The clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States is the officer of the Supreme Court of the United States responsible for overseeing filings with the court and maintaining its records. The current clerk is Scott S. Harris.

History
The first clerk was appointed on February 3, 1790, two days after the first session of the court itself. The position had been authorized by Congress on September 24, 1789, with the position's purpose being to "enter and record all the orders, decrees, judgments and proceedings of the said court."

The Judicial Code (28 U.S.C. § 671) provides that the clerk is appointed, and may be removed, by order of the Supreme Court. The clerk's duties are prescribed by the statute and by Supreme Court Rule 1, and by the court's customs and practices.

The clerk of the Supreme Court is a court clerk. The role of the clerk and deputies or assistants should not be confused with the court's law clerks, who assist the justices by conducting research, making recommendations on which cases to hear, and preparing drafts of opinions.

The Clerk's Office is responsible for maintaining the dockets and records of the court. However, since approximately 1960, most of the court's non-current case files and other records have been placed in the custody of the National Archives and Records Administration.

The clerk is one of the court's four statutory officers. The others are the marshal, the librarian, and the reporter of decisions.

Traditionally unlike others, the clerk and deputies wear morning coats when performing their duties as the court is in session.

One of the traditional duties of the clerk was holding the Bible at presidential inaugurations. James R. Browning became the last clerk to perform this duty at John F. Kennedy's inauguration on January 20, 1961. Four years later, at Lyndon B. Johnson's inauguration, Lady Bird Johnson began the tradition of the First Lady holding the Bible, which continues today.

List of clerks

See also
Court clerk
Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States

References

External links

Supreme Court of the United States people

Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States


Keiraville is a heritage-listed detached house at 20 Roderick Street, Ipswich, City of Ipswich, Queensland, Australia. It was built . It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 9 July 1993.

History

Keiraville is a single storeyed rendered masonry house, the first stage of which was probably erected s by contractor John MacKenzie. Soon after it was sold to the Cribb family. In 1938, it was sold to the Congregational Church for use as a manse.

Allotment 5 on which the house is erected was first proclaimed a town lot in 1884. It was sold in that year to John MacKenzie. In 1888, Clarissa Cribb purchased the allotment, together with the adjoining allotment 4 on the corner of Roderick Street and Warwick Road. The house was lived in by her son Harry Cribb and his wife until 1895. Harry, of the local firm Cribb and Foote, was a well known sportsman and it may have been at this time that the tennis court was erected on allotment 4. In 1891, the property was transferred to Clarissa Spence, the eldest daughter of Clarissa Cribb. Subsequently the property was owned by various members of the Cribb family. From 1913 until the 1920s the house was lived in by Harry's son, Gordon and his family. Gordon was known as a naturalist and erected aviaries in the grounds. In 1919, the property was transferred to Gordon and in 1923, returned to Clarissa Spence. A photograph dated s shows a detached building to the rear to the rear of the house. Sometime after this, a wing was added to the south east.

After the death of Clarissa Spence, Keiraville was acquired in 1938 by the Congregational church for use as a manse. The Congregational Church of Ipswich, of which the Cribbs were prominent members, was formed in 1854. Their first church was erected in the following year in Brisbane Street. A second church and parsonage were later erected on the site. After the flood of 1893, the Church purchased property adjoining Kieraville in East Street. In 1895, the new Congregational Hall was erected on the higher ground. Not until 1957 was a church erected on the site, although Keiraville served as the manse for the Congregational Minister for some 40 years after 1938.

The house adjoined the site of the Congregational Church Hall. For some 50 years Kieraville was used as the manse. In 1983, the house became the headquarters for the Blue Nurses. A carpark was constructed on the tennis court site. In 1992, a new wing was added to the rear of the building involving alterations to the house. The house is now used by Lifeline.

Description

Keiraville is a single-storeyed rendered masonry house with a corrugated iron pyramid roof and timber verandahs on three sides. It has two wings forming a U at the rear of the building which adjoin a new brick extension. It is one of a group of three buildings on the Uniting Church site, being located in the well-treed north-eastern portion.

The verandah has paired timber posts with square capitals and decorative timber valances. It is covered by a curved corrugated iron roof, and has a wrought iron balustrade. The northern Roderick St elevation has a small front yard and a modest entrance (currently not used) consisting of rendered masonry stairs and a timber arch spanning between posts which has the words "The Manse" are inscribed upon it. This northern elevation has timber louvred shutters, while the west and east elevations have glazed timber doors with glazed fanlights above. The building sits on a brick screen base. Two tall rendered masonry chimneys and a metal ventilator rise above the ridge of the roof.

The house has a simple square plan with four rooms around a central corridor. It has timber boarded ceilings throughout, some with metal ceiling roses. The north-east and south-west rooms have fireplaces with timber mantelpieces.

The rendered masonry former kitchen wing is attached to the south-western corner of the main house, and has a hipped roof, and a brick chimney. The south-eastern wing is single skin timber with externally exposed framing, and contains two rooms which may have served as accommodation. The verandah to this wing has been enclosed. The space between the wings has been roofed and enclosed, and now links directly to a new brick extension.

The major alterations to Keiraville have focused on the rear of the building, and when viewed from Roderick Street, Keiraville remains an intact late nineteenth century residence in form and detail. Much of the interior detail of the house also remains intact.

Heritage listing

Keiraville was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 9 July 1993 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.

Keiraville is important in demonstrating the development of Ipswich, which is part of the pattern of Queensland's history.

The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.

It demonstrates the principal characteristics of a late 19th century residence and makes a picturesque contribution to the streetscape.

The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.

It demonstrates the principal characteristics of a late 19th century residence and makes a picturesque contribution to the streetscape.

The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.

As a manse for over 40 years, it has a special association with the Congregational Church. It also has a special association with the Cribb family, who were prominent in the development of Ipswich.

References

Attribution

External links

Queensland Heritage Register
Ipswich, Queensland
Houses in Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register

Keiraville, Ipswich


The fall of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, was an important event in the Spanish conquest of the empire. It occurred in 1521 following extensive manipulation of local factions and exploitation of pre-existing political divisions by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés. He was aided by La Malinche, his interpreter and companion, and by other indigenous allies.

Although numerous battles were fought between the Aztec Empire and the Spanish-led coalition, which was composed mainly of Tlaxcaltec men, it was the siege of Tenochtitlan that directly led to the fall of the Aztec civilization and the ensuing sacking and violence against the survivors. The indigenous population at the time was devastated due to a smallpox epidemic, which killed much of its leadership. Because smallpox had been endemic in Spain for centuries, the Spanish had developed an acquired immunity and were affected relatively little in the epidemic.

The conquest of the Aztec Empire was a critical stage in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. With this conquest, the Spanish Empire used Tenochtitlan's substantial access to the Pacific Ocean to reach Asian markets.

Early events

Cortés goes to Tenochtitlan
In April 1519, Hernán Cortés, a nobleman recently landed in present-day Cuba, and the leader of the third Spanish expedition to the coast of what is known as Mexico, landed at San Juan de Ulúa, a high-quality harbour on Mexico's east coast, with 508 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 14 small cannons. (Survivors of the previous two expeditions directed him to this harbour.) Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, the Governor of Cuba, called for Cortés to lead an expedition into Mexico after favourable reports from two previous expeditions to Yucatán caught the interest of the Spanish in Cuba. Under pressure by his relatives, who had a different leader in mind, Velázquez revoked Cortés's mandate to lead the expedition before the man left Cuba. Thus Cortés had to struggle to persist as expedition leader while still in Cuba; twice messengers from Velázquez arrived to depose him, and twice they were dissuaded from executing their mission. After Cortés sailed, Velázquez sent an army led by Pánfilo de Narváez to take him into custody.

But after reaching Mexico, Cortés used the same legal tactic as had been used by Governor Velázquez when he invaded Cuba years before: he created a local government and had himself elected as the magistrate. He was thus theoretically responsible only to the King of Spain. Cortés followed this tactic when he and his men established the city of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, also known as Veracruz, seven miles from the harbour of San Juan de Ulúa on the east coast of the area. An inquiry into Cortés' action was conducted in Spain in 1529 and no action was taken against him.

Cortés happened to land at the borders of Cempoala, a vassal state to the Aztecs that had many grievances against them. As he encountered several polities who resented Aztec rule, Cortés told them he had arrived on orders of his Emperor to improve conditions, abolish human sacrifices, teach the locals the true faith, and "stop them from robbing each other". He was successful in enforcing excellent behaviour by his army when among potential allies. Cortés clashed with some of these polities, among them the Totonac and Tlaxcalan. The latter gave him two good day battles and one night battle, and kept up a strong defence, holding off his army on a hilltop for two weeks. His numerically inferior force finally triumphed when the Tlaxcalan began to consider his ceaseless offers of peace. Notably Xicotencatl the Elder wanted to form an alliance with the Spaniards against the Aztecs, which was the goal of Cortés as well.

It once was widely believed that the Aztecs first thought Cortés was Quetzalcoatl, a mythical god prophesied to return to Mexico—coincidentally in the same year Cortés landed and from the same direction he came. This is now believed to have been a myth of the conquerors, and perhaps of natives who wished to rationalize the actions of the Aztec tlatoani, Moctezuma II. Most scholars agree that the Aztecs, especially the inner circle around Moctezuma, did not believe that Cortés was a god in any shape or form. Messages between Cortés and Moctezuma, however, frequently allude to the legend, which was widely known across the Aztec dominions to both Aztecs and their subjects. It strongly influenced them, as Bernal Díaz del Castillo repeatedly attests.

Moctezuma sent a group of noblemen and other emissaries to meet Cortés at Quauhtechcac. These emissaries brought golden jewelry as a gift, which greatly pleased the Spaniards. According to the Florentine Codex, Lib. 12, f.6r., Moctezuma also ordered his messengers to carry the highly symbolic penacho (headdress) of Quetzalcoatl de Tula to Cortés and place it on him. As news about the strangers reached the capital city, Moctezuma became increasingly fearful and considered fleeing the city. He reportedly resigned himself to what he considered to be the fate of his people.

