is a Japanese manufacturer of plastic model kits, radio-controlled cars, battery and solar powered educational models, sailboat models, acrylic and enamel model paints, and various modeling tools and supplies. The company was founded by Yoshio Tamiya in Shizuoka, Japan, in 1946.

The company has gained a reputation among hobbyists of producing models of outstanding quality and accurate scale detail. The company's philosophy is reflected directly in its motto: "First in quality around the world". Tamiya's metal molds are produced from plans with the concept of being "easy to understand and build, even for beginners". Even the box art is consistent with this throughout the company. Tamiya has been awarded the Modell des Jahres (Model of the Year) award, hosted by the German magazine ModellFan.

Products currently commercialized by Tamiya include (toy and collectibles): scale plastic model cars, aircraft, military vehicles, motorcycles, figurines, radio-controlled cars, trucks, and tanks. Tamiya also produces materials and tools, including enamel paints, acrylic paints, airbrushes, aerosol paint, and marker pens.

History

Entrance of plastic models
The company was founded in 1946 as Tamiya Shoji & Co. (Tamiya Commerce Company in translation) by Yoshio Tamiya  (15 May 1905 – 2 November 1988) in Oshika, Shizuoka City. It was a sawmill and lumber supply company. With the high availability of wood, the timber company's wood products division (founded in 1947) also produced wooden models of ships and airplanes, which later became company's foundation. In 1953, the company stopped selling architectural lumber and focused solely on model making.

In the mid-1950s, wooden model sales were decreased due to foreign-made plastic models starting to be imported. This led the company to also manufacture plastic models, starting in 1959. Their first model was the Japanese battleship Yamato. Tamiya's competitors already sold similar models for 350 yen, forcing the company to match the price. However, at this cheap price, Tamiya was unable to recover the cost of producing metal molds, so once again, they refocused on wooden models.

In the 1960s, using metal molds no longer needed for plastic toys, Tamiya was able to release a racecar mini-kit, which financed the production of their next plastic model. To their good fortune, it became a hit. They decided their second plastic model would be the Panther tank—it had a linear form, which would make the molds simple to produce. They commissioned illustrator Shigeru Komatsuzaki  to do the box art. The Panther was motorized, moved well, and had a clear instruction manual, which made it easy to assemble, all of which gained it a good reputation. The model was made in a 1:35 scale—later to become a standard scale modelling scale for military subjects—because it was decided that the tank would use a single Type 2 battery (but would hold two of them).

Metal molds
Tamiya is known for the extremely high accuracy of their molds, which is reflected in the final product after assembly. For example, in the past, when Tamiya manufactured plastic models using craftsmen's skills and earlier designs, other companies' products represented bolts as simple hemispheric protuberances while Tamiya represented bolts more accurately as hexagonal posts. This level of detail and thoroughness with which they produced their models earned them a high reputation, even overseas.

Initially, Tamiya ordered metal molds from outside contractors, but often had delays and unclear pricing, which led to trouble. Then, they scouted metal-mold craftsmen into the company and in 1964 started their own Metal Molds division. Starting in 1966, they transferred a number of craftsmen to the Mold Manufacturing Factory. These craftsmen slowly gained the know-how and came to make molds for Tamiya. Today, computer-aided design (CAD) is also used in the development process.

Packaging
On early products (1961–1967), the box art was done by outsourced illustrators, including Shigeru Komatsuzaki. This box art, which expanded the product image and had a feeling of "compositions of achievement" or "a story contained in a picture", further enhanced Tamiya's brand.

However, in an attempt to make the box art more accurate and visually precise, the 1968 slot racing car model appeared without scenery on a white background. This experiment turned out to be popular, and after that, Tamiya completely switched to white packaging (except for some aircraft and ship models). Shigeru Komatsuzaki's box art, which had contributed to Tamiya's early image, has now almost disappeared from Tamiya's products due to the change in box art strategies and the discontinuation of former products.

In the 1970s, some box art of model tanks contained images of items not included in the box. When Tamiya began exporting these models internationally, false advertising laws became problematic. Tamiya dealt with this by erasing the items and retouching the backgrounds.

Timeline
1960 – 1:800 battleship Yamato, Tamiya's first plastic model. Due to the poor sales, Tamiya diverted the product to battleship Musashi.
1961 – 1:35 Panther tank, Tamiya's first tank model. Tamiya's famous 1:35 scale originates in the size of this motorized model (using two C batteries), which was 1:35 of the actual Panther tank by chance.
1964 – Tamiya established an in-house mold and die department.
1966 – Shunsaku Tamiya visited the United States Army Ordnance Museum for the first time for covering the tanks. The coverage result at this time became Tamiya's early underlying data for tank models. After this visit, Tamiya came to cover actual vehicles eagerly in the tank museums around the world, including the Bovington Tank Museum. While visiting the Aberdeen Tank Museum, Maryland, since no pictures or sketches of the classified tanks were permitted, Tamiya employees sketched all they could remember as soon as they left the grounds.
1967 – 1:12 Honda F-1; completed with the cooperation of Honda. The next year, this model was shown at the Nuremberg Toy Fair in Germany where Tamiya became the first Japanese model kit manufacturer to exhibit.
1968 – 1:35 German Tank Soldier Set; the first product in the Military Miniature Series.
1976 – 1:12 Porsche 934 Turbo RSR. Tamiya actually purchased a real Porsche 911, dismantled it, and rebuilt it in order to better understand the car. Tamiya diverted the die to make a radio-controlled car (RC car) version of the Porsche 934. Although sale of the plastic model of the 1:12 Porsche 934 was poor, the RC car version was a great success. In 2006, Tamiya choose the 934 Turbo RSR as the product to commemorate the 30th anniversary of Tamiya's RC car series.
1980s – Tamiya introduced programmable logic controllers for moving models. These used a 4-bit microcontroller.
1986 – Hotshot Jr.; the first in the popular Racer Mini 4WD series.

Trademark
On the release of Tamiya's first plastic model, Shunsaku Tamiya (son of founder Yoshiro Tamiya) commissioned his younger brother, Masao, then a first-year student at Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music Design Department, to create a new trademark. He created the logo called the "Star Mark". At first, it was decorated with English. In 1960, with the release of the slot car, the design was changed to its current form. The left red star stands for creativity and passion, and the right blue star stands for youth and sincerity.

Mascot
Between 1984 and 1989, Tamiya had its own mascot called Plastic Model Moko-chan, who has a rabbit sidekick called . Together, they were sometimes titled . Drawn by manga artist Fujita Yukihisa, they usually appeared in various Japanese language pamphlets and in comics with Japan-released Tamiya models. They would teach kids about the various models they were building. There was even a series on how to build them, all in a comic format, as well as its only bilingual series of leaflets titled , teaching children RC car care and maintenance.

Although Tamiya no longer uses these characters, they still have a large following with devotees. Nowadays, in the instructions of some plastic 1:35 scale tanks, a tank crewman usually gives tips.

Publications
Tamiya News has been published by Tamiya Model and is an informational, monthly publication about the company's own models. Started in 1967, it was published bimonthly with an occasional special supplement. For a long time, it cost 50 yen, but was later raised to 100 yen. The unique, thin publications were placed in envelopes and sent out via standard mail. Introductory articles on new products, model shops, model clubs, and conversions were included, as well as articles on famous and obscure modelers. A sister publication with articles focused on miniature vehicles and bullet racers, Tamiya Junior News, exists as a free publication (formerly costing 20 yen, but now is available for download as a PDF from Tamiya's website).

Other model-related publications held doll-conversion contests or scenic photo contests, and then they published the results in booklets. In the UK in 1985, Tamiya Model Magazine was launched. It was published initially as a quarterly title, then bimonthly, and finally monthly, as it remains now. The magazine is produced by British publisher Doolittle Media. It promotes new and existing Tamiya products, but also includes the model products from other manufacturers.

Product lines

Representative models
The early Military Miniature Series differed from the western standard scales of the time and used 1:35 scale. The models had the option for the inclusion of batteries and a gear box for motorization. These models were easy to assemble, looked good after assembly, and had accurate parts. These qualities gave the series a good reputation since its release. However, the option for motorization meant that the models needed to be inaccurate in some respects in order to work as motorized kits. More scale-accurate products which did not allow for motorization were renewed after the Tiger I's later model.

After that, Tamiya's family of products was seen world-wide. Noticing other companies were imitating their ease of assembly and accuracy of parts, Tamiya went a step further and added deformities in order to make the finished models look more realistic. However, some modelers felt these deformities were out of place.

In 2004, the new 1:48 scale series began, and World War items were released at a remarkable pace.

A small-scale 1:700 Water Line Series proudly displayed Tamiya's skill. There are many kits in this series. Kihachiro Ueda handled most of the box art for the Water Line Series. It includes:

Sports Car Series
Grand Prix Series
Motorcycle Series
Mini-jet Series (after 2004, this was re-released as the Combat Plane Series)
Warbird Collection

Main remote-control products

Cars

In 1976, Tamiya entered the RC market with their first RC model, the Porsche 934 Turbo RSR. Today, these models are sold both in Japan and worldwide. To commemorate the 30th Anniversary of this first Tamiya RC model, Tamiya re-released a limited number of models in December 2006, including their flagship model, the Porsche Turbo RSR 934 Racing Edition, which was part of the early phase of Tamiya's RC career.

Radio-controlled model types have included:

 Countach Competition Special
 Super Champ
 Ford F-150 Ranger
 Toyota Hilux 4x4
 Chevrolet S-10
 Hilux 4x4 High-lift
 Mountaineer
 Ford F-350 High-lift
 Can-Am Lola Racing Master Mk.1
 Subaru BRAT
 Lancia Rally
 Grasshopper
 Mighty Frog
 Wild One
 Hornet
 Falcon
 Hotshot
 Boomerang
 Fast Attack Vehicle
 Desert Gator
 Sand Viper
 Avante
 Avante 2001
 Top Force
 Dyna Storm
 Dark Impac
 Keen Hawk
 Avante Mk. II
 Twin Detonator
 Wild Dagger
 Double Blaze
 Blackfoot Xtreme
 Clod Buster
 TXT1
 Tamtech Series
 Terra Crusher
 TNX (Tamiya)
 TNX 5.2R
 Nitrage 5.2
 Bigwig
 Fox
 Monster Beetle
 Celica
 Porsche 959 Paris-Dakar Rall
 Blackfoot
 Midnight Pumpkin
 Super Shot
 Super Sabre
 Striker
 Sonic Fighter
 Lunch Box
 Nissan King Cab
 Wild Willy
 Wild Willy 2
 Farm King
 Tumbling Bull
 Big Wig
 TRF 416X
 TRF 417
 TRF 417X
 Nissan R91CP
 Mazda 787B
 Mercedes C-11
 Jaguar XJR-12
 Sand Scorcher
 TRF 201
 Rising Fighter
 TT-01 series

The TRF 416X, TRF 417, and TRF 417X models can be fitted with a Hydrogen Fuel Cell with the H-Cell 2.0 product, making this one of the only (if not the only) professional quality, hydrogen powered model car. The manufacturer claims enhanced run times of over 4 hours on a single hydrogen charge.

