Bowling is a target sport and recreational activity in which a player rolls a ball toward pins (in pin bowling) or another target (in target bowling). The term bowling usually refers to pin bowling (most commonly ten-pin bowling), though in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries, bowling could also refer to target bowling, such as lawn bowls.

In pin bowling, the goal is to knock over pins on a long playing surface known as a lane. Lanes have a wood or synthetic surface onto which protective lubricating oil is applied in different specified oil patterns that affect ball motion. A strike is achieved when all the pins are knocked down on the first roll, and a spare is achieved if all the pins are knocked over on a second roll. Common types of pin bowling include ten-pin, candlepin, duckpin, nine-pin, and five-pin. The historical game skittles is the forerunner of modern pin bowling.

In target bowling, the aim is usually to get the ball as close to a mark as possible.  The surface in target bowling may be grass, gravel, or synthetic.  Lawn bowls, bocce, carpet bowls, pétanque, and boules may have both indoor and outdoor varieties. Curling is also related to bowls.

Bowling is played by 120 million people in more than 90 countries (including 70 million people in the United States alone).

Variations
Bowling games can be distinguished into two general classes, pin bowling and target bowling.

Pin bowling

Five main variations are found in North America, with ten-pin being the most common but others being practiced in the eastern U.S. and in parts of Canada:
 Ten-pin bowling: largest and heaviest pins, and bowled with a large ball with two or three finger holes.
 Nine-pin bowling: uses a small ball without finger holes.
 Candlepin bowling: tallest pins (at ), thin with matching ends, bowled with the smallest and lightest (at ) handheld ball of any bowling sport, and the only form with no fallen pins removed during a frame.
 Duckpin bowling: short, squat, and bowled with a handheld ball.
 Five-pin bowling: tall, between duckpins and candlepins in diameter with a rubber girdle, bowled with a handheld ball, mostly found in Canada.

Target bowling

Another form of bowling is usually played outdoors on a lawn. At outdoor bowling, the players throw a ball, which is sometimes eccentrically weighted, in an attempt to put it closest to a designated point or slot in the bowling arena. (Ex: Bocce Ball, an Italian lawn game)

History

Ancient history

The earliest known forms of bowling date back to ancient Egypt, with wall drawings depicting bowling being found in a royal Egyptian tomb dated to 3200 BC and miniature pins and balls in an Egyptian child's grave about 3200 BC. Remnants of bowling balls were found among artifacts in ancient Egypt going back to the Egyptian protodynastic period in 3200 BC.  What is thought to be a child's game involving porphyry (stone) balls, a miniature trilithon, and nine breccia-veined alabaster vase-shaped figures—thought to resemble the more modern game of skittles—was found in Naqada, Egypt in 1895.

Balls were made using the husks of grains, covered in a material such as leather, and bound with string.  Other balls made of porcelain have also been found, indicating that these were rolled along the ground rather than thrown due to their size and weight. Some of these resemble the modern-day jack used in target bowl games. Bowling games of different forms are also noted by Herodotus as an invention of the Lydians in Asia Minor.

About 2,000 years ago, in the Roman Empire, a similar game evolved between Roman legionaries entailing the tossing of stone objects as close as possible to other stone objects, which eventually evolved into Italian Bocce, or outdoor bowling.

Around 400 AD, bowling began in Germany as a religious ritual to cleanse oneself from sin by rolling a rock into a club (kegel) representing the heathen, resulting in bowlers being called keglers.

Post-classical history
In 1299, the oldest-surviving known bowling green for target style bowling was built: Master's Close (now the Old Bowling Green of the Southampton Bowling Club) in Southampton, England, which is still in use.

In 1325, laws were passed in Berlin and Cologne that limited bets on lawn bowling to five shillings.

In 1366, the first official mention of bowling in England was made, when King Edward III banned it as a distraction to archery practice.

In the 15th–17th centuries, lawn bowling spread from Germany into Austria, Switzerland, and the Low Countries, with playing surfaces made of cinders or baked clay.

In 1455, lawn bowling lanes in London were first roofed-over, turning bowling into an all-weather game.  In Germany, they were called kegelbahns, and were often attached to taverns and guest houses.

In 1463, a public feast was held in Frankfurt, Germany, with a venison dinner followed by lawn bowling.

Modern history

In the 16th to 18th centuries

In 1511, English King Henry VIII was an avid bowler. He banned bowling for the lower classes and imposed a levy for private lanes to limit them to the wealthy.  Another English law, passed in 1541 (repealed in 1845), prohibited workers from bowling, except at Christmas, and only in their master's home and in his presence. In 1530, he acquired Whitehall Palace in central London as his new residence, having it extensively rebuilt complete with outdoor bowling lanes, indoor tennis court, jousting tiltyard, and cockfighting pit.

Protestant Reformation founder Martin Luther set the number of pins (which varied from 3 to 17) at nine. He had a bowling lane built next to his home for his children, sometimes rolling a ball himself.

On 19 July 1588, English Vice-Admiral Sir Francis Drake allegedly was playing bowls at Plymouth Hoe when the arrival of the Spanish Armada was announced, replying "We have time enough to finish the game and beat the Spaniards too."

In 1609, Dutch East India Company explorer Henry Hudson discovered Hudson Bay, bringing Dutch colonization to New Amsterdam (later New York); Hudson's men brought some form of lawn bowling with them.

In 1617, English King James I published Declaration of Sports, banning bowling on Sundays but permitting dancing and archery for those first attending an Anglican service, outraging Puritans; it was reissued in 1633 by his successor Charles I, then ordered publicly burned in 1643 by the Puritan Parliament.

In 1670, Dutchmen liked to bowl at the Old King's Arms Tavern near modern-day 2nd and Broadway in New York City.

In 1733, Bowling Green in New York City was built on the site of a Dutch cattle market and parade ground, becoming the city's oldest public park to survive to modern times.

In the 19th century

A circa 1810 painting of Ipswich, England shows a man bowling with a triangular formation of ten pins, before that variant of the sport is believed to have appeared in the United States. An 1828 auction notice, also in Ipswich, explicitly mentions "ten-pin and skittle grounds".

In 1819, New York writer Washington Irving made the first mention of ninepin bowling in American literature in his story "Rip Van Winkle".

Newspaper articles and advertisements at least as early as 1820 refer to "ten pin alleys", usually in the context of a side attraction to a main business or property as distinguished from dedicated "bowling alley" establishments as presently understood.

By the late 1830s, New York's Knickerbocker Hotel housed a bowling alley with three lanes.

In 1846, the oldest surviving bowling lanes in the United States were built as part of Roseland Cottage, the summer estate of Henry Chandler Bowen (1831–1896) in Woodstock, Connecticut. The lanes, now part of Historic New England's Roseland Cottage House Museum contain Gothic Revival architectural elements in keeping with the style of the entire estate.

In 1848, the Revolutions of 1848 resulted in accelerated German immigration to the U.S., reaching 5 million by 1900, bringing their love of beer and bowling with them; by the late 19th century they made New York City a center of bowling.

In 1848, the Scottish Bowling Association for lawn bowling was founded in Scotland by 200 clubs; it was dissolved then refounded in 1892.

In 1864, Glasgow cotton merchant William Wallace Mitchell (1803–1884) published Manual of Bowls Playing, which became a standard reference for lawn bowling in Scotland.

In 1875, the National Bowling Association (NBA) was founded by 27 local clubs in New York City to standardize rules for ten-pin bowling, setting the ball size and the distance between the foul line and the pins, but failing to agree on other rules; it was superseded in 1895 by the American Bowling Congress.