Cortés continued on his march toward Tenochtitlan. Before entering the city, on November 8, 1519, Cortés and his troops prepared for battle by armoring themselves and their horses, and arranging into military rank with four leading horsemen followed by five contingents of foot soldiers. The contingents had iron swords and wooden or leather shields; horsemen in cuirasses, armed with iron lances, swords, and wooden shields; crossbowmen; more horsemen; soldiers armed with arquebus guns; and lastly, indigenous soldiers from Tlaxcalan, Tliliuhquitepec, and Huexotzinco armed with cotton armor and shields and crossbows, many of whom carried provisions in baskets or bundles or escorted the cannons on wooden carts.

Cortés's army entered the city on the flower-covered causeway from Iztapalapa, associated with the god Quetzalcoatl. Cortés was amicably received by Moctezuma. The captive woman Malinalli Tenépal, also known as Doña Marina, translated from Nahuatl to Chontal Maya; the Spaniard Gerónimo de Aguilar translated from Chontal Maya to Spanish.

The Spanish soon took Moctezuma hostage on November 14, 1519, as a safety measure because they were so outnumbered by the Aztec. Secondly they learned that Moctezuma had heard from a messenger, a few days before Cortes, that at least eight hundred more Spaniards in thirteen great ships had arrived on the coast. Cortés had been communicating to the Crown that he already had control of the territory and was practically running the city of Tenochtitlan. He was at risk of having his commission revoked, because the vast new Spanish forces were sent by his enemy Diego Velázquez. If they competed for power, they could have ended his campaign in Mexico and might have doomed the try for a lightning conquest.

Cortés attempted to take Moctezuma hostage in an effort to ensure his cooperation. According to all eyewitness accounts, Moctezuma initially refused to leave his palace but after a series of threats from and debates with the Spanish captains, and assurances from Doña Marina, he agreed to move with his retinue to the Axayáctal palace. The first captain assigned to guard him was Pedro de Alvarado. Other Aztec lords were also detained by the Spanish, when they started questioning the authority of their captive tlatoani. The palace was surrounded by over 100 Spanish soldiers in order to prevent any attempt at rescue.

Tensions mount between Aztecs and Spaniards
It is uncertain why Moctezuma cooperated with the Spaniards. It is possible he feared losing his life or political power; however, one of the effective threats wielded by Cortés was the destruction of the city in the case of fighting between Spaniards and Aztecs (which ultimately came to pass). This Moctezuma at all costs wanted to avoid, vacillating and deferring the rupture until this policy claimed his life. From the perspective of the tlatoani, the Spaniards might have been assigned some decisive role by fate. It could also have been a tactical move: Moctezuma may have wanted to gather more information on the Spaniards, or to wait for the end of the agricultural season and strike at the beginning of the war season. However, he did not carry out either of these actions even though high-ranking military leaders such as his brother Cuitlahuac and nephew Cacamatzin urged him to do so.

With Moctezuma as his captive, Cortés did not need to worry about being cut off from supplies or being attacked, although some of his captains had such concerns. He also assumed that he could control the Aztecs through Moctezuma. However, Cortés had little knowledge of the ruling system of the Aztecs; Moctezuma was not all-powerful as Cortés imagined. Being appointed to and maintaining the position of tlatoani was based on the ability to rule decisively; he could be replaced by another noble if he failed to do so. At any sign of weakness, Aztec nobles within Tenochtitlan and in other Aztec tributaries were liable to rebel. As Moctezuma complied with orders issued by Cortés, such as commanding tribute to be gathered and given to the Spaniards, his authority was slipping, and quickly his people began to turn against him.

Cortés and his army were permitted to stay in the Palace of Axayacatl, and tensions continued to grow. While the Spaniards were in Tenochtitlan, Velázquez assembled a force of nineteen ships, more than 1400 soldiers with twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, one-hundred and twenty crossbowmen, and eighty arquebusiers under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez to capture Cortés and return him to Cuba. Velázquez felt that Cortés had exceeded his authority, and had been aware of Cortés's misconduct for nearly a year. He had to wait for favorable winds, though, and was unable to send any forces until spring. Narváez's troops landed at San Juan de Ulúa on the Gulf of Mexico coast around April 20, 1520.

After Cortés became aware of their arrival, he left Pedro de Alvarado in charge in Tenochtitlan with 80 soldiers, and brought all his forces (about two hundred and forty men) by quick marches to Narváez's camp in Cempohuallan on May 27. Several negotiations between the two Spaniards took place on the way, in which Cortés was able to persuade many persons of weight in Narváez's camp to incline to his side. Cortés attacked Narváez's camp late at night; his men, much superior in experience and organization, wounded Narváez in the eye and took him as a hostage quickly; also taken were his principal adherents, de Salvatierra and Diego Velasquez (the nephew of the Governor of Cuba). Evidence suggests that the two were in the midst of negotiations at the time, and Narváez was not expecting an attack. Cortés then completed winning over Narváez's captains with promises of the vast wealth in Tenochtitlan, inducing them to follow him back to the Aztec capital. Narváez was imprisoned in Vera Cruz, and his army was integrated into Cortés's forces.

Rapid deterioration of relations

Massacre at the festival of Tóxcatl

During Cortés's absence, Pedro de Alvarado was left in command in Tenochtitlan with 80 soldiers.

At this time, the Mexica (Aztecs) began to prepare for the annual festival of Toxcatl in early May, in honor of Tezcatlipoca, otherwise known as the Smoking Mirror or the Omnipotent Power. They honored this god during the onset of the dry season so that the god would fill dry streambeds and cause rain to fall on crops. Moctezuma secured the consent of Cortés to hold the festival, and again confirmed permission with Alvarado.

Alvarado was commissioned by Cortés to take over his post and to foresee everything related to interactions  among Spaniards and the Mexica, right at the time when the Toxcatl festival was to occur. Cortés expressly instructed Alvarado to not perform any military action, during his absence. Alvarado however had an unstable temperament and engaged in inquiring where the gold of the nobility was stored.

He tortured priests and nobles and discovered that the Aztecs were planning a revolt. Unable to assert control over events, he sequestered Moctezuma and increased the guards around the tlatoani.

By the day of the festival, the Aztecs had gathered on the Patio of Dances. Alvarado had sixty of his men as well as many of his Tlaxcalan allies into positions around the patio. The Aztecs initiated the Serpent Dance. The euphoric dancing as well as the accompanying flute and drum playing disturbed Alvarado about the potential for revolt. He ordered the gates closed and initiated the killing of many thousands of Aztec nobles, warriors and priests.

Alvarado, the conquistadors and the Tlaxcalans retreated to their base in the Palace of Axayacatl and secured the entrances. Alvarado ordered his men to shoot their cannons, crossbows, and arquebuses into the gathering crowd. The result either preempted or triggered the Aztec revolt, which was, however, inevitable from the moment of Moctezuma's capture and was accelerated by the split of the Spanish forces. Alvarado forced Moctezuma to appeal to the crowd outside the Palace and this appeal temporarily calmed them.

The massacre had the result of resolutely turning all the Aztecs against the Spanish and completely undermining Moctezuma's authority.

Aztec revolt
Alvarado sent word to Cortés of the events, and Cortés hurried back to Tenochtitlan on June 24 with 1,300 soldiers, 96 horses, 80 crossbowmen, and 80 arquebusiers. Cortés also came with 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors on the journey. Cortés entered the palace unscathed, as the hostilities had not started yet, although the Aztecs had probably planned to ambush him. The Aztecs had already stopped sending food and supplies to the Spaniards. They became suspicious and watched for people trying to sneak supplies to them; many innocent people were slaughtered because they were suspected of helping them. A few days after the great forces of Cortés got into Tenochtitlan, the roads were shut and the causeway bridges were raised. The Aztecs halted any Spanish attacks or attempts to leave the palace. Every Spanish soldier that was not killed was wounded.

Cortés failed to grasp the full extent of the situation, as the attack on the festival was the last straw for the Aztecs, who now were completely against Moctezuma and the Spanish. The military gains of the attack therefore had a serious political cost for Cortés. His new followers were greatly disturbed at the power of the Aztecs, and held Cortés to be a liar since nobody revered them and brought them food and gifts as Cortés had promised.

Cortés attempted to parlay with the Aztecs, and after this failed he sent Moctezuma to tell his people to stop fighting. However, the Aztecs refused. The Spanish asserted that Moctezuma was stoned to death by his own people as he attempted to speak with them. Three stones hit him, one of them on the head, so cerebral hematoma is possible. Moctezuma refused all medical help as well as food, and died soon after the attack. The Aztecs later claimed that Moctezuma had been murdered by the Spanish. Two other local rulers were found strangled as well. Moctezuma's younger brother Cuitláhuac, who had been ruler of Ixtlapalapan until then, was chosen as the Tlatoani.

La Noche Triste and the Spanish flight to Tlaxcala

The flight of the Spanish from Tenochtitlan was a crushing defeat for Cortés that was just short of annihilation. It is still remembered as "La Noche Triste," The Night of Sorrows. Popular tales say Cortés wept under a tree the night of the massacre of his troops at the hands of the Aztecs.

Initially, Cortés resolved to fight the Aztec troops opposed to him and win the city in direct conflict. This stemmed from three errors of judgment:

1. Underestimation of the Aztecs. Cortés fought the Tabascans, the Cempoalans, the Tlaxcalans and found them strong opponents, but always prevailed. He had never fought an Aztec army before and did not expect such resolve and martial skill as he encountered – although all his previous foes warned that the Aztecs were the greatest warriors they had ever seen and could not be withstood within their city.

2. Overrating his forces. Since Cortés won all his battles in Mexico before this while at the head of much inferior forces, being in charge of a nearly full Spanish tercio must have made him feel invincible. In fact, the only serviceable portion of his army were his old followers with great experience of Aztec warfare, who were by this time severely whittled down by wounds and disease. The newly arrived Narvaéz's men did not have experience in local fighting and were worth much less in combat - and eventually perished in much greater numbers than the veterans.

3. Unprepared for enemy tactics. The Aztecs had fought for the lake cities many times before and their tactics were excellent - the use of canoes, the use of flat roofs with prepared missiles, dropping down into the lake when cornered, and destroying bridges. Cavalry could not operate in these conditions and control of the water was crucial, which Cortés did not realize at first.

With this mindset, Cortés launched an attack directly at the chief temple of the city, the Cue of Huichilopotzli. In spite of determined opposition, the Spanish push got them to the top of the temple's 114 steps, but at a great loss. Cortés aimed at routing the Aztecs and by holding both Moctezuma and the great temple - being able to offer peace once again. However, the Spanish attack encountered such fierce resistance and numerous fatalities among his men, that the plan fell apart. The retreat to Spanish quarters was as hard as the attack, and part of their quarters were plundered in the meantime. The direct loss of nearly a hundred men dead and the fierce spirit of the Aztecs who refused to be cowed by his ascent of the temple convinced Cortés that a night escape was now his only option for survival.

