Bull riding is a rodeo sport that involves a rider getting on a bucking bull and attempting to stay mounted while the animal tries to buck off the rider.

American bull riding has been called "the most dangerous eight seconds in sports." To receive a score, the rider must stay on top of the bull for eight seconds with the use of one hand gripped on a bull rope tied behind the bull's forelegs. Touching the bull or themselves with the free hand, or failing to reach the eight-second mark, results in a no-score ride. Depending on the bull riding organization and the contest, up to four judges might judge the rider and four judge the bull on their performance. For most organizations, a perfect score is 100 points. In general, most professional riders score in the neighborhood of the mid-70s to the high 80s.

Outside of the United States, bull riding traditions with varying rules and histories also exist in Canada, Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, the Philippines, Japan, South Africa, England, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Australia and New Zealand with the majority of them following similar rules, especially with the Professional Bull Riders (PBR) organization.

History

The taming of bulls has ancient roots in contests dating as far back as Minoan culture. Bull riding itself has its direct roots in Mexican contests of equestrian, ranching and bullfighting skills now collectively known as charreada.  During the 18th century, and probably before, Mexican bullfights consisted of traditional native games and exercises, different from those in Spain, which included roping, saddling and riding a bull like a horse, until it stopped bucking. In —Rusticatio Mexicana (1782)— Jesuit priest, Rafael Landivar, vividly described in epic verse, the riding of the bull during a traditional bullfight, including how another bull is let loose to confront the bull being ridden: Sometimes a bull of great corpulence, remarkable in its strength, and a fury that threatens death, these people take out of the herd in order to saddle and ride it. A young man cinches his harness on his bristly back just like a horse, and surrounds his neck with a round rope, like neat reins with which he then, armed with just a rigid spur and his strength, impassively rides on the grim back of the reluctant bull. The bull, bellowing with rage, reacts to all sides, and tries madly to throw the rider off his back; he then attacks the auras from above with its curved horns, standing, upright, tall; or furious, kicking the air, he launches himself in a race, yearning towards the one who torments him; and while he tries to jump over the barrier of the concave Circus, he disturbs the whole stage, making the mob tremble. Like the Lion of Libya, badly wounded by a rigid blow, roaring, threatens ferociously with a look and bloody jaw, and showing his claws, attacks the cunning enemy, either by launching himself in a rapacious leap through the air, or by chasing the mob with a swift chase; not dissimilar, indignant, for such a strange load on his back, the bull rouses the whole arena, attacking some and others. But the young man, affirming his body, constantly dominates the bullish back, spurring endlessly his flanks.

The young man with his effective right hand, mounted on the bull, rinskingly wielding a blunt spear, also orders, from the depths of the palisade fences, another bull to come out, which he joyfully torments with pricks throughout the rodeo. Suddenly, this bull is stunned before this strange figure, and dodges, in a winged run, his saddled partner. But at the moment, his flanks being pierced by a cruel spear, he flares up with rage and gores his opponent head-on, exchanging injuries between the two in fierce combat. On his part, the robust rider settles the fight with the spear, and continues energetically throughout the rodeo taunting the bulls, until they, sweating exhaustedly, let go of their anger and calm down.
Scottish noblewoman Frances Erskine Inglis, 1st Marquise of Calderón de la Barca witnessed Bull Riding while living in Mexico in 1839, and wrote about it in her book Life in Mexico (1843):

The skill of the men is surprising; but the most curious part of the exhibition was when a coachman, a strong, handsome Mexican, mounted on the back of a fierce bull, which plunged and flung himself about as if possessed by a legion of demons, and forced the animal to gallop round and round the arena. The bull is first caught by the lasso, and thrown on his side, struggling furiously. The man mounts while he is still on the ground. At the same moment the lasso is withdrawn, and the bull starts up, maddened by feeling the weight of his unusual burden. The rider must dismount in the same way, the bull being first thrown down, otherwise he would be gored in a moment. It is terribly dangerous, for if the man were to lose his seat, his death is nearly certain; but these Mexicans are superb riders. A monk, who is attached to the establishment, seems an ardent admirer of these sports, and his presence is useful, in case of a dangerous accident occurring, which is not infrequent.

By the mid-19th century, charreada competition was popular on Texas and California cattle ranches where Anglo and Hispanic ranch hands often worked together.

Many early Texas rangers, who had to be expert horse riders and later went on to become ranchers, learned and adapted Hispanic techniques and traditions to ranches in the United States. Many also enjoyed traditional Mexican celebrations, and H. L. Kinney, a rancher, promoter and former Texas Ranger staged what is thought to be the first Anglo-American organized bullfight in the southwest in 1852.  This event also included a jaripeo competition and was the subject of newspaper reports from as far away as the New Orleans Daily Delta. However, popular sentiment shifted away from various blood sports and both bullfighting and prize fighting were banned by the Texas legislature in 1891. In the same time period, however, Wild West Shows began to add steer riding to their exhibitions, choosing to use castrated animals because steers were easier to handle and transport than bulls. Additionally, informal rodeos began as competitions between neighboring ranches in the American Old West.  The location of the first formal rodeo is debated.  Deer Trail, Colorado claims the first rodeo was in 1869, but so does Cheyenne, Wyoming in 1872.

Although steer riding contests existed into the 1920s, the sport did not gain popularity until bulls were returned to the arena and replaced steers as the mount of choice. The first-known rodeo to use brahma bulls was in Columbia, Mississippi, produced in 1935 by Canadian brothers Earl and Weldon Bascom with Jake Lybbert and Waldo Ross. This rodeo was the first to feature a bull riding event at a night rodeo held outdoors under electric lights. A pivotal moment for modern bull riding, and rodeo in general, came with the founding of the Rodeo Cowboy Association (RCA) in 1936, which later became the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA). Through this organization, many hundreds of rodeos are held each year. Since that time, the popularity of all aspects of the rodeo has risen. In addition to the PRCA, which has PRCA ProRodeo with bull riding and the Xtreme Bulls events for bull riding only, there is the Professional Bull Riders (PBR), which has staged events since 1993. The organization's championship event, the PBR World Finals, took place in Las Vegas, Nevada, for nearly 30 years. As of 2024, it now takes place in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. The PBR's major league tour, titled the Unleash the Beast Series since 2018, is televised on CBS Sports Network, with the primary broadcast network televising selected bonus rounds (known as 15/15 Bucking Battles). The major league tour was previously known as the Bud Light Cup Series from 1994 through 2002, then the Built Ford Tough Series from 2003 through 2017. From these roots, bull riding as a competitive sport has spread to a number of other nations worldwide.

Rules and regulations

Each bull has a unique name and number called a brand used to help identify it. A sufficient number of bulls, each judged to be of good strength, health, agility, and age, are selected to perform.  The rider and bull are matched randomly before the competition, although starting in 2008, some ranked riders are allowed to choose their own bulls from a bull draft for selected rounds in PBR events. In more recent times, bulls must have the tips of their horns  shaved off and filed down so they are not sharp.

A rider mounts a bull and grips a flat braided rope. After they secure a good grip on the rope, the rider nods to signal they are ready. The bucking chute (a small enclosure which opens from the side) is opened and the bull storms out into the arena. The rider must attempt to stay on the bull for at least eight seconds, while only touching the bull with their riding hand. The other hand must remain free for the duration of the ride.  Originally, the rules required a 10-second ride, but that was changed to the current eight seconds.

The bull bucks, rears, kicks, spins, and twists in an effort to throw the rider off. This continues for a number of seconds until the rider is bucked off of the bull or dismounts after completing the ride. A loud buzzer or whistle announces the completion of an eight-second ride.

Throughout the ride, bullfighters, previously known as rodeo clowns, stay near the bull to aid the rider if necessary. When the ride ends, either intentionally or not, the bullfighters distract the bull to protect the rider from harm. The bull then exits the arena via the exit chute. If he refuses to leave, then the wrangler on horseback ropes the bull and takes him into the exit chute so the next rider can go. Some bulls, however, have a tendency to walk or run around the arena in a circle after bucking off their riders as a form of "victory lap" before exiting the arena.

Many competitions have a format that involves multiple rounds, sometimes called "go-rounds". Generally, events span two to three nights. The rider is given a chance to ride one bull per night. The total points scored by the end of the event are recorded, and after the first or first two go-rounds, the top 20 riders are given a chance to ride one more bull. This final round is called the "short go" or sometimes it is called the championship round. After the end of the short go, the rider with the most total points wins the event. A rider who  had a disturbance during his or her ride can go to the judges himself and ask for a reride. The bull can fall, another bull gets out, someone interfered, or the bull did not buck are all reasons why a rider can be given a reride. With rerides they all run different. Either you get the same bull or one will be drawn for you at random.

Points and scoring
Scoring is done consistently within a rodeo organization. The two largest sanctioning bodies are the PRCA and PBR. They vary slightly in how they score bull rides. There are many other organizations, and each has its own particular rules on how they score, but most follow rules similar to the PRCA. The rider only scores points if he successfully rides the bull for eight seconds. The bull is always given a score. In the PRCA, a ride is scored from 0–100 points. Both the rider and the bull are awarded points. In the regular season, there are four judges, two judges scoring the bull's effort from 0–25 points, and two judges scoring the rider's performance from 0-25 points. There is the potential for the rider and the bull to earn up to 50 points each. The two scores are added together for a total ride score of up to 100 points. This system was spearheaded by former PRCA president Dale Smith. Scores of zero are quite common, as many riders lose control of the animal almost immediately after the bull leaves the bucking chute. Many experienced professionals are able to earn scores of 75 or more. Scores above 80 are considered excellent, and a score in the 90s exceptional.

In the PBR, a ride is scored from 0-100 points in total. Up to 50 points is scored for the rider and 50 points for the bull. The rider only scores points if he successfully rides the bull for eight seconds. The bull is always given a score. Four judges award a score of up to 25 points each for the rider's performance, and four judges award up to 25 points each for the bull's effort. Then all the scores are combined and then the total is divided in half for the official score.

Judges award points based on several key aspects of the ride. Bull riding rules require for judges to be former bull riders themselves. They look for constant control and rhythm in the rider in matching their movements with the bull. Points are usually deducted if a rider is constantly off balance. For points actually to be awarded, the rider must stay mounted for a minimum of eight seconds, and they are scored only for actions during those eight seconds. The ability to control the bull well allows riders to gain extra style points. These are often gained by spurring the animal. A rider is disqualified for touching the bull, the riding equipment, themself, or the ground with their free arm during the ride.