In 1880, Justin White of Worcester, Massachusetts, invented Candlepin Bowling.

In the 1880s, Brunswick Corporation (founded 1845) of Chicago, Illinois, maker of billiard tables began making bowling balls, pins, and wooden lanes to sell to taverns installing bowling alleys.

On 9 September 1895, the modern standardized rules for ten-pin bowling were established in New York City by the new American Bowling Congress (ABC) (later the United States Bowling Congress), who changed the scoring system from a maximum 200 points for 20 balls to a maximum 300 points for 12 balls, and set the maximum ball weight at , and pin distance at . The first ABC champion (1906–1921) was Jimmy Smith (1885–1948).  In 1927 Mrs. Floretta "Doty" McCutcheon (1888–1967) defeated Smith in an exhibition match, founding a school that taught 500,000 women how to bowl.  In 1993 women were allowed to join the ABC.  In 2005 the ABC merged with the Women's International Bowling Congress (WIBC) et al. to become the United States Bowling Congress (USBC).

In the early 1890s, Duckpin bowling was invented in Boston, Massachusetts, spreading to Baltimore, Maryland about 1899.

In the 20th century
In 1903, the English Bowling Association was founded by cricketer W. G. Grace. On 1 January 2008, it merged with the English Women's Bowling Association to become Bowls England.

In 1903, D. Peifer of Chicago, Illinois, invented a handicap method for bowling.

In 1905, Rubber Duckpin bowling was invented by Willam Wuerthele of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, catching on in Quebec, Canada.

The ABC initially used bowling balls made of Lignum vitae hardwood from the Caribbean, which were eventually supplanted by the "Evertrue" rubber bowling ball, and the Brunswick "Mineralite" rubber ball by 1905. Columbia Industries, founded in 1960, was the first manufacturer to successfully use polyester resin ("plastic") in bowling balls. In 1980, urethane-shell bowling balls were introduced by Ebonite.

Rules for target bowls evolved separately in each of the other countries that adopted the predominantly British game. In 1905, the International Bowling Board was formed; its constitution adopted the laws of the Scottish Bowling Association, with variations allowed at the individual country level.

In September 1907, the Victorian Ladies' Bowling Association was founded in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, becoming the world's first women's lawn bowling association.

In 1908, the now-oldest surviving bowling alley for the tenpin sport was opened in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the basement of the Holler House tavern, containing the oldest sanctioned lanes in the United States.

In 1909, the first ten-pin bowling alley in Europe was installed in Sweden, but the game failed to catch on in the rest of Europe until after World War II.  Meanwhile, ten-pin bowling caught on in Great Britain after hundreds of bowling lanes were installed on U.S. military bases during World War II.

In 1913, the monthly Bowlers Journal was founded in Chicago, Illinois, continuing to publish to the present day.

In late 1916, the Women's International Bowling Congress (originally the Woman's National Bowling Association) was founded in Saint Louis, Missouri, merging with the United States Bowling Congress in 2005.

In 1920–1933 Prohibition in the U.S. caused bowling alleys to disassociate from saloons, turning bowling into a family game and encouraging women bowlers.

On 2 October 1921, the annual Petersen Open Bowling Tournament (a.k.a. The Pete) was first held in Chicago, Illinois, becoming bowling's richest tournament of the day. In 1998, it was taken over by AMF.

In 1926, the International Bowling Association (IBA) was formed by the United States, Sweden, Germany, Netherlands, and Finland, holding four world championships by 1936.

On 21 March 1934, the National Bowling Writers Association was founded in Peoria, Illinois, by four bowling journalists; it changed its name in 1953 to the Bowling Writers Association of America.

In August 1939, the National Negro Bowling Association was founded in Detroit, Michigan, dropping Negro from the title in 1944 and opening membership to all races. It reached 30,000 members in 2007.

In 1942, the Bowling Proprietors Association of America (BPAA) held its first BPAA All-Star tournament.

In 1947, the Australian Women's Bowling Council was founded. It held the first Australian women's national lawn bowling championship in Sydney in 1949, which was won by Mrs. R. Cranley of Queensland.

On 18 April 1948, the Professional Women Bowling Writers (PWBW) was founded in Dallas, Texas, admitting men in 1975.  On 1 January 2007, it merged with the Bowling Writers Association of America.

In 1950, following extensive lobbying by civil rights groups in the wake of the 1947 integration of Major League Baseball, the American Bowling Congress opened its membership to African Americans and other minorities. The WIBC followed suit the following year.

About 1950, the Golden Age of Ten-Pin Bowling began, in which professional bowlers made salaries rivaling those of baseball, football, and hockey players; this ended in the late 1970s.

In 1951, the first ABC Masters tournament was held, becoming one of the four majors by 2000.

In 1952, the Fédération Internationale des Quilleurs (FIQ) was founded in Hamburg, Germany, to coordinate international amateur competition in nine-pin and ten-pin bowling.  In 1954, the first FIQ World Bowling Championships were held in Helsinki, Finland.  In 1979, the International Olympic Committee recognized it as the official world governing body for bowling.  Its name changed to World Bowling in 2014 and International Bowling Federation in 2020.

In 1952, American Machine and Foundry (AMF) of Brooklyn, New York, began marketing automatic Pinsetter machines. This eliminated the need for pinboys and caused bowling to rocket in popularity, making the 1950s the Decade of the Bowler.

In 1954, Steve Nagy (1913–1966) became the first person to bowl a perfect 300 game on TV on NBC-TV's "Championship Bowling".  The PBA later named its sportsmanship award after him.

In 1958, the Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) was founded in Akron, Ohio by 33 prominent bowlers (including Don Carter, Dick Weber, Dick Hoover, Buzz Fazio, Billy Welu, Carmen Salvino and Glenn Allison) after they listened to a presentation by sports agent Eddie Elias. The PBA eventually reached about 4,300 members in 14 countries worldwide.  In 1975, Earl Anthony became the first PBA member with $100,000 yearly earnings, and the first to reach $1,000,000 total earnings in 1982.  In 2000, it was purchased by former executives of Microsoft, who moved the PBA headquarters to Seattle, Washington.

On 28 November 1960, the first PBA Championship in Memphis, Tennessee was won by Don Carter.  It was renamed the PBA World Championship in 2002, and now awarded the Earl Anthony Trophy to the winner.

In 1960, the Professional Women's Bowling Association (PWBA) was founded as the first professional women's bowling association; it went defunct in 2003.

In 1960, the National Bowling League (NBL) was founded to compete with the PBA. It attracted name players such as Billy Welu and Buzz Fazio, but failed to sign top star Don Carter. The league's failure to get a TV contract caused it to fold following its first championship in 1962.

On 26 May 1961 the British Tenpin Bowling Association (BTBA) was formed. Their first General Secretary was Maurice Glazer.

On 27 January 1962, ABC Television aired its first Saturday afternoon broadcast of a PBA Tour event, the Empire State Open held at Redwood Lanes in Albany, New York, beginning a partnership between ABC and the PBA that lasted through 1997. The Saturday afternoon bowling telecasts garnered very good ratings through the early 1980s, until the cable television-fueled explosion of sports viewing choices caused ratings to decline.

In 1962, the first PBA Tournament of Champions was held; it became an annual event in 1965, and was sponsored by Firestone Tire from 1965 through 1993.

In 1962, the American Wheelchair Bowling Association (AWBA) was founded in Louisville, Kentucky, by Richard F. Carlson.