Mini four-wheel drives
Ford Ranger 4x4 (July 13, 1982: Mini 4WD) – An early Mini 4WD, released at the same time as the Chevrolet Pickup 4x4.
Hotshot Jr. (June 16, 1986: Racing Mini 4WD) – An early Racing Mini 4WD.
Avante Jr (December 15, 1988: Racing Mini 4WD) – Said to be the first appearance of a mini 4WD for serious racing use.
Sonic Saber (September 7, 1994: Fully Cowled Mini 4WD) – An early Fully Cowled machine, released at the same time as the Magnum Saber.
Nitro Thunder (November 18, 2005: Mini 4WD PRO) – An early Mini 4WD PRO, released at the same time as Nitro Force.
Aero Avante (July 14, 2012: Mini 4WD REV) – An early Mini 4WD REV, featuring a new, aerodynamic, and monocoque chassis design.
Lord Spirit (August 28, 2021: Laser Mini 4WD) – An early Laser Mini 4WD, featuring a chassis with removable front and rear bumpers, and special clear-colored parts to help with the car's stability.

They also produce very high end mini four-wheel drive models in the EVO chassis. These are chassis that have carbon fiber and aluminum components.

Other

Tamiya produces components for moving toys and models (such as their Fun Craft Series), and also produces kits to make simple robots. Another popular product is the older Mabuchi Motor, which runs in water.

In 1960, beginning with the Honda F1 (RA273), Tamiya dealt with many plastic models of Formula One (F1) racecars. This led the company to sponsor Team Lotus in .

Since 1976's Tyrrell P34, Tamiya pays royalties to the teams whose cars their models were based on. Because of Tamiya's reputation for quality, they built strong relations with the teams, even to the point where the teams' well-guarded engineering designs (CAD data) were shown exclusively to Tamiya and no other model makers. However, recently this sort of arrangement has lessened, models are based on alternative references (like news photographs), and royalties demanded by F1 teams have risen. Thus, sales of new models have become more difficult in recent years. Other model companies have taken over the F1 market (such as Model Factory Hiro) and now have the connections that Tamiya used to have with current and past F1 teams.

Tamiya's 1:48 Mini Military AFV, complete even to the point where it was given weathering, aimed to expand the market for completed, painted models. In order to accommodate that, Tamiya employs about 1,200 workers to make finished die cast models which are then shipped to hobby markets around the world. In September 2000, policemen in Cebu City, Philippines began operations to arrest people betting on Tamiya toy car races, which they consider a form of illegal gambling.

Association with CAVE
In March 2005, Tamiya partnered with the game developer CAVE. In June of the same year, they started developing content for mobile phones. Coinciding with releasing the Mini 4WD PRO model car that November, the online game "Mini 4WD Online Racer" and corresponding website were announced. At first, the service schedule was for spring 2006, but because of delays, official service was postponed to summer 2007.

On February 1, 2006, Tamiya and CAVE established Mini 4WD Networks Co., Ltd., a spin-off business dealing with miniature vehicles. In July of the same year, the company began the "MINIon Club" service, a social networking site which also gave special deals on miniature vehicles.

Overseas subsidiaries
Internationally, Tamiya has several subsidiaries:
Tamiya America, Inc.
Tamiya Philippines, Inc.
Tamiya Hong Kong, LTD
Tamiya Europe, GmbH

Tamiya is a major shareholder of Creative Master Bermuda Limited, a Hong Kong-based contract manufacturer which includes Tamiya among its clients.

Facilities
Tamiya has several large regional divisions, notably in Irvine, California, home of Tamiya America, the North, Central, and South American branch responsible for many of the company's racing developments. Tamiya America also features a world-class racing facility in Aliso Viejo, California—which is the site of several world championship events—as well as an annual scale model contest called Tamiya/Con, the last of which was held in 2006.

Presently, over half of Tamiya's products are manufactured in Antipolo City, Philippines. An assembly plant is located in Mactan Export Processing Zone, Cebu, Philippines.

Tamiya Europe is located in Germany.

Guinness World Records
Tamiya radio-controlled models previously held two Guinness World Records, both for distances travelled:
Greatest distance by a radio-controlled model car on one set of batteries
 by David Stevens of Australia, Templestowe Flat Track Racing Club, Templestowe, Victoria, Australia on 20 April 2013. Car used: Tamiya F104 v2 with LRP 2S Lipo motor.
Greatest distance by a radio-controlled model car in 24 hours
 by students of Anna-Schmidt-Schule at a route between Hesse and Thuringia, Germany, on 24 July 2011, taking 14 hours and 50 minutes. Car used: Tamiya Desert Gator with LRP Quantum Bullet motor.
The school previously held the record for the single battery pack  at Tamiya Raceway Sonneberg in Sonneberg.

Gallery

See also

Italeri
International Plastic Modellers' Society (IPMS)
AMPS, Armor Modeling and Preservation Society
Model military vehicle
Bakusou Kyoudai Let's & Go!!
Dash! Yonkuro
Mini 4WD
Model car
Tamiya Radio Controlled Nitro Vehicles

References

Books

External links

Companies based in Shizuoka Prefecture
Companies based in Aliso Viejo, California
Japanese brands
Toy companies established in 1946
Model manufacturers of Japan
Radio-controlled car manufacturers
Slot car manufacturers
Toy cars and trucks
Japanese companies established in 1946
Shizuoka (city)

Tamiya Corporation


Leo Thomas Crowley (August 15, 1889 – April 15, 1972)  was a senior administrator for  President Franklin D. Roosevelt as the head of the Foreign Economic Administration. Previously he had served as Alien Property Custodian and as chief of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. Late in the 1930s, senior Washington officials discovered that Crowley had embezzled from his banks in Wisconsin in the 1920s and early 1930s. This information was suppressed twice because of Crowley's political and administrative usefulness. Biographer Stuart Weiss wrote that Crowley's story is:
the darker story of the businessman as speculator and embezzler, whose fraud was covered up in Wisconsin and Washington....[in part it is] the morally complex and compelling story of Crowley as a bureaucrat and politician in Washington, administering multiple major agencies, often simultaneously;...but also deeply involved in conflicts of interest a later generation would find unacceptable and even incomprehensible.

Early life
Leo Crowley was born to Thomas and Katie Crowley in Milton, Wisconsin, immigrants of Irish Catholic origin. He went to the University of Wisconsin. His father worked for the Milwaukee Road. Young Leo delivered groceries and saved his tips from customers. In 1905, with $1000 he bought a part of the General Paper Company, some of the products of which he had been bringing to customers. He worked hard to grow the company, and his share in it, until he owned it outright in 1919. That year he took over the T. S. Morris company with financing from Milo Hagen and W.D. Curtis. Selling stock in this company relieved its debt, and he bought a wholesale grocery for his brothers to run, and land in Madison, Wisconsin.

Political life

Crowley began his entry into the political arena by supporting Albert G. Schmedeman for governor of Wisconsin. The biographer Weiss says "He managed Schmedeman as a parent might his children, and as he managed his family and most of the nurses at Saint Mary's Hospital."

Crowley served as a delegate for Al Smith at the Democratic National Convention. He thus came in contact with Jouett Shouse and John J. Raskob, operatives for Al Smith. Progressivism was strong in Wisconsin, as expressed by Senator John J. Blaine and the newspaper Capital Times edited by William T. Evjue. Crowley was effective in bringing about a progressive-democratic alliance for the election of  Franklin Roosevelt.

It was the Glass–Steagall Act that created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), one of the most popular elements of the New Deal. The biographer Weiss tells of the incredible tale of how the nearly-bankrupt Crowley became the figurehead for banking security in a time of common bank runs.

Crowley's special capacity for smoothing troubled waters drew him closer to FDR. A wartime cabinet-level conflict involving foreign economic operations in Europe and North Africa threatened cabinet solidarity. So Crowley became head of the Foreign Economic Administration in September 1943, with responsibility for Lend-Lease and Edward R. Stettinius Jr., was promoted to Undersecretary of State. Crowley was now a cabinet member in the Roosevelt administration.

The skeleton in Crowley's closet was his misappropriation of funds in 1931, early in the Great Depression. Though disguised, his banking misdeeds threatened to undo his place in political diplomacy, for instance years later when Henry Morgenthau Jr. or Arthur Vandenberg were checking his credentials. His unusually close relations with the President and James F. Byrnes, as well as adroit personal moves, preserved him in office. He had received  the Order of Saint Gregory the Great from Pope Pius XI in 1929. Crowley was an early target of I. F. Stone, whose investigations were republished by the Capital Times in Madison.

Later life
Back in the business world, Crowley was named chairman of the Milwaukee Road in December 1945 and made it turn a profit until the mid-1960s. He continued contact with the White House: President Dwight Eisenhower appointed Crowley to the United States Commission on Civil Rights in his second term, and he was known to have dined with Lyndon Johnson.

Leo Crowley died on April 15, 1972, in a hospital in Madison, Wisconsin.

Very negatively for Crowley in 1955, Harry Truman wrote about how Crowley had caused a problem with the Soviets when Germany was defeated. The episode was recounted by daughter Margaret Truman in 1973. She adds:
...the real lesson was one that he hesitated to state in his memoirs – the extreme hostility which certain men in government, such as Mr. Crowley, felt toward Russia. It did not make my father's task any easier, to find the middle path between these men and the Henry Wallace types, who could not believe the Russians were capable of any wrongdoing.

References

Further reading
 Laurence C. Eklund (1969) Advisor to Presidents, The Milwaukee Journal, August 17–27 (ten articles).
 "Leo the Lion", Time Magazine (23 March 1942) (Personal sketch of Crowley).
 "Leo Crowley's Aniline" Time Magazine (26 April 1943) (Crowley and synthetic mica).
 Jeffreys, John W.  (1998) ""One of FDR's Forgotten Men" Humanities and Social Sciences Net-Online.

External links
 Truman Presidential Library: Photograph in Truman Cabinet, (7th from Left).

Collection of letters and works by Leo Crowley from FRASER

1889 births
1972 deaths
People from Milton, Wisconsin
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
Wisconsin Democrats
Businesspeople from Wisconsin
American bankers
Chairs of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
Knights of St. Gregory the Great
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration cabinet members
20th-century American politicians
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel
Truman administration personnel

Leo Crowley


Milton Keynes Museum is an independent local museum in the parish of Wolverton and Greenleys in Milton Keynes, England. It is mostly run by volunteers with a small number of paid staff.