Bucking bulls have more raw power and a different style of movement from bucking horses. One move particular to bulls is a belly roll ("sunfishing"), in which the bull is completely off the ground and kicks either his hind feet or all four feet to the side in a twisting, rolling motion. Bulls also are more likely than horses to spin in tight, quick circles, and are less likely to run or to jump extremely high ("break in two").

For the bull, judges look at the animal's overall agility, power and speed; his back legs kick, and his front end drops. In general, if a bull gives a rider a very hard time, more points will be awarded. If a rider fails to stay mounted for at least eight seconds, the bull is still awarded a score. The PBR and PRCA record bulls' past scores so that the best bulls can be brought to the finals, ensuring that riders will be given a chance to score highly. Both organizations award one bull an award for the best bull of the year, decided by bull scores in both buckoffs and successful qualified rides. The award brings prestige to the ranch at which the bull was raised.

If a rider scores sufficiently low due to poor bull performance, the judges may offer the rider the option of a re-ride. By taking the option, the rider gives up the score received, waits until all other riders have ridden, and rides again. This can be risky because the rider loses their score and risks being bucked off and receiving no score. A re-ride may also be given if a bull stumbles or runs into the fence or gate.

In some PBR events that use an elimination style bracket, if both riders in a bracket fail to reach eight seconds, the rider who lasts longer advances to the next round. Otherwise, the rider with a higher score advances.

Equipment

Bull riders use many pieces of equipment both functionally and to ensure maximum safety, both to themselves and to the animals
involved.

Bull rope
The primary piece of equipment used is the bull rope. It is a braided rope made of  polypropylene, grass, or some combination. A handle is braided into the center of the rope and is usually stiffened with leather. One side of the rope is tied in an adjustable knot that can be changed for the size of bull. The other side of the rope (the tail) is a flat braid and is usually coated with rosin to keep it from sliding through the rider's hand. A metallic bell is strapped to the knot and hangs directly under the bull throughout the ride. In addition to the sound the bell produces, it also gives the rope some weight, allowing it to fall off the bull once a rider has dismounted.

Chaps
Chaps are probably the most noticeable piece of bull rider clothing, as their distinctive coloring and patterns add flair to the sport. Usually made of leather, chaps also provide protection for the rider's legs and thighs.

Vest
Bull riders wear a protective vest which is made of high density foam that allows the shock to disperse over a wide area, thereby reducing pain and injury. The vest's foam is covered with a ballistic material called Spectra, similar to Kevlar. It is then covered up with leather, giving it a western look.

Bull rider Cody Lambert was inspired to create a protective vest for fellow riders after witnessing the fatal injury of his friend and 1987 PRCA world champion bull rider, Lane Frost who died at the 1989 Cheyenne Frontier Days rodeo. After successfully riding his bull during the championship round, Frost dismounted and landed in the muddy arena floor. The bull then turned and pressed a horn against Frost's back and pushed him against the mud, breaking several of his ribs. Frost got up and took a few steps towards the bucking chutes and signaled for help. He then collapsed, causing some of the broken ribs to puncture his heart and lungs. He died on the arena floor before he could be transported to the hospital.

Lambert based the bull riding protective vest on the one worn by his brother who was a horse jockey. He debuted the vest at the California Rodeo Salinas in the summer of 1993, and for several months, he was the only bull rider using one. It was not until the spring of 1994 when other contestants began riding with vests. The number of bull riders with vests grew over the months, and by the autumn of that year, the vast majority of riders were using them. They were officially made mandatory for all contestants by 1996. Some bull riding vests also include a neck roll for protection to the neck, although very few riders use a vest with said modification.

Glove
To prevent a rope burn, riders must wear a protective glove, usually made of leather. It must be fastened to the rider's hand since the force the animal is able to exert could easily tear it away. The rider often applies rosin to the glove, which allows for additional grip.

Boots
Cowboy boots are worn with blunted and loosely locked spurs help keep the rider balanced and is crucial piece of equipment to the sport as a whole. The bulls are unharmed by the rowels, as their hide is roughly seven times thicker than a human being's skin. Truly skilled riders will often spur the bull in the hope of achieving extra style points from the judges.

Mouthguard
Many riders wear mouthguards, which are optional at the professional level.

Headgear
For most of bull riding's history, the primary headgear worn by contestants was cowboy hats. However, things started to slowly change during the latter years of the 20th century. Among the earliest bull riders to use protective headgear was 1982 PRCA world champion, Charlie Sampson. At an exhibition rodeo in Landover, Maryland, during the latter part of the 1983 PRCA regular season, Sampson suffered some major injuries after he was jerked down and his face collided with the bull's head during the ride, knocking him unconscious. The wreck cracked his skull and fractured nearly every bone in his face. As a result, he had reconstructive surgery. When the regular season ended, he had won enough money to qualify for the National Finals Rodeo in Oklahoma City in December. Against doctors' recommendations, he decided to compete at the event. However, his face was still recovering, so he rode at the event with a lacrosse helmet and a neck roll. When his face was healed up, Sampson went back to riding in a cowboy hat. However, he would suffer additional facial injuries throughout the rest of his career and rode with a helmet if his injuries were severe enough to warrant it. He would always go back to riding in a hat when healed up and never made a helmet a permanent part of his gear.

Into the 1990s, a small number of other professional bull riders began using protective headgear such as leather face masks with metal bars that they wore under their hats while riding or modified ice hockey helmets. Like Charlie Sampson, most of these riders only wore headgear while recovering from serious facial or head injuries, only to ditch it when healed up. Very few bull riders made protective headwear a permanent part of their gear. However, by 2003, though still a minority, helmeted bull riders were more common than ever. Many were now riders that did not necessarily suffer serious injuries, but who grew up riding with them for the sake of extra safety. The number of contestants who rode with helmets grew throughout the rest of the 2000s, especially during the latter years of the decade.

By the early 2010s, manufacturers were building helmets made specifically for bull riding. During the same time period, most up-and-comers were already riding with helmets. In 2013, the PBR made it mandatory that all contestants at their events who were born on or after October 15, 1994 ride with a full bull riding helmet. Those born before that date were grandfathered in and permitted to ride with a protective face mask underneath their hat or simply with their hat if so desired.

Public health researchers found evidence suggesting that bull riding helmets are protective, when riders wearing one particular type of helmet suffered approximately 50% fewer head and facial injuries.

In 2004, at the 1st International Rodeo Research and Clinical Care Conference in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, the licensed rodeo and bull riding medical personnel and clinicians recommended to the rodeo and bull riding associations mentioned in the agreement the mandatory use of helmets to all youth bull riders and the recommendation of helmets to all adult bull riders.

For competitors under the age of 18, mandatory protective headgear incorporating an ice hockey-style helmet is worn. Riders who use helmets as youths tend to continue wearing them as they reach adulthood and turn professional.

Bull equipment

Flank strap
The flank strap is a soft cotton rope at least 5/8" in diameter and is used without extra padding like sheepskin or neoprene.  It is tied around the bull's flank. Contrary to popular belief, the flank strap is not tied around the bull's testicles. This rope is to encourage the bull to use his hind legs more in a bucking motion, as this is a true test of a rider's skill in maintaining the ride. The flank strap causes the bull to buck in motions such as bucking side to side, jumping up and down, or kicking its legs in the air in a circular motion. If it is applied improperly a rider may request to ride again, as the bull will not buck well if the flank strap is too tight.  The flank strap is applied by the stock contractor or his designate.

The arena
The arenas used in professional bull riding vary.  Some are rodeo arenas that are used only for bull riding and other rodeo events.  Others are event centers that play host to many different sports.  Common to all arenas is a large, open area that gives the bulls, bull riders, and bull fighters plenty of room to maneuver.  The area is fenced,  6 to 7 feet high or more, to protect the audience from escaped bulls. The fencing of the arena is metal fencing that has metal rods across it so that when the bulls buck and kick the fence they do not bust the fence and end up in the crowd. This is an excellent safety feature.  There are generally exits on each corner of the arena for riders to get out of the way quickly.  Riders can also hop onto the fence to avoid danger.  One end of the arena contains the bucking chutes from which the bulls are released. An arena usually contains two to four bucking chutes. Especially for big events to keep it flowing the nights of the events. They load the bulls into all two to four chutes releasing one at a time. There is also an exit chute where the bulls can exit the arena. Also in the arena there will be two to four guys mounted on horses with ropes, and chaps on to rope the bulls and take them into the exit chute to help keep all people in the arena safe and keep the show moving. These men or women will lasso the bull around the head and neck and pull them into the exit chute where one of the workers will open the exit chute and put the bull back.

North America
In the United States and Canada, most professional bull riders start out riding in high school rodeo or other junior associations. From there, riders may go on the college rodeo circuit or to one of several national or regional semi-professional associations including the Southern Extreme Bull Riding Association (SEBRA), the National Federation of Professional Bull Riders (NFPB), the International Bull Riders Association (IBR), the Professional Championship Bull Riders Tour (PCB), the American Bull Riders Tour (ABT), Bull Riders Canada (BRC), the International Professional Rodeo Association (IPRA), the Cowboys Professional Rodeo Association (CPRA), the United Professional Rodeo Association (UPRA), the Southern Rodeo Association (SRA), the Professional Western Rodeo Association (PWRA), the Canadian Cowboys Association (CCA), among others. Bull riders compete in these organizations as they are climbing the ladder to the professional ranks and to supplement their income.

In Mexico, there are a number of regional, semi-pro American-style bull riding organizations. However, the two large professional circuits that tour nationwide are Cuernos Chuecos (Crooked Horns) and La Federación Mexicana de Rodeo (The Mexican Rodeo Federation). The latter of which is Mexico's sanctioning body that includes all of American rodeo's standard events, including bull riding.

Professional bull riders can win in excess of $100,000 a year while competing in either the PBR or PRCA circuits.

Australia and New Zealand
There are approximately 200 rodeos and bushmen's carnivals held annually across Australia. At most of these events bull riding is one of the featured competitions.

Initially bullocks and steers were used for roughriding events and these were owned by local graziers that lent them for these events. Nowadays bulls are used for the open events and stock contractors supply the various roughriding associations. Contract stock has produced a more uniform range of bucking stock which is also quieter to handle. The competitions are run and scored in a similar style to that used in the United States.