On 28 June 1963, The first British made tenpin was by H Massil and sons who received the permit no.1 from the British Tenpin Bowling Association (BTBA)

Between 3 and 10 November 1963, the Fifth FIQ World Bowling Championships in Mexico City, Mexico, were attended by 132 men and 45 women (first time) from 19 nations. It featured the debut of Team USA, which won seven of the eight gold medals.

On 25 November 1963, Sports Illustrated published the article "A Guy Named Smith Is Striking It Rich", revealing that PBA stars made more money than other professional sports stars, for "with more than $1 million in prizes to shoot for, the nation's top professional bowlers are rolling in money." This was short-lived, however, for although the number of bowling alleys in the U.S. zoomed from 65,000 in 1957 to 160,000 in 1962, the U.S. bowling industry boom hit a brick wall in 1963. This was compensated, however, by a new boom in Europe and Japan, making 10-pin bowling an international sport.

In 1964, "Mr. Bowling" Don Carter became the first athlete to sign a $1 million endorsement contract: a multi-year deal with Ebonite International.

In 1964, Marion Ladewig, a nine-time winner of the Bowling Writers Association of America's Female Bowler of the Year Award, became the first Superior Performance inductee into the WIBC Hall of Fame.

In 1965, the AMF Bowling World Cup was established by the FIQ.

On 27 January 1967, the Japan Professional Bowling Association (JPBA) was founded in Tokyo, Japan.

In 1971, the BPAA All-Star tournament was renamed the BPAA U.S. Open, and officially became one of the PBA's major tournaments.

In 1978, National Negro Bowling Association pioneer J. Elmer Reed (1903–1983) became the first African-American to be inducted into the ABC Hall of Fame.

On 16 December 1979, Willie Willis won the Brunswick National Resident Pro Tournament in Charlotte, North Carolina, becoming the first African-American bowling champion in the PBA in a non-touring event. In 1980, he became the first African-American in the Firestone Tournament of Champions, placing 13th.

On 27 February 1982, Earl Anthony won the Toledo Trust PBA National Championship, becoming the first bowler to reach $1 million in career earnings.

In 1982, the Young American Bowling Alliance was formed from a merger of the American Junior Bowling Congress, the Youth Bowling Association, and the collegiate divisions of the ABC and WIBC.

In 1982, the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane, Australia, added women's bowls to the events.

On 1 July 1982, former PBA pro Glenn Allison rolled the first 900 series (three consecutive 300 games in a three-game set) to ever be submitted to the ABC for award consideration. The ABC, however, refused to certify the score, citing non-complying lane conditions.

On 22 November 1986, George Branham III (born 1962) became the first African-American to win a PBA national touring event: the Brunswick Memorial World Open in Chicago, Illinois.

On 18 September 1988, the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, featured ten-pin bowling as a demonstration sport.

On 2 August 1991, in Havana, Cuba, tenpin bowling became an international medal-level sport for the first time at the 1991 Pan American Games, and continues to this day.

In the 1992–1993 season, the ABC introduced resin bowling balls, causing perfect 300 scores to increase by 20%.

In 1995, the first Best Bowler ESPY Award was presented.

In 1995, the National Bowling Stadium opened in Reno, Nevada, becoming known as the Taj Mahal of Tenpins.

On 2 February 1997, Jeremy Sonnenfeld (born 1975) bowled the first officially sanctioned 900 series of three straight perfect 300 games at Sun Valley Lanes in Lincoln, Nebraska, becoming known as "Mr. 900".

In 1998, the World Tenpin Masters 10-pin bowling tournament was established.

In 2000, the Weber Cup, named after Dick Weber, was established as 10-pin bowling's equivalent to golf's Ryder Cup, with Team USA playing Team Europe in a three-day match.

In the 21st century

On 31 March 2004, Missy Bellinder (born 1981) (later Parkin) became the first female member of the PBA. The PBA had opened up its membership to women following the 2003 demise of the PWBA. One year later, Liz Johnson became the first woman to make the televised final round of a PBA Tour event.

In 2004, the Brunswick Euro Challenge was founded for amateur and pro 10-pin bowling players from Europe, Asia, and the U.S.

On 24 January 2010, Kelly Kulick (born 1977) became the first woman to win the PBA Tournament of Champions and the first woman to win a PBA national tour event.

In November 2012, after league bowling dropped from 80% to 20% of their business, AMF Bowling Centers of Richmond, Virginia filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy for the second time (first in 2001), merging in 2013 with upscale New York-based bowling center operator Bowlmor (which did not support league bowling) in an attempt to turn league bowling around, growing from 276 centers in 2013 to 315 in 2015.

In 2013, the PBA League was founded, composed of eight permanent five-person teams, with an annual draft.

In 2015, the Professional Women's Bowling Association (PWBA) was revived after a 12-year hiatus.

Equipment

Ball

Bowling balls vary, depending on the type of bowling. Ten-pin balls are about  in diameter, typically have three holes, and weigh from . The size and spacing of the finger holes on non-customized balls are generally smaller on lighter balls to accommodate smaller hands. Modern resin covers (surfaces) available since the early 1990s enhance a ball's hook (curve) potential, and the shape of the balls' cores (pictured) permit fine-tuning of desired ball paths. In contrast, traditional plastic balls are suitable for straighter shots. Duckpin and candlepin balls fit in the palm of the hand, and have no holes.

Pins

Bowling pins are the target of the bowling ball in pin bowling variations. The size and shape of pins vary but are generally cylindrical and widens where the ball strikes the pin. Ten-pin bowling pins are the largest and heaviest, weighing . Duckpins are shorter and squatter than standard tenpins and candlepins are the tallest at , but only  wide and  in weight.

Bowling pins are constructed by gluing blocks of rock maple wood into the approximate shape, and then turning on a lathe. After the lathe shapes the pin, it is coated with a plastic material, painted, and covered with a glossy finish. Because of the scarcity of suitable wood, bowling pins can be made from approved synthetics. Currently there are synthetic pins sanctioned for play in five-pin, duckpin, and candlepin. There is one synthetic ten-pin model approved by the USBC. When hit by the ball, synthetic pins usually sound different from wooden pins.

The USBC indicated that, effective August 1, 2023, it is certifying string pinsetters and string pin bowling as an independent category of equipment and competition separate from conventional free-fall pinsetters. USBC lab data indicated strike percentage on string pin bowling is 7.1% lower, causing the USBC to plan additional testing to determine whether a scoring conversion should be created between the categories. String pinsetters are less expensive and easier to maintain, motivating bowling centers to phase them in.

Shoes

The sole of the non-sliding foot is generally made of rubber for traction, while the sliding foot's sole is made of a smooth material allowing a smooth slide into the release. Bowling shoes can be bought, and may be rented from bowling centers. Wet or dirty soles may not slide properly and could damage the approach surface.

Scoring

In ten-pin bowling there are 10 frames per game. A strike occurs when all 10 pins are knocked down on a bowler's first roll. A spare occurs when there are pins standing after the first roll, and the bowler knocks down the rest of the pins on the second roll. A spare gives the bowler an amount of "bonus pins" equal to the next roll, and a strike gives the bowler an amount of bonus pins equal to the sum of the next two rolls. A perfect game occurs when a bowler gets twelve strikes in a row.