The museum is housed in a former Victorian farmstead.
It covers the history of the Milton Keynes area, including northern Buckinghamshire and southern Northamptonshire, from the year 1800 onwards. It includes the Stacey Hill Collection of rural life, consisting of agricultural, domestic, industrial, and social objects connected to the area before the 1967 foundation of Milton Keynes.

There is also a collection of many memorabilia of the nearby Wolverton railway works.

The museum's Connected Earth collection includes a variety of historic telephones and switchboards, many still in working order.
The museum also has some historic Post Office and British Telecom vehicles. The largest of these is the Road Phone, an enormous working telephone used for promotional purposes.

The museum was previously called the Stacey Hill Museum.

Location
The museum is on the southern outskirts of Wolverton, just off H2 Miller's Way at McConnell Drive.

See also
 History of Milton Keynes

References

Museums in Buckinghamshire
Buildings and structures in Milton Keynes
Farm museums in England
Rural history museums in England
Local museums in Buckinghamshire
Telecommunications museums in the United Kingdom
Technology museums in the United Kingdom
Railway museums in England

Milton Keynes Museum


The list of North Carolina hurricanes is made of seventy-five tropical cyclones that struck or affected the U.S. state of North Carolina between 1900 and 1949.

Between 1900-1949, tropical cyclones or their remnants led to 53 deaths in North Carolina. They also caused more than $328 million in damage.

1900 to 1924
September 15, 1903: A storm known as the Vagabond Hurricane passes just east of the Outer Banks. The storm produces gusty winds. There's very little damage.

September 14-15, 1904: After striking South Carolina, a hurricane causes heavy damage and one death while moving across North Carolina.

September 3, 1913: A hurricane makes landfall in North Carolina. High tides and wind cause great damage to crops and property. Several bridges are washed away. The hurricane causes around $3 million in damage. There are five deaths from the storm.

July 15, 1916: Remnants of a tropical storm drop  of rain in a 24-hour period near Highlands, North Carolina. The storm causes flooding and landslides in west-central North Carolina.

September 22, 1920: A strong tropical storm strikes land near Wilmington. It destroys or damages several buildings. One person is killed.

August 24-25, 1924: A hurricane passes a short distance east of Hatteras. The storm surge floods parts of Ocracoke Island. Two people drown during the storm.

1925-1949
December 2, 1925: The Outer Banks are struck by a post-season tropical storm. There is very little damage from the storm.

August 17, 1928: A tropical cyclone causes heavy rain in the west-central part of North Carolina. The rain causes severe flooding that destroys several houses. Property damage is over $1 million.

September 18, 1928: The Okeechobee hurricane causes heavy rain and severe river flooding in the southeast part of North Carolina.

October 28-29, 1929: The former 1929 Florida hurricane produces heavy rain in the state. There is severe flooding. The Cape Fear River rises  in a 24-hour period.

September 11-12, 1930: The 1930 Dominican Republic hurricane brushes Cape Hatteras and the Outer Banks. Damage is minor.

August 23, 1933: The 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane makes landfall along the northeastern part of North Carolina. Damage is locally heavy. Total damage is $250,000.

September 14-15, 1933: The Outer Banks hurricane causes heavy rain, high tides and strong winds. Several homes are destroyed, leaving about 1,000 people homeless. Damage is close to $4.5 million. There are twenty-one deaths in North Carolina.

September 21, 1938: The 1938 New England hurricane brushes by the Outer Banks, causing heavy rain and gusty winds.

August 15, 1940: Remnants of the 1940 South Carolina hurricane die out over North Carolina. The storm has heavy rain. Rain peaks at  near Swansboro. There are over twenty deaths from the storm in North Carolina. Many of the deaths are due to mudslides. Damage is $10 million.

September 14, 1944: The 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane passes just east of the Outer Banks. It sets records, at the time, for strongest winds and lowest pressure at Hatteras. The storm destroys 108 buildings and damages 667 more. One person is killed in North Carolina.

References

20th century in North Carolina
Weather lists
hurricanes 1900

List of North Carolina hurricanes (1900–49)


was formerly a rural district located in Gunma Prefecture, Japan. The district is now divided between the cities of Isesaki and Maebashi, with a remaining portion forming Sawa District and the town of Tamamura

Nawa District was created on December 7, 1878, with the reorganization of Gunma Prefecture into districts. It included 2 towns (Naka and Shiba), 22.5 villages which were formerly part of the holdings of Isezaki Domain, 9.5 villages which belonged to Maebashi Domain, 1 village each to Yoshii Domain, Takasaki Domain and Iwatsuki Domain, and 20 villages which were part of the tenryō holdings in Kōzuke Province under the direct control of the Tokugawa shogunate. With the establishment of the municipalities system on April 1, 1889, the area was organized as one town (Tamamura) and five villages.

On April 1, 1896, the district was merged with Sai District to form Sawa District

References
 角川日本地名大辞典 10 Gunma Prefecture
 旧高旧領取調帳データベース

Former districts of Gunma Prefecture

Nawa District, Gunma


Edward Augustus Freeman (2 August 182316 March 1892) was an English historian, architectural artist, and Liberal politician during the late-19th-century heyday of Prime Minister William Gladstone, as well as a one-time candidate for Parliament. He held the position of Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, where he tutored Arthur Evans; later he and Evans were activists in the Balkan uprising of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1874–1878) against the Ottoman Empire.

After the marriage of his daughter Margaret to Evans, he and Evans collaborated on the fourth volume of his History of Sicily. He was a prolific writer, publishing 239 distinct works. One of his best known is his magnum opus, The History of the Norman Conquest of England (published in 6 volumes, 1867–1879). Both he and Margaret died before Evans purchased the land from which he would excavate the Palace of Knossos.

Biography

Early life
Freeman was born at Metchley Abbey in Harborne, Warwickshire (now a suburb of Birmingham). His parents, John and Mary Ann ( Carless) Freeman, used the Latin name of the month in which he was born as his middle name. They were a family of modest means; however, the paternal grandfather, Joseph Freeman (about 1768–1822), had been a wealthy man, and the owner of Pedmore Hall. On his death, his will was disputed, and lawyers' fees consumed the bulk of the estate. Edward's father, the oldest son, and his two paternal uncles, Keelinge and Joseph, received little to sustain them.

Edward's mother, Mary Anne, née Carless (or Carlos), had noble ancestry, descending through her father, William, then residing near Birmingham, from the same Colonel William Carless who had assisted the future Charles II as he hid from his enemies in the branches of the Royal Oak after the Battle of Worcester, 1651, the last of the English Civil War. Mary Anne's family still displayed the coat of arms given to them.

The family was never in good health. They delayed baptising Edward for a year, hoping to avoid public exposure to contagious diseases. The family was struck by tragedy in November 1824, when the father died of an unknown disease, the mother died four days later of tuberculosis, and the oldest daughter, Mary Anne, then age 14, died of an unknown disease the same day, 25 November. Edward's paternal grandmother, Emmete Freeman, immediately took charge of the three survivors, Edward and his two sisters, Sarah and Emma, aged 13 and 10 respectively, bringing them to her home at Weston-super-Mare. Emma died in 1826 when Edward was three years old.

Education and marriage

Freeman was educated at private schools and by a private tutor. Even as a boy, he was interested in religious matters, history and foreign politics. He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Oxford, and a second class in the degree examination, and was elected fellow of his college (1845). While at Oxford he was much influenced by the High Church movement, and thought seriously of taking orders, but abandoned the idea. He married Eleanor Gutch (1818–1903) daughter of his former tutor, the Reverend Robert Gutch, on 13 April 1847 at Seagrave, Leicestershire, and entered on a life of study.

He lived in Llanrumney Hall, Cardiff, in the mid 19th century. Freeman later bought a house called "Somerleaze", near Wells, Somerset, and settled there in 1860.

Death

From 1886 Freeman was forced by ill health to spend much of his time abroad. In February 1892 he visited Spain in company with his wife and two younger daughters. He fell ill at Valencia on 7 March, but on the 9th went on to Alicante, where his illness proved to be smallpox. He died at Alicante on 16 March, and was buried in the Protestant cemetery there (now referred to as the "British cemetery" section of the Cementerio de Alicante). He left two sons and four daughters. The Latin inscription on his gravestone was written by his son-in-law, Sir Arthur Evans.

Career

Historian

Freeman was made D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. of Cambridge honoris causa, and when he visited the United States on a lecture tour was well received at various institutions of learning. In 1884 he was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, and was, for a time, a non-resident professor at Cornell University. Whilst at Oxford, he presided over the Stubbs Society, an exclusive group of high-achieving historians. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1885.

He advanced the study of history in England in two directions: by insistence on the unity of history, and by teaching the importance and right use of primary sources.  Politics was at the core, for he often said, "History is past politics and politics present history." He urged that history not be divided "by a middle wall of partition" into ancient and modern, nor broken into fragments as though the history of each nation stood apart. He declared it more than a collection of narratives, deeming it a science, "the science of man in his political character." Freeman asserted that the historical student should view all history as within his range, and have his own special range within which he masters every detail (Rede Lecture).

Freeman's range included Greek, Roman and the earlier part of English history, together with some portions of foreign medieval history, and he had a scholarly though general knowledge of the rest of the history of the European world. Freeman regarded Rome as "the central truth of European history," the bond of its unity, and he undertook his History of Sicily (1891–1894) partly to illustrate this unity. He believed that all historical study is valueless unless based on a knowledge of original authorities, and explained how they should be weighed and used. He did not use manuscript authorities, however, and maintained he had no need to do so for most of his work, as the authorities he needed were already in print.

His reputation as a historian rests chiefly on his six-volume History of the Norman Conquest (1867–1879), his longest completed work. In common with his works generally, it is distinguished by exhaustiveness of treatment and research, critical ability, and general accuracy. He is almost exclusively a political historian, and his works are infused with personal insights he gained from his practical experience of people and institutions. His saying that "history is past politics and politics are present history" is significant of this limitation of his work, which dealt less with other subjects in a nation's life.

J. W. Burrow proposed that Freeman, like William Stubbs and John Richard Green, was a historical scholar with little or no experience of public affairs, with views of the present which were Romantically historicised and who was drawn to history by what was in a broad sense an antiquarian passion for the past, as well as a patriotic and populist impulse to identify the nation and its institutions as the collective subject of English history, making

Politician
Freeman involved himself in politics, was a follower of Gladstone, and approved the Home Rule Bill of 1886, but objected to the later proposal to retain the Irish members at Westminster. To enter Parliament was one of his ambitions, and in 1868 he unsuccessfully contested Mid-Somerset. Foreign rather than domestic politics were his main interest. He expressed an antipathy for the Turks and was sympathetic with the smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe. He was prominent in the agitation which followed "the Bulgarian atrocities" of the April Uprising; his speeches were often intemperate, and he was accused of uttering the words "Perish India!" at a public meeting in 1876. This, however, was a misrepresentation of his words. He was made a knight commander of the Order of the Saviour by the King of Greece, and also received an order from the Prince of Montenegro.