Though a flight from the city would make Cortés appear weak before his indigenous allies, it was this or death for the Spanish forces. Cortés and his men were in the center of the city, and would most likely have to fight their way out no matter what direction they took. Cortés wanted to flee to Tlaxcala, so a path directly east would have been most favorable. Nevertheless, this would require hundreds of canoes to move all of Cortés's people and supplies, which he was unable to procure in his position.

Cortés therefore had to choose among three land routes: north to Tlatelolco, which was the least dangerous path but required the longest trip through the city; south to Coyohuacan and Iztapalapa, two towns that would not welcome the Spanish; or west to Tlacopan, which required the shortest trip through Tenochtitlan, though they would not be welcome there either. Cortés decided on the west causeway to Tlacopan, needing the quickest route out of Tenochtitlan with all his provisions and people.

Heavy rains and a moonless night provided some cover for the escaping Spanish. On that "Sad Night," July 1, 1520, the Spanish forces exited the palace first with their indigenous allies close behind, bringing as much treasure as possible. Cortés had hoped to go undetected by muffling the horses' hooves and carrying wooden boards to cross the canals.
The Spanish forces were able to pass through the first three canals, the Tecpantzinco, Tzapotlan, and Atenchicalco.

However, they were discovered on the fourth canal at Mixcoatechialtitlan. One account says a woman fetching water saw them and alerted the city, another says it was a sentry. Some Aztecs set out in canoes, others by road to Nonchualco then Tlacopan to cut the Spanish off. The Aztecs attacked the fleeing Spanish on the Tlacopan causeway from canoes, shooting arrows at them. The Spanish fired their crossbows and arquebuses, but were unable to see their attackers or get into formation. Many Spaniards leaped into the water and drowned, weighed down by armor and booty.

When faced with a gap in the causeway, Alvarado made the famous "leap of Alvarado" using a spear to get to the other side. Approximately a third of the Spaniards succeeded in reaching the mainland, while the remaining ones died in battle or were captured and later sacrificed on Aztec altars - these were reported to be mostly the followers of Narváez, less experienced and more weighted down with gold, which was handed out freely before the escape.

After crossing over the bridge, the surviving Spanish had little reprieve before the Aztecs appeared to attack and chase them towards Tlacopan. When they arrived at Tlacopan, a good number of Spaniards had been killed, as well as most of the indigenous warriors, and some of the horses; all of the cannons and most of the crossbows and other weapons were lost. In all battles with main Aztec forces after that, Spaniards noted their lost arms being used against them. The Spanish finally found refuge in Otancalpolco, where they were aided by the Teocalhueyacans. The morning after, the Aztecs returned to recover the spoils from the canals.

To reach Tlaxcala, Cortés had to bring his troops around Lake Texcoco. Though the Spanish were under attack the entire trip, because Cortés took his troops through the northern towns, they were at an advantage. The northern valley was less populous, travel was difficult, and it was still the agricultural season, so the attacks on Cortés's forces were not very heavy. As Cortés arrived in more densely inhabited areas east of the lake, the attacks were more forceful.

Battle of Otumba

Before reaching Tlaxcala, the scanty Spanish forces arrived at the plain of Otumba Valley (Otompan), where they were met by a vast Aztec army intent on their destruction. The Aztecs intended to cut short the Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan and annihilate them. Here, the Aztecs made their own errors of judgement by underestimating the shock value of the Spanish caballeros because all they had seen was the horses traveling gingerly on the wet paved streets of Tenochtitlan. They had never seen them used in open battle on the plains. By marshalling on an open plain, they also allowed experienced Spanish commanders to bring to bear their own tactics, weaponry, and the know-how of European warfare.

Despite the overwhelming numbers of Aztecs and the generally poor condition of the Spanish survivors, Cortés snatched victory from the jaws of defeat. He spotted the Aztec commander in his ornate and colourful feather tlahuiztli and immediately charged him with several horsemen, killing the Aztec commander and most other leaders as they were clearly marked by their golden plumage and an easy target for a charge. The many Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish are mentioned as playing an important role in the battle, armed with Spanish swords and shields. The Spanish suffered some losses, but were victorious over the Aztecs, who then retreated and were pursued by cavalry.

When Cortés finally reached Tlaxcala five days after fleeing Tenochtitlan, he had lost over 860 Spanish soldiers, over a thousand Tlaxcalans, as well as Spanish women who had accompanied Narváez's troops. Cortés claimed only 15 Spaniards were lost along with 2,000 native allies. Cano, another primary source, gives 1,150 Spaniards dead, though this figure was likely too high and might encompass the total loss from entering Mexico to arriving into Tlaxcala. Cortés' chaplain back in Spain, Francisco López de Gómara, estimated that 450 Spaniards and 4,000 allies had died. Other sources estimate that nearly half of the Spanish and almost all of the natives were killed or wounded.

The women survivors included Cortés's translator and lover La Malinche, María Estrada, Beatriz de Palacios, and two of Moctezuma's daughters who had been given to Cortés, including the emperor's favorite and reportedly most beautiful daughter Tecuichpotzin (later Doña Isabel Moctezuma). A third daughter died, leaving behind her infant by Cortés, the mysterious second "María" named in his will.

Both sides attempt to recover

Shifting alliances

Cuitláhuac had been elected as the emperor immediately following Moctezuma's death. It was necessary for him to prove his power and authority to keep the tributaries from revolting. Usually, the new king would take his army on a campaign before coronation; this demonstration would solidify necessary ties. However, Cuitláhuac was not in a position to do this, as it was not yet war season; therefore, allegiance to the Spanish seemed to be an option for many tributaries. The Aztec Empire was very susceptible to division: most of the tributary states were divided internally, and their loyalty to the Aztecs was based either on their own interests or fear of punishment.

It was necessary for Cortés to rebuild his alliances after his escape from Tenochtitlan before he could try again to take the city. He started with the Tlaxcalans. Tlaxcala was an autonomous state, and a fierce enemy of the Aztecs. Another strong motivation to join forces with the Spanish was that Tlaxcala was encircled by Aztec tributaries. The Tlaxcalans could have crushed the Spaniards at this point or turned them over to the Aztecs. In fact, the Aztecs sent emissaries promising peace and prosperity if they would do just that. The Tlaxcalan leaders rebuffed the overtures of the Aztec emissaries, deciding to continue their friendship with Cortés.

Cortés managed to negotiate an alliance; however, the Tlaxcalans required heavy concessions from Cortés for their continued support, which he was to provide after they defeated the Aztecs. They expected the Spanish to pay for their supplies, to have the city of Cholula, an equal share of any of the spoils, the right to build a citadel in Tenochtitlan, and finally, to be exempted from any future tribute. Cortés was willing to promise anything in the name of the King of Spain, and agreed to their demands. The Spanish did complain about having to pay for their food and water with their gold and other jewels with which they had escaped Tenochtitlan. The Spanish authorities would later disown this treaty with the Tlaxcalans after the fall of Tenochtitlan.

Cortés needed to gain other new allies as well. If the Spaniards were able to prove they could protect their new allies from the possibility of Aztec retribution, changing sides would not be too difficult for other tributaries. After Cortés' forces managed to defeat the smaller armies of some Aztec tributary states, Tepeyac, and later, Yauhtepec and Cuauhnahuac were easily won over. Cortés also used political maneuvering to assure the allegiance of other states, such as Tetzcoco. In addition, Cortés replaced kings with those who he knew would be loyal to him. Cortés now controlled many major towns, which simultaneously bolstered Cortés's forces while weakening the Aztecs.

Though the largest group of indigenous allies were Tlaxcalans, the Huexotzinco, Atlixco, Tliliuhqui-Tepecs, Tetzcocans, Chalca, Alcohua, and Tepanecs were all important allies as well, and had all been previously subjugated by the Aztecs.

Even the former Triple Alliance member city of Tetzcoco (or Texcoco) became a Spanish ally. As the rebellion attempt led by the Tetzcocan Tlatoani, Cacamatzin, in times of Moctezuma's reclusion was conjured by the Spanish, Cortés named one of Cacamatzin's brothers as new tlatoani. He was Ixtlilxóchitl II, who had disagreed with his brother and always proved friendly to the Spanish. Later, Cortés also occupied the city as base for the construction of brigantines. However, one faction of Tetzcocan warriors remained loyal to the Aztecs.

Cortés had to put down internal struggles among the Spanish troops as well. The remaining Spanish soldiers were somewhat divided; many wanted nothing more than to go home, or at the very least to return to Vera Cruz and wait for reinforcements. Cortés hurriedly quashed this faction, determined to finish what he had started. Not only had he staked everything he had or could borrow on this enterprise, he had completely compromised himself by defying his superior Velázquez. He knew that in defeat he would be considered a traitor to Spain, but that in success he would be its hero. So he argued, cajoled, bullied, and coerced his troops, and they began preparing for the siege of Mexico. In this Cortés showed skill at exploiting the divisions within and between the Aztec states while hiding those of his own troops.

Smallpox reduces the local population
While Cortés was rebuilding his alliances and garnering more supplies, a smallpox epidemic struck the natives of the Valley of Mexico, including Tenochtitlan. The disease was probably carried by a Spanish slave from Narváez's forces, who had been abandoned in the capital during the Spanish flight. Smallpox played a crucial role in the Spanish success during the Siege of Tenochtitlan from 1519 to 1521, a fact not mentioned in some historical accounts. The disease broke out in Tenochtitlan in late October 1520. The epidemic lasted sixty days, ending by early December.

It was at this event where firsthand accounts were recorded in the Florentine Codex concerning the adverse effects of the smallpox epidemic of the Aztecs, which stated, "many died from this plague, and many others died of hunger. They could not get up and search for food, and everyone else was too sick to care for them, so they starved to death in their beds. By the time the danger was recognized, the plague was well established that nothing could halt it". The smallpox epidemic caused not only infection to the Mexica peoples, but it weakened able bodied people who could no longer grow and harvest their crops, which in turn led to mass famine and death from malnutrition. While the population of Tenochtitlan was recovering, the disease continued to Chalco, a city on the southeast corner of Lake Texcoco that was formerly controlled by the Aztecs but now occupied by the Spanish.