Accessibility
Technological innovation has made bowling accessible to members of the disabled community.
 The IKAN Bowler, a device designed by a quadriplegic engineer named Bill Miller, attaches to a wheelchair and allows the user to control the speed, direction, and timing of the ten-pin bowling ball's release. The name comes from the Greek work , which means "capable" or "enable".
 For bowls the sport has introduced a number of innovations to enable people with a disability to participate at all levels of the sport, from social through to Olympic standards:
 The use of bowling arms and lifters enables bowlers to deliver a bowl minimising the amount of movement required
 Wheelchair and green manufacturers have produced modified wheel tyres and ramps to enable wheelchair athletes to access bowls greens
 Modified conditions of play as outlined in Disability classification in lawn bowls

In popular culture

With notable individuals

U.S. Presidents

 In 1948, two bowling lanes were installed in the ground floor of the West Wing of the U.S. presidential residence, the White House, as a birthday gift for then-President Harry S. Truman. The lanes were moved to the Old Executive Office Building (now the Eisenhower Executive Office Building) in 1955, for the benefit of White House employees; its old location became a mimeograph room, and, much later, the White House Situation Room. On 9 July 2014, the General Services Administration published, then quickly withdrew, a solicitation for bids to replace the Truman bowling lanes, which were deemed "irreparable" for not having had "any professional, industry standard maintenance, modifications, repairs or attention" for fifteen years.
 In 1969, friends of then-President Richard M. Nixon, who was said to be an avid bowler, had a one-lane alley built in an underground space below the building's North Portico. The one-lane bowling alley underwent major renovations in 1994, and again in 2019.

Paintings
 A painting (shown above) that dates from around 1810 shows British bowlers in Ipswich, England, playing the sport outdoors in the earliest known pictorial depiction of "ten-pin bowling" of any type, chronologically before ten-pin bowling was clearly documented in the United States.
 On 28 January 1950, the painting Bowling Strike by George Hughes (1907–1989) appeared on the cover of the Saturday Evening Post.
 In 1982, American expressionist painter LeRoy Neiman produced a famous painting of PBA star Earl Anthony's million dollar strike.

Informal usage
 Children afraid of thunderstorms are told that thunder is God bowling.

See also

References
Notes

External links

 "Bowling History", The Historyscoper

Throwing sports
Precision sports
Individual sports
Team sports
Ball games
Throwing games
Articles containing video clips
Egyptian inventions

Bowling


Discovery is an American television program, produced by ABC News, that was geared towards children and teenagers. The program began on October 1, 1962 as a weekday afternoon series. In September 1963, the show was moved to midday Sunday, and remained there until it was canceled in September 1971.

Overview
The program was hosted by actor/announcer Frank Buxton and actress/vocalist Virginia Gibson. The show's original studio announcer was ABC staff announcer Bill Owen, who replaced Buxton as host in 1966, continuing through 1971. The episodes hosted by Buxton were mostly studio productions, video taped in black-and-white with occasional out of studio segments shot on 16mm film. Beginning with Owen, the episodes were shot in color, and involved much travel to on-site locations around the world. The actual on-air title of the series was named according to each year it was produced, beginning with Discovery '62 and ending with Discovery '71 (syndicated reruns only had the title Discovery).

The show's executive producer was Jules Power, the former co-producer of NBC's Mr. Wizard. The Discovery format originally had Buxton and Gibson (joined by a hound dog named Corpuscle) in studio, exploring various topics in science, culture, history and the arts, often with special in-studio guests. Later seasons of the show had Buxton and Gibson (and later Owen and Gibson, and sometimes either one alone) traveling on location (without Corpuscle) to different destinations around the globe in a documentary format.

Discovery was cancelled in 1971 and replaced by another ABC News production, Make a Wish, which in turn was replaced by Animals, Animals, Animals,  broadcast from 1976 to 1981.

Accolades
Discovery was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program several times, winning in 1964.

References

External links

1960s American children's television series
1970s American children's television series
1962 American television series debuts
1971 American television series endings
ABC News
American Broadcasting Company original programming
American children's education television series

Discovery (American TV series)


Pioneerof  the Nile (May 5, 2006 – March 18, 2019) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse. He was  the second-place finisher in the 2009 Kentucky Derby. He matured to stand 16.2 hands.

After retiring from racing, he became a breeding stallion, known for as the sire of 2015 Triple Crown winner American Pharoah, 2016 Champion 2-Year-Old Colt Classic Empire, and other graded-stakes winners.

He died of a heart attack on March 18, 2019 while being transported to a veterinarian near Versailles, Kentucky, aged 12.

References

2006 births
2019 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Thoroughbred racehorses

Pioneerof the Nile


Sir David Laidlaw Knox (born 30 May 1933) is a British Conservative Party politician and former Member of Parliament.

Parliamentary career
Knox first sought election for Birmingham Stechford at the 1964 and 1966 elections, but was beaten by the Labour Cabinet Minister Roy Jenkins on each occasion. In 1967, he was the Conservative candidate in a by-election at Nuneaton caused by the resignation of Frank Cousins, but he was defeated by Les Huckfield.

He was elected Conservative MP for Leek, Staffordshire from 1970 to 1983, and for Staffordshire Moorlands from 1983 to 1997, when he retired.

Knox, once in Parliament, joined what was to become the Macleod Group led by Nicholas Scott that was considered to be for Conservative MPs that were pro-European and progressive on social issues and he was noted as strongly supporting Britain's entry to the EEC. Knox protested against a decision to allow the Palestine Liberation Organization to open an office in London. He supported the abolition of capital punishment. In 1973, Knox was appointed Parliamentary Private Secretary to Ian Gilmour, then Minister of State for Defence.

Knox was appointed one of three vice-chairmen of the Conservative Party under the chairman Willie Whitelaw in 1974. He also became President of the Macleod Group, and in that position issued a statement in January 1975 supporting Edward Heath as Conservative leader. His open support for Heath probably led to his dismissal as vice-chairman in March by new leader Margaret Thatcher. In September 1975, after the Macleod Group merged with two other 'left-wing' Tory groups in June to form the Tory Reform Group, Knox became its vice-president with Nicholas Scott. Knox also became chairmen of the Parliamentary Group for World Government. In December, he voted against the return of capital punishment, unlike his new leader, who voted for its return.

On the issue of Scottish devolution Knox clashed with the Conservative Shadow Cabinet. Knox argued that "meaningful devolution of political power for Scotland" was necessary now to avoid Scots feeling the need to vote for separatist parties. By this, he meant that the body needed to have legislative powers. This ran counter to Francis Pym, who was opposition spokesman for devolution at the time, whose policy was to form a constitutional body that had neither legislative or executive powers. In February 1978 he broke from the Tory ranks and voted with the Labour Government and for the Scotland Bill.

Honours
Knox was knighted in the 1993 Birthday Honours.

References

"Times Guide to the House of Commons", Times Newspapers Limited, 1992

External links

1933 births
Living people
Alumni of University of London Worldwide
Alumni of the University of London
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Knights Bachelor
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
Politicians of the Pro-Euro Conservative Party

David Knox (politician)


Maria of Antioch (1145–1182) was a Byzantine empress by marriage to Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, and regent during the minority of her son porphyrogennetos  Alexios II Komnenos from 1180 until 1182.

Life
Maria of Antioch was the daughter of Constance of Antioch and her first husband Raymond of Poitiers.

In 1160, Maria's stepfather Raynald of Châtillon was taken prisoner by Maj al-Dīn, the ruler of Aleppo and an ally of Nūr al-Dīn. Her mother claimed the Principality of Antioch for herself, but the nobles supported her son, Maria's brother Bohemund III. King Baldwin III of Jerusalem set Bohemund III up as prince and appointed as regent the rich and worldly Aimery of Limoges, Latin Patriarch of Antioch and an old opponent of Raynald. Constance protested this decision in Constantinople at the court of the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos, the nominal overlord of Antioch.