For some years he was an active county magistrate. He served on the royal commission on ecclesiastical courts, being appointed in 1881.

Freeman was an opponent of the Imperial Federation movement. He was a proponent of Anglo-Saxonism.

Prejudices
Freeman's attitude towards Jews has been described as one of disdain. His private correspondence had referred to British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli as "the dirty Jew". Of Jews in America more generally, he wrote:

In a letter to a friend, describing America, Freeman wrote, "This would be a grand land if only every Irishman would kill a negro, and be hanged for it".

Works

Architecture
Freeman had a particular interest in ecclesiastical architecture and visited many churches. He soon began a practice of making drawings of buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink. His first book, except for his share in a volume of English verse, was a History of Architecture (1849). Though he had not then seen any buildings outside England, it contains a good sketch of the development of the art. In 1851 he published An Essay on the Origin and Development of Window Tracery in England, which proposed the terms "Flowing" and "Flamboyant" (the latter term already in use in France, though not with exactly the same meaning, continuing right through the English Perpendicular Period) instead of Thomas Rickman's "Decorated", which had been generally adopted since it was first published in 1817. The same year Edmund Sharpe published an alternative proposal, The Seven Periods of English Architecture, dividing the fenestration of the Decorated period between a Geometrical Period to 1315 followed by a Curvilinear Period to 1360. Though Rickman's scheme remains in use, the subdivisions proposed by both Freeman and Sharpe are also often found in recent books.

Historical works and journalism
Freeman's life was marked by a prodigious literary output. His published scholarly works include the six large volumes of Norman Conquest, his unfinished History of Sicily, and his William Rufus (1882). He wrote several others on the early Middle Ages, and produced works on Aratus, Sulla, Nicias, William the Conqueror, Thomas of Canterbury, Frederick II and many more. He was also interested in Switzerland and in comparative constitutional history. Freeman wrote articles for various other publications, including reviews for newspapers and other periodicals, and was a prolific contributor to the Saturday Review until 1878, when he ceased to write for it for political reasons.

The naturalist William Henry Hudson was dismissive of Freeman's style of argument in his 1920 book Dead Man's Plack and an Old Thorn.

Bibliography

Books and papers
Freeman's personal library of some 6,500 volumes was bought for Owens College, Manchester, by the trustees of Sir Joseph Whitworth, and it remains in the college's successor institution, the University of Manchester, though no longer kept together. A catalogue was published by the college in 1894. Most of Freeman's papers are also now held in the University of Manchester Library, including works in manuscript, correspondence and 6,200 of his architectural sketches of European churches.

References

Footnotes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

  [On the American Frederick Jackson Turner]

External links

 Freeman Papers at John Rylands Library, Manchester.

1823 births
1892 deaths
19th-century English historians
Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford
British medievalists
Deaths from smallpox
Burials in Spain
Infectious disease deaths in Spain
Members of the Cambrian Archaeological Association
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Writers from Birmingham, West Midlands
People from Harborne
Regius Professors of History (University of Oxford)

Edward Augustus Freeman


Composed in 1957, Symphonic Songs for Band is one of Robert Russell Bennett's most famous compositions for wind band. The work was commissioned for the National Intercollegiate Band by Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma, national honorary band fraternity and sorority, as part of the two organizations' commissioning program. Since its premiere, it has become among the most frequently performed works in the wind band repertoire. It is considered to be a cornerstone of the band literature.

Symphonic Songs is a suite of three movements: Serenade, Spiritual, and Celebration. It was premiered in the Salt Lake Tabernacle in Salt Lake City on August 24, 1957, by the National Intercollegiate Band under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel William F. Santelmann, retired director of the United States Marine Band. The band comprised 112 musicians from Utah, Florida, Maryland, Colorado, Ohio, Texas, Indiana, and New Mexico.

Instrumentation

Symphonic Songs is scored for piccolo, flutes 1-2, oboe 1, oboe 2 (dbl. Eng. horn), bassoons 1-2, E clarinet, Solo-1st-2nd-3rd B clarinets, E alto clarinet, B bass clarinet, E alto saxophones 1-2, B tenor saxophone, E baritone saxophone, B trumpets 1-2, Solo-1st-2nd-3rd B cornets, F horns 1-2-3-4, trombones 1-2-3, euphonium, tuba, string bass, drums, and timpani.

Structure

I. Serenade

The work opens in 3/8 with a strong hemiola that gives the listener the impression that the work is in 3/4, with two written 3/8 measures to each perceived 3/4 measure. The hemiola abates somewhat when the main melody begins, but is present until the end of the movement. Clarinet, euphonium, trumpet, and trombone are all featured in solos.

II. Spiritual

The Spiritual is in A–B–A form with a blues-inspired background over which the euphonium, cornet, horn choir,
English horn, flute, and piccolo solo. The movement ends with a split-third chord, resulting in a simultaneous major and minor tonality.

III. Celebration

The work ends with a bright celebration reminiscent of a country fair. Instruments evoke the sounds of the calliope and birdsong, and woodwinds act as the "cheering throngs" at a mule race. The movement ends with a "final thrust of full forces on a suspended high chord" with a "stinger" at the end.

See also
 List of concert band literature
 List of works commissioned by Kappa Kappa Psi or Tau Beta Sigma

References

Compositions by Robert Russell Bennett
Concert band pieces
1957 compositions
Kappa Kappa Psi
Tau Beta Sigma

Symphonic Songs for Band


John Schwalger (born 28 September 1983 in Apia, Samoa) is a former New Zealand rugby union player who played at the prop position.

Early life
Schwalger moved to New Zealand after being born in Apia. He is the nephew of Samoa international Mahonri Schwalger.

Career
His representative career started with the New Zealand Schoolboys team, before being included in New Zealand's Under 21 team in 2004. He won the Under 21 Rugby World Championship with that team in 2004.

Hurricanes and Wellington
In 2005 he was a member of the Hurricanes Super 12 (now Super Rugby) wider training group. He debuted for Wellington in the 2005 against the 2005 touring British & Irish Lions, and played for them in that year's National Provincial Championship. He was selected for the Hurricanes squad for the 2006 Super 14 and eventually forced his way into the starting line-up.

Junior All Blacks
Following his Super 14 form in 2006 he was selected for the Junior All Blacks, and played for the team as they won the 2006 IRB Pacific 5 Nations. After another successful 2006 Air New Zealand Cup — where he propped both sides of the scrum, he returned to the Hurricanes for the 2007 Super 14.

All Blacks
Following the 2007 Super 14 he was selected in the All Blacks training squad, and was one of only two non-capped players in the squad. His inclusion was the biggest surprise of the squad – as he was picked ahead of capped props Clarke Dermody and John Afoa. Ultimately, he was the final cut from the 2007 Rugby World Cup squad, as the previously injured Greg Somerville was declared fit to play and took up the final place in the squad.

Agen
After the 2011 Rugby World Cup, Schwalger agreed to sign a deal with French rugby club SU Agen.

Return to Hurricanes and Wellington
In May 2013, he signed a two-year deal to rejoin  for the 2013 ITM Cup and also played for the  since the 2013 Super Rugby season.

External links

References

1983 births
Living people
New Zealand rugby union players
Rugby union props
New Zealand international rugby union players
Samoan emigrants to New Zealand
New Zealand people of German descent
Samoan people of German descent
Wellington rugby union players
Hurricanes (rugby union) players
SU Agen Lot-et-Garonne players
People educated at Bishop Viard College
Rugby union players from Apia

John Schwalger


The Little Mermaid is an American musical fantasy movie directed by Rob Marshall from a screenplay written by Jane Goldman and David Magee. It is produced by Walt Disney Pictures, Rob Marshall, John DeLuca, Marc Platt and Lin-Manuel Miranda, the latter whom co-wrote new songs for the remake as the lyricist, Alan Menken is set to return as the composer for both the score and the songs. It is a live-action adaptation of the 1989 animated film of the same name, which itself is loosely based on Hans Christian Andersen's tale of the same name. The film stars Halle Bailey as Ariel, Jonah Hauer-King as Eric, Javier Bardem and Melissa McCarthy as Ursula, with Daveed Diggs, Jacob Tremblay as Flounder, and Awkwafina in a voice role.

Schedule
The Little Mermaid was released in the United States on May 26, 2023.

Premise
A young mermaid makes a deal with a sea witch: trading her beautiful voice to get human legs so she can discover the world above water.

References

2023 movies
2020s adventure movies
2020s fantasy movies
2020s musical movies
American musical fantasy movies
Disney movies
Movies directed by Rob Marshall
Movies composed by Alan Menken
Movies set in the 19th century
Movies set in the 1830s
The Little Mermaid (Disney)
Movies with underwater settings
Movies set in the Caribbean
Movies about princesses
Movies about witchcraft

The Little Mermaid (2023 movie)


Emperor Xuan of Chen (陳宣帝) (530–582), personal name Chen Xu (陳頊), also called Chen Tanxu (陳曇頊), courtesy name Shaoshi (紹世), childhood name Shili (師利), was an emperor of the Chen dynasty of China. He seized the throne from his nephew Emperor Fei in 569 and subsequently ruled the state for 13 years. He was considered to be a capable and diligent ruler, who at one point militarily expanded at the expense of the Northern Qi. After the Northern Qi fell to the Northern Zhou in 577, however, the Chen dynasty was cornered, and soon lost the gains it had previously made against Northern Qi. Emperor Xuan died in 582, leaving the state in the hands of his incompetent son Chen Shubao, and by 589, the Chen dynasty would be destroyed by Northern Zhou's successor state Sui dynasty.