In May 1992, the National Rodeo Council of Australia (NRCA) was formed to promote and further the sport of rodeo and has represented the following associations, which also control bull riding:
Australian Bushmen's Campdraft & Rodeo Association (ABCRA)
Australian Professional Bull Riders Association (APBA)
Central Rodeo Cowboys Association (CRCA)
Indigenous Rodeo Riders Australia (IRRA)
National Student Rodeo Association (NSRA)
National Rodeo Association (NRA)
Northern Cowboys Association (NCA)
Queensland Rodeo Association (QRA)
Rodeo Services Association (RSA)
West Coast Rodeo Circuit (WCRC)

There are strict standards for the selection, care and treatment of rodeo livestock, arenas, plus equipment requirements and specifications.

Chainsaw was one of Australia's most famous bucking bulls. Only nine contestants scored on him and he won the Australian national title of Bull of the Year a world record eight times during 1987 to 1994.

Some of Australia's best bull riders travel and compete internationally in Canada, New Zealand and the United States. Some of Australia's leading bull riders conduct bull riding clinics to assist learners and novice riders.

A World Challenge of Professional Bull Riders (PBR) was held on 29 May 2010 at the Brisbane Entertainment Centre (BEC). The 2010 PBR Finals were held over two nights at the Australian Equine and Livestock Events Centre (AELEC), with five top-ranked professional bull riders from the United States and 25 of Australia's best bull riders contesting the event.

Rodeo is also popular in country regions of New Zealand where approximately 32 rodeos, which include bull riding contests, are held each summer.

See also
Steer riding
Miniature bull riding
Bucking bull
Mutton busting
Mechanical bull
Jaripeo
Jineteada gaucha
Bronc riding

References

Bibliography

External links

Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association
International Professional Rodeo Association
Professional Bull Riders
Professional Bull Riders: Canada
Professional Bull Riders: Brazil
Professional Bull Riders: Australia
Bull Riders Canada
Circuito Rancho Primavera

Rodeo events

Bull riding


NComm is one of the most popular shareware terminal programs used on the Commodore Amiga line of computers, especially for connecting to BBS systems via a modem connected to the telephone line. The program was originally written by Daniel Bloch and further development handed over to  Torkel Lodberg. The last version v3.06 was released in 1996, a public key was released in 1998 to allow full usage.

The program was reviewed by André Viergever at Amiga Magazine in 1992.

See also

 Zmodem - File transfer protocol
 CU Amiga Magazine

References

Terminal emulators
Amiga software

NComm


In mathematics, the Cauchy principal value, named after Augustin Louis Cauchy, is a method for assigning values to certain improper integrals which would otherwise be undefined. In this method, a singularity on an integral interval is avoided by limiting the integral interval to the singularity (so the singularity is not covered by the integral).

Formulation
Depending on the type of singularity in the integrand , the Cauchy principal value is defined according to the following rules:

In some cases it is necessary to deal simultaneously with singularities both at a finite number  and at infinity. This is usually done by a limit of the form

In those cases where the integral may be split into two independent, finite limits,

and

then the function is integrable in the ordinary sense. The result of the procedure for principal value is the same as the ordinary integral; since it no longer matches the definition, it is technically not a "principal value".

The Cauchy principal value can also be defined in terms of contour integrals of a complex-valued function  with  with a pole on a contour . Define   to be that same contour, where the portion inside the disk of radius  around the pole has been removed. Provided the function  is integrable over  no matter how small  becomes, then the Cauchy principal value is the limit:

In the case of Lebesgue-integrable functions, that is, functions which are integrable in absolute value, these definitions coincide with the standard definition of the integral.

If the function  is meromorphic, the Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem relates the principal value of the integral over  with the mean-value of the integrals with the contour displaced slightly above and below, so that the residue theorem can be applied to those integrals.

Principal value integrals play a central role in the discussion of Hilbert transforms.

Distribution theory

Let  be the set of bump functions, i.e., the space of smooth functions with compact support on the real line . Then the map

defined via the Cauchy principal value as

is a distribution. The map itself may sometimes be called the principal value (hence the notation p.v.). This distribution appears, for example, in the Fourier transform of the sign function and the Heaviside step function.

Well-definedness as a Distribution
To prove the existence of the limit

for a Schwartz function , first observe that  is continuous on  as

and hence

since  is continuous and L'Hopital's rule applies.

Therefore,  exists and by applying the mean value theorem to  we get:

And furthermore:

we note that the map

is bounded by the usual seminorms for Schwartz functions . Therefore, this map defines, as it is obviously linear, a continuous functional on the Schwartz space and therefore a tempered distribution.

Note that the proof needs  merely to be continuously differentiable in a neighbourhood of 0 and  to be bounded towards infinity. The principal value therefore is defined on even weaker assumptions such as  integrable with compact support and differentiable at 0.

More general definitions

The principal value is the inverse distribution of the function  and is almost the only distribution with this property:

where  is a constant and  the Dirac distribution.

In a broader sense, the principal value can be defined for a wide class of singular integral kernels on the Euclidean space . If  has an isolated singularity at the origin, but is an otherwise "nice" function, then the principal-value distribution is defined on compactly supported smooth functions by

Such a limit may not be well defined, or, being well-defined, it may not necessarily define a distribution. It is, however, well-defined if  is a continuous homogeneous function of degree  whose integral over any sphere centered at the origin vanishes. This is the case, for instance, with the Riesz transforms.

Examples
Consider the values of two limits:

This is the Cauchy principal value of the otherwise ill-defined expression

Also:

Similarly, we have

This is the principal value of the otherwise ill-defined expression

but

Notation

Different authors use different notations for the Cauchy principal value of a function , among others:

as well as  P.V.,    and V.P.

See also
Hadamard finite part integral
Hilbert transform
Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem

References

Augustin-Louis Cauchy
Mathematical analysis
Generalized functions
Integrals
Summability methods
Schwartz distributions

Cauchy principal value


Drosera brevifolia (the dwarf, small or red sundew), is a carnivorous plant of the family Droseraceae and is the smallest sundew species native to the United States. This species differs considerably from the pink sundew, Drosera capillaris, by its wedge-shaped leaves, and distinctly deeper red to reddish purple color, noticeable when side by side with D. capillaris.

D. brevifolia is usually a small plant, typically no more than 3 centimeters across, though some are known to grow up to 5 cm in the open sandy woods in west Louisiana, with flower spikes up to 15 cm. It is often found growing in areas drier than what most carnivorous plants prefer, where it often will set seed and die when the dry hot summer arrives and return as seedlings in late fall or winter.

The range of D. brevifolia is from east Texas to Florida and north to Virginia. Flowers can be large compared to the rosette and can be pink or white and come in the spring.

Most of the plants die off in the dry summer after setting seed. New seedlings return in the fall with cooler, damper weather.

According to the USDA, it is endangered in the State of Kentucky and threatened in the State of Tennessee.

References

 Key to North American Drosera species
 International Carnivorous Plant Society

brevifolia
Carnivorous plants of North America

Drosera brevifolia


Nigel Harrison (born 24 April 1951) is an English musician. Harrison spent several years as the bassist of the American rock band Blondie during the 1970s and 1980s.

Life and career
Harrison grew up in Princes Risborough, a small town in the Chiltern Hills. He was the bassist for the local band Farm, and later recorded and toured with Silverhead (fronted by Michael Des Barres)  from 1972 to 1974.

On August 11, 1974 he played bass for "Murder of a Virgin", Iggy Pop's first solo performance. He was also an uncredited session bassist for The Runaways debut album when producer and manager Kim Fowley refused to have Runaways bassist Jackie Fox perform on the record. He was recruited to Blondie from Nite City (former The Doors' keyboardist Ray Manzarek's short-lived band) in 1977, after the band recorded their second album Plastic Letters without a regular bass player, and stayed until the band split after Tracks Across America Tour '82.

During his time with Blondie, Nigel Harrison contributed as a songwriter to every album he played on and also co-wrote several hit singles with Debbie Harry, such as "One Way or Another", "Union City Blue" and the band's last single with their most successful line-up, "War Child", released in 1982.

From 1982 to 1984 he was a member of the band Chequered Past, which also included two of his former bandmates: Des Barres, from Silverhead, Steve Jones from The Sex Pistols and Clem Burke, from Blondie. They released an eponymous album in 1984. Harrison was also music supervisor/producer for the soundtrack to the 1988 comedy Tapeheads.

In 1991, he had a small part in a British film Young Soul Rebels as 'Cid Man'.

When Blondie started to talk about re-forming in 1997, Harrison was initially asked to rejoin the group. He recorded demo tracks with the band for the album No Exit (1999), but was dropped from the band before the record was finished. He and another excluded former member, Frank Infante, brought a lawsuit over the dispute, but were unsuccessful.

Harrison was an A&R Executive at Interscope Records and also did A&R work for Capitol Records.

Harrison later became the bass player for The Grabs, whose album Sex, Fashion And Money was released in November 2005.

In March 2006, Blondie, following an introductory speech by Shirley Manson of Garbage, were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Seven members were invited to the ceremony, which led to an on-stage spat between the extant group and Infante, who asked during the live broadcast of the ceremony that he and Harrison be allowed to perform with the group, a request refused by Debbie Harry, who stated that the band's current line-up had already prepared and rehearsed for the performance.

Harrison continues playing with various acts, including The Rua on the 2015 album The Essence.

References

External links
 Nigel Harrison  at AllMusic

 www.myspace.com/thegrabs

1951 births
Living people
English rock bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
English male songwriters
Blondie (band) members
Humble Pie (band) members
People from Princes Risborough
Musicians from Stockport
Nite City members

Nigel Harrison


Hopscotch is a 1980 American spy adventure comedy movie directed by Ronald Neame and was based on the 1975 novel of the same name by Brian Garfield. It stars Walter Matthau, Glenda Jackson, Sam Waterston, Ned Beatty, Ivor Roberts, Herbert Lom, Severn Darden and was distributed by Embassy Pictures.