Empress
At the end of 1159, Manuel's wife Empress Irene (originally named Bertha of Sulzbach) had died, and Manuel wanted to marry a princess from one of the Crusader states. John Kontostephanos, the chief dragoman (interpreter) Theophylact, and the akolouthos of the Varangian Guard Basil Kamateros were sent to Jerusalem to seek a new wife, and the two princesses Maria of Antioch and Melisende of Tripoli, a daughter of Count Raymond II of Tripoli by Hodierna of Jerusalem, were offered as candidates. Both were renowned for their beauty, but according to John Kinnamos Maria was the more beautiful of the two; the tall, blonde-haired princess clearly showed her Norman ancestry. King Baldwin III suggested Melisende, and her brother Count Raymond III of Tripoli set about gathering an enormous dowry, with gifts from Hodierna and from Melisende's namesake, her aunt Queen Melisende. The ambassadors were not satisfied and delayed the marriage for over a year; they had apparently heard rumours concerning Hodierna's infidelity and therefore Melisende's possible legitimacy. Instead, Manuel chose Maria. Count Raymond was insulted and in retaliation attacked Byzantine Cyprus.

Meanwhile, an imperial embassy led by Alexios Bryennios Komnenos and the prefect of Constantinople, John Kamateros, came to Antioch to negotiate the marriage. Maria embarked from the port of St. Simeon for Constantinople in September 1161, and the marriage took place in Hagia Sophia on December 24. Three patriarchs performed the marriage: Luke Chrysoberges, Patriarch of Constantinople; Sophronios, Greek Patriarch of Alexandria, and Athanasios I, Greek Patriarch of Antioch. The marriage was celebrated with feasts, gifts to the church, and chariot races in the Hippodrome for the people. This strengthened the connection of Antioch to the Byzantine Empire. The marriage also strengthened the position of Maria's mother Constance, who now held the regency of Antioch. According to Niketas Choniates, Maria

"...was like unto the laughter-loving, golden Aphrodite, the white-armed and ox-eyed Hera, the long-necked and beautiful ankled Laconian, whom the ancients deified for their beauty, and all the rest of the beauties whose good looks have been preserved in distinguished books and histories."

For several years, Maria was childless. In 1166 she miscarried a son, considered a tragedy by her husband and the population. In 1169 Maria finally gave birth to a son, the future emperor Alexios II Komnenos. She played a role in the political and diplomatic life of Constantinople. French being her mother tongue, she was able to observe the double-dealing of the hypoboleus (court interpreter) Aaron Isaakios, who was quietly advising Westerners not to pay too much for the Emperor's favour. As a result, Manuel had Aaron blinded.

Regency
After the death of Manuel in 1180, Maria officially became a nun with the name "Xene" (translated foreigner), but in reality she acted as regent for their son Alexios II. Despite being a nun she had many ambitious suitors, but she chose another Alexios, the prōtosebastos and prōtovestiarios, a nephew of Manuel and uncle of Maria Komnene, former queen of Jerusalem, as an advisor and lover, causing a scandal among the Greek population. As a Westerner who favoured the Italian merchants, Maria was opposed by the Greeks, and her regency was widely considered incompetent.

The leaders of the opposition were her stepdaughter, the porphyrogenita Maria Komnene and her husband, the Caesar Renier of Montferrat, though himself a fellow Latin. The porphyrogenita Maria may have considered herself the rightful heir, as the elder child of Manuel; she was almost as old as her stepmother Maria. Maria and Renier gained the support of the Patriarch Theodosius I and used Hagia Sophia as a base of operations. Alexios had the patriarch arrested, leading to open warfare on the streets of Constantinople.

Execution
Manuel's cousin Andronikos Komnenos, who had been exiled during Manuel's reign, was invited back by the porphyrogenita Maria, and marched on Constantinople in 1182. He provoked the citizens into a massacre of the Latin inhabitants, mostly Venetian and Genoese merchants.

After gaining control of the city, he had the Porphyrogenita and Renier poisoned, and then had Empress Maria arrested and imprisoned in the monastery of St. Diomedes or in a prison nearby. The empress tried to seek help from her brother-in-law King Béla III of Hungary, to no avail. Andronikos had Alexios II sign the order for his mother's execution, and appointed his own son Manuel and the sebastos George to execute her, but they refused. Instead, according to Niketas, Maria was strangled by the hetaireiarches Constantine Tripsychos and the eunuch Pterygeonites, and buried in an unmarked grave on a nearby beach.

Presumably owing to the secrecy surrounding her death, alternative versions of her death circulated, such as that she was tied up in a sack and drowned. Andronikos had himself crowned co-emperor, but Alexios II was soon murdered as well, and Andronikos took full control of the empire. Sometime later Andronikos also defaced or destroyed most images of Maria in Constantinople.

References

Bibliography

Lynda Garland, Byzantine Empresses: Woman and Power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204. Routledge, 1999.
Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, Vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press, 1952.
Warren Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press, 1997.
O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs, trans. Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1984.
John Cinnamus, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, trans. Charles M. Brand. Columbia University Press, 1976.
William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey. Columbia University Press, 1943.

1145 births
1182 deaths
12th-century Byzantine empresses
12th-century regents
People from Antioch
House of Poitiers
Komnenos dynasty
Women from the Crusader states
Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Roman Catholicism
Murdered royalty
Manuel I Komnenos
Executed Byzantine people
12th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire
People executed by strangulation
Executed women
Executed royalty
12th-century women rulers
Mothers of Byzantine emperors
Byzantine regents

Maria of Antioch


Revamp may refer to:

Changes
Revamp, informal term for maintenance, repair, and operations
Revamp, informal term for editing of natural-language text
Revamp (gaming), informal term for boost or renovation of a game's UI, system stats, items, rules, etc. and vice versa. Also known as buffing.

Music
ReVamp, a progressive metal band founded by Floor Jansen, after the split up of After Forever, her former band
ReVamp (album), the self-titled debut album from the band above
Revamp, a tribute album to Elton John and Bernie Taupin

Revamp


Frederik Louis Wilhelm Hellesen (2 February 1836 – 22 December 1892) was a Danish inventor and industrialist. In 1887 he designed what is thought to be the first dry cell battery based on the Leclanché cell design. The same year he founded the company W. Hellesen In 1889 he sold his first batteries to the Danish Telephone Company. The same year a young chemist Valdemar Ludvigsen (1861–1939) came to the factory helping by the further development of the batteries. When Frederik Hellesen died in 1892 his widow took over the company with the help of Ludvigsen. In 1906 V. Ludvigsen became the sole owner of the factory with the name A/S Hellesens Enke & V. Ludvigsen. (later known as A/S Tudor-Hellesens, A/S Hellesens, and GN Hellesens), now defunct. Today the Hellesens brand name is owned by Duracell. In 1992 the Danish company was sold to GP Batteries International in Singapore belonging to Gold Peak Industries Ltd. Hong Kong.  In 2005 the last factory in Thisted was closed and all machinery were shipped to a new factory in Malaysia.

External links
 The Technical Museum, Denmark (in Danish)

Notes and references

19th-century Danish inventors
1836 births
1892 deaths
People from Kalundborg

Wilhelm Hellesen


The New Lassie is an American children and family oriented drama series which aired in first-run syndication from September 8, 1989 to February 15, 1992. The series stars Will Estes (then using his real name of Will Nipper) as Will McCullough, Lassie's new master.  Real life husband and wife Christopher and Dee Wallace-Stone co-starred as Will's parents.