Reproduction and population growth declined since people of child-bearing age either had to fight off the Spanish invasion or died due to famine, malnutrition or other diseases. Diseases like smallpox could travel great distances and spread throughout large populations, which was the case with the Aztecs having lost approximately 50% of its population from smallpox and other diseases. The disease killed an estimated forty percent of the native population in the area within a year. The Aztecs codices give ample depictions of the disease's progression. It was known to them as the huey ahuizotl (great rash).

Cuitlahuac contracted the disease and died after ruling for eighty days. Though the disease also affected the Spanish-aligned forces somewhat, it had more dire consequences for the leadership on the side of the Aztecs, as they were much harder hit by the smallpox than the Spanish leaders, who were largely resistant to the disease.

Aztecs regroup
It is often debated why the Aztecs took little action against the Spanish and their allies after they fled the city. One reason was that Tenochtitlan was certainly in a state of disorder: the smallpox disease ravaged the population, killing still more important leaders and nobles, and a new king, Cuauhtémoc, son of King Ahuitzotl, was placed on the throne in February 1521. The people were in the process of mourning the dead and rebuilding their damaged city. It is possible that the Aztecs truly believed that the Spanish were gone for good. In addition, Cortés astutely directed his forces in multiple directions in preparing his encirclement of the Aztec capital, and knew how to use the military initiative that he gained after the battle of Otumba.

Staying within Tenochtitlan as a defensive tactic may have seemed like a reliable strategy at the time. This would allow them the largest possible army that would be close to its supplies, while affording them the mobility provided by the surrounding lake. Any Spanish assault would have to come through the causeways, where the Aztecs could easily attack them. As the only Aztec victory against the Spanish was won in the city using their peculiar urban warfare tactics, and as they counted on retaining control over the water, it seems natural that they wanted to risk their main army only to defend their capital. However, it would not be correct to infer that the Aztecs were passive observers of their fate - they did send numerous expeditions to aid their allies against Cortés at every point, with 10 to 20 thousand forces risked in every engagement, such as in Chalco and Chapultepec. They were driven back every time, and some of the native allies won their own victories over the Aztecs, as their dread of their invincible overlords faded with every success of Cortés.

Siege of Tenochtitlan

Cortés plans and preparations
Cortés's overall plan was to trap and besiege the Aztecs within their capital. Cortés intended to do that primarily by increasing his power and mobility on the lake, while protecting "his flanks while they marched up the causeway", previously one of his main weaknesses. He ordered the construction of thirteen sloops (brigantines) in Tlaxcala, by his master shipbuilder, Martín López. Cortés continued to receive a steady stream of supplies from ships arriving at Veracruz, one ship from Spain loaded with "arms and powder", and two ships intended for Narváez. Cortés also received one hundred and fifty soldiers and twenty horses from the abandoned Panuco River settlement. A large source of succour for Cortés were the misguided expeditions by Francisco de Garay, the Governor of Jamaica, who kept sending ship after ship to aid his original Panuco venture long after it had been destroyed and abandoned; all of these ships and forces ended up reinforcing Cortés before the siege.

Cortés then decided to move his army to Texcoco, where he could assemble and launch the sloops in the creeks flowing into Lake Texcoco. With his main headquarters in Texcoco, he could stop his forces from being spread too thin around the lake, and there he could contact them where they needed. Xicotencatl the Elder provided Cortés with over ten thousand Tlaxcalan warriors under the command of Chichimecatecle. Cortés departed Tlaxcala on the day after Christmas 1520. When his force arrived at the outskirts of Texcoco, he was met by seven chieftains stating their leader Coanacotzin begs "for your friendship". Cortés quickly replaced that leader with the son of Nezahualpilli, baptized as Don Hernán Cortés.

After winning over Chalco and Tlamanalco, Cortés sent eight Mexican prisoners to Cuauhtemoc stating, "all the towns in the neighborhood were now on our side, as well as the Tlaxcalans". Cortés intended to blockade Mexico and then destroy it. Once Martin López and Chichimecatecle brought the logs and planks to Texcoco, the sloops were built quickly. Cuauhtemoc's forces were defeated four times in March 1521, around Chalco and Huaxtepec, and Cortés received another ship load of arms and men from the Emperor.

On 6 April 1521, Cortés met with the caciques around Chalco, and announced he would "bring peace" and blockade Mexico. He wanted all of their warriors ready the next day when he put thirteen sloops into the lake (misleadingly called "launches" in some translations). He was then joined at Chimaluacan by twenty thousand warriors from Chalco, Texcoco, Huejotzingo, and Tlaxcala. Cortés fought a major engagement with seventeen thousand of Cuauhtemoc's warriors at Xochimilco, before continuing his march northwestward. Cortés found Coyoacan, Tacuba, Azcapotzalco, and Cuauhitlan deserted.

Returning to Texcoco, which had been guarded by his Captain Gonzalo de Sandoval, Cortés was joined by many more men from Castile. Cortés then discovered a plot aimed at his murder, for which he had the main conspirator, Antonio de Villafana, hanged. Thereafter, Cortés had a personal guard of six soldiers, under the command of Antonio de Quiñones. The Spaniards also held their third auctioning of branded slaves, Mexican allies captured by Cortés, "who had revolted after giving their obedience to His Majesty."

Cortés had 84 horsemen, 194 arbalesters and arquebusiers, plus 650 Spanish foot soldiers. He stationed 25 men on every sloop, 12 oarsmen, 12 crossbowmen and musketeers, and a captain. Each sloop had rigging, sails, oars, and spare oars. Additionally, Cortés had 20,000 warriors from Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco, and Cholula. The Tlaxcalans were led by Xicotencatl II and Chichimecatecle. Cortés was ready to start the blockade of Mexico after Corpus Christi (feast).

Cortés put Alvarado in command of 30 horsemen, 18 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, and sent him, accompanied by his brother Jorge de Alvarado, Gutierrez de Badajoz, and Andrés de Monjaraz, to secure Tacuba. Cristóbal de Olid took 30 horsemen, 20 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 175 foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, accompanied by Andrés de Tapia, Francisco Verdugo, and Francisco de Lugo, and secured Coyohuacan. Gonzalo de Sandoval took 24 horsemen, 14 arquebusiers and arbalesters, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 warriors from Chalco and Huexotzinco, accompanied by Luis Marin and Pedro de Ircio, to secure Ixtlapalapan. Cortés commanded the 13 sloops. Cortés' forces took up these positions on May 22.

The first battles

The forces under Alvarado and Olid marched first towards Chapultepec to disconnect the Aztecs from their water supply. There were springs there that supplied much of the city's water by aqueduct; the rest of the city's water was brought in by canoe. The two generals then tried to bring their forces over the causeway at Tlacopan, resulting in the Battle of Tlacopan. The Aztec forces managed to push back the Spanish and halt this assault on the capital with a determined and hard-fought land and naval counterattack.

Cortés faced "more than a thousand canoes" after he launched his thirteen sloops from Texcoco. Yet a "favorable breeze sprang up", enabling him to overturn many canoes and kill or capture many. After winning the First Battle on the Lake, Cortés camped with Olid's forces.

The Aztec canoe fleets worked well for attacking the Spanish because they allowed the Aztecs to surround the Spanish on both sides of the causeway. Cortés decided to make an opening in the causeway so that his brigantines could help defend his forces from both sides. He then distributed the sloops amongst his attacking forces, four to Alvarado, six for Olid, and two to Sandoval on the Tepeaquilla causeway. After this move, the Aztecs could no longer attack from their canoes on the opposite side of the Spanish brigantines, and "the fighting went very much in our favour", according to Díaz.

With his brigantines, Cortés could also send forces and supplies to areas he previously could not, which put a kink in Cuauhtémoc's plan. To make it more difficult for the Spanish ships to aid the Spanish soldier's advance along the causeways, the Aztecs dug deep pits in shallow areas of the lakes, into which they hoped the Spaniards would stumble, and fixed concealed stakes into the lake bottom to impale the launches. The Spanish horses were also ineffective on the causeways.

Cortés was forced to adapt his plans again, as his initial land campaigns were ineffective. He had planned to attack on the causeways during the daytime and retreat to camp at night; however, the Aztecs moved in to occupy the abandoned bridges and barricades as soon as the Spanish forces left. Consequently, Cortés had his forces set up on the causeways at night to defend their positions. Cortés also sent orders to "never on any account to leave a gap unblocked, and that all the horsemen were to sleep on the causeway with their horses saddled and bridled all night long." This allowed the Spanish to progress closer and closer towards the city.

The Spaniards prevented food and water from reaching Tenochtitlan along the three causeways. They limited the supplies reaching the city from the nine surrounding towns via canoe, by sending out two of their launches on nightly capture missions. However, the Aztecs were successful in setting an ambush with thirty of their pirogues in an area in which they had placed impaling stakes. They captured two Spanish launches, killing Captains Juan de la Portilla and Pedro Barba.

The Spanish advance closer

After capturing two chieftains, Cortés learned of another Aztec plot to ambush his launches with forty pirogues. Cortés then organized a counter-ambush with six of his launches, which was successful, "killing many warriors and taking many prisoners." Afterwards, the Aztec "did not dare to lay any more ambuscades, or to bring in food and water as openly as before." Lakeside towns, including Iztapalapa, Churubusco, Culuacan, and Mixquic made peace with the Spaniards. The fighting in Tenochtitlan was described by the American historian Charles Robinson as "desperate" as both sides battled one another in the streets in a ferocious battle where no quarter was given nor asked for.

Cuauhtemoc then attacked all three Spanish camps simultaneously with his entire army on the feast day of St. John. On the Tacuba Causeway across Lake Texcoco connecting Tenochtitlan to the mainland along a street now known as Puente de Alvarado (Alvarado's Bridge) in Mexico City, Pedro de Alvarado made a mad cavalry charge across a gap in the Causeway. As Alvarado and his cavalry emerged on the other side of the gap with the infantry behind, Aztec canoes filled the gap. Pedro de Alvarado was wounded along with eight men in his camp. Alvarado escaped from the ambush, but five of his men were captured and taken off to the Great Temple to be sacrificed. Much to their horror, the Spanish from their positions could see their captured comrades being sacrificed on the Great Pyramid, which increased their hatred of the Aztecs. At the end of each day, the Spanish gave a prayer: "Oh, thanks be to God that they did not carry me off today to be sacrificed."