Background
Chen Xu was born in 530, as the second son of Chen Daotan (陳道譚), a commander in the Liang Dynasty palace guards.  His mother's name is not recorded in history.  Chen Daotan died in 548 or 549, while commanding the guards in resisting a siege of the palace at the capital Jiankang by the rebel general Hou Jing.  After the palace fell to Hou in 549, Chen Xu's older brother Chen Qian and cousin Chen Chang were imprisoned by Hou, because Chen Chang's father, the general Chen Baxian, had joined forces with Wang Sengbian, a general under the command of Xiao Yi the Prince of Xiangdong in resisting Hou.  It is unclear whether Chen Xu was imprisoned as well.  In 551, Wang, with Chen's assistance, defeated Hou and recaptured Jiankang.  Xiao Yi subsequently declared himself emperor (as Emperor Yuan), but set up his capital at Jiangling (江陵, in modern Jingzhou, Hubei) rather than returning to Jiankang, which he put under the command of Wang.  As part of this alignment, Chen Baxian was given the post of defending Jingkou (京口, in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu).  Emperor Yuan then summoned Chen Chang and Chen Xu to Jiangling to serve in his administration—and also to serve as hostages.  Both were given mid-level positions.  He also gave Chen Xu a wife—his niece Liu Jingyan.  (Chen Xu had previously married a wife, Lady Qian, while he was at his home commandery of Yixing (義興, roughly modern Huzhou, Zhejiang), but Lady Qian did not accompany him to Jiangling)

In 554, rival Western Wei attacked Jiangling and captured it, executing Emperor Yuan around the new year 555.  Chen Xu and Chen Chang were taken to the Western Wei capital Chang'an as honored captives, while Lady Liu and their son Chen Shubao were left at Rangcheng (穰城, in modern Nanyang, Henan).  Wang and Chen Baxian initially wanted to make Emperor Yuan's son Xiao Fangzhi the Prince of Jin'an emperor, but after military pressure from Northern Qi, in summer 555, Wang agreed to make Northern Qi's favored candidate Xiao Yuanming (Emperor Yuan's cousin) emperor instead—a decision that Chen disagreed with.  In fall 555, he made a surprise attack on Jiankang, killing Wang and deposing Xiao Yuanming, making Xiao Fangzhi emperor instead (as Emperor Jing).  In 557, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, establishing Chen Dynasty as its Emperor Wu.  Chen Xu's brother Chen Qian was created the Prince of Linchuan, and while Chen Xu was still then detained by Western Wei, Emperor Wu remotely created him the Prince of Shixing, to inherit the title that Emperor Wu posthumously created his father Chen Daotan.

Emperor Wu died in 559, and because Chen Chang was still detained at Chang'an as well, Chen Qian took the throne (as Emperor Wen).  Because Chen Xu was not available to offer sacrifices to their father Chen Daotan, Emperor Wen created his own son Chen Bomao (陳伯茂) the Prince of Shixing instead, changing (remotely) Chen Xu's title to Prince of Ancheng.  In 560, Western Wei's successor state Northern Zhou began to make overtures to Chen, offering to return Chen Xu.  In 562, after Emperor Wen gave Northern Zhou the city of Lushan (魯山, in modern Wuhan, Hubei) in exchange, Chen Xu was allowed to return to Chen.  Initially, Princess Liu and Chen Shubao were not returned, but after further negotiations by Emperor Wen, they were returned as well.  (Chen Xu also welcomed his first wife Lady Qian to his mansion, but as Princess Liu was of an honored birth as the daughter of a Liang princess, she retained the position of his wife, although she gave due respect to Lady Qian)

During Emperor Wen's reign
Chen Xu quickly became one of his brother Emperor Wen's key subordinates.  For example, in spring 562, when the warlord Zhou Di (周迪) rebelled, Emperor Wen initially sent the general Wu Mingche against Zhou, but when Wu was unable to defeat Zhou, Emperor Wen sent Chen Xu to replace Wu.  Over the next few years, Chen Xu continued to be promoted, although he was temporary relieved of several of his posts in 565, when his associate Bao Sengrui (鮑僧叡), in reliance of their close relationship, was acting inappropriately, and was accused of such impropriety by the official Xu Ling (徐陵).

In spring 566, Emperor Wen was seriously ill, and Chen Xu, along with the other key officials Dao Zhongju (到仲舉), Kong Huan (孔奐), Yuan Shu (袁樞), and Liu Shizhi (劉師之), attended to him.  As Emperor Wen believed his crown prince Chen Bozong to be weak in personality, he offered to pass the throne to Chen Xu, but Chen Xu, weeping bitterly, declined, and the move was also opposed by Dao and Kong, and Emperor Wen did not alter his succession order.  Emperor Wen died soon thereafter, and Chen Bozong took the throne as Emperor Fei.

During Emperor Fei's reign
Although Emperor Fei was emperor, the power was split between Chen Xu, Dao Zhongju, and Liu Shizhi, and all three lived inside the palace in order to handle sensitive matters.  Liu, fearful of Chen Xu's honored status as the emperor's uncle, soon planned to exclude Chen Xu.  He had the official Yin Buning (殷不佞) informing Chen Xu that he should leave the palace to attend to the matters of the capital region Yang Province (揚州), of which Chen Xu was also governor.  When Chen Xu considered doing so, his associate Mao Xi (毛喜) and the general Wu Mingche persuaded him that he needed to remain in the palace.  Chen Xu therefore invited Liu to a meeting—and while the meeting was still going on, had Mao confirming with Emperor Wen's wife Empress Dowager Shen Miaorong and Emperor Fei that it was not their order that he leave the palace.  Once Mao confirmed so, Chen Xu arrested Liu and ordered him to commit suicide, while demoting Dao to a lesser position.  From this point on, the administration was controlled by Chen Xu.

Fearful of what would come next, Dao and the general Han Zigao (韓子高) considered actions against Chen Xu, but before they could take any actions against Chen Xu, their plot was reported to Chen Xu, and Chen Xu arrested them and then had Emperor Fei issue an edict ordering them to commit suicide.  Emperor Fei's brother Chen Bomao (陳伯茂) the Prince of Shixing, whom Chen Xu believed to have participated in both Liu's and Dao and Han's plots, was stripped of his governmental posts and ordered to keep Emperor Fei company.

The deaths of Liu and Han, both of whom were close associates of Emperor Wen, brought fear into the heart of another associate of Emperor Wen—Hua Jiao (華皎) the governor of Xiang Province (湘州, modern central Hunan).  In summer 567, Hua therefore submitted himself to Northern Zhou and Northern Zhou's vassal state, Western Liang.  Chen Xu sent Wu and Chunyu Liang (淳于量) to lead a fleet against the joint forces of Hua, Northern Zhou, and Western Liang.  The opposing sides met at Dunkou (沌口, in modern Wuhan, Hubei).  Wu and Chunyu were able to ram Hua's, Northern Zhou's, and Western Liang's fleets, causing them to collapse.  Both Hua and the Northern Zhou general Yuwen Zhi (宇文直) the Duke of Wei fled to Western Liang's capital Jiangling, while the Northern Zhou general Yuan Ding (元定) were captured.  Wu followed up by putting Jiangling under siege in spring 568, but was not able to capture it and subsequently forced to withdraw.

Meanwhile, Chen Xu was receiving greater formal titles and authorities.  Chen Bomao, angry over the situation, was making repeated denigrations of Chen Xu, who then resolved to take the throne himself.  In winter 568, Chen Xu had an edict issued in the name of Emperor Wu's wife Grand Empress Dowager Zhang Yao'er, falsely accusing Emperor Fei of having been part of the plots of Liu and Hua.  The edict further stated that Emperor Wen had already known that Emperor Fei was unsuitable, and that Emperor Wen's stated desire to have Chen Xu take the throne should be carried out.  Emperor Fei was deposed and demoted to the title of Prince of Linhai, while Chen Bomao was demoted to Marquess of Wenma and subsequently assassinated.

Early reign
For reasons unclear in history, Chen Xu left the throne empty for more than a month, but finally took the throne in spring 569 (as Emperor Xuan).  He honored Grand Empress Dowager Zhang as empress dowager instead, while Emperor Wen's wife Empress Dowager Shen became known as Empress Wen.  He created his wife Princess Liu empress and his heir apparent Chen Shubao crown emperor.  Emperor Wen's sons continued to have honored positions as imperial princes and held key posts, but none had particularly high power.

In fall 569, Emperor Xuan, suspicious that Ouyang He (歐陽紇) the governor of Guang Province (廣州, roughly modern Guangzhou, Guangdong) would rebel, summoned Ouyang back to Jiankang.  Ouyang was himself suspicious of Emperor Xuan's intentions, and therefore refused the order and rebelled.  Emperor Xuan sent the official Xu Jian (徐儉, Xu Ling's son) to try to persuade Ouyang to change his mind, but Ouyang would not relent.  Emperor Xuan then sent the general Zhang Zhaoda (章昭達) to attack Ouyang.  By spring 570, Zhang captured Ouyang and delivered him to Jiankang, where Ouyang was beheaded.  Zhang, encouraged by the victory, then attacked Western Liang's capital Jiangling, but after some initial gains, nearly capturing Jiangling, he suffered defeats by the Northern Zhou general Lu Teng (陸騰) and withdrew.  Despite this campaign, however, after this point on, Chen and Northern Zhou largely had peaceful relations, often exchanging embassies, forming a rough alliance against Northern Qi.

In spring 573, Emperor Xuan resolved to attack Northern Qi—but when he discussed the matter with his officials and generals, they had split of opinion.  Emperor Xuan, at the suggestion of Xu Ling, selected Wu Mingche, who alone among the generals was resolute as to his support for the campaign, as the commander of the forces, with Pei Ji (裴忌) and Huang Faqu (name not in Unicode) as Wu's deputies.  Wu's forces made quick gains against Northern Qi, and by summer 573 had gained most of the territory between the Yangtze River and the Huai River.  By fall 573, Wu put the important city Shouyang (壽陽, in modern Lu'an, Anhui) under siege, and he captured Shouyang in 573, capturing and killing the Northern Qi general in charge of defending the city, the former Liang general Wang Lin.  The entire region between the Yangtze and Huai were now in Chen hands.  Emperor Xuan was so pleased that he, in an elaborate ceremony, conferred a variety of honors on Wu.  He also displayed Wang's head on the Jiankang city gate, although after a request by Zhu Yang (朱瑒), in which Zhu pointed out that Wang was faithful to Liang and should be honored, he returned Wang's head for a proper burial.  In the following years, Chen continued to make minor gains against Northern Qi, but was not making major attacks.

Late reign
In winter 576, Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou launched a major attack on Northern Qi, quickly capturing, in succession, Northern Qi's secondary capital Jinyang (晉陽, in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi) and capital Yecheng.  Soon, he captured the Northern Qi emperor Gao Wei and annexed most of Northern Qi's territory by spring 577.

Oddly enough, Emperor Xuan believed that he could seize part of Northern Qi territory after Northern Zhou's victory, and he sent Wu Mingche to again advance north.  In winter 577, Wu put Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) under siege, and Emperor Xuan was confident that Wu would soon be able to capture the region south of the Yellow River.  When the official Cai Jingli (蔡景歷) warned otherwise, he was so displeased that he demoted Cai to the post of a commandery governor.  In spring 578, the Northern Zhou general Wang Gui (王軌) thoroughly crushed Wu, capturing him.  Regretting his actions, Emperor Xuan recalled Cai to the capital.  With the people's hearts shaken by the great defeat, in fall 578, Emperor Xuan held a ceremony in which the officials reaffirmed their loyalty to the state.