The New Lassie is essentially a sequel to the 1954 series, and was the latest in the line of works featuring the Lassie character, which debuted in the 1943 film Lassie Come Home, followed by several more movies and the aforementioned television series, which ran from 1954 to 1973.

Synopsis
The series centers on the McCulloughs, a middle-class family living in suburban Glen Ridge, California.  The McCulloughs are the owners of the then-present-day descendant of Lassie.  Real life spouses Christopher and Dee Wallace-Stone played Chris and Dee McCullough, with Will Estes (credited by his given name of Will Nipper) and Wendy Cox appearing as their young son Will and teenage daughter Megan respectively.

Jon Provost, who starred in the original Lassie series, portrayed Chris' brother Steve McCullough who was revealed in a later episode to be the adult Timmy Martin in an episode guest-starring June Lockhart in a reprisal of her role as Timmy's foster mother Ruth Martin.  In the episode titled "Roots", Timmy reveals that he was never officially adopted by the Martins, and thus couldn't go with them to Australia when they moved there (at the beginning of season 11 of the original Lassie series).  Subsequently, he was later adopted by the McCullough family, and began going by his middle name of Steven (Steve).

Cast
 Will Nipper as Will McCullough
 Christopher Stone as Chris McCullough
 Dee Wallace-Stone as Dee McCullough
 Wendy Cox as Megan McCullough
 Jon Provost as Timmy Martin/Steve McCullough

Guest stars
Guest stars with a Lassie past included Roddy McDowall, who had starred in the first movie Lassie Come Home (1943) and Tommy Rettig, who had played Jeff Miller in the early years of the original television series (later syndicated as Jeff's Collie). Other guest stars included Leonardo DiCaprio and Todd Bridges.

Episodes

Season 1 (1989–90)

Season 2 (1991–92)

Production notes
The collie featured in The New Lassie was a fifth generation of Lassie. The dog was trained by Robert Weatherwax, the son of Rudd Weatherwax who trained the original Lassie. Robert was assisted by his only son Robert Jr.

Syndication
After its cancellation, reruns of The New Lassie aired on TV Land Canada in 2007.

References

External links

1989 American television series debuts
1992 American television series endings
1980s American drama television series
1990s American drama television series
1980s American children's television series
1990s American children's television series
American sequel television series
English-language television shows
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Lassie television series
Television series about families
Television series by Universal Television
Television shows about dogs
Television shows set in California

The New Lassie


Malchijah (Hebrew: מַלְכִּיָּה, also Malkijah, Malchiah, Melchiah, or Melchias) is a biblical name belonging to several persons mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and means "Yahweh is King" or "the king is Yahweh".

In 1 Chronicles
The first Malchijah mentioned in the Bible was a priest of ancient Israel after the order of Aaron, during the reign of King David in the 10th century BC. Malchijah led the fifth of the 24 priestly divisions. The biblical passage of 1 Chronicles 24 documents the division of the priests during the reign of King David. These priests were all descendants of Aaron, who had four sons: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar. However, Nadab and Abihu died before Aaron and only Eleazar and Ithamar had sons. One priest, Zadok, from Eleazar's descendants and another priest, Ahimelech, from Ithamar's descendants were designated to help create the various priestly orders. Sixteen of Eleazar's descendants were selected to head priestly orders while only eight of Ithamar's descendants were so chosen. The passage states that this was done because of the greater number of leaders among Eleazar's descendants. Lots were drawn to designate the order of ministering for the heads of the priestly orders when they entered the temple. Since each order was responsible for ministering during a different week, Malchijah's order was stationed as a watch at the Tabernacle during the fifth week of the year on the Hebrew calendar.

In Nehemiah

Persons with the name of Malchijah are also mentioned in Nehemiah.  Malchijah, the son of Harim, is mentioned in Nehemiah 3:11 as a worker with Nehemiah and Eliashib on the repairs to the walls of Jerusalem.
Malchijah, the son of Rechab, was another worker mentioned in Nehemiah 3:14 with Nehemiah and Eliashib on the Jerusalem walls repair.  Another reference to Malchijah as a goldsmith working with Nehemiah and Eliashib is mentioned in Nehemiah 3:31 and a Malchijah  is named as one of those who stood with Ezra during the  reading of the law in Nehemiah 8:4. In Nehemiah 12:42, another reference to one of these Malchijah's is mentioned again as Nehemiah's assistant during the dedication service of the restored walls of Jerusalem.

In Ezra

In Ezra 10:25, two sons of Parosh are named among those of Israel who had taken foreign wives.

In Jeremiah

A Malchiah or Melchiah  was mentioned in the Book of Jeremiah, Chapter 21, Verse 1.

Melchiah was a priest in the kingdom of Zedekiah, and the father of Pashur, the messenger who was charged with taking a message from the King to Jeremiah asking for God's intervention in the war against Nebuchadnezzar.

References

External links
Strong's Bible Dictionary
 1 Chronicles 24 on Chabad.org with Rashi's commentary
Hebrew-English parallel text
Web Bible Encyclopedia
Hitchcock's Dictionary of Bible Names
Baby names on parenthood.com

Set index articles on Hebrew Bible people

Malchijah


Steven Melton (born 6 January 1962) is CEO of Exemplar Healthcare, former Managing Director of MyDentist, and the former Chief Executive of Circle Health Ltd, the first private company to take over an NHS Hospital, namely Hinchingbrooke Hospital.

Biography
Melton was born in Turkey on 6 January 1962 and educated at Bedford Modern School and the University of Cambridge.

Melton began his working life in the personal care division of Unilever.  After 11 years he moved to Asda where he worked alongside Archie Norman at a critical juncture in the life of that company.  Melton's peers at Asda included Justin King, Mike Coupe and Richard Baker.

Melton joined Circle Health Ltd in 2008 and became CEO after the departure of Ali Parsa.  Being CEO of a private owner of a former NHS Hospital is arguably not without controversy and in an interview with The Sunday Times on 15 February 2015 Melton stated that his 'job isn't to be a 'larger-than-life character.  I'm not very fond of the media exposure I have had; it's not my natural character'.

References

1962 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
People educated at Bedford Modern School
British chief executives

Steve Melton (businessman)


Tamahā is a word from Sāmoan origin: tama sā, meaning holy child. She was the oldest daughter of a Tuʻi Tonga Fefine. Most of them stayed at the small but glorious island of Tungua in Haʻapai, so that their high rank did not interfere with matters of state, conducted by the lords on Tongatapu. The institution was established in the beginning of the 17th century, around the time that the Tongan ranking system developed into what it is nowadays.

Tradition (see: E.W. Gifford, Tongan society, 1929) names 6 Tamahā, starting with Fonokimoana, an ending with ʻAmelia Fakahikuʻoʻuiha, when the line of the Tuʻi Tonga also collapsed. On the other hand queen Sālote Tupou III (see: E. Bott, Tongan society at the time of Captain Cook's visits, 1982) only recognised 3 Tamahā, crossing off those who were not the oldest child of a Tuʻi Tonga Fefine.

A Tamahā was officially installed. Unlike their mothers, there was only one Tamahā at any given time, if any, and a potential contestant had to wait until the death of her predecessor before she could get the title.
D.V. Burley; Sacred child and sacred place; Polynesian paradox, USP 2005; ISBN 982-02-0371-6

Tamahā/en


Walther Kruse (September 8, 1864 - 1943) was a German bacteriologist who was a native of Berlin.