Other websites

1980 adventure movies
1980 comedy movies
1980s spy movies
American adventure movies
American comedy movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Ronald Neame
Movies about whistleblowing
Movies set in Washington, D.C.
Movies set in Munich
Movies set in Bermuda
Movies set in London
Movies set in Georgia (U.S. state)

Hopscotch (movie)


Harold Edwin Hurst (1 January 1880 – 7 December 1978) was a British hydrologist from Leicester. Hurst's (1951) study on measuring the long-term storage capacity of reservoirs documented the presence of long-range dependence in hydrology, especially concerning the fluctuations of the water level in the Nile River. In doing so, he developed the empirical rescaled range methodology for measuring long-range dependence. Much of Hurst's research was motivated by his empirical observations of the Nile. The Hurst exponent, which has been used in other fields, such as finance and cardiology, was named after him.

His work in Egypt started in 1906 and lasted 62 years doing his best work after he reached 65. He championed the prelude to the new Aswan High Dam project which was built using his plan.

References

Mandelbrot, Benoît B., The (Mis)Behavior of Markets, A Fractal View of Risk, Ruin and Reward (Basic Books, 2004)
 Hurst, H., 1951, "Long Term Storage Capacity of Reservoirs," Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 116, 770-799.

 Hurst, H., The Nile: A General Account of the River and the Utilization of Its Waters (Constable, 1952).
 Hurst, H., The Lake Plateau Basin of the Nile, Government Press, 1927.
 Hurst, H., Black and Simaika, 'The Future Conservation of the Nile', Nile Basin, vol. VII, 1946.

External links

1880 births
1978 deaths
British hydrologists

Harold Edwin Hurst


Nicotine is a drug in tobacco cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, vaping liquids and some e-cigarettes. Nicotine is an addictive stimulant that causes the heart to beat faster and makes blood pressure rise. It can also make a person feel less hungry and speeds up the metabolism. These effects can be very unhealthy. Many people who use tobacco products want to quit but have a hard time quitting. It is one of the most addictive chemicals that is widely consumed by humans. It can be as addictive as heroin or cocaine.

Nicotine is a substance found in most members of the nightshade family of plants. Small quantities of it can be found in tomatoes, potatoes, aubergines (eggplants) and green pepper (Capsicum, the peppers used as vegetables). Nicotine is also in the Coca plant. In higher quantities it is a very efficient poison. It acts on the nerves. It is a stimulant in lower quantities. It is the main reason people are addicted to smoking.

Nicotine is named after Jean Nicot. Nicot was a French ambassador in Portugal. In 1560 he sent tobacco seeds to Paris for analysis (as a drug).

Besides the treatment of nicotine dependency, it seems that the drug can also be used to treat special (severe) forms of epilepsy, as well as some other diseases.

Cigarette
The amount of nicotine in one cigarette varies greatly. Factors which influence the amount include type of tobacco; brand of cigarette; and country or region (some markets restrict maximum average nicotine levels). Different ways of smoking a cigarette influence how much nicotine gets into the smoker.

Legislation
Tobacco products and electronic cigarettes, the most popular form of nicotine worldwide, have become a public health concern. Leading to an increase in countries' governments' and public health organizations' efforts to regulate its use and sales. With 30 countries currently having banned the purchase of any form of these products. Since 2022 legislation against e-cigarettes  is on the rise as more studies are released. A large contributor to this was the World Health Organization's concerns raised about how secondhand smoke affects children in the home. Highlighting the potential risks of exposure to nicotine, which is known to cause issues in brain development and lead to anxiety disorders, among other health problems. While e-cigarettes have been marketed as a safer alternative to traditional cigarettes, there is still much debate about the potential risks and benefits of these products. As nicotine percentages are higher on average in many forms of e-cigarettes compared to traditional tobacco products.

Drugs
Organonitrogen compounds

Nicotine


Maggi Payne (born 1945, Temple, Texas, United States) is an American composer, flutist, video artist, recording engineer/editor, and historical remastering engineer who creates electroacoustic, instrumental, vocal works, and works involving visuals (video, dance, film, slides).

Biography
Payne raised in Amarillo, Texas, and attended Interlochen Music Camp and Aspen Music School. She received her B. Mus. in applied flute at Northwestern University, studying with Walfrid Kujala, flute, and Alan Stout, Ted Ashford, and M. William Karlins, composers. She received her M. Mus. at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, studying with composers Gordon Mumma, Ben Johnston, and Salvatore Martirano. She studied with Robert Ashley at Mills College, where she received her MFA in electronic music and recording media.

She has collaborated since the 1980s with video artist Ed Tannenbaum, composing several works for his Technological Feets live dance/video-processing performances and built a flame speaker at the Exploratorium in collaboration with Nick Bertoni (1983–1985). Payne has been a recording engineer at Music and Arts record label since 1981, where she has recorded both contemporary and historical music. Her video works include Crystal, Io, Circular Motion, Solar Wind, Airwaves (realities), Liquid Metal, Apparent Horizon, Liquid Amber, Effervescence, Cloud Fields, Quicksilver, and Through the Looking Glass. Her films include Orion and Allusions. Her works involving dance include System Test (fire and ice) and Allusions. Her works have been choreographed by Molissa Fenley, Wendy Rodgers, Gina Gibney, Gail Chodera, Deoborah Hay, Carla Blank Reed, and Carolyn Brown.

Payne's works are available on Aguirre, Innova, Root Strata, Lovely Music, Starkland, The Label, Music and Arts, Centaur, Ubuibi, MMC, New World Records (CRI), Digital Narcis, Frog Peak, Asphodel, and/OAR, Capstone, and Mills College labels.

She has received two Composer's Grants and an Interdisciplinary Arts Grant from the National Endowment for the Arts, and video grants from the Mellon Foundation and the Western States Regional Media Arts Fellowships Program. She has received four honorary mentions from Bourges, one from Prix Ars Electronica, and placed in the Barlow and "Luigi Russolo" per giovani compositor di Musica Elettroacoustica competitions.

Commissions include National Flute Association High School Soloist Competition 2005, flutist Nina Assimakopoulos, pianist Sarah Cahill, trombonist Abbie Conant, Starkland, composer Annea Lockwood, composer/pianist David Mahler, and the Hartt School of Music at Hartford.

Payne has also had works selected and performed on the 60x60 project for the years 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006.

She is currently Co-Director of the Center for Contemporary Music (CCM) at Mills College in Oakland, California, where she teaches recording engineering, composition, and electronic music.

Discography
Solo releases:
 2017 Crystal LP re-release, Aguirre Records: includes White Night, Scirocco, Crystal, and Solar Wind
 2014 Desertscapes, for two spatially separated women's choirs, CD, Lorelei Ensemble, Beth Willer, conductor and artistic director
 2012 Ahh-Ahh Music for Ed Tannenbaum's Technological Feets 1984-1987 LP, Root Strata: includes Flights of Fancy, Gamelan, Shimmer, Back to Forth, Ahh-Ahh (ver 2.1), and Hikari
 2010 Arctic Winds CD (electroacoustic) Innova Recordings: includes Fluid Dynamics, Distant Thunder, Apparent Horizon, Arctic Winds, System Test (fire and ice), Glassy Metals, and FIZZ
 2003 Ping/Pong: Beyond the Pail  CD, And/oar (soundscapes)
 1991 Crystal re-released on CD, Lovely Music (electroacoustic): includes White Night, Solar Wind, Scirocco, Crystal  +  additional tracks Ahh-Ahh (ver 2.1), Subterranean Network, Phase Transitions
 1986 Crystal  LP, Lovely Music (electroacoustic): includes White Night, Scirocco, Crystal, Solar Wind

Compilation albums:
 2017 BAM, on the Acoustic Deconstruction LP, The Label
 2016 Reflections, for solo flute on VAYU: Multi-cultural Flute Solos From the Twenty-First Century CD, AMP Recordings, Nina Assimakopoulos, flute
 2015 Beyond, for Steven M. Miller on Between Noise and Silence, Innova Recordings CD/DVD
 2014 Black Ice and STATIC on Gravity Spells: Bay Area New Music & Expanded Cinema Art DVD/LP handmade boxed set created and curated by John Davis—limited edition
 2013 Pop on SEAMUS Electro-Acoustic Miniatures 2012: Re-Caged CD, SEAMUS
 2008 60X3, on the "60x60 (2006–2007)" 2-CD set, Vox Novus
 2007 System Test (fire and Ice) on the "Far and Wide" DVD, Computer Music Journal (Winter 2007, Vol. 31/No. 4)
 2007 :60 Fizz (electroacoustic), on the "60x60 (2004–2005)" 2-CD set, Vox Novus
 2006 ReCycle (electroacoustic), on the "Women Take Back the Noise" CD, Ubuibi
 2006 Of All for solo flute (Nina Assimakopoulos, flute), on the "Points of Entry: Laurels Project, Volume I" CD, Capstone Records
 2006 it's elemental (soundscape), on the "Overheard and Rendered" CD, And/oar
 2005 field recordings edited by Chris Cutler on the "Twice Around the Earth" CD, ReR Megacorp
 2004 60 Spin (electroacoustic), on the "60X60" CD, Capstone Records, CPS-8744
 2001 Moiré (electroacoustic) on the soundtrack for Jordan Belson: Collected Films: Bardo
 2000 White Turbulence 2000 (four channel electroacoustic work), on the "Immersion" DVD-V/DVD-A, Starkland
 2000 breaks/motors (electroacoustic), on the "Oasis: Music from Mills 2001" CD, Mills College
 1999 HUM, Aeolian Confluence, and Inflections, on "The Extended Flute" CD, CRI
 1999 Raw Data (electroacoustic), on the "End ID" CD, Digital Narcis Ltd.
 1998 Chris Mann Piece (electroacoustic), on "The Frog Peak Collaborations Project" CD, Frog Peak
 1998 She Began, with text by writer Melody Sumner Carnahan, on "The Time is Now" CD, Frog Peak
 1996 Desertscapes, for 2 spatially separated choirs, on the "Desertscapes" CD, MMC
 1996 Moiré (electroacoustic), on the "Storm of Drones" CD, Asphodel Records
 1994 Resonant Places (electroacoustic), on the "Consortium to Distribute Computer Music (CDCM)—Music from the Center for Contemporary Music (CCM) at Mills College" CD, Centaur
 1988 Airwaves (realities) (electroacoustic), on the "Another Coast" CD, Music and Arts
 1986 Subterranean Network, on the "Mills College Centennial" 3-LP album, Mills College
 1980 Lunar Dusk and Lunar Earthrise (electroacoustic), on the "Lovely Little Records" boxed set of six 7" records, Lovely Music