Cortés then decided to push forward a simultaneous attack towards the Mexican market square, resulting in what is now known as the Battle of Colhuacatonco. However, he neglected to fill in a channel as he advanced, and when the Aztec counter-attacked, Cortés was wounded and almost captured. Cristóbal de Olea and Cristóbal de Guzmán gave their lives for Cortés, and sixty-five Spanish soldiers were captured alive. Cuauhtemoc then had five of their heads thrown at Alvarado's camp, four thrown at Cortés' camp, six thrown at Sandoval's camp, while ten more were sacrificed to the Huitzilopochtli and Texcatlipoca idols.

Díaz relates, "...the dismal drum of Huichilobos sounded again,...we saw our comrades who had been captured in Cortés' defeat being dragged up the steps to be sacrificed...cutting open their chests, drew out their palpitating hearts which they offered to the idols...the Indian butchers...cut off their arms and legs...then they ate their flesh with a sauce of peppers and tomatoes...throwing their trunks and entrails to the lions and tigers and serpents and snakes." Cuauhtemoc then "sent the hands and feet of our soldiers, and the skin of their faces...to all the towns of our allies..." The Aztec sacrificed a batch of Spanish prisoners each night for ten nights. The Aztec cast off the cooked limbs of their prisoners to the Tlaxcalans, shouting: "Eat the flesh of these teules ["Gods"-a reference to the early belief that Spanish were gods] and of your brothers because we are sated with it".

The Aztec continued to attack the Spaniards on the causeways, "day and night". The Spanish allies in the cities surrounding the lake lost many lives or "went home wounded", and "half their canoes were destroyed". Yet, "they did not help the Aztec any more, for they loathed them." Yet, of the 24,000 allies, only 200 remained in the three Spanish camps, the rest deciding to return home.
Ahuaxpitzactzin (later baptized as Don Carlos), the brother of the Texcoco lord Don Fernando, remained in Cortés' camp with forty relatives and friends. The Huejotzinco Cacique remained in Sandoval's camp with fifty men. Alvarado's camp had Chichimecatecle, the two sons of Lorenzo de Vargas, and eighty Tlaxcalans. To maintain the advance, Cortés razed every neighborhood he captured, using the rubble to fill up canals and gaps in the causeways to allow his infantry and cavalry to advance in formation, a fighting tactic that favored the Spanish instead of engaging in hand-to-hand street fighting, which favored the Aztec.

Cortés then concentrated on letting the Aztec "eat up all the provisions they have" and drink brackish water. The Spaniards gradually advanced along the causeways, though without allies. Their launches had freedom of the lake, after devising a method for breaking the impaling stakes the Aztec had placed for them. After twelve days of this, the Spanish allies realized the prophecy by the Aztec idols, that the Spaniards would be dead in ten days, was false. Two thousand warriors returned from Texcoco, as did many Tlaxcan warriors under Tepaneca from Topeyanco, and those from Huejotzingo and Cholula.
Cuauhtemoc then enlisted his allies in Matlazingo, Malinalco, and Tulapa, in attacking the Spaniards from the rear. However, Cortés sent Andrés de Tapia, with 20 horsemen and 100 soldiers, and Gonzalo de Sandoval, with 20 horsemen and 80 soldiers, to help his allies attack this new threat. They returned with two of the Matlazingo chieftains as prisoners.

As the Spanish employed more successful strategies, their stranglehold on Tenochtitlan tightened, and famine began to affect the Aztecs. The Aztecs were cut off from the mainland because of the occupied causeways. Cortés also had the advantage of fighting a mostly defensive battle. Though Cuauhtémoc organized a large-scale attack on Alvarado's forces at Tlacopan, the Aztec forces were pushed back. Throughout the siege, the Aztecs had little aid from outside of Tenochtitlan. The remaining loyal tributaries had difficulty sending forces, because it would leave them vulnerable to Spanish attack. Many of these loyal tributaries were surrounded by the Spanish.

Though the tributaries often went back and forth in their loyalties at any sign of change, the Spanish tried hard not to lose any allies. They feared a "snowball effect": if one tributary left, others might follow. Therefore, they brutally crushed any tributaries who tried to send help to Tenochtitlan. Any shipments of food and water were intercepted, and even those trying to fish in the lake were attacked. The situation inside the city was desperate: because of the famine and the smallpox there were already thousands of victims, women offered to the gods even their children's clothes, so most children were stark naked. Many Aztecs drank dirty, brackish water because of their severe thirst and contracted dysentery. The famine was so severe that the Aztecs ate anything, even wood, leather, and bricks for sustenance.

The Spanish continued to push closer to Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs changed tactics as often as the Spanish did, preventing Cortés's forces from being entirely victorious. However, the Aztecs were severely worn down. They had no new troops, supplies, food, nor water. The Spanish received a large amount of supplies from Vera Cruz, and, somewhat renewed, finally entered the main part of Tenochtitlan.

The Aztecs' last stand
Cortés then ordered a simultaneous advance of all three camps towards the Tlatelolco marketplace. Alvarado's company made it there first, and Gutierrez de Badajoz advanced to the top of the Huichilopotzli cu, setting it afire and planting their Spanish banners. Cortés' and Sandoval's men were able to join them there after four more days of fighting.

The Spanish forces and their allies advanced into the city. Despite inflicting heavy casualties, the Aztecs could not halt the Spanish advance. While the fighting in the city raged, the Aztecs cut out and ate the hearts of 70 Spanish prisoners-of-war at the altar to Huitzilopochtli. By August, many of the native inhabitants had fled Tlatelolco. Cortés sent emissaries to negotiate with the Tlatelolcas to join his side, but the Tlatelolcas remained loyal to the Aztecs. Throughout the siege, the Tlaxcalans waged a merciless campaign against the Aztecs who had long oppressed them as for a hundred years the Tlaxcalans had been forced to hand over an annual quota of young men and women to be sacrificed and eaten at the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, and now the Tlaxcalans saw their chance for revenge. The American historian Charles Robinson wrote: "Centuries of hate and the basic viciousness of Mesoamerican warfare combined in violence that appalled Cortés himself". In letter to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Cortés wrote: "We had more trouble in preventing our allies from killing with such cruelty than we had in fighting the enemy. For no race, however savage, has ever practiced such fierce and unnatural cruelty as the natives of these parts. Our allies also took many spoils that day, which we were unable to prevent, as they numbered more than 150,000 and we Spaniards only some nine hundred. Neither our precautions nor our warnings could stop their looting, though we did all we could...I had posted Spaniards in every street, so that when the people began to come out [to surrender] they might prevent our allies from killing those wretched people, whose numbers was uncountable. I also told the captains of our allies that on no account should any of those people be slain; but there were so many that we could not prevent more than fifteen thousand being killed and sacrificed [by the Tlaxcalans] that day".

Throughout the battles with the Spanish, the Aztecs still practiced their traditional ceremonies and customs. Tlapaltecatl Opochtzin was chosen to be outfitted to wear the quetzal owl costume. He was supplied with darts sacred to Huitzilopochtli, which came with wooden tips and flint tops. When he came, the Spanish soldiers appeared scared and intimidated. They chased the owl-warrior, but he was neither captured nor killed. The Aztecs took this as a good sign, but they could fight no more, and after discussions with the nobles, Cuauhtémoc began talks with the Spanish.

At some point in the final days of the battle, a tornado struck the basin, over Tlatelolco, and then moved out over the lake. This was the first tornado seen by Europeans in the Americas.

After several failed peace overtures to Cuauhtémoc, Cortés ordered Sandoval to attack that part of the city in which Cuauhtémoc had retreated. As hundreds of canoes filled the lake fleeing the doomed city, Cortés sent his brigantines out to intercept them. Cuauhtémoc attempted to flee with his property, gold, jewels, and family in fifty pirogues, but was soon captured by Sandoval's launches, and brought before Cortés.

Surrender

The Aztec forces were destroyed and the Aztecs surrendered on 13 August 1521, Julian Date. Cortés demanded the return of the gold lost during La Noche Triste. Under torture, by burning their feet with oil, Cuauhtémoc and the lord of Tacuba confessed to dumping his gold and jewels into the lake. Yet, little gold remained, as earlier, a fifth had been sent to Spain and another kept by Cortés. "In the end...the remaining gold all fell to the King's officials."

Cuauhtémoc was taken prisoner the same day, as related above, and remained the titular leader of Tenochtitlan, under the control of Cortés, until he was hanged for treason in 1525 while accompanying a Spanish expedition to Guatemala.

Casualties and atrocities

100,000 to 240,000 were killed in the campaign overall including warriors and civilians. As many as 40,000 Aztec bodies were floating in the canals or awaiting burial after the siege. Almost all of the Aztec nobility were dead, and the remaining survivors were mostly young women and very young children. At least 40,000 Aztec civilians were killed and captured.

After the Fall of Tenochtitlan the remaining Aztec warriors and civilians fled the city as the Spanish allies, primarily the Tlaxcalans, continued to attack even after the surrender, slaughtering thousands of the remaining civilians and looting the city. The Tlaxcalans did not spare women or children: they entered houses, stealing all precious things they found, raping and then killing women, stabbing children. The survivors marched out of the city for the next three days. One source claims 6,000 were massacred in the town of Ixtapalapa alone. Due to the wholesale slaughter after the campaign and the destruction of Aztec culture some sources such as Israel Charney, John C. Cox, and Norman Naimark have likened the siege to a genocide.

Although some reports put the number as low as forty, the Spanish lost over 100 soldiers in the siege, while thousands of Tlaxcalans perished. It is estimated that around 1,800 Spaniards died from all causes during the two-year campaign—from Veracruz to Tenochtitlan. (Thomas, pp. 528–29) The remaining Spanish forces consisted of 800–900 Spaniards, eighty horses, sixteen pieces of artillery, and Cortés' thirteen brigantines. Other sources estimate that around 860 Spanish soldiers and 20,000 Tlaxcalan warriors were killed during all the battles in this region from 1519 to 1521.

It is well accepted that Cortés' indigenous allies, which may have numbered as many as 200,000 over the three-year period of the conquest, were indispensable to his success.