In 1888 he received his doctorate from Berlin, where he was a student of Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902). From 1889 until 1892 he worked as a bacteriologist in Naples, and in 1892 travelled to Egypt to perform research on dysentery. In 1893 he became an assistant to hygienist Carl Flügge (1847-1923) in Breslau, and in 1898 became an associate professor at the University of Bonn. Later he served as a full professor in Königsberg (1900), Bonn (1911) and Leipzig (1913).

Walther Kruse is remembered for his work in parasitology and his research of intestinal bacteria infections. He performed extensive studies of Shigella dysenteriae during an epidemic of dysentery in the Ruhr area of Germany. This organism is sometimes referred to as the "Shiga-Kruse bacillus", and its associated disease as "Shiga-Kruse dysentery". These eponyms are shared with Japanese bacteriologist Kiyoshi Shiga (1871-1957). Kruse documented his findings in a 1900 treatise titled Über die Ruhr als Volkskrankheit und ihren Erreger.

In 1914 he demonstrated that the common cold could be transmitted to healthy individuals via nasal secretions that were free of bacteria. The results of these experiments were published in a treatise called Die Erreger von Husten und Schnupfen (1914). A specialized tool used to spread material over the surface of a culture medium is called "Kruse's brush".

References
 Walther Kruse @ Who Named It

1864 births
1943 deaths
German microbiologists
Scientists from Berlin
Scientists from the Province of Brandenburg
Academic staff of the University of Königsberg
Academic staff of the University of Bonn
Academic staff of Leipzig University

Walther Kruse


Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain psilocybin, which turns into psilocin upon ingestion. Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Psilocybe, Panaeolus (including Copelandia), Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.

Amongst other cultural applications, psilocybin mushrooms are used as recreational drugs. They may be depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe, but are more certainly represented in  sculptures and glyphs seen throughout the Americas.

History
Psilocybin mushrooms have been and continue to be used in indigenous South American cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts.

Early

Rock art from  from Tassili, Algeria, is believed to depict psychedelic mushrooms and the transformation of the user under their influence. Prehistoric rock art near Villar del Humo in Spain suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago. The hallucinogenic species of the Psilocybe genus have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times to the present day. Mushroom stones and motifs have been found in Guatemala. A statuette dating from  depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in the west Mexican state of Colima in a shaft and chamber tomb. A Psilocybe species known to the Aztecs as teōnanācatl (literally "divine mushroom": the agglutinative form of teōtl (god, sacred) and nanācatl (mushroom) in Nahuatl language) was reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms when translated into English. Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés.

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs as idolaters, and the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed. The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history, the use of teonanácatl has persisted in some remote areas.

Modern

The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: A man served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."

In 1955, Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life on May 13, 1957. In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe, and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought to conduct research with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects on recidivism. This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, below 40%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Shortly after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.

The popularization of entheogens by the Wassons, Leary, Terence McKenna, Robert Anton Wilson, and many others led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the world. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities of Psilocybe cubensis were also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources has made them one of the most widely used psychedelic drugs.

At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported among some groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina, who used native mushrooms, such as Psilocybe mexicana in her practice.

Occurrence

In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these distributed among the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (6) Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (4) and Galerina (1). Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review.

Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19). Generally, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris. Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found in subtropical humid forests. P. cubensis is the most common Psilocybe in tropical areas. P. semilanceata, considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom, is found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, although it is absent from Mexico.

Composition
Magic mushroom composition varies from genus to genus and species to species. Its principal component is psilocybin, which is converted into psilocin to produce psychoactive effects. Besides psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin may also be present, which can modify the effects of magic mushrooms. Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body. Certain mushrooms are found to produce beta-carbolines which inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down tryptamine alkaloids. They occur in different genera, such as Psilocybe,Cyclocybe, and Hygrophorus. Harmine, harmane, norharmane and a range of other l-tryptophan-derived  were discovered in Psilocybe species.

Effects

The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation. The resulting compound is called psilocin, responsible for the psychedelic effects. Psilocybin and psilocin create short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to misuse them because the more often they are taken within a short period, the weaker the resultant effects are. Psilocybin mushrooms have not been known to cause physical or psychological dependence (addiction). The psychedelic effects appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. Physical effects may occur, including nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.

As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last from three to eight hours, depending on dosage, preparation method, and personal metabolism. The first 3–4 hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more vivid visuals and distortions in reality.  The effects can seem to last much longer for the user because of psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.

Sensory
Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed by emotional changes and altered perception of time and space. Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an hour after ingestion, although effects may take up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadence and depth. Some users experience synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.

Emotional
As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or 'trip,' is strongly dependent upon set and setting. Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip. A negative environment could contribute to a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people familiar with 'tripping.' The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a large dose. In addition to the risks associated with the ingestion of psilocybin, individuals who seek to use psilocybin mushrooms also risk poisoning if one of the wide varieties of poisonous mushrooms is confused with a psilocybin mushroom.

Dosage

The dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content, which can vary significantly between and within the same species but is typically around 0.5–2.0% of the dried weight of the mushroom. Usual doses of the common species Psilocybe cubensis range around 1.0 to 2.5 g, while about 2.5 to 5.0 g dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose. Above 5 g is often considered a heavy dose, with 5.0 grams of dried mushroom often being referred to as a "heroic dose".

The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies from species to species but also from mushroom to mushroom within a given species, subspecies or variety. The species Psilocybe azurescens  contains the most psilocybin (up to 1.78%).

Toxicology
The species within the most commonly foraged and ingested genus of psilocybin mushrooms, the psilocybe, contains two primary hallucinogenic toxins; psilocybin and psilocin. The median lethal dose, also known as "LD50", of psilocybin is 280 mg/kg.

From a toxicological profile, it would be incredibly difficult to overdose on psilocybin mushrooms, given their primary toxin compounds. To consume such massive amounts of psilocybin, one must ingest more than  of dried Psilocybe cubensis given 1-2% of the dried mushroom contains psilocybin.

Posing a more realistic threat than a lethal overdose, significantly elevated levels of psilocin can overstimulate the 5-HT2A receptors in the brain, causing acute serotonin syndrome. A 2015 study observed that a dose of 200 mg/kg psilocin induced symptoms of acute serotonin poisoning in mice.

Neurotoxicity-induced fatal events are uncommon with psilocybin mushroom overdose, as most patients admitted to critical care are released from the department only requiring moderate treatment. However, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis can occur as a result of over-consumption of psilocybin mushrooms. In 2003, a 27-year-old man was found dead in an irrigation canal due to hypothermia. In his bedroom was found two cultivation pots of psilocybin mushrooms, but no report of toxicology was made.

Clinical research
Due partly to restrictions of the Controlled Substances Act, research in the United States was limited until the early 21st century when psilocybin mushrooms were tested for their potential to treat drug dependence, anxiety and mood disorders. In 2018–19, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for studies of psilocybin in depressive disorders.

Legality

The legality of the cultivation, possession, and sale of psilocybin mushrooms and psilocybin and psilocin varies from country to country.

After Oregon Measure 109, in 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use. However, selling psilocybin without being licensed may still attract fines or imprisonment. In 2022 Colorado legalized consumption, growing, and sharing for personal use, though sales are prohibited while regulations are being drafted. Other jurisdictions in the United States where psilocybin mushrooms are decriminalized include Ann Arbor and Detroit, Michigan; Oakland and Santa Cruz, California; Easthampton, Somerville, Northampton, and Cambridge, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; and Washington, DC.

Furthermore, buying spores of mushroom species containing psilocybin online in the United States is legal in all states except Georgia, Idaho and California. This is because fruiting mushrooms and mycelium contain psilocybin, a federally banned substance. A technical caveat to consider, however, is that the distributed spores must not be intended to be used for cultivation, but allowed for microscopy purposes.