In winter 579, Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou (Emperor Wu's son and successor) launched an attack on Chen, commanded by the general Wei Xiaokuan.  Chen's Emperor Xuan mobilized his troops to resist.  However, Chen forces could not stand against Northern Zhou's attacks, and all of the cities that they had captured from Northern Qi previously quickly fell.  By new year 580, nearly all of the territory north of the Yangtze had fallen to Northern Zhou, leading to a large wave of refugees who fled across the Yangtze to Chen territory.

In summer 580, Northern Zhou's Emperor Xuan died suddenly, and his father-in-law Yang Jian seized power as regent.  The generals Yuchi Jiong rose against Yang, and he was joined by the generals Sima Xiaonan (司馬消難) and Wang Qian (王謙).  Sima, the governor of Xun Province (勛州, roughly modern Xiaogan, Hubei) and the nine surrounding provinces, soon surrendered to Chen, seeking Chen aid.  Emperor Xuan sent the generals Fan Yi (樊毅), Ren Zhong (任忠), and Chen Huiji (陳慧紀) to attack Northern Zhou's southern provinces to aid Sima, whom he created the Duke of Sui.  However, Wei Xiaokuan quickly defeated Yuchi, forcing Yuchi to commit suicide, and Sima's own forces collapsed.  He was forced to flee to Chen territory, and all of the territory he controlled was retained by Northern Zhou.  (Yang Jian soon seized the throne in spring 581, ending Northern Zhou and establishing Sui Dynasty)

In spring 582, Emperor Xuan died.  After a failed attempt by his son Chen Shuling (陳叔陵), allied with Emperor Wen's son Chen Bogu (陳伯固), to seize the throne, Crown Prince Shubao took the throne.

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 Guifei, of the Qian clan ()
 Chen Shuxian, Prince Hedong Kangjian (; 568–580), ninth son
 Empress, of the Liu clan of Hedong (; 533–615)
 Chen Shubao, Emperor (; 553–604), first son
 Princess Lechang ()
 Married Xu Deyan of Donghai ()
 Guiren, of the Peng clan (; d. 579)
 Chen Shuling, Prince Shixing (; 554–582), second son
 Shuhua, of the Cao clan ()
 Chen Shuying, Prince Yuzhang (), third son
 Shuyi, of the He clan ()
 Chen Shuxian, Prince Changsha (), fourth son
 Chen Shuming, Prince Yidu (; 562–615), sixth son
 Zhaorong, of the Wei clan ()
 Chen Shuqing, Prince Jian'an (), fifth son
 Zhaorong, of the Yuan clan ()
 Chen Shuwen, Prince Jinxi (), 12th son
 Chen Shuda, Prince Yiyang (; d. 635), 17th son
 Chen Shutan, Prince Xinhui (), 31st son
 Zhaoyi, of the Liu clan ()
 Chen Shuqi, Prince Xincai (; 569–608), 11th son
 Xiuhua, of the Wang clan ()
 Chen Shuyu, Prince Wuchang (), 19th son
 Xiurong, of the Wei clan ()
 Chen Shuping, Prince Xiangdong (), 20th son
 Jieyu, of the Shen clan ()
 Chen Shujian, Prince Nan'an (), 24th son
 Chen Shucheng, Prince Nan (), 25th son
 Chen Shushao, Prince Yueshan (), 27th son
 Chen Shukuang, Prince Taiyuan (), 34th son
 Meiren, of the Ceng clan ()
 Princess Linchuan (), 24th daughter
 Married Yang Jian (541–604) in 589
 Lady, of the Wang clan ()
 Chen Shubiao, Prince Huainan (), 13th son
 Chen Shuxiong, Prince Bashan (; d. 589), 18th son
 Lady, of the Wu clan ()
 Chen Shuzhong, Prince Shixing (), 14th son
 Princess Wucheng ()
 Lady, of the Xu clan ()
 Chen Shuyan, Prince Xunyang (; 573–589), 15th son
 Lady, of the Chunyu clan ()
 Chen Shushen, Prince Yueyang (; 572–589), 16th son
 Lady, of the Shi clan (; 551–609)
 Chen Shu'ao, Prince Linhe (), 21st son
 Chen Shuxing, Prince Yuanling (; 573–607), 26th son
 Princess Ningyuan (; 577–605), 14th daughter
 Married Yang Jian (541–604) in 589
 Lady, of the Ceng clan ()
 Chen Shuxuan, Prince Yangshan (), 22nd son
 Lady, of the Yang clan ()
 Chen Shumu, Prince Xiyang (), 23rd son
 Lady, of the Yuan clan ()
 Chen Shuchun, Prince Xinxing (), 28th son
 Lady, of the Wu clan ()
 Chen Shumo, Prince Badong (), 29th son
 Lady, of the Liu clan ()
 Chen Shuxian, Prince Linjiang (), 30th son
 Lady, of the Qin clan ()
 Chen Shulong, Prince Xinning (), 32nd son
 Chen Shurong, Prince Xinchang (; 577–612), 33rd son
 Unknown
 Chen Shurui (), 35th son
 Chen Shuzhong (), 36th son
 Chen Shuhong (), 37th son
 Chen Shuyi (), 38th son
 Chen Shuxun (), 39th son
 Chen Shuwu (), 40th son
 Chen Shuchu (), 41st son
 Chen Shufeng (), 42nd son
 Princess Qixi (), personal name Jingling (), 13th daughter
 Married Shen Shu'an ()
 A daughter who married Heruo Bi (; 544–607) in 589

Ancestry

References

Chen dynasty emperors
Chen dynasty generals
Chen dynasty regents
530 births
582 deaths
Liang dynasty people
Northern Zhou people
6th-century Chinese monarchs

Emperor Xuan of Chen


The 1964 All-Big Ten Conference football team consists of American football players chosen by various organizations for All-Big Ten Conference teams for the 1964 Big Ten Conference football season.  The selectors for the 1964 season were the Associated Press (AP), based on a vote by media members, and the United Press International (UPI), based on a vote of the conference coaches.  Players selected as first-team players by both the AP and UPI are designated in bold.

Michigan won the Big Ten Conference championship for the first time since 1950, defeated Oregon State in the 1965 Rose Bowl, and had five players who were selected as first-team honorees by either the AP or UPI.  Two Michigan players were consensus first-team picks by the AP and UPI: quarterback Bob Timberlake and defensive tackle Bill Yearby. Timberlake also received both the Chic Harley Award as the college football player of the year and the Chicago Tribune Silver Football trophy as the most valuable player in the conference.

Ohio State finished in second place in the conference and had six players who were selected as first-team players by either the AP or UPI teams.  Three of the Ohio State honorees were consensus picks by the AP and UPI: offensive guard Dan Poretta, linebacker Dwight "Ike" Kelly, and defensive back Arnie Chonko.

Nine players from teams other than Michigan and Ohio State received consensus All-Big Ten honors in 1964.  They are: (1) Illinois linebacker, Dick Butkus, who was a consensus All-American and was named Sporting News College Football Player of the Year; (2)  Illinois fullback and College Football Hall of Fame inductee Jim Grabowski; (3) Michigan State halfback Dick Gordon; (4) Iowa end Karl Noonan; (5) Indiana end Bill Malinchak; (6) Illinois' offensive tackle Archie Sutton; (7) Indiana guard Don Croftcheck; (8) Northwestern center Joe Cerne; (9) Purdue defensive tackle Jim Garcia; and (10) Illinois defensive back George Donnelly.

Offensive selections

Quarterbacks
 Bob Timberlake, Michigan (AP-1 [halfback]; UPI-1)
 Gary Snook, Iowa (AP-1; UPI-2)

Halfbacks
 Dick Gordon, Michigan State (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Ron Smith, Wisconsin (UPI-2)
 Carl Ward, Michigan (UPI-2)

Fullbacks
 Jim Grabowski, Illinois (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Tom Nowatzke, Indiana (UPI-2)

Ends
 Karl Noonan, Iowa (AP-1; UPI-1 [halfback])
 Bill Malinchak, Indiana (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Bob Hadrick, Purdue (UPI-1)
 John Henderson, Michigan (UPI-2)
 James Jones, Wisconsin (UPI-2)

Tackles
 Archie Sutton, Illinois (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Jim Davidson, Ohio State (UPI-1)
 Jerry Rush, Michigan State (AP-1; UPI-2)
 Karl Singer, Purdue (UPI-2)

Guards
 Don Croftcheck, Indiana (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Dan Porretta, Ohio State (AP-1; UPI-1)
 David Butler, Michigan (UPI-2)
 John Niland, Iowa (UPI-2)

Centers
 Joe Cerne, Northwestern (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Ed Flanagan, Purdue (UPI-2)

Defensive selections

Ends
 Aaron Brown, Minnesota (AP-1; UPI-2)
 Harold Wells, Purdue (AP-1; UPI-2)
 Jim Conley, Michigan (UPI-1)
 Bill Spahr, Ohio State (UPI-1)

Tackles
 Bill Yearby, Michigan (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Jim Garcia, Purdue (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Ted Orazen, Ohio State (UPI-2)
 Jerry Shay, Purdue (UPI-2)

Linebackers
 Dick Butkus, Illinois (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Dwight "Ike" Kelly, Ohio State (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Tom Cecchini, Michigan (AP-1; UPI-2)
 Tom Bugel, Ohio State (UPI-1)
 Bill Minor, Illinois (UPI-2)
 Joe Pung, Minnesota (UPI-2)

Defensive backs
 Arnie Chonko, Ohio State (AP-1; UPI-1 [safety])
 George Donnelly, Illinois (AP-1; UPI-1)
 Kraig Lofquist, Minnesota (UPI-1)
 Charles Migyanka, Michigan State (UPI-1)
 Tom Nowatzke, Indiana (AP-1)
 Don Japinga, Michigan State (UPI-2)
 Herman Johnson, Michigan State (UPI-2)
 Mike Reid, Minnesota (UPI-2)
 Rich Volk, Michigan (UPI-2)

Key
AP = Associated Press

UPI = United Press International, selected by vote of the conference coaches

Bold = Consensus first-team selection of both the AP and UPI

See also
1964 College Football All-America Team

References

All-Big Ten Conference
All-Big Ten Conference football teams


The colony of Canada was a French colony within the larger territory of New France. It was claimed by France in 1535 during the second voyage of Jacques Cartier, in the name of the French king, Francis I. The colony remained a French territory until 1763, when it became a British colony known as the Province of Quebec.