See also
 History of Mexico
 History of the Aztecs
 Qualpopoca

Notes

References

Primary sources
 Cervantes de Salazar, Francisco. Crónica de la Nueva España. Madrid: Linkgua Ediciones, 2007.
 Hernán Cortés, Letters – available as Letters from Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden (1986)
 Francisco López de Gómara, Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things that have happened since they were acquired until the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New Spain
 Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain – available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517–1521

Secondary sources
 Sheppard, Si. Tenochtitlan 1519–21: Clash of Civilizations. Oxford: Osprey, 2018.
 Andrea, Alfred J. and James H. Overfield. The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume II. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005.
 Black, Jeremy, ed. World History Atlas. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2000.
 Gruzinski, Serge. The Aztecs: Rise and Fall of an Empire, "Abrams Discoveries" series. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992.
 Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. New York: Longman, 1994.
 Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. 2nd ed., Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006.
 Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico by Hugh Thomas (1993)
 Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire by Jon Manchip White (1971)
 History of the Conquest of Mexico. by William H. Prescott
 The Rain God cries over Mexico by László Passuth
 Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew Restall, Oxford University Press (2003)
 The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov (1996)
 "Hernando Cortés" by Fisher, M. & Richardson K.
 "Hernando Cortés" Crossroads Resource Online.
 "Hernando Cortés" by Jacobs, W.J., New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1974.
 "The World's Greatest Explorers: Hernando Cortés." Chicago, by Stein, R.C., Illinois: Chicago Press Inc. 1991.
 Davis, Paul K. (2003). "Besieged: 100 Great Sieges from Jericho to Sarajevo." Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes By William H. Prescott
 The Aztecs by Michael E. Smith (1996, 2003), Blackwell Publishing,
 Leibsohn, Dana, and Barbara E. Mundy, "The Political Force of Images," Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820 (2015). http://www.fordham.edu/vistas.

External links
 Hernando Cortes on the Web – web directory with thumbnail galleries
 Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)
 Conquistadors, with Michael Wood – website for 2001 PBS documentary
 Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center
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Genocide of indigenous peoples of North America
Genocides in North America
History of the Aztecs
Native American genocide
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Tenochtitlan

Fall of Tenochtitlan


Maharaja Ranjit Singh (13 November 1780 – 27 June 1839) was the founder of the Sikh Empire, which came to power in the Indian subcontinent from the 16th-19th century. This was based in the Punjab region, from around 1799 to 1849. The capital was at Lahore. Ranjit Singh first came to fame around the year 1798 when he took advantage of the Durrani Empire turmoil in the Punjab region and captured the city of Lahore expelling the Afghan Muslim army garrison in the city. He then expanded in the Punjab region destroying each and ever Afghan Empire garrison and conquered many cities through his most decorated general, Hari Singh Nalwa. At its height, the Sikh Empire stretched from Jamrud in the west, Amritsar in the east, Multan in the south and Srinagar in the north.

After Ranjit Singh's death, his successors were weak and divided and the entire Punjab region fell to the British East India Company, and was conquered by the British Empire later to become part of British India.

1780 births
1839 deaths
Indian monarchs
19th century in India
Punjabi people

Ranjit Singh


Moussa Diagana (M'Bout, 1946 – 2018) was a Mauritanian French language writer. He studied in Nouakchott, Tunisia and the Sorbonne and worked in Mali.

He died on the night of 15 January 2018.

Works
La Légende du Wagadu, vue par Sïa Yatabéré, 1988 (theatre)
Targuiya, 2001 (theatre)

External links
La Maison des auteurs

References

1946 births
2018 deaths
Ambassadors of Mauritania to Germany
Mauritanian male writers
Mauritanian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century dramatists and playwrights
21st-century dramatists and playwrights
Male dramatists and playwrights
People from Gorgol Region
20th-century male writers
21st-century male writers

Moussa Diagana


Milan Sáblík (; 14 March 1991 in Nové Město na Moravě) is a Czech former speedskater and the younger brother of Martina Sáblíková, the 2007 European Champion and double World Single Distances Champion. Martina Sáblíková and Milan Sáblík are a rare example of sister and brother both holding world records in the same sport at the same time; Martina holds the (senior) world records in the 5,000-m and 10,000-m events (both from March 2007), as well as in the 3,000m (March 2019), while Milan held the junior world record for the team pursuit with fellow Czech junior skaters Pavel Kulma and Zdeněk Haselberger between 2007 and 2010.

During the 2007 European Speed Skating Championships in Collalbo Sáblík impressed by skating the 5,000-m in less than seven minutes (6:59.98) at the age of fifteen. His four-year older sister Martina beat him by 1.53 seconds, however, when she won the women's 5,000-m.

At the end of the 2006–2007 season, Sáblík's personal bests were 38.53 (500-m), 1:56.54 (1,500-m), 6:59.98 (5,000-m) and 14:15.65 (10,000-m). This already made him, at the age of fifteen, the second best male Czech speedskater ever, on the all-time best Adelskalender list, after Miroslav Vtípil. (Pim Berkhout also had a better Adelskalender point-sum than Vtípil and Sáblík, but his 10,000 m time dates from the part of his career when he represented the Netherlands rather than the Czech Republic.)

The 2007–2008 season has started very well for Sáblík, who already before November 2007 managed to climb from rank 423 to rank 277 on the Adelskalender list, passing also Vtípil. TFurther improvements during the Salt Lake City, Calgary and Kolomna World Cup meets of November and December 2007 made him climb further, to rank 189. With his new Czech national records on the 5000-m he also surpassed his world champion and world record holder sister on that distance.

At the Calgary World Cup 18 November 2007, the Czech Republic entered a team with only juniors for the Team Pursuit event. They placed 13th in this competition, but their achieved result 3:55.26 secured Milan Sáblík, Pavel Kulma and Zdeněk Haselberger a Junior world record (the previous record 3:56.27 was set by the Dutch team Ted Jan Bloemen, Wouter Oude Heuvel, Boris Kusmirak in Erfurt 12 March 2006).

In 2013, Sablík ended his career in the sport.

References

External links
 Photos of Milan Sáblík

Czech male speed skaters
1991 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Nové Město na Moravě

Milan Sáblík


Rudyard Griffiths (born 1970) is a Canadian author, television broadcaster, and philanthropic adviser. He has been a columnist at the National Post, Toronto Star and The Hub  and a television anchor on CTV News Channel and the Business News Network. He is a senior fellow at the Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy where he chairs the Ontario 360 research initiative.

Education
Griffiths was educated at the University of Cambridge, Trinity College, and the University of Toronto, where he studied political theory.

Munk Debates
Rudyard Griffiths is the organizer and moderator of the Munk Debates. The semi-annual debates are a signature initiative of the Aurea Foundation and its founder industrialist Peter Munk. In 2015, Rudyard Griffiths moderated the first-ever Canadian election debate dedicated to foreign policy.

Rudyard Griffiths was the co-founder of the Dominion Institute; a national charity created in 1997 to promote history and civics education in Canadian high schools. He stepped down as executive director in July 2008. Following the 2009 merger of the Dominion Institute and the Historica Foundation to create Historica Canada, he was a board member of the combined organization until 2012. He is a founding director and member of the executive committee of the board of the Global Centre for Pluralism; an international initiative of the Aga Khan IV and the Government of Canada.

In 2006, Rudyard Griffiths was recognised by The Globe and Mail as one of Canada's top 40 under 40. He has edited various collections of essays on international, political, and historical themes and is the author of the bestselling book Who We Are: A Citizen's Manifesto (2009).

Bibliography
Editor, Great Questions of Canada, Stoddart, 2000
Contributor, Passages to Canada, Doubleday, 2001
Contributor, Story of a Nation, Doubleday, 2002
Editor, Lafontaine-Baldwin Lectures, Vol. I, Penguin, 2002
Contributor, Our Story, Doubleday, 2004
Co-author, Rare Courage, McClelland & Stewart, 2005
Editor, Lafontaine-Baldwin Lectures, Vol II, Penguin, 2006
Editor, Great Questions of Canada, 2nd Edition, Key Porter Books, 2007
Co-Editor, American Power: Potential and Limits in the 21st Century, Key Porter Books, 2007
Co-Editor, The Race to the White House, Key Porter Books, 2008
Editor, American Myths: What Canadians Think They Know About the U.S., Key Porter Books, 2008
Editor, Canada 2020: Twenty Leading Voices Imagine Canada's Future, Key Porter Books, 2008
Editor, 101 Things Canadians Should Know About Canada, Key Porter Books, 2008
Author, Who We Are: A Citizen's Manifesto, Douglas & McIntyre, 2009
Editor, The Munk Debates: Volume I, Anansi Books, 2010
Editor, Hitchens vs. Blair: The Munk Debate on Religion, Anansi Books, 2011
Co-Editor, The Munk Debate on China, Anansi Books, 2011
Co-Editor, The Munk Debate on The North American Economy, Anansi Books, 2012
Editor, The Munk Debate on Europe, Anansi Books, 2012
Editor, The Munk Debate on Iran, Anansi Books, 2013
Editor, The Munk Debate on Taxing the Wealthy, Anansi Books, 2013
Editor, The Munk Debate on Gender in the 21st Century, Anansi Books, 2013
Editor, The Munk Debate on State Surveillance, Anansi Books, 2014
Editor, The Munk Debate on Obama's Foreign Policy, Anansi Books, 2015
Editor, The Munk Debate on Putin's Russia, Anansi Books, 2015
Editor, The Munk Debate on Progress, Anansi Books, 2016

References

External links
Profile on the Munk Debates website

1970 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Toronto
University of Toronto alumni
Trinity College (Canada) alumni
Canadian male journalists
Journalists from Toronto
Canadian business and financial journalists
21st-century Canadian journalists

Rudyard Griffiths


ALARP ("as low as reasonably practicable"), or ALARA ("as low as reasonably achievable"), is a principle in the regulation and management of safety-critical and safety-involved systems. The principle is that the residual risk shall be reduced as far as reasonably practicable. In UK and NZ Health and Safety law, it is equivalent to SFAIRP ("so far as is reasonably practicable"). In the US, ALARA is used in the regulation of radiation risks.

For a risk to be ALARP, it must be possible to demonstrate that the cost involved in reducing the risk further would be grossly disproportionate to the benefit gained. Not to be confused with the ALARP program offered in many high schools, the ALARP principle arises from the fact that infinite time, effort and money could be spent in the attempt of reducing a risk to zero; not the fact that reducing the risk in half would require a finite time, effort and money. It should not be understood as simply a quantitative measure of benefit against detriment. It is more a best common practice of judgement of the balance of risk and societal benefit.