As performer:
 1999 flutist on "The Extended Flute" CD, CRI (performing works by Maggi Payne, David Behrman, William Brooks, Mark Trayle, Roman Haubenstock-Ramati)
 1996 flutist on "Non Stop Flight" by Pauline Oliveros, CD on Music and Arts
 1981 flutist on Healing Music by Joanna Brouk, Hummingbird Productions
 1978 flutist and bowed psalter player on "Summer Music" by Jacques Bekaert, LP on Lovely Music
 1977 flutist on "On the Other Ocean" by David Behrman, LP on Lovely Music (re-released on CD 1996, Lovely Music)
 1977 flutist on "Star Jaws" by Peter Laurence Gordon, LP on Lovely Music
 1977 flutist on "Out of the Blue" by Blue Gene Tyranny, LP on Lovely Music (re-released on CD 2007, Unseen Worlds)

Print publications
 2008 The San Francisco Tape Music Center, 1960s Counterculture and the Avant-Garde by David Bernstein, University of California Press, contribution as interviewer
 2002 Music with Roots in the Aether, Robert Ashley, article on Gordon Mumma, p. 109-124, written about 1976
 2000 Desertscapes, for two spatially separated choirs (1991), score published on Treble Clef Music

References

External links
 Official website
 Comprehensive presentation of Maggi Payne's artistic career
 Golden, Barbara. "Conversation with Maggi Payne." eContact! 12.2 — Interviews (2) (April 2010). Montréal: CEC.

1945 births
American women composers
21st-century American composers
American flautists
Living people
Interlochen Center for the Arts alumni
Place of birth missing (living people)
Bienen School of Music alumni
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign School of Music alumni
Mills College alumni
Mills College faculty
Women flautists
21st-century American women musicians
American women in electronic music
21st-century women composers
American women academics
21st-century flautists

Maggi Payne


High-Definition Versatile Disc (HVD) is an Asian standard of advanced high-definition technology originally developed in China by AMLogic Inc., for high-definition video. The format supports 720p, 1080i, or 1080p video on version 1 discs. Version 2 of the format added high-resolution beyond the standard fare of HD for use on non-TV monitors that support higher resolutions, up to 1080p.

A modified MPEG-2 MP@HL video-codec is used and the format supports audio encoded in Dolby AC3, DTS, Dolby Digital EX, DTS ES, and Prologic 2 audio formats.

All HVDs use standard DVD discs.  While the format is referred to as HVD it has no relation to the Holographic Versatile Disc format that came along later and used the same acronym.  There are only a few DVD players which support this format. Nero Showtime, Media Player Classic, PowerDVD, VLC media player, and XBMC are the few known software packages to handle the format as the MPEG2 files are non-standard.
Though popular in China, the format, much like VCD, has had little acceptance outside Asia and  discs are rarely found for sale outside Asia.

See also
 Enhanced Versatile Disc

External links

120 mm discs
Video storage
High-definition television

High-Definition Versatile Disc


The Eastern Xia (), also known as Dongxia, Dongzhen (東真) or Dazhen (大真), was a short-lived kingdom established in Manchuria (including Northeast China and Outer Manchuria) by the Jurchen warlord Puxian Wannu in 1215 during the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty. It was eventually conquered by the Mongols and its former territories were later administered by the Liaoyang province of the Yuan dynasty.

History
Puxian Wannu originally served the waning Jin dynasty under pressure from the Mongol Empire. While the Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Jin, a Khitan chief Yelü Liuge (耶律留哥) revolted against the Jin dynasty in Liaodong in 1211 and made contact with the Mongol Empire in the next year. In 1214, the Jin dynasty dispatched Puxian Wannu to Liaodong, but he was defeated around Kaiyuan. While Mukhali of the Mongol Empire invaded Northern China and captured the Jin capital Zhongdu, Puxian Wannu rebelled against the Jin dynasty and founded the Eastern Xia dynasty in Dongjing (Liaoyang) in 1215 with the support of the Mongols. During that year, as a vassal, he sent his son Tege (帖哥/鐵哥 Tiěgē) as a hostage to the Mongols in 1216. He adopted the title of Tianwang (天王 lit. Heavenly King) and named his era Tiantai (天泰). He also established the government institutions based on the Jin systems. Although originally acknowledged his allegiance to the Mongol Empire, he however rebelled against the Mongols and killed the Mongolian resident commissioners in 1217. He also moved the capital to Nanjing (南京 literally: "southern capital") in modern day Mopancun Fortress near Yanji, Jilin province. In 1233, Güyük (then a prince) was dispatched by Ögedei Khan to conquer the Eastern Xia. Puxian Wannu was captured and killed in the same year, which marked the official end of the Eastern Xia kingdom. The Jin dynasty was also conquered by the Mongols in the next year.

The actual name of the kingdom is controversial. Chinese documents call it Dongxia (东夏/東夏) but Goryeo almost always called it Dongzhen (東眞). Yanai Wataru insisted that Xià (夏) was a misinterpretation of Zhèn (眞). In the meanwhile Ikeuchi Hiroshi claimed that Dongzhen was an abbreviated form of Dong Nüzhen (东女眞/東女眞, Eastern Jurchen) and was just an alias.

See also
 Mongol conquest of Eastern Xia
 Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
 Jurchen people
 Western Xia

References

Former countries in Chinese history
Former empires
Jurchen history
Former monarchies of East Asia
Dynasties of China

Eastern Xia


The Young are an indie rock band from Austin, Texas.  They released their first album, Voyagers of Legend, in 2010 on Mexican Summer.  Afterwards they signed with Matador Records, through whom they released the albums Dub Egg (2012) and Chrome Cactus (2014).  The Young have opened for Kurt Vile and The Sonics.

References

Musical groups from Austin, Texas
Rock music groups from Texas
Matador Records artists
Mexican Summer artists

The Young


Nikolai Sergeyevich Leonov (; 22 August 1928 – 27 April 2022) was a Russian politician, senior KGB officer, and Latin America expert in the Soviet Union. Leonov was born in Ryazan Oblast, Soviet Union. He was a member of the State Duma from 2003 until 2007.

Leonov died on 27 April 2022 in Moscow, Russia at the age of 93.

References

1928 births
2022 deaths
KGB people
Russian military people
Russian politicians

Nikolai Leonov


Tim Brant (born February 26, 1949 in Washington, DC) is an American sportscaster. His jobs include these:
WJLA-TV sports director
College Football on ABC play-by-play/color commentator
Monday Night Football sideline reporter
College Basketball on ABC play-by-play
Wide World of Sports play-by-play
PBA Bowling on ABC play-by-play
USFL on ABC play-by-play
Olympics on ABC play-by-play
NFL on CBS color commentator/play-by-play
College Football on CBS play-by-play
College Basketball on CBS play-by-play
Winter-Fest Host
NCAA Basketball Tournament Selection Show Host
Cycling on CBS Studio Host
Are You Ready Host
Washington Redskins preseason play-by-play
College Basketball on Jefferson-Pilot play-by-play
College Basketball on Raycom play-by-play
College Football on CBSSN play-by-play/color commentator
College Football on Raycom play-by-play
Atlanta Falcons preseason play-by-play

Bowling broadcasters
Olympic Games broadcasters
United States Football League broadcasters
National Basketball Association broadcasters
Arena Football League broadcasters
College basketball broadcasters
College football broadcasters
National Football League broadcasters
Living people
1949 births
Sportspeople from Washington, D.C.

Tim Brant


The Wax Museum at Fisherman's Wharf, San Francisco, was an attraction with over 270 wax figures. Originator Thomas Fong opened the museum in 1963 after seeing the wax figures at the Seattle World's Fair and it was run by the Fong Family until its closure in 2013. It has attracted over 400,000 visitors a year.

Founder
Thomas L. Fong was born in Canton Province, China on January 4, 1913 and grew up in a small village. He emigrated to San Francisco, aged 17, when a family friend who was there offered to sponsor a member of the family. By 1938 he was running a jewelry store, and developing real estate projects.

In the early 1960s Fong bought a run-down grain mill called Smith Anderson Mill, near Fisherman's Wharf and decided to open the Wax Museum at Fisherman's Wharf. The attraction opened on May 12, 1963. With the success of their first museum, the family purchased Movieland Wax Museum in Buena Park, California on April 1, 1985 and operated it until it closed on October 31, 2005.

By 1989, Tommy, as he was known at Fisherman's Wharf, decided to leave the Management and Operations of the Wax Museum and other family businesses to his son, Ron Fong and his grandson, Rodney Fong. Tommy died on November 26, 2000, aged 87.

New building
The old Wax Museum Entertainment Complex Building was demolished in 1998, having had over 10 million visitors since it opened, including almost half a million in the year before it closed. It reopened two years later in a new  four-story building, designed by MBH Architects. Inspired by French Victorian public architecture, it cost $18m and includes retail space and a restaurant. The Wax Museum at Fisherman's Wharf officially reopened on July 13, 2000 in the basement of the new building and lies nine feet below the bay level. According to Rodney Fong, in 2008 it was attracting 250,000 visitors a year of whom around 10% were from abroad.

The last day of business for The Wax Museum at Fisherman's Wharf was August 15, 2013.

In 2014 the Merlin Entertainments signed a multi year real estate transaction with the Wax Museum Entertainment Complex Building to invest $35 million to open a Madame Tussauds Wax Attraction at Fisherman's Wharf. Madame Tussauds San Francisco opened for business in June 2014 and featured a new series of wax figures, created by Madame Tussauds.

Exhibits

The museum displayed a few figures of current interest in the lobby, which was open to the street. The bodies of the wax statues were made of wood, fiberglass, papier-mâché and beeswax. The process to make each figure and prepare it for display took approximately two or three months. Many of the sculptures were created by Gem's Wax Figures in London. A few were crafted by Ron Fong, others by Los Angeles wax sculptor Henry Alvarez, and the museum's resident sculptor, Kahn Gasimov who was hired away from London's Madame Tussauds.