In the 16th century the word "Canada" could refer to the territory along the Saint Lawrence River (then known as the Canada River) from Grosse Isle to a point between Québec and Trois-Rivières. The terms "Canada" and "New France" were also used interchangeably. French explorations continued west "unto the Countreys of Canada, Hochelaga, and Saguenay" before any permanent settlements were established. In 1600 a permanent trading post and habitation was established at Tadoussac at the confluence of the Saguenay and Saint Lawrence rivers. However, because this trading post was under a trade monopoly, it was not constituted as an official French colonial settlement.

The first official settlement of Canada was Québec, founded by Samuel de Champlain in 1608. The other four colonies within New France were Hudson's Bay to the north, Acadia and Newfoundland to the east, and Louisiana far to the south. Canada became the most developed of the five colonies of New France. It was divided into three districts, Québec, Trois-Rivières, and Montreal, each with its own government. The governor of the District of Quebec also served as the governor-general for all of New France.

The Seven Years' War of 1756–1763 saw Great Britain defeat the French and their allies, and take possession of Canada. In the Treaty of Paris of 1763, which formally ended the Seven Years' War, France ceded Canada in exchange for other colonies, with a large portion of Canada becoming the British colony of the Province of Quebec.

Territorial evolution
In the 240 years between Verrazano's voyage of exploration in 1524 and the Conquest of New France in 1763, the French marked the North American continent in many ways. Whether it was through by land distribution and clearing, the establishment of villages and towns, deploying a network of roads and paths or developing the territory with various constructions, the French colonists transformed and adapted the environments according to their needs.

There are three major periods of expansion of the territory of Canada, mostly as a result of exploration efforts. First, the 1534–1603 period, in which Canada's territory comprised the coasts of Newfoundland, the entirety of Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and the coasts of New Brunswick, the Saint Lawrence River and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

Then 1603–1673, in which, due to westward expansion and conflicts with Great Britain, the Canada territory was now composed of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and of the Great Lakes, as well as southern Ontario and northern New England.

Then, in the last period of 1673–1741, the Canada territory was composed of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and of the Great Lakes, southern Ontario, southern Manitoba and the north-eastern Midwest. It is in this period that Canada was at its largest.

Dependent on Canada were the  (upper countries), a vast territory north and west of Montreal, covering the whole of the Great Lakes and stretching as far into the North American continent as the French had explored. Before 1717, when it ceded territory to the new colony of Louisiana, it stretched as far south as the Illinois Country. In the Great Lakes area, a mission, Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, was established in 1639. Following the destruction of the Huron homeland in 1649 by the Iroquois, the French destroyed the mission themselves and left the area. In what are today Ontario and the eastern prairies, various trading posts and forts were built such as Fort Kaministiquia in 1679 (at modern Thunder Bay, Ontario), Fort Frontenac in 1673 (today's Kingston, Ontario), Fort Saint Pierre in 1731 (near modern Fort Frances, Ontario), Fort Saint Charles in 1732 (on Lake of the Woods located on Magnusens Island on the Northwest Angle of Minnesota) and Fort Rouillé in 1750 (today's Toronto). The mission and trading post at Sault Ste. Marie (1688) would later be split by the Canada–US border.

The French settlements in the  among and south of the Great Lakes were Fort Niagara (1678) (near modern Youngstown, New York), Fort Crevecoeur (1680) (near the present site of Creve Coeur, Illinois, a suburb of Peoria, Illinois), Fort Saint Antoine (1686) (on Lake Pepin in Wisconsin), Fort St. Joseph (1691) (on the southernmost point of St. Joseph Island, Ontario on Lake Huron), Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (1701) (today's Detroit, Michigan), Fort Michilimackinac (1715) (on the Straits of Mackinac at Mackinaw City, Michigan), Fort Miami (1715) (modern Fort Wayne, Indiana), Fort La Baye (1717) (today's Green Bay, Wisconsin), and Fort Beauharnois (1727) (in Florence Township, Goodhue County, Minnesota).

Today, the term  refers to a regional county municipality in the Laurentides region of the present Province of Quebec, north of Montreal, while the former  was part of the District of Montreal.

Domaine du roy
The Domaine du roy, established in 1652, was a vast region of New France, which stretched north from the St. Lawrence River to  Hudson Bay. It was located between the eastern limit of the seigneurie of Les Éboulements and Cape Cormorant. The territory had an area of more than 460,000km2. After the Conquest of New France, the territory's name was changed to Rupert's Land.

Population surveys
A population survey was done in 1740 to estimate Canada's population. The survey of the Saint Lawrence River valley counted about 44,000 colonists in total. The majority of them were born in Canada and lived in a rural environment. Of the colonists, 18,000 lived under the Government of Québec, 4,000 under the Government of Trois-Rivières and 22,000 under the Government of Montreal. As for colonists not living in the Saint Lawrence River valley, Île Royale (now Cape Breton) counted 4,000 inhabitants (of which 1,500 were in Louisbourg), and Île Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island) had 500 inhabitants.

Successors and legacy
In 1791, the Province of Quebec was separated into Lower Canada (now Quebec) and Upper Canada (now Ontario). Lower Canada and Upper Canada were fused into the Province of Canada in 1841, before separating again into the modern-day provinces of Quebec and Ontario during the Confederation of Canada in 1867. Because of the historical and geographical continuity, as well as the continued use of the French language, civil law, customs, cultural aspects and the ruling power of the Catholic Church in government until the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, the province of Quebec is considered by many to be the modern-day continuation of the Canada colony of New France. Still today, the majority of the Quebec population is descended from the original French-speaking Canadien of Canada, and the cultural distinctiveness of Quebec from the rest of the country has led to the emergence of a Québécois identity and the Quebec sovereignty movement. Descendants of the original  of Canada (New France) living outside of Quebec are now often referred to by a name which references their province of residence (ex. Franco-Ontarian). Francophone populations in the Maritime provinces, however, are more likely to be descended from the settlers of the French colony of Acadia. They are therefore called Acadians.

See also

 Former colonies and territories in Canada
 Illinois Country
 Monarchs of Canadian territories
 Territorial evolution of Canada – after 1867
 Quebec
 History of Quebec
 Timeline of Quebec history

References

Canada
Colonial history of the Ancien Régime
Former French colonies
Former colonies in North America
French colonization of the Americas
Pre-Confederation Canada
Pre-statehood history of Wisconsin
Pre-statehood history of Michigan
16th century in Canada
17th century in Canada
18th century in Canada
1530s establishments in New France
16th-century establishments in Canada
1760s disestablishments in Canada
1534 establishments in New France
1763 disestablishments in New France
Christian states

Canada (New France)


Assam silk denotes the three major types of indigenous wild silks produced in Assam—golden muga, white pat and warm eri silk. The Assam silk industry, now centered in Sualkuchi, is a labor-intensive industry.

History

Assam was well known for the production of high quality silk since ancient times. The craft of weaving goes along with the production of silk. It grew to such sophistication in Assam that it was known all over India and abroad. In the Kishkindha Kanda of Ramayana, it is stated that one travelling towards the east has to first pass through Magadha, Anga, Pundra and then the Kosha-karanam-bhumi ("the country of cocoon rearers"). Kautilya's Arthashastra, a political literature of the 3rd century BC, makes references to the highly sophisticated silk clothing from Assam. Kautilya mentions the production of Suvarnakudyaka (from Kamrupa) along with Vangika (from Vanga/southern Bengal), Magadhika (from Magadha) and Paundrika (from Pundra/northern Bengal), of which Suvarnakudyaka, Magadhika and Paundrika fabrics were types of Kauseya (Tussar/Muga) and Cina-patta (Mulberry silk). The fact that Kamrupa produced Suvarnakudyaka is confirmed by the 8th-century writer Kumārila Bhaṭṭa who, in his commentary of Arthashatra, said that Kamrupa was Suvarnakudya(Kamarupeschaiva Suvarna Kudyah). As per the Arthashatra, the fibres of Suvarnakudyaka were of 'the colour of butter', 'as red as the sun', and of the best quality. Due to this description of colour, the type of silk can be easily identified as Muga. The text also refers to four trees (Vakula, Likucha, Vata and Naga-vriksa) which the silkworms feed on. Out of these, Vakula and Naga-vriksa<ref>Journal Of Bihar And Orissa Research Society  Vol. 3, p.215, "There is some doubt in identifying the Naga tree named in the Arthashastra. Lexicographers take it to denote the tree, Naga-kesara and Punnaga, the flowers of which possess yellow anther..A synonym of Naga-kesara is Champeya, because the flower of Champaka (Michelina champac) is yellow; and it is no less remarkable that the Champa silk once celebrates in Assam was fine white." p. 212, "There is  a variety of muga called Champa muga, its worms feeding on leaves of Champa tree (Michelia champaca). Sir George Watt tells us that "the Chpa silk seems almost quite forgotten to-day, but it was the fine white silk worn by the kings and nobles of Assam in former times"."</ref> belong to the genus Ericales and Magnolia which the Muga silkworm Antheraea assamensis is known to feed on; while Likucha (Artocarpus lakucha) and Vata belong to the genus Moraceae(Mulberry) which the Pat Silkworm feeds on. This is further confirmed from the 9th century thesaurus Amara-kosha which mentions that the worms of the fibre Patrorna (a form of white silk), fed on the leaves of Vata, Lakucha, etc. The Arthashastra also states that the fibre was spun while the threads were wet, indicating that the production method was still the same at that period. The ancient text Kalika Purana(dated between 10th-11th century) well records the use of silk in the worship of deities in ancient Kamrupa. As per the text, while worshipping the deities at the Dikkarvasini pitha(also known as Tamreswari of Sadiya), red, yellow and white Kauseya(meaning wild silk, probably Muga) were used to drap the idols of the presiding deities of the temple.Shastri, B.N, "The Kalikapurana: Text, Introduction and English Trans. with Shloka Index", p. 1243-45, "O king! Listen to the procedure of worship of Brahma with rapt attention...Red silk(rakta-kauseya-vastram) is his (Brahma's) favourite cloth, rice cooked with milk, sesames, mixed with ghee are his favourite food." It is known that Muga, in olden times, was available in yellow(natural), white(Mejankari muga) and often dyed red with lac.