Factors
In this context, risk is the combination of the frequency (likelihood) and the consequence of a specified hazardous event.

Several factors are likely to be considered when deciding whether or not a risk has been reduced as far as reasonably practicable:
 Health and safety guidelines and codes of practice
 Manufacturer's specifications and recommendations
 Industry practice
 International standards and laws
 Suggestions from advisory bodies
 Comparison with similar hazardous events in other industries
 Cost of further measures would be disproportionate to the risk reduction they would achieve

Another factor is often the cost of assessing the improvement gained in an attempted risk reduction. In extremely complex systems, this can be very high, and could be the limiting factor in practicability of risk reduction, although according to UK HSE guidance, cost alone should never be a justification for taking extra safety risks.

Determining that a risk has been reduced to ALARP involves an assessment of the risk to be avoided, of the sacrifice (in money, time and trouble) involved in taking measures to avoid that risk, and a comparison of the two. This is a cost–benefit analysis (CBA). A difficulty arising in CBAs is assigning a meaningful and agreed financial value to human life. A CBA exercise, in the context of ALARP, must have a means of assigning financial values to impacts to the environment, physical assets, production stoppage, company reputation, etc., which also presents significant challenges to the analyst.

Origin in UK law
The term ALARP arises from UK legislation, particularly the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, which requires "Provision and maintenance of plant and systems of work that are, so far as is reasonably practicable, safe and without risks to health". The phrase So Far As is Reasonably Practicable (SFARP) in this and similar clauses is interpreted as leading to a requirement that risks must be reduced to a level that is As Low As is Reasonably Practicable (ALARP).

The key question in determining whether a risk is ALARP is the definition of reasonably practicable. This term has been enshrined in the UK case law since the case of Edwards v. National Coal Board in 1949. The ruling was that the risk must be significant in relation to the sacrifice (in terms of money, time or trouble) required to avert it: risks must be averted unless there is a gross disproportion between the costs and benefits of doing so.

Including gross disproportion means that an ALARP judgement in the UK is not a simple cost benefit analysis, but is weighted to favour carrying out the safety improvement. However, there is no broad consensus on the precise factor that would be appropriate: the HSE recommends that the bias towards safety "has to be argued in the light of all the circumstances applying to the case and the precautionary approach that these circumstances warrant".

Use outside the UK
The ALARP or ALARA principle is mandated by particular legislation in some countries outside the UK, including Australia, the Netherlands and Norway.  Where the ALARP principle is used, it may not have the same implications as in the UK, as "reasonably practicable" may be interpreted according to the local culture, without introducing the concept of gross disproportionality.

The term ALARA, or "as low as reasonably achievable" is used interchangeably in the United States of America. It is used in the field of radiation protection. Its application in the regulation of radiation risk in some areas has been challenged.

Starfish Medical, a company focusing on medical device contract manufacturing and product development, through the Medical Device Directive of Canada is undergoing extensive consideration of the transfer of ALARP to AFAP ("As Far As Possible") specifically for the regulation of risk of medical devices. The ALARP concept contains legal interpretation of the regulatory process that promotes financial consideration in higher regard than of the requirements of safety and performance of medical devices. Contradicting this approach, AFAP requires that all ventures of safety must be addressed in the intent of the consumer and effectiveness of the product rather than capital gain of the corporation. Under AFAP standards there are two defined justifications for the lack of implementation of risk-preventative measures. The first indicates that the additional risk control will not provide additional support for the system, such as an additional alarm when a previous alarm is functioning. The second states that a risk control system does not have to be implemented if there is a more effective risk control that can not be simultaneously executed due to various scenarios such as spatial boundaries. By implementing this new standard of risk mitigation, companies must demonstrate that they have considered and implemented all necessary means of addressing risk of a product or developed system.

In Australia the Work Health & Safety Act 2011 introduced the term So Far As Is Reasonably Practical (SFAIRP) based on the UK legislation.  In some industry sectors the term SFARIP has become the common usage and can be used interchangeably with ALARP, but some people believe that SFAIRP and ALARP are two different legal tests.

Legal challenge
A two-year legal battle in the European Court of Justice resulted in the SFAIRP principle being upheld on 18 January 2007.

The European Commission had claimed that the SFAIRP wording in the Health & Safety at Work Act did not fully implement the requirements of the Framework Directive. The Directive gives employers an absolute duty "to ensure the safety and health of workers in every aspect related to the work", whereas the Act qualifies the duty "So Far As is Reasonably Practicable". The court dismissed the action and ordered the commission to pay the UK's costs.

Had the case been upheld, it would have called into question the proportionate approach to safety risk management embodied in the ALARP principle.

Carrot diagrams

'Carrot diagrams' show high (normally unacceptable) risks at the upper/wider end and low (broadly acceptable) risks at the lower/narrower end, with a 'tolerable' or 'ALARP' in between. They were originally developed by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to illustrate their framework for the Tolerability of Risk (TOR), which set out the HSE's approach to regulating safety risks. While the ALARP principle applies at all levels of risk under UK health and safety law, the TOR framework captures the concept that some risks are too great to be acceptable, whatever the benefit; while others are so low as to be insignificant.  The HSE, as regulators, would not usually require further action to reduce these broadly acceptable risks unless reasonably practicable measures were available, although they would still take into account that duty holders must reduce risks wherever it is reasonably practicable to do so.  Between the two extremes, risks can be tolerated in order to secure benefits, so long as they have been risk assessed and are kept ALARP.

Carrot diagrams are sometimes known as 'ALARP Triangles'. However, this can be misleading because they illustrate the Tolerability of Risk framework rather than the ALARP principle itself, and can be misinterpreted as meaning either that ALARP legally applies only in the tolerable region, or that risks in tolerable region are automatically ALARP.

See also
 Value of life
 Safety integrity level

References

External links
UK Health and Safety Executive ALARP Suite of Guidance
UK Health and Safety Executive principles for Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) in support of ALARP decisions
UK Defence Standard 00-56 Safety Management Requirements

Safety
Process safety
Risk management

ALARP


The Buddy Holly Story, Vol. II is the fifth album released by Buddy Holly, a sequel compilation to The Buddy Holly Story (1959).  The second album to be released posthumously, it is also the first of a series of Buddy Holly albums to feature overdubbing of unfinished tracks, including Holly's last original compositions.

"Little Baby" was originally from Holly's eponymous solo album, "Now We're One" was originally the B-side to "Early in the Morning", and "Take Your Time" was the B-Side to "Rave On!". The remaining tracks were unfinished acoustic demos recorded by Holly in 1959 that were overdubbed by Jack Hansen. Three singles from these sessions were released; "Peggy Sue Got Married", "Learning the Game", and "That Makes it Tough". "Moondreams" was also previously unreleased.

Track listing

Charts

Album

References

External links

Buddy Holly compilation albums
1960 compilation albums
Coral Records albums
Albums produced by Norman Petty
Compilation albums published posthumously
Sequel albums

The Buddy Holly Story, Vol. 2


The Royal Johannesburg & Kensington Golf Club is a 36-hole golf complex located in Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa.

The resort opened in 1890 as the Royal Johannesburg Golf Club, and merged with the Kensington Golf Club in 1998.  It is part of the PGA Tour network of golf courses. The East Course has hosted the South African PGA Championship since 2005 and both the East and West, the Joburg Open since 2007, the biggest annual professional golf event in Africa; the 2012 field was the largest of the PGA European Tour season, with 210 players. It also has hosted the International Final Qualifier (Africa) for the Open Championship since 2009, the Sanlam Women's Amateur Golf Championships of South Africa in 2008, and the 5 Nations Commonwealth Tournament in 2007.

History
Founded on 6 November 1890, members of the Johannesburg Golf Club first began playing "behind Hospital Hill", in an area that later became known as Clarendon Circle and Empire Road. The club did not settle here, moving four times in the next 19 years, before settling in 1909 on the land it still occupies today.

The Club helped create the Transvaal Golf Union in 1908, and provided the first President of the South African Golf Union in 1910.

In 1930, the Prince of Wales (who later became King Edward VIII), played the West Course.  Six months later, he became the club's patron. In July 1931, King George V added the "Royal" prefix to the club's name.

Little is known about the original Kensington Golf Club that went out of business in 1918.  The later version of Kensington hosted a number of significant South African tournaments and competitions, particularly in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Kensington merged with Royal Johannesburg in 1998.

West Course
The West Course was designed in 1909 by Laurie Waters. In 1929, British architect Major Hotchkin made considerable changes to the course, with construction being carried out by club professional Robert Grimsdell.

The 4th hole is regarded as the signature hole.  A tributary of the Jukskei River sits at the front the green and is in play along the left hand side of the fairway. The hole is set against the scenic backdrop of Linksfield Ridge.

East Course
In 1933, the club owners decided to build a second course, which resulted in the purchase of a farm to the east of the club.  Grimsdell began designing the new course.  Within two years, Grimsdell had constructed 21 new holes, and both the East and West courses were in play. Grimsdell then began construction on a new clubhouse, placed centrally between the two courses. Construction was completed in March 1939. Golf course architect Mark Muller revamped the original construction in 1998.

The 10th and 11th holes are reputed to be the two longest back-to-back par fours in the world. The South African PGA Championship, Joburg Open, and International Final Qualifier (Africa) for the Open Championship all play on this course.

Holes and Yardages
 463 yards – par 5
 211 yards – par 3
 403 yards – par 4
 411 yards – par 4
 139 yards – par 3
 510 yards – par 5
 355 yards – par 4
 457 yards – par 5
 374 yards – par 4
Out: 3,543 yards – par 37
 450 yards – par 4
 423 yards – par 4
 168 yards – par 3
 361 yards – par 4
 367 yards – par 4
 386 yards – par 4
 152 yards – par 3
 348 yards – par 4
 464 yards – par 5
In: 3,397 yards- par 35

Total: 6,940 yards- par 72

Awards
The Royal became the first Audubon-certified golf course in South Africa, as it became a "Certified Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary" in 2005. The club also was the first member-owned club in South Africa to receive the Compleat Golfer 5 Star Golfing Experience Award, and has earned that same award three additional times since then.

In 2018 The East Championship Course received Africa's best course of the year and South Africa's best Course of the year by World Golf Awards.