The underground exhibits contained more than 270 figures and scenes, ranging from The Last Supper and Wizard of Oz to King Tut and the Chamber of Horrors which included Anton LaVey, the late San Francisco satanist whose wax figure attended his funeral. There were famous sports-people and important historical figures including a display of dictators featuring Fidel Castro, Saddam Hussein, Napoleon Bonaparte and Hideki Tōjō. A display of World War II generals featured an authentic World War II Willys jeep and the sound of explosions and machine-gun fire. A scientists' section included Galileo, Albert Einstein and Bill Gates. Other displays included famous composers, artists and current celebrities.

References

 Downs, Tom. San Francisco: The liveliest guide to the USA's most exuberant city. Australia: Lonely Planet, 1999. 121.
 Otteson, Paul. Northern California: Travel Smart. New Mexico: John Muir, 1998. 44.

External links
 Wax Museum at Fisherman's Wharf Website

Museums in San Francisco
Wax museums in California
Defunct museums in California
Fisherman's Wharf, San Francisco

Wax Museum at Fishermans Wharf


Frommer's is a travel guide book series created by Arthur Frommer in 1957. Frommer's has since expanded to include more than 350 guidebooks in 14 series, as well as other media including an eponymous radio show and a website. In 2017, the company celebrated its 60th anniversary. Frommer has maintained a travel-related blog on the company's website since 2007.

History
In 1957, Arthur Frommer, then a corporal in the U.S. Army, wrote a travel guide for American GIs in Europe, and then produced a civilian version called Europe on $5 a Day. The book ranked popular landmarks and sights in order of importance and included suggestions on how to travel around Europe on a budget. It was the first travel guide to show Americans that they could afford to travel in Europe.

Frommer returned to the United States and began practicing law. During that time, he continued to write and also began to self-publish guidebooks to additional destinations, including New York, Mexico, Hawaii, Japan and the Caribbean. In 1977, Frommer's trademark was sold to Simon & Schuster, Inc. Pearson bought the reference division of Simon & Schuster in 1998 and sold it to IDG Books in 1999. John Wiley & Sons acquired IDG Books (renamed Hungry Minds) in 2001. Arthur's daughter, Pauline Frommer, was writing her own series of travel guidebooks and continuing the Frommer's travel legacy.

On August 13, 2012, it was announced that Google was acquiring Frommer's for an undisclosed sum. In March 2013, it was reported that Google ended the printing of Frommer's guidebooks. In April 2013, it was announced that the Frommer's brand has been reacquired by Arthur Frommer and his daughter, Pauline Frommer. In July 2013, Arthur Frommer struck a deal with Publishers Group West to distribute and promote Frommer's books.

Guidebook series
More than 75 million copies of Frommer's guide books have been sold since 1957.

Over 350 titles are available in the following series:

 Frommer's Complete Guides
 Frommer's EasyGuides
 Frommer's Day by Day for over 70 travel destinations
 Frommer's Portable Guides
 Frommer's Irreverent Guides
 Frommer's Memorable Walks
 Frommer's PhraseFinder & Dictionaries
 Frommer's Driving Tours
 Pauline Frommer's Guides
 Frommer's National Park Guides

See also
Lonely Planet

In popular culture
Frommer's guidebooks are represented in the 2004 comedy EuroTrip when one of the main characters, Jamie, uses it to guide a group of teenagers around Europe. Jamie later gets a job with Frommer's at the end of EuroTrip.  In the opening scene of 2003's Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, Cameron Diaz enters a Mongolian beer shack holding a Frommer's guidebook. A copy can also be seen near the beginning of the 2008 film Jumper. Complete references from the Frommer's Guide book for Traveling around the world can be seen in the movie Last Stop for Paul.

References

External links

Travel guide books
Book series introduced in 1957

Frommer's


The first season of the musical comedy-drama television show Glee originally premiered on May 19, 2009 and ended on June 8, 2010 on FOX in the United States. The first season had 22 episodes and was produced by 20th Century Fox Television and Ryan Murphy Television. The first season features the "New Directions" glee club at the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima, Ohio. It also shows the glee club in several competitions; local, regional and nationals which was held in New York City. The club members in this season began dealing with relationship, sexuality and social issues.

Glee
American television seasons
2009 television seasons
2010 television seasons

Glee (season 1)


Walsh University is a private Roman Catholic university in North Canton, Ohio. It enrolls approximately 2,700 students and was founded in 1960 by the Brothers of Christian Instruction as a liberal arts college. Walsh College became Walsh University in 1993. The university offers more than 70 undergraduate majors and seven graduate programs, as well as multiple global learning experiences.

History
The school's namesake is Bishop Emmett Michael Walsh of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Youngstown.

Walsh University was founded as LaMennais College in Alfred, Maine in 1951 by the Brothers of Christian Instruction to educate young men as brothers and teachers. In 1957 Brother Francoeur of La Mennais College and Monsignor William Hughes of Youngstown, Ohio discussed the Brothers' wish to move LaMennais College from Alfred, Maine, and Bishop Walsh invited the Brothers to choose Canton, Ohio as the new location. Bishop Walsh donated $304,000 to the Walsh College project. In 1959 the present location of Walsh University began as  of farm land on which two buildings were constructed, College Hall (Farrell Hall) and LaMennais Hall which continues to house the Brothers and international priest-students. The Founding Brothers include: Dacian J. Barrette, Thomas S. Farrell, Henry J. Vannasse, Edmond Drouin, Paul E. Masse, Robert A. Francoeur, and Alexis Guilbeault. The Brothers have played an active role at the institution, serving as faculty during the original years and playing a part in the growth and development of facilities and programs. Several have served as president.

In 2013, Walsh University joined Division II of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Walsh previously competed in the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) as a member of the American Mideast Conference, while its football team competed in the Mid-States Football Association.

Presidents
On July 1, 2019, Walsh University announced that Timothy J. Collins was appointed to serve as the university's seventh president.

Presidents:
 Thomas Farrell - 1960–1970
 Robert Francoeur - 1970–1977
 Francis Blouin - 1978–1992
 Richard Mucowski - 1992–1996
 Kenneth Hamilton - 1997–2001
 Richard Jusseaume - 2002–2019
 Timothy Collins - 2019–present

Campus

The campus covers  and is made up of 27 buildings along East Maple Street in North Canton.

Buildings include:
 Farrell Hall (1960) - This was the first building on campus. Construction started in 1959 and finished in 1960. It was initially named College Hall and was later renamed in honor of Br. Thomas Farrell in 1977, the first president and one of the founding Brothers of Christian Instruction.
 LaMennais Hall (1960)
 Gaetano M. Cecchini Family Health and Wellness Complex (1971/2009) - Formerly called the Physical Education Center. A major update and renovation occurred in 2009.
 The Don and Ida Betzler Social and Behavioral Sciences Center (1972)
 Hannon Child Development Center (1990)
 Aultman Health Foundation Byers School of Nursing and Health Sciences Center (2000)
 The Paul and Carol David Family Campus Center (2001)
 Timken Natural Sciences Center (2005)
 Barrette Business and Community Center (2005) - The Barrette Business and Community Center is the former site of the Rannou Center (1966-2004) and opened in 2005.
 Our Lady of Perpetual Help Chapel (2006)
 Birk Center for the Arts (2012)
 Saint John Paul II Center for Science Innovation (2015)
 Father Matthew Herttna Counseling Center
 St. Katharine Drexel House
 The Marlene and Joe Toot Global Learning Center (2018)
The campus includes dormitory residences named:
 Menard Hall/Betzler Towers (1966/2006) - Menard Hall was the first dormitory on campus and opened in 1966. The Betzler Tower was added in 2006.
 Seanor Hall (1968) - Seanor Hall was initially named Alexis Hall and had been named for Br. Alexis Guilbeaut, one of the Founding Brothers of the university.
 Lemmon Hall (1995)
 Brauchler Hall (1999), Meier Hall (2000), Stein Hall (2002) - colloquially called "The Grove Apartments"
 Marie & Ervin Wilkof Towers (2004)
 Olivieri Family Towers (2007)
 The Commons (2012).
The Walsh University Peace Pole outside Farrell Hall represents visitors including Willy Brandt, Coretta Scott King, Mother Teresa, and Elie Wiesel who came to Walsh University to advocate for peace.

Walsh also oversees the Hoover Historical Center which they acquired in April 2004.

Academics

Professional development
Walsh University offers several opportunities for professional development, including a certificate in healthcare management, FNP certificate, and several educator certificates or licensures.

Undergraduate
The university offers over 60 majors.

Graduate
Walsh University offers the following graduate degrees: Doctorate of Physical Therapy (DPT); Master of Occupational Therapy (MOT); Master of Science in Nursing (MSN); Master of Arts in Education (M.A.Ed); Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.); Master of Arts in Counseling and Human Development; Master of Arts in Theology, and Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP). Several graduate programs are offered in online and in an accelerated format.

Athletics

Walsh has 20 varsity athletic teams, with two more to be added in 2023–24, and competes in the National Collegiate Athletic Association at the Division II level as a member of the Great Midwest Athletic Conference. The university's football team formerly played their home games at Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium, now playing on campus at Larry Staut Field.

Varsity teams
Walsh sponsors 10 men's varsity teams: baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, football, golf, soccer, lacrosse, tennis, and track & field. The school also sponsors 10 women's varsity teams: basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, tennis, track & field, and volleyball.

In 2023–24, Walsh will add one new sport for each sex. For men, sprint football will be added. This is a variant of American football played under standard NCAA rules but governed outside the NCAA structure, with player weights restricted to a maximum of . The new team will play in the Midwest Sprint Football League. For women, the cheerleading discipline of STUNT, also not governed by the NCAA, will be added.

Mascot and colors
Walsh University sports teams compete as the "Cavaliers". School colors are maroon and gold.

The school mascot is Sir Walter the Cavalier, who also makes appearances at various school events outside of athletics. A carved replica of Sir Walter stands outside the Cecchini Family Health and Wellness Complex and was created from an oak tree in 2016. The name Cavalier was chosen after the school newspaper, The Spectator, ran a contest in 1963, awarding Sean Keenan, Class of 1964, a $15 prize for his submission.

National championships
The Women's Basketball Team won the 1998 NAIA National Championship and the men's basketball team won the 2005 NAIA National Championship.

