz in the animated movie An American Tail: Fievel Goes West, which was nominated for Best Song at the 49th Golden Globe Awards. In addition, she has received 2 Emmy Award Certificates for contributing to Outstanding Sound on the TV series, The X-Files.

In 2003, Cavadini was honored with a White House Project Epic Award (which gives recognition to projects that promote women leadership) for her work in The Powerpuff Girls Movie as Blossom.

Partial filmography

Anime
Japan Sinks: 2020 – Kanae Murota  (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")

Film
All-Star Superman – Cat Grant and Floral
An American Tail: Fievel Goes West – Tanya Mousekewitz
Babes in Toyland – Mary, Nominated-Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Feature Production
Batman: The Dark Knight Returns - Part 1 – Bruce's Pit Crew, Joannie, and Woman with Hot Dog
Cars 3 – Additional voices
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore – Christmas Lady
 Chernichaw's Go! Chase - Alice Chernichaw
Dinosaur – Various Lemurs
Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within – Various Phantoms
Finding Dory – Debbie
Ford v Ferrari - Additional voices
Garfield Gets Real – Daisy Girl
Garfield's Pet Force – Additional voices
The Grinch – Additional voices
Happy Feet and Happy Feet Two – Additional voices
Incredibles 2 – Welch, TV Anchor #1
It Was My Best Birthday Ever, Charlie Brown – Mimi (singing voice)
Jaws: The Revenge - Additional voices
Klaus - Additional voices: Adults (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
Lilo & Stitch – Fainting Girl (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
Love and Monsters - Additional Voices/Loop Group (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
The Lion King – Lions
Minions: The Rise of Gru - Additional Voices
My Little Pony: The Movie – North Star
The Other End of the Line – Jennifer David, Priya Sethi's English-speaking voice (credited as "Special Voice Artist")
The Powerpuff Girls Movie – Blossom
Pound Puppies and the Legend of Big Paw – Charlamange, Collette
Puss in Boots – ADR Looper (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
Ready Player One – IOI P.A.
Rise of the Guardians - ADR Looper (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
Scooby-Doo! Legend of the Phantosaur – Faith
Sing  – Bunnies (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
Soul - Dreamerwind
Spy - Additional voices
Starchaser: The Legend of Orin – Additional voices
The LEGO Batman Movie - ADR Looper (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
The Simpsons Movie - ADR Looper (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
Transformers: Age of Extinction - Female News Reporter
Wish Dragon - Additional voices (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
Wonderful Days – Jay, Young Shua, and Cheyenne
Wonder Park – ADR Looper (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")

Television
Adventures from the Book of Virtues – Sarah West and Mother Snake (episode: "Friendship")
Back to the Future: The Animated Series – Jennifer Parker
The Batman – Wife, Movie Star and Reporter (episode: "The Big Chill")
Batman: The Brave and the Bold – Alanna Strange; Jan and Ruby Ryder (episode: "Bold Beginnings!"); Fiona and Dr. Myrra Rhodes (episode: "Four Star Spectacular!")
Ben 10 – Cooper (episode: "Ben 10 vs. The Negative 10")
The Cleveland Show – Siri
Darkwing Duck – Additional voices (episode: "Time And Punishment")
Doc McStuffins – Dart
Duck Dodgers – Cheerleader (episode: "The Kids Are All Wrong/Win, Lose or Duck")
Duckman – Paperboy, Blonde Girl (episode: "All About Elliott")
Fievel's American Tails – Tanya Mousekewitz and Yasha Mousekewitz
Jackie Chan Adventures – Abila and Female Warrior (episode: "Lost City of the Muntabs")
Jem – Clash (aka Constance Montgomery)
Johnny Bravo – Sandy Baker (episode: "The Time of My Life")
Justice League – Doctor Mary and Blonde Girl (episode: "The Brave and the Bold")
Justice League Unlimited – Katie and Billy's Girlfriend (episode: "Dark Heart")
Kidd Video – Glitter
Kid Cosmic - Agent Pink
The Little Mermaid – Andrina
Michael Jackson's Halloween - Additional voices
Mister T – Skye Redfern (episode: "Mystery of the Forbidden Monastery")
My Life as a Teenage Robot – Singer and Girl #3 (episode: "A Robot for All Seasons")
My Little Pony – Ariel (episode: "Flight to Cloud Castle")
Peter Pan and the Pirates – Cecilia (episode: "Hook's Christmas")
The Powerpuff Girls – Blossom
 The New Adventures of Sheldon - Alice Chernichaw
Teen Titans – Alien Woman / Chrysalis Hunter (episode: "Transformation")
Spider-Man & His Amazing Friends – Ariel (episode: "Spidey Meets the Girl From Tomorrow")
Superman – Additional voices (episode: "Bonechill/The Driver's License")
The What-A-Cartoon! Show – Blossom
What's with Andy? (Season 1) – Mrs. Frieda Larkin, Teri, and Mrs. Weebles

Video games
Broken Age – Car'l, Twyla, Candle Maiden
Cartoon Network Racing – Blossom
Cartoon Network: Punch Time Explosion XL – Blossom
Dishonored 2 – Aristocrats
Final Fantasy VII Remake – Jessie's Mother
Final Fantasy X – Calli the Chocobo Attendant, Additional voices
Final Fantasy XIII – Cocoon Inhabitants
Final Fantasy XIII-2 – Additional voices
FusionFall – Blossom
The Golden Compass – Valla the Witch of the Tundra, Bolvangar Nurse, and Tartar Leopard
Gun – Sadie
Happy Feet – Norma Jean, Human #1, Young Penguin #1
Iron and the Maiden – Angel and John Chase Jr.
Jumper: Griffin's Story – Griffin's Mom, Dr. Hoffstader, and Assassin
Lego The Incredibles – Brainfreezer, Additional voices (credited as "Catherine Cavadini")
Lost Odyssey – Additional voices
The Powerpuff Girls: Chemical X-traction – Blossom
The Powerpuff Girls: Relish Rampage – Blossom
Warhammer Online: Wrath of Heroes – Felicia
White Knight Chronicles and White Knight Chronicles II – Kara
WildStar – Mechari Female

References

External links

1961 births
Living people
American video game actresses
American voice actresses
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses

Cathy Cavadini