See also
List of golf clubs granted Royal status

References

External links

Golf clubs and courses in South Africa
Sports venues in Johannesburg
Royal golf clubs


Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun (日刊工業新聞, The Daily Industrial News), one of the leading daily newspapers in Japan, specializes in business and industrial affairs, and is published by The Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun, Ltd. (Head Office: Tokyo, Japan). Circulation is around 420,000. The newspaper was inaugurated in 1915. It covers economic and industrial affairs in general, and affairs of specific industries such as automobile, electronics, telecommunication, information technologies, science, etc.

Apart from publishing newspapers, the company publishes numerous books and free papers (namely Metro-Guide), and organizes trade fairs (Automotive Parts Product Solution Fair / International Robot Exhibition / Pan-Exhibition for Wash and Clean etc.) and seminars. Among them, collaboration with United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) is a notable achievement. The two agencies jointly organized a seminar in June 2006, 2007 and 2008, namely "Global Auto Parts Business Seminar", for the purpose of further enhancing Japanese investment (especially auto-parts sector) at newly industrial states.

The newspaper concluded an alliance with Asahi Shimbun and Jiji Press in February 2008. Three companies start a new service on information search by internet from April 2008. Japanese name is "KIJISAKU". More than eight million articles and information of three media agencies are put in this service.

Further reading

External links
 Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun (in English)
Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun Business Line (in Japanese)
  Media Data of Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun (in English)
"Global Auto Parts Business Seminar" in June 2006 (in English)
Information Search Service "KIJISAKU" (Japanese only)

Daily newspapers published in Japan
Business newspapers
Newspapers published in Tokyo
1915 establishments in Japan
Newspapers established in 1915

Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun


Leader Drug Stores is a  network of over 3,100 independently owned and operated pharmacies. It has a business affiliation with Cardinal Health, which sponsors the network and owns the name "Leader Drug Stores". Cardinal Health also owns the franchise chain The Medicine Shoppe. It operates like a retailers' cooperative, though it is not owned by its members.

References

External links
 Leader Drug stores
 Cardinal Health's Leader page

Pharmacies of the United States
Retailers' cooperatives in the United States

Leader Drug Stores


The Bangkok Christian Hospital () is one of the oldest general hospitals in Bangkok, Thailand. Situated on Silom Road, Bang Rak District.

History
The first Christian missionaries arriving in Thailand in 19th century often combined preaching with medical help for local population. They considered medical healing as part of their mission, as Jesus had commanded them to "Heal the Sick".

In 1840 the Presbyterian Mission was established in Bangkok and expanded its offices over the country for evangelism together with the healing mission. Initially, clinics were set up which gradually developed into better equipped hospitals.

After the Second World War, the American Presbyterian Mission and the Church of Christ in Thailand purchased a land between Silom Road and Surawong Road with several wooden buildings. After renovation, the buildings were officially inaugurated as the Bangkok Christian Hospital in 1949.

A new Outpatient Department of the Hospital was opened in 1957 with dentistry, laboratory, and pharmacy facilities along with a chapel. A few years later, an operating building (1961) and the Inpatient Department (1965) was added.

In the 1970s, an office building in honour of the "Church of Christ in Thailand", was constructed on Surawong Road, and the 13-storey "Mo Bradley Building", named after the pioneer missionary and doctor Dr. Dan Beach Bradley in Thailand, was completed in 1981. The 17-storey "Mo Welles Building" was completed in 2006, named after the first director of the Hospital, Marshall Phillip Welles. It received hospital accreditation since 2013.

Mission
At present The Bangkok Christian Hospital has special centers (International Refractive Center, Skin care & laser Center, Health Screening Center, Dental Care Center) and specialized departments (internal medicine, ophthalmology, ear, nose and throat, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, orthopedics, surgery, radiology, anesthesiology).

Besides medical care it provides pastoral care with its same name division.

The hospital is considered to be good and much cheaper than other similar quality hospitals by the expatriate community in Thailand.

External links
Official page of the Bangkok Christian Hospital

References

Hospitals in Bangkok
Hospitals established in 1949
1949 establishments in Thailand
Private hospitals in Thailand
Bang Rak district

Bangkok Christian Hospital


Sverre Grette (31 May 1888 – 25 January 1959) was a Norwegian judge.

He was born in Kristiania. In 1920 he was hired as an assistant secretary (byråsjef) in the Norwegian Ministry of Justice. He became an acting Supreme Court Justice in 1930, and permanent judge in 1936. From 1952 to 1958 he served as its 14th Chief Justice. From 1945 to 1958 he also chaired the Directorate for Enemy Property (Norway).

References

1888 births
1959 deaths
Chief justices of Norway
Judges from Oslo

Sverre Grette


A walker (North American English) or walking frame (British English) is a device that gives support to maintain balance or stability while walking, most commonly due to age-related mobility disability, including frailty. Another common equivalent term for a walker is a Zimmer (frame), a genericised trademark from Zimmer Biomet, a major manufacturer of such devices and joint replacement parts. Walking frames have two front wheels, and there are also wheeled walkers available having three or four wheels, also known as rollators.

Walkers started appearing in the early 1950s. The first US patent was awarded in 1953 to William Cribbes Robb, of Stretford, UK, for a device called "walking aid", which had been filed with the British patent office in August 1949. Two variants with wheels were both awarded US patents in May 1957, and the first non-wheeled design that was called a "walker" was patented in 1965 by Elmer F. Ries of Cincinnati, Ohio. The first walker to resemble modern walkers was patented in 1970 by Alfred A. Smith of Van Nuys, California. In 2023, designs for the first open source walker were released after testing that could be digitally-replicated with a low-cost 3D printer, customized and reduced mass by 20%.

Design
The basic design consists of a lightweight frame that is about waist high, approximately 12 inches (30 cm) deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes such as pediatric (for children) or bariatric (for obese persons). Modern walkers are height adjustable and should be set at a height that is comfortable for the user, but will allow the user to maintain a slight bend in their arms. This bend is needed to allow for proper blood circulation through the arms as the walker is used. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached, depending on the strength and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front; additionally felt products adapted to glide with the legs such as adhesive feet, along with tennis balls with holes cut into them to place them onto the legs are also utilized on surfaces such as hardwood, epoxy and linoleum flooring common to institutions.

Use

The person walks with the frame surrounding their front and sides and their hands provide additional support by holding on to the top of the sides of the frame. Traditionally, a walker is picked up and placed a short distance ahead of the user. The user then walks to it and repeats the process. With the use of wheels and glides, the user may push the walker ahead as opposed to picking it up. This makes for easier use of the walker, as it does not require the user to use their arms to lift the walker. This is beneficial for those with little arm strength.

A walker is often used by those who are recuperating from leg or back injuries. It is also commonly used by persons having problems with walking or with mild balance problems.

Also related is a hemi-walker, a walker about half the size of a traditional walker which is intended for use by persons whose dexterity is limited or non-existent in one hand or arm. These walkers are more stable than a quad cane (a cane with four points that touch the ground, as opposed to one), but are not recommended as highly as a traditional walker for those who can use it.

Walker cane hybrid

A walker cane hybrid was introduced in 2012 designed to bridge the gap between an assistive cane and a walker. The hybrid has two legs which provide lateral (side-to-side) support which a cane does not. It can be used with two hands in front of the user, similar to a walker, and provides an increased level of support compared with a cane. It can be adjusted for use with either one or two hands, at the front and at the side, as well as a stair climbing assistant. The hybrid is not designed to replace a walker which normally has four legs and provides four-way support using both hands.

Rollators
A different approach to the walker is the rollator, also called wheeled walker, invented by the Swede Aina Wifalk in 1978. Wifalk had polio. Although originally a brand name, "rollator" has become a genericized trademark for wheeled walkers in many countries, and is also the most common type of walker in several European countries.

The rollator consists of a frame with three or four large wheels, handlebars and a built-in seat, which allows the user to stop and rest when needed. Rollators are also often equipped with a shopping basket. Rollators are typically more sophisticated than conventional walkers with wheels. They are adjustable in height and are light-weight, yet sturdier than conventional walkers. The handlebars are equipped with hand brakes that can be lifted or pushed downward to instantly stop the rollator. The brakes can also be used in maneuvering the rollator; by braking one side while turning the rollator towards that side a much tighter turning radius can be achieved.

A study in the 2000s found an increase in the use of rollators by young people "usually in their thirties who are setting a new standard for walking among young people". The researchers conclude that this might be helpful in alleviating the stigma that using a rollator currently carries.

A Norwegian-made version of Wifalk's rollator won the 2011 Red Dot Design Award in the "Life science and medicine" class.
The European norm for walking aids EN ISO 11199-2:2005 applies to rollators and walking frames.

Disabled dog walker
This type of walker provides support and stability to the dogs, while allowing them to rely partly on their hind legs and continue using them.
It is suitable for dogs with mobility problems with hind legs (or unstable). It also helps them to exercise their back legs and can help maintain any partial mobility they may have left or, in some cases, help to improve it.

See also
 Baby walker
 Assistive technology
 [ [dog walker] ]

References

External links

American Family Physician, August 15, 2011: Geriatric Assistive Devices Retrieved 2012-03-03
 Mayo Clinic - Slide show: Tips for choosing and using walkers Retrieved 2012-03-03
 Walker Facts - Canadian non-profit information website about walkers and rollators Retrieved 2012-03-03
 Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Vol 86, January 2005: Assistive Devices for Balance and Mobility Retrieved 2012-03-03

Mobility devices

Walker (mobility)


1541 was a common year.

Events
The first official translation of the entire Bible in Swedish
 February 12 – Pedro de Valdivia founds Santiago de Chile.
 May 8 – Hernando de Soto reaches the Mississippi River naming it Rio de Espiritu Santo.
 May 23 –  Jacques Cartier departs Saint-Malo France on his third voyage.
 July 9 – Estevão da Gama departs Massawa, leaving behind 400 matchlockmen and 150 slaves under his brother Christovão da Gama, with orders to assist the Emperor of Ethiopia defeat Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi who has invaded his Empire.
 August 29 – The Janissaries of Suleiman the Magnificent take Buda by ruse, hiding themselves as tourists.
 Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent seals off The Golden Gate in Jerusalem.
The Parliament of Ireland declares Henry VIII of England King of Ireland replacing the Lordship of Ireland with the Kingdom of Ireland.
 October – The unsuccessful Algerian campaign of Charles V of Spain Gabsurg

1541