Notable people

Alumni
Bob Shearer, 1974, former president and COO of Shearer's Foods
Louis Zacharilla, 1978, co-founder of the Intelligent Community Forum
Michael Skindell, 1983, former assistant attorney general of Ohio and State Representative for the 13th House District of Ohio
Bishop Isaac Amani Massawe, 1988 and 1990, former Bishop for the Diocese of Moshi, Tanzania from 2007 to 2017 and current archbishop of Arusha, Tanzania
Christopher Remark, 1992 and 2008, CEO of Aultman Hospital
Jeff Dolan, 2001, first openly gay player in NAIA football.
Penny Roberts, 2002, selected as America's Next Top Photographer by Tyra Banks
Brian Rogers, 2005, professional football player, professional mixed martial artist.
Rayshaun Kizer, 2006, gridiron football player
Joe Morgan, 2011, professional football player. Morgan transferred to Walsh in 2009.
Ramona Hood, 2012, President and CEO of FedEx.
Ric Sayre, Elite Distance Runner.

Faculty and staff
Bob Huggins, basketball coach at Walsh from 1980 to 1983. He led the Cavaliers to a perfect 30–0 regular season. (They finished 34–1 overall).
Jim Dennison, football coach at Walsh from 1993 to 2012

References

External links

1960 establishments in Ohio
Buildings and structures in Stark County, Ohio
Education in Stark County, Ohio
Universities and colleges established in 1960
Catholic universities and colleges in Ohio
Roman Catholic Diocese of Youngstown

Walsh University


Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 in C-sharp minor, S.244/2, is the second in a set of 19 Hungarian Rhapsodies by composer Franz Liszt, published in 1851, and is by far the most famous of the set.

In both the original piano solo form and in the orchestrated version this composition has enjoyed widespread use in animated cartoons. Its themes have also served as the basis of several popular songs.

Background

The Hungarian-born composer and pianist Franz Liszt was strongly influenced by the music heard in his youth, particularly Hungarian folk music, with its unique gypsy scale, rhythmic spontaneity and direct, seductive expression. These elements would eventually play a significant role in Liszt's compositions. Although this prolific composer's works are highly varied in style, a relatively large part of his output is nationalistic in character, the Hungarian Rhapsodies being an ideal example.

Composed in 1847 and dedicated to Count László Teleki, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 was first published as a piano solo in 1851 by Bartholf Senff. Its immediate success and popularity on the concert stage led to an orchestrated version, arranged (together with five other rhapsodies) in 1857–1860 by the composer in collaboration with Franz Doppler, and published by Schuberth in 1874–1875. In addition to the orchestral version, the composer arranged a piano duet version in 1874, published by Schuberth the following year.

Offering an outstanding contrast to the serious and dramatic lassan, the following friska holds enormous appeal for audiences, with its simple alternating tonic and dominant harmonization, its energetic, toe-tapping rhythms, and breathtaking "pianistics".

Most unusual in this composition is the composer's invitation for the performer to perform a cadenza, although most pianists choose to decline the invitation. Marc-André Hamelin composed a cadenza that has since become famous for its originality, musicality and playfulness, and Sergei Rachmaninoff also wrote a famous cadenza for his interpretation. Liszt himself wrote several cadenzas for his pupils' performances of the piece, but they were rarely performed. Other pianists have arranged their own versions of the Rhapsody with changes beyond that of simply adding a cadenza, most notably Vladimir Horowitz in 1953.

Sources of the melodies
The title of this rhapsody is slightly misleading, as the introductory theme is Romanian, rather than Hungarian. This theme was found in one of Liszt's Weimar sketchbooks. In his memoirs, Austrian pianist Heinrich Ehrlich accused Liszt of using his own theme for the piece without adding promised attribution, after Ehrlich played it for Liszt in 1846. The memoirs contain an 1864 letter from Liszt, in which the composer acknowledges Eckhardt's influences while making no claim to the melodies; only that his task "as a rhapsodist is merely limited to turning them into works as close as possible to their true essence."

Form

The piece consists of two distinct sections.

The first is the lassan, with its brief introduction. Although beginning on the C-sharp major triad, C-sharp minor is soon established as the home key. From this point on, the composer modulates freely, particularly to the tonic major and the relative major. The mood of the lassan is generally dark and melancholic, although it contains some playful and capricious moments.

The second section is the friska. It opens quietly in the key of F-sharp minor, but on its dominant chord, C-sharp major, recalling a theme from the lassan. The alternating dominant and tonic harmonies quickly increase in volume, the tempo gaining momentum as the Friska's main theme (in F-sharp major) is approached. At this point, the Friska begins its journey of ever-increasing energy and pianistic bravura, still underpinned by alternating tonic and dominant harmonies. Modulations are limited almost exclusively to the dominant (C-sharp major) and the lowered mediant (A major). Before the final whirlwind of sound, a moment of calm prevails in the key of F-sharp minor, recalling another of the lassan's themes, and is followed by the instruction, Cadenza ad lib. Finally, in the key of F-sharp major, there is a crescendo of prestissimo octaves, which ascend and then descend to cover almost the entire range of the keyboard and bringing the Rhapsody to a conclusion.

Liszt planned his choice of keys in a remarkably symmetrical fashion. Although the lassan's principal key is C-sharp minor (with the appropriate key signature used throughout) the work opens on the tonic major chord, C-sharp major. However, by bar 6, the minor tonality is established. This device provides a contrast which intensifies the generally dark and sombre character of the lassan. This procedure is directly reversed in the Friska. Although the principal key of the Friska is F-sharp major, Liszt chooses to begin in the tonic minor key, F-sharp minor, which is sustained until bar 51. For practical reasons of notation (i.e., the prolongation of the tonic minor key), Liszt chooses the key signature of F-sharp minor, until the arrival of the main theme in F-sharp major. This time, the use of the more serious minor tonality is used as a contrast to the arrival of the playful and jubilant main theme of the Friska.

Arrangements
The orchestral version of the Rhapsody produced by Liszt and Doppler is scored for an orchestra consisting of piccolo, two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets in B and A (doubling on the piccolo clarinet and clarinet in D), two bassoons, four horns in F, two trumpets in D, three trombones, timpani, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, glockenspiel, harp, and strings, and is raised by a semitone to D minor / G major. Another orchestral arrangement, one semitone below (C minor / F major), by Karl Müller Berghaus, also exists.

In 1933, Franz Schreker made an orchestral transcription, the performance of which was originally intended to be filmed as part of a series entitled Das Weltkonzert. This arrangement is published by Universal Edition.

In 1975, Gábor Szabó played a jazz rendition of the composition for his album Macho.

In popular culture
The Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 has been prominently used in animated cartoons and popular media, most famously in the Tom and Jerry short The Cat Concerto, which won an Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons and the Bugs Bunny short Rhapsody Rabbit, directed by Friz Freleng. The first such appearance in a cartoon was as part of a piano solo by Mickey Mouse in The Opry House in 1929 where he has to deal with an animated piano.

References

 Eric Blom ed.: "Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians"", 5th edition; St. Martin's Press, New York, 1954; Library of Congress Catalog Number 54-11819
 James Friskin and Irwin Freundlich: "Music for the Piano", Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1973;
 John Gillespie: "Five Centuries of Keyboard Music", Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1972;

External links

 Free sheet music from Cantorion.org
 Hungarian Rhapsody #2, Lassan & Friska CC-licensed free recording from archive.org

02
1847 compositions
Compositions in C-sharp minor

Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2


Special Olympics is the world's largest sports organization for children and adults with intellectual disabilities. It provides year-round training and competitions to more than 4.4 million athletes in 193 countries. Special Olympics competitions are held every day, all around the world. This includes local, national and regional competitions. Combined they add up to more than 70,000 events a year.

These competitions include the Special Olympics World Games. These alternate between summer and winter games. Special Olympics World Games are held every four years. The most recent World Summer Games were the Special Olympics World Summer Games, held in Athens, Greece (The birthplace of the modern Olympic Games). They ran from June 25, 2011 to July 4, 2011. The next summer games will be held in Los Angeles beginning Saturday, July 25 and ending on August 2, 2015. The Flame of Hope is the symbol of the Special Olympics. It was lit on May 14, 2015 at the Pnyx in Athens, Greece. That began the  journey to the World Games. The torch remains lit until the end of the Games on August, 2.

Next Specialolympics will held in Canada in 2024 in winters

References

Sports competitions

Special Olympics


The Curonian (Courish) Spit  is a 98-kilometre (61 miles) long, thin, curved sand-dune spit that separates the Curonian Lagoon from the Baltic Sea. Its southern portion is in  Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. The northern part is in Klaipėda County, Lithuania. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site shared by Lithuania and Russia.

The Teutonic Knights occupied the area in the 13th century. They built castles at Memel (1252), Neuhausen (1283), and Rossitten (1372).

From the 18th century, it was part of the Kingdom of Prussia.  The Prussian government sponsored large-scale revegetation and reforestation after the trees were cut down to make ships.

The Curonian Spit has the highest moving (drifting) sand dunes in Europe. The average height is 35 metres (115 ft), but some get to 60 metres (200 ft).

References

Klaipėda County
Baltic Sea

Curonian Spit


Guillaume Restes (born 11 March 2005) is a French professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for  club Toulouse.

Club career

Born in Toulouse, Guillaume Restes joined the Toulouse FC academy as a six years old, from the club of the Montaudran suburb.

He signed his first professional contract with the club on the summer 2021. His promising performances with the youth team and the National 3 reserve of Toulouse at a young age soon earned him comparisons to former Toulouse player Alban Lafont.

During the 2023 pre-season, despite the arrival of LaLiga2 champion Álex Domínguez and the initial announcement of Coupe de France winner Kjetil Haug as the number 1 goalkeeper, Restes established himself as a potential starter for his club after the departure of Maxime Dupé, playing the entirety of the last summer friendly, a 2–1 home win against Mourinho's AS Roma.

Restes made his professional debut for Toulouse on the 13 August 2023, playing the full 90 minutes of a 2–1 away Ligue 1 win to Nantes, the young goalkeeper earning praises for his decisive performance.

International career

Guillaume Restes is a youth international for France, having played with the under-17 and under-18 teams.

Having a mother of Ivorian descent, Restes is also potentially eligible for the Ivory Coast national team.