The knowledge of sericulture probably arrived with the Tibeto-Burman groups which arrived from China around the period of 3000-2000 BC. Moreover, there was another trade of Silk through the Southwestern Silk road which started from China, passed through Burma and Assam, finally getting connected to the main silk road in Turkmenistan. There are various other records to show that silk came to India through Assam. As per the Sanskrit text Harshacharita (biography of North Indian ruler Harshavardhan written by the court poet Banabhatta in the 7th century), during the coronation ceremony of King Harshavardhan, king Bhaskarvarman of Kamrupa gifted many precious items to the North Indian king. Out of this the most important ones include the precious fabrics and jewels. These included an umbrella wrapped by a dukula cloth, sacks of patta-sutra cloth as well as ksoma fabrics which were as pure as the autumn moon's light (sharada chandrama shaucha ksamani). These fabrics could either be silk or linen. It is also mentioned in the text that the loin fibres were so even and polished that it resembled Bhoj-patra, which could indicate silk as well. There are also references of Assam silk in the records written by Huen Sang where he has written the use and trade of silk in Kamrupa during the rule of king Bhaskar Varman. Ram Mohan Nath in his book The Background of Assamese Culture states that it would be "clear that in ancient times traders from different parts of Tibet, Central Asia and China flocked to Assam through various routes, and as they traded mostly in silk, they were generally called Seres – Cirrahadoi – Syrities – Cirata – Kirata. The word Kirata therefore, is a general term referring to the people of the Mongoloid origin and it refers specially to the Bodos." These Bodos referred by Nath are today known as Kacharis which includes groups such as Boros, Dimasas, Chutias, Rabhas, Sonowal, Garo and Koch. J. Geoghegan in his book Silk in India states that:  "Whatever may be the date of the introduction of the worm, its geographical distribution at present day, and the fact species first introduced was a multivoltine, seem to me to lead to the conclusion that the insect was first introduced into India from the north-east."

Genetic research on silkworms show that Assam silk originated in two specific regions of Assam. One was Garo Hills in the ancient Kamrupa kingdom and the other was Dhakuakhana in the ancient Chutia kingdom.

Types of Assam Silk

 Muga silk

Muga silk is the product of the silkworm Antheraea assamensis endemic to Assam. The larvae of these moths feed on som (Machilus bombycina) and sualu (Litsaea polyantha) leaves. The silk produced is known for its glossy, fine texture and durability. It was previously reported that muga silk cannot be dyed or bleached due to "low porosity", but this is incorrect; muga takes dye like any other silk.  This silk can be hand washed with its lustre increasing after every wash. Very often the silk outlives its owner.

In 2015, Adarsh Gupta K of Nagaraju's research team at Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics, Hyderabad, India, discovered the complete sequence and the protein structure of muga silk fibroin and published it in Nature Scientific Reports

Muga silk has been given the Geographical Indication (GI) status since 2007 and the logo for authentic production has been registered with Assam Science Technology and Environment Council. The Central Silk Board of India has the authority to inspect Muga silk products, certify their authenticity and allow traders to use the GI logo.

 White Pat silk

Pat silk is produced by Bombyx textor silkworms which feed on mulberry (Morus spp.) leaves. It is usually brilliant white or off-white in colour. Its cloth can dry in shadow.

 Eri silk

Eri silk is made by Samia cynthia ricini which feed on leaves of castor oil plant (Ricinus communis''). It is also known as endi or errandi silk. Because manufacturing process of eri allows the pupae to develop into adults and only the open ended cocoons are used for turning into silk, it is also popularly known as non-violent silk. This silk is soft and warm and is popular as shawls and quilts.

The silk industry of Sualkuchi
Sualkuchi is a multi-caste town of Kamrup (rural) district of Assam, situated on the north bank of the mighty Brahmaputra at a distance of 30 km west of Guwahati.

Many people in Sualkuchi are weavers. Almost every household has a hand-loom to manufacture traditional Assamese silk.

As per the Census report of 2001, the workforce participation rate in the town was 37.93% of the total populations, of which only 0.53% were cultivators, 1.2% were agricultural labours, 56.37% were engaged in household industries and the remaining 41.90% were engaged in other activities.

There are several lakh throw and fly-shuttle handlooms in Assam, but most of them are domestic weaving a few metres of cloth for the use by the family members. There are also some semi commercial looms producing some metres of fabrics for the market during the off hours of the house-wives. These semi-commercial weavers work either independently or under some so called "Mahajans". Mahajans supply yarn to the poor weavers, who return the woven cloth against wages per piece.

History

Although silk was cultivated and woven by women all around Assam, the silk clothes of a particular place named Sualkuchi achieved much fame during the Kamarupa as well as Ahom rule.

Sualkuchi is said to have been established in the 11th Century by King Dharma Pala of the Pala dynasty that ruled western Assam from 900 AD to about 1100 AD. Dharma Pala, the story goes, brought 26 weaver families from Tantikuchi in Barpeta to Sualkuchi and created a weavers' village close to modern-day Guwahati. Silk was given royal patronage during that period and Sualkuchi was made an important centre of silk weaving.

The hand-loom industry of Sualkuchi creates cotton textiles, silk textiles, and Khadi cloth. These traditional textiles hold high social and moral value in and outside the state. However, Sualkuchi is best known for its silk textiles, both mulberry and muga silk. Muga, "the golden fibre", is produced only in Assam; it's become known as Assam silk from its association with the region. Such activities are intimately linked with the culture and tradition of the Assamese people since long past.

Having a long tradition of silk weaving at least since the 17th century, Sualkuchi is the centre of the silk hand-loom industry of Assam. Originally, Sualkuchi was a "craft village" having several cottage industries until the 1940s, such as hand-loom weaving, traditional oil processing, goldsmithing, and pottery. But since the 1940s, the industries other than hand-loom have almost become extinct, and the artisans have taken up silk weaving. Until 1930, the weaving industry of Sualkuchi remained almost confined within the Tanti community of Tantipara. Later, people belonging to other communities gradually took up silk weaving. Now, even the fishermen of the Koibortapara hamlet of Bamun-Sualkuchi and the Brahmin families have also given up their ascriptive caste occupations and have taken up silk weaving as their main source of income.

The weaving industry of Sualkuchi received a big boost during the Second World War. The growing demand for fabrics and their increasing prices encouraged a few Tanti families to begin weaving commercially. They started weaving factories engaging hired wage weavers. Today, 73.78% of the households in Sualkuchi work in the commercial weaving industry.

Although the hired wage weavers were originally the local poor from Bamun-Sualkuchi and Bhatipara, migrant weavers from different parts of Assam have become dominant in the industry since the 1980s.  The census of hand-looms in Sualkuchi, conducted in 2002 reveals that Sualkuchi has 13,752 active commercial hand-looms, and 54.75% of these looms are operated by female weavers who are hired from towns outside of Sualkuchi.

While silk-rearing vanished long time ago, the gani industry perished during the early 20th century as the 'Mudois' of Sualkuchi.

In 21st century, the local weavers and artisans of Sualkuchi began using digital platforms to promote their products globally.

Cultural impact of Assam silk

Assam silk has been recognized by major Indian cultural figures, most notably Mahatma Gandhi and Narayan Chandra Das.

Gandhi visited Sualkuchi on January 9, 1946, to view an exhibition of eri and khadi clothes. Designer Rajen Dek wove an image of Gandhi into a piece of pat cloth, and the exhibition presented it to him. The woven picture was so fine that even the two broken front teeth of Gandhiji with a smiling face were depicted and while seeing the picture the father of the nation remarked that the weavers could weave dreams in their cloth.

"Khat khat khat khatsalare sabade prean mor nite nachuyai" was one of the most popular radio songs composed and sung during the fifties of the last century by the present artist pensioner Narayan Chandra Das Of Sualkuchhi.  Actually the 'click-clack click-clack'  sound of the loom make the soul of the passerby dance with the rhythmic rattle of the shuttle flying through the sheds of the wrap.

See also
 Kausheya (silk)
 Mekhela chador
 Mysore silk
 Ilkal saree
 Navalgund Durries

Notes

External links
 Information on Wild silkmoths

Wild silk
Silk in India
Economy of Assam
Textiles and clothing of Assam
Geographical indications in Assam

Assam silk


Jon Sharp (born 8 March 1967) was the head coach of Featherstone Rovers from 2015 to 2017. Between 2004 and 2008 he was head coach of the Huddersfield Giants, having been appointed in 2003 when Tony Smith left the club for the Leeds Rhinos. He was also part of the Great Britain coaching set-up under head coach Brian Noble. As a player, he played for Hull FC, and he has also worked as a member of the backroom staff there.

Playing career

Hull
Jon Sharp played  in Hull FC's 24-31 defeat by Castleford in the 1986 Yorkshire County Cup Final during the 1986–87 season at Headingley, Leeds on Saturday 11 October 1986.

Jon Sharp's Testimonial match at Hull F.C. took place in 1994.

Coaching career

2004-2005
In 2004, Sharp's début season as coach of Huddersfield the club finished 7th in Super League and made an appearance in the semi-finals of the Challenge Cup for the first time since 1971. The team lost to St. Helens. In 2005 the club signed Michael De Vere from Brisbane Broncoes, the highest profile Australian signing since the 1950s. The team finished in 8th place.

2006
In 2006, Sharp led Huddersfield to their first Challenge Cup final in over 40 years, including a 30-12 win over Leeds in the semi-finals held at Odsal. Huddersfield lost in the final 42-12 against favourites St Helens.

2007
After a nightmare start to 2007's Super League XII in which Huddersfield lost all of their opening 7 games, some might have expected Sharp's job to be under threat. However, Huddersfield's faith was repaid when Sharp led the team from 5 points adrift at the bottom to being 4th in Super League after, winning a club record 7 along the way including a first win over Bradford Bulls in 35 years. Sharp won consecutive Coach of the Month awards in April and May as a result. The club made their first appearance in the Play Off competition losing to Hull at the KC Stadium, 22-16.

2008
The opening 2 matches in 2008 were lost, to Leeds, and to Bradford Bulls. However the 3rd match saw Sharp's team beat Castleford 64-12. After a 48-0 loss to Catalans Dragons, and a run of disappointing results, Sharp's contract was terminated by Huddersfield and for the 2009 season, Nathan Brown, former coach at St. George Illawarra Dragons, took over the helm. He then moved to Featherstone Rovers in a voluntary advisory role to caretaker coach Danny Evans.

2009
In 2009, Sharp joined his former club Hull F.C. as 'football operations manager', working alongside head coach Richard Agar. However, the partnership didn't work out as Hull slipped to a disappointing 12th-place finish, and Sharp left the club at the end of the year.

2010
In October 2009, Sharp was appointed as first team coach for Crusaders Rugby League, where he will link up with former Great Britain colleague Brian Noble (Head coach) and assistant coach Iestyn Harris.

2011
In February 2011, it was confirmed that Sharp had joined the Rugby Football League on a consultancy basis as a technical adviser. As a Technical Adviser he will offer a coach's perspective of playing trends to match officials, as well as serving on the Rugby Football League disciplinary panel.

References

1977 births
Living people
Batley Bulldogs coaches
English rugby league coaches
English rugby league players
Featherstone Rovers coaches
Featherstone Rovers players
Huddersfield Giants coaches
Hull F.C. players
Rugby league locks
Rugby league players from Pontefract

Jon Sharp