See also

 List of psilocybin mushroom species
 List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals
 Psilocybin decriminalization in the United States

Citations

General and cited references

 Haze, Virginia & Dr. K. Mandrake, PhD. The Psilocybin Mushroom Bible: The Definitive Guide to Growing and Using Magic Mushrooms. Green Candy Press: Toronto, Canada, 2016. . www.greencandypress.com.

External links

Entheogens
Psilocybin
Psychedelic tryptamine carriers
Psychoactive fungi

Psilocybin mushroom


Subtractive color or subtractive color mixing predicts the spectral power distribution of light after it passes through successive layers of partially absorbing media. This idealized model is the essential principle of how dyes and pigments are used in color printing and photography, where the perception of color is elicited after white light passes through microscopic "stacks" of partially absorbing media allowing some wavelengths of light to reach the eye and not others, and also in painting, whether the colors are mixed or applied in successive layers.

Process
The subtractive color mixing model predicts the resultant spectral power distribution of light filtered through overlaid partially absorbing materials on a reflecting or transparent surface. Each layer partially absorbs some wavelengths of light from the illumination spectrum while letting others pass through, resulting in a colored appearance. The resultant spectral power distribution is predicted by sequentially taking the product of the spectral power distributions of the incoming light and transmissivity at each filter.

Painting
The subtractive model also predicts the color resulting from a mixture of paints, or similar medium such as fabric dye, whether applied in layers or mixed together prior to application. In the case of paint mixed before application, incident light interacts with many different pigment particles at various depths inside the paint layer before emerging. Art supply manufactures offer colors that successfully fill the roles of the subtractive primary colors magenta and cyan. For example, the phthalocyanine blues, which became available during the 1930s, and quinacridone magenta, first offered during the 1950s, together with yellow produce more highly-saturated violets and greens than do the traditional red and blue.

RYB

RYB (red, yellow, blue) is the traditional set of primary colors used for mixing pigments. It is used in art and art education, particularly in painting. It predated modern scientific color theory.

Red, yellow, and blue are the primary colors of the RYB color "wheel".  The secondary colors, violet (or purple), orange, and green (VOG) make up another triad, conceptually formed by mixing equal amounts of red and blue, red and yellow, and blue and yellow, respectively.

The RYB primary colors became the foundation of 18th-century theories of color vision as the fundamental sensory qualities blended in the perception of all physical colors and equally in the physical mixture of pigments or dyes. These theories were enhanced by 18th-century investigations of a variety of purely psychological color effects, in particular, the contrast between "complementary" or opposing hues produced by color afterimages and in the contrasting shadows in colored light. These ideas and many personal color observations were summarized in two founding documents in color theory: the Theory of Colours (1810) by the German poet and government minister Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul.

In late 19th and early to mid-20th-century commercial printing, use of the traditional RYB terminology persisted even though the more versatile CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow) triad had been adopted, with the cyan sometimes referred to as "process blue" and the magenta as "process red".

CMY and CMYK color models and printing processes

In color printing, the usual primary colors are cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY). Cyan is the complement of red, meaning that the cyan serves as a filter that absorbs red. The amount of cyan applied to a white sheet of paper controls how much of the red in white light will be reflected back from the paper. Ideally, the cyan is completely transparent to green and blue light and has no effect on those parts of the spectrum. Magenta is the complement of green, and yellow the complement of blue. Combinations of different amounts of the three can produce a wide range of colors with good saturation.

In inkjet color printing and typical mass production photomechanical printing processes, a black ink K (Key) component is included, resulting in the CMYK color model. The black ink serves to cover unwanted tints in dark areas of the printed image, which result from the imperfect transparency of commercially practical CMY inks; to improve image sharpness, which tends to be degraded by imperfect registration of the three color elements; and to reduce or eliminate consumption of the more expensive color inks where only black or gray is required.

Purely photographic color processes almost never include a K component, because in all common processes the CMY dyes used are much more perfectly transparent, there are no registration errors to camouflage, and substituting a black dye for a saturated CMY combination, a trivial prospective cost-benefit at best, is technologically impractical in non-electronic analog photography.

See also
Additive color
Color mixing
Color motion picture film
Color space
Color theory
Primary color

References

Further reading

External links
 Stanford University CS 178 interactive Flash demo  comparing additive and subtractive color mixing.

Color space
Color

Subtractive color


The Johnny Morris Wonders of Wildlife National Museum and Aquarium, also known as simply Wonders of Wildlife is a not-for-profit educational conservation-themed attraction in Springfield, Missouri. It is located adjacent to the Bass Pro Shops National headquarters, and is named for Johnny Morris, the Bass Pro Shops' founder. The 350,000 square foot facility  consists of two major sections. The Wildlife Museum presents a series of immersive wildlife galleries containing taxidermied animals from around the world displayed in elaborate and detailed dioramas representing a variety of natural habitats, as well as historic artifacts, artwork, films, and special exhibits, including the Boone and Crockett Club's North American Heads and Horns Collection of big game mounts. The 1.5 million gallon (5.7 million liter) Aquarium showcases 35,000 individual fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals in a series of themed areas including an ocean shipwreck, Louisiana swamp, Ozark forest, and the Amazon rainforest. In a press release accompanying the facility's grand opening announcement Morris was quoted as saying, "Wonders of Wildlife is an inspirational journey around the world that celebrates the role of hunters and anglers as America's true conservation heroes."

Inception
The initial Wonders of Wildlife museum was the result of an intensive lobbying campaign by and financial support from Johnny Morris. He campaigned for a ballot initiative that funded a portion of the $52 million cost of building the original museum and the creation of a museum district to oversee the planning, design, and construction of the museum. An agreement with the City of Springfield allows a portion of the city's hotel-motel tax to be used for capital projects. This project also received $1.5 million in federal appropriations. However, after receiving public backlash for using public funds on the project, Morris returned the local public money received, and used private funds and donations to finish the project.

Original Wonders of Wildlife (2001-2007)
Wonders of Wildlife's original  facility, designed by Cambridge Seven Associates opened to the public on November 1, 2001. It housed 225 species of live animals, fresh and saltwater aquariums, interactive displays and educational programs. The original attraction closed in December 2007, with the announcement of a planned expansion that would increase the square footage of the facility by 58 percent, at a cost of $25 million. Subsequently, museum representatives announced a much more ambitious expansion, at a cost of about $80 million.  With some changes and updates, the original facility was incorporated into the much larger attraction that opened in September 2017.

Reopening
The facility opened to the public under its current name and configuration on September 22, 2017. In attendance at the opening event were prominent North American conservation leaders and numerous celebrities including U.S. President Jimmy Carter, U.S. President George W. Bush, U.S. Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke, Mark Wahlberg, Kevin Costner, Bill Dance, Jimmy Houston, Dale Earnhardt Jr., Tony Stewart, Luke Bryan, Dierks Bentley,  Easton Corbin, and many others.  More than 40 conservation groups, including the National Audubon Society, Ducks Unlimited, National Wildlife Federation, National Wild Turkey Federation and National Geographic Society, partnered with the Wonders of Wildlife project, which was nearly a decade in development and construction. Wonders of Wildlife was voted the "2017 Best New Attraction" in the United States by readers of USA Today.

Images

References

External links

Natural history museums in Missouri
Museums in Springfield, Missouri
Aquaria in Missouri
Museums established in 2017
2017 establishments in Missouri
Zoos in Missouri

Wonders of Wildlife Museum & Aquarium