References

External links
Toulouse FC profile

2005 births
Living people
French footballers
French sportspeople of Ivorian descent
France men's youth international footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Footballers from Toulouse
Toulouse FC players
Championnat National 3 players
Ligue 1 players

Guillaume Restes


The Museo de Málaga is a museum in Málaga, Andalusia, Spain. Formed in 1973, it brought together the former Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes (Provincial Museum of Fine Arts), born in 1913, and Museo Arqueológico Provincial (Provincial Archeological Museum), born in 1947. As of 2010, the museum remains institutionally divided into two "sections" corresponding to the older museums. There are slightly over 2,000 pieces in the Fine Arts collection and over 15,000 in the Archeology collection. The museum opened to the public in December 2016, becoming the biggest museum in Andalusia and the 5th in Spain.

Fine Arts section
The Fine Arts section has its origin in the Royal Decree of 24 July 1913 that encouraged the Ministry of Public Instruction to establish provincial fine arts museums in those provincial capitals that did not yet have such an institution. Málaga's Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Telmo ("San Telmo Royal Academy of Fine Arts") had long wished to create such an institution. The Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes was founded 3 February 1915 and opened its doors in a temporary location in the Calle Pedro de Toledo 17 August 1916. In 1920 it moved to the former Jesuit college of San Sebastián, which also housed the Academy and a school of fine arts. It moved to the Buenavista Palace in 1961, but had to leave that facility in 1997 when the Andalusian Autonomous Government bought the palace to convert it into the Museo Picasso Málaga. At that time the Fine Arts section moved to the Palacio de la Aduana, where temporary exhibitions have been held.

The museum includes works by Luis de Morales, Luca Giordano, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Antonio del Castillo, Alonso Cano, Pedro de Mena, Jusepe de Ribera, Francisco de Zurbarán, Diego Velázquez, Francisco de Goya, Federico de Madrazo, Ramón Casas, José Moreno Carbonero, Enrique Simonet, Joaquín Sorolla, Léon Bonnat, Franz Marc and Pablo Picasso.

Archeological section

The Archeological section has its origin in a Decree of 1947, integrating the collections of the old Museo Loringiano (based on the 19th-century collection of the Marquesses of Casa-Loring) and the archeological holdings of the Museo Provincial de Bellas Artes. The latter came from digs that had occurred in the province since the 1930s, including digs in the Alcazaba of Málaga, where the new museum opened in 1949. In 1996, rehabilitation of the Alcazaba required a move. The collection was temporarily housed in the 16th-century Convento de la Trinidad until 1999, when it moved to the former provincial historical archive in the Avenida de Europa, which it shares with the Biblioteca Pública del Estado ("State Public Library"). Before the museum opened, there was a series of temporary exhibitions at the Palacio de la Aduana.

See also
 List of museums in Málaga
 List of museums in Spain

Notes

External links

 Museo de Málaga, official English-language site.

Art museums and galleries in Spain
Archaeological museums in Spain
Art museums established in 1973
Museo de Malaga
Museums in Málaga

Museo de Málaga


The Fiat 2000 was an Italian heavy tank designed and produced by Fiat during  World War I. Only two were built as it never entered serial production. It was one of the largest designs of its time.

History
During World War I, Italy did not field any armoured units, due to a lack of tanks. The only solution at the time was to begin production of original designs.

The order to design and produce the first Italian tanks was accepted by the FIAT automobile company in 1916. The prototype of the new tank was displayed to a military commission on 21 June 1917; its mechanical systems were complete but its superstructure was added later, being represented on the prototype by a wooden mockup with a conical open turret and dummy gun. The final configuration of the superstructure was not completed until 1918.

Description
The FIAT 2000 was a substantial vehicle, of comparable dimensions to the British Mark V tanks, and weighing 40 tons as compared to the Mark V's 28 tons.

The driver was seated at the front, with very good overall vision consisting of a large port forward and small lateral loopholes.

The layout of the FIAT 2000 differed to the other tanks then in use, especially the British ones. The engine was separated from the crew; not placed behind the crew compartment as modern tanks, but below it. The mechanical layout was also interesting and innovative, comprising a FIAT Aviazione A12, water-cooled  engine with 6 cylinders driving the tracks through a transverse transmission. The fuel capacity was 600 - 1,000 liters, but this gave only 75 km range on paved roads.

The tracks were longer than the hull, but were lower in comparison to the wrap-around type found on the British 'rhomboidal' tanks and thus lower in weight.

The armour was of clean design, being made of riveted steel plates. It was 15 mm thick on the sides and 20 mm on the front.

Armament originally consisted of the turret mounted gun and ten machineguns (three on each side and four in front), but this left the rear of the tank undefended and tended to contaminate the interior with propellant fumes, so it was decided to install a ventilator in the roof and alter the machinegun positions to two on each side, three at the rear, and two in front.

Perhaps the most interesting feature of the tank's weaponry was the turret; apart from the Renault FT, this was the first tank to have a rotating turret mounted above the hull. The turret was made of four pieces rivetted together and had room enough for two crew members. Its weapon was a 65/17 howitzer (of 65mm caliber with a barrel 17 calibers long). Thanks to the tall turret and the space available beneath it, the gun's elevation was -10/+75°.

Service
This tank was often called 'the heaviest World War I tank' but this is not strictly accurate, since the FIAT 2000 never actually saw combat in World War I. The modest order for 50 tanks was never completed with the only tanks produced being two prototypes. While technically a heavier tank design, no prototypes of the German K-Wagen, were completed before the end of World War I.

After the war the FIAT 2000 was displayed as one of the weapons used 'to defeat the enemy' and the two prototypes completed were sent to Libya to fight guerrilla forces, together with other tanks bought from France, in a special unit, the Tank battery (1° Batteria autonoma carri d'assalto).

In Libya, the FIAT tank proved capable of an average speed of 4 km/h, and so, after two months its career ended, being unable to keep up with rapid movement of the enemy. One remained in Tripoli and the other was sent to Italy in the spring of 1919, where it performed before the King at Rome Stadium. The tank put on a convincing display: it climbed a 1.1 m wall, then faced another 3.5 m wall, which it knocked down with its weight. Then a trench of 3 m width was successfully crossed and several trees were knocked down. This impressive performance failed to revive interest in the heavy tank and so it was abandoned.

The surviving FIAT 2000 at Rome was left in a depot for several years, until it was sent on the orders of Colonel Maltese to Forte Tiburtino, nearly catching fire during travel. In 1934 it was seen again in a Campo Dux parade, having been repainted and rearmed, with two 37/40 mm guns instead of the forward machine guns. It was later reportedly transformed into a monument at Bologna, after that its fate is unknown.

Replica
A project aimed at building a full-sized working replica of the Fiat 2000 has been created as of March 2017. The project was started by volunteers, aiming to raise the necessary funds with crowdfunding. From June 2017 to October 2018 the committee worked on remaking a complete set of blueprints, after which the construction of the replica started on 15 November 2018. The project was declared complete and was painted and running on its own power as of April 2020

Sources
 Pignato, Nicola, Storia dei mezzi corazzati, Fratelli Fabbri editori, 1976, pag. 81-88.

See also

 Fiat 3000

References

External links
 The Advanced Fiat 2000 Heavy Tank(Dead link)
 History of the Italian Tank Corps
 Photogallery

World War I tanks of Italy
Heavy tanks
2000

Fiat 2000


The Bornean bristlehead (Pityriasis gymnocephala), also variously known as the bristled shrike, bald-headed crow or the bald-headed wood-shrike, is the only member of the passerine family Pityriasidae and genus Pityriasis.  This enigmatic and vulnerable species is endemic to the southeast Asian island of Borneo, where it lives in small groups in the rainforest canopy.

Taxonomy
The relationships of this species have been controversial.  At times it has been placed in the Prionopidae, the Cracticidae, the Artamidae or the Corvidae. A more recent suggestion has been to include it in the Tephrodornithidae, a new family that includes Hemipus and Tephrodornis.

Description

The Bornean bristlehead is a medium-sized bird,   in length. It is mostly black, with bright red thighs, head, throat and neck, and grey ear-coverts. The featherless crown is deep yellow and covered in short, 3–4 mm long, bristle-like skin projections, giving it a bald appearance from afar. This gives the species its common name "bristlehead", genus name Pityriasis (from Greek, "having dandruff") and specific name gymnocephala (from Greek, "bald-headed"). Red flank patches are present in all females and some males, but can be covered by the wings when perched. There is a white wing-patch at the base of the primaries, visible in flight. It has a massive heavy black hooked bill and a short tail, giving it a chunky appearance.

Juveniles have entirely or mostly black thighs, a more orange-red head and neck, orange-red ear-coverts, some red mottling to the underparts, a few red feathers on the crown and undeveloped bristles.

It is a noisy species making a variety of unmusical calls, including distinctive high-pitched nasal whining notes interspersed with harsher notes, chattering noises, whistles, honks and chortles.

Distribution and habitat
The bristlehead is endemic to the island of Borneo where it is widespread, but generally sparse and patchy in occurrence, although it can be locally common. It mainly lives in lowlands, but also occurs in hilly areas up to  above mean sea level. It can be found in the canopy of both primary and secondary forests, including peat swamp forests, mixed dipterocarp forests and mangrove forests.

Behaviour
The Bornean bristlehead is a sociable species which often moves steadily in small garrulous flocks of up to 10 birds in the mid and upper canopy of the forest, sometimes accompanied by other large or medium-sized forest birds such as malkohas, babblers, drongos, trogons, woodpeckers and hornbills in mixed-species feeding flocks. Its movements in the canopy are slow and heavy and it flies with a fast, shallow wing-beat.

Feeding
Bornean bristleheads feed primarily on animal prey, mainly large insects and other arthropods, but also small vertebrates like lizards and frogs. Prey is gleaned from foliage, twigs, branches and trunks at canopy to mid-levels of the forest. It occasionally take fruits.

Breeding
Breeding behaviour is largely unknown, though an oviduct egg was described as being white with grey and brown spots and with dimensions of 31 x 25 mm.  A sighting of two apparent females feeding a fledgling has been interpreted as suggesting communal breeding.  Birds have also been seen in flight carrying nesting material.

Conservation
The Bornean bristlehead is considered vulnerable due to the rapid and ongoing deforestation (born legal and illegal) in Borneo, along with burning of peat swamp forest. The principal habitat of the species is Borneo's lowland forests, where an estimated 2.5% is lost each year (based on reviews covering 2015-2020). It occurs in a number of protected areas, but some of these are also targeted by illegal logging.

References

Endemic birds of Borneo
Birds described in 1835

Bornean bristlehead