Bruce Wayne, better known by his vigilante superhero alias Batman, is a fictional character who is featured as the main protagonist in Warner Bros.' initial Batman film series (1989–1997), and later as a supporting character in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) film The Flash (2023). Based on the DC Comics character of the same name, he was portrayed by Michael Keaton in Tim Burton's Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992), before being recast with Val Kilmer and George Clooney in Joel Schumacher's Batman Forever (1995) and Batman & Robin (1997) respectively.

Keaton's portrayal of the character was critically acclaimed and influenced subsequent interpretations. Both Keaton and Clooney reprised their roles in the 2023 film The Flash, which retroactively incorporates them into two alternate timelines of the DCEU's continuity. Keaton was also expected to reprise the role in Batgirl and Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom (the original ending of The Flash incorporating him into the main timeline of the DCEU's continuity) before the film's cancellation and scene deletion, respectively.

Appearances

Batman

As a child, Wayne watches the film The Mark of Zorro with his parents, Thomas and Martha. As the Waynes walk down an alley, Thomas and Martha are shot and killed by a mugger. After this, he is raised by Alfred Pennyworth (Michael Gough), the family butler. At his parents' funeral, he runs away and discovered a cave filled with bats on the family grounds, and decides to take the image and use it to put fear into the hearts of individuals who do wrong. After decades of training, the adult Wayne had his company purchased equipment and built an advanced combat suit and the Batcave, a secret lair under Wayne Manor, and begins fighting crime in Gotham City as a vigilante who dresses as a bat.

Years later as an adult, there have been numerous sightings of the "Bat vigilante" and a criminal, Johnny Gobbs, who died after accidentally falling off from a roof, creates a rumor that the vigilante killed Gobbs in a manner of a vampire that feeds on blood and cannot be killed. The vigilante's reputation as a menacing creature of the night that hunts wrongdoers strikes fear in the city's criminal element. Publicly, Bruce is also involved with the city's political and economic infrastructures. However, he repeatedly absents himself from news conferences in favor of crimefighting.

Wayne hosts a fundraiser at Wayne Manor to help fund the Gotham City 200th Anniversary Parade, where he meets photographer Vicki Vale (Kim Basinger).

Wayne finds in reviewing the Manor's surveillance cameras that Commissioner James Gordon (Pat Hingle), who left the party unexpectedly, had been summoned to Axis Chemicals due to a break-in by Jack Napier (Jack Nicholson), crime lord Carl Grissom's (Jack Palance) right-hand man. Wayne suits up as the vigilante, now known as Batman, and during the fight, Napier falls into a vat of chemicals, transforming him into the insane, disfigured criminal mastermind the Joker.

On the 20th anniversary of his parents' murder, Wayne leaves lunch with Vale, and witnesses the Joker killing one of Grissom's associates. As Batman, he discovers that the Joker has poisoned various consumer products with his Smilex toxin. Wayne is informed by Alfred that he has a date with Vale at the Flugelheim Museum. Wayne states he has no plans to meet Vale that day, and realizes that the meeting was set up by the Joker to gain information on Batman.

After a battle with the Joker's men, Batman and Vale return to the Batcave, where he reveals his investigation of Joker's lethal chemicals to Vale, giving her his research to publish. Wayne nearly reveals to Vale that he is Batman, but they are interrupted by the Joker. The master criminal shoots Wayne, who survives because he is wearing body armor.

Wayne recognizes the Joker as the mugger who killed his parents. Wayne comes across the Joker's parade float during the 200th Anniversary Parade, where the Joker plans to kill thousands of people with his toxin. Batman foils the Joker's plan, however, and pursues him and Vale into the cathedral, eventually finding them at the top level. Batman confronts the Joker over killing his parents, and gets into brutal hand-to-hand combat with the villain. As the Joker tries to escape on a helicopter, Batman uses his grappling gun to tie one of the cathedral's gargoyles to the Joker's leg; when the gargoyle breaks free from its foundations, the Joker falls to his death. In the aftermath, Batman gives the Gotham City Police Department (GCPD) his own personalized signal as a way of contacting him for help.

Batman Returns

During Gotham's Christmas celebrations, Batman discovers the Red Triangle Gang has interrupted the annual tree lighting ceremony. Despite managing to fight them off, he is too late to stop them from taking billionaire industrialist Max Shreck (Christopher Walken) hostage. The next day, a member of the gang kidnaps the mayor's infant son, but the child is saved by the Penguin (Danny DeVito), a deformed mystery man who has lived in the sewers ever since his parents threw him into Gotham's reservoir. Though Penguin is immediately accepted by the public and allowed inside the Hall of Records to find his birth parents, Batman remains suspicious and discovers the Penguin may have once been a performer in the Red Triangle Circus and connected to a series of missing children cases. He deduces that the Penguin is the gang's leader and is planning something else, already knowing who his parents are. Penguin becomes popular with the citizens of Gotham, and they discover his name is Oswald Cobblepot, with his parents having died years earlier. Meanwhile, Wayne meets with Shreck, who had been blackmailed into helping Oswald return to the surface, to contest his plans to build a new power plant. He meets Shreck's secretary Selina Kyle (Michelle Pfeiffer), unaware that she is the masked vigilante Catwoman, who is planning to kill Shreck as revenge for trying to kill her when she discovered that his power plant would actually drain Gotham of its energy and leave the city at the mercy of the Shreck family.

On Shreck's urging, the Penguin officially announces his plans to run for Mayor of Gotham City, and later, Wayne and Kyle discover that Cobblepot attempted to frame Batman by kidnapping the Ice Princess (Cristi Conaway), who was to relight the tree, and leaving behind a batarang. While Batman investigates the kidnapping, the Red Triangle Gang sabotages the Batmobile to allow the Penguin remote control access. Batman finds the Ice Princess standing on the edge of a rooftop, but the Penguin arrives and startles the girl by opening one of his trick umbrellas and releasing a swarm of bats, which knocks her off the roof to her death. She lands on the button to light the tree, causing a mass swarm of bats to attack the onlookers. Batman is forced to flee, now the chief suspect in the murder.

Batman returns to the Batmobile, but the car, having been hacked by the Penguin, takes him on a destructive joyride, though Batman is able to disable the signal and escape. With Alfred's help, Batman hacks into the Gotham Plaza's speakers during one of the Penguin's speeches and plays a recording of the villain bragging about having manipulated the entire city, causing a backlash from the crowd. At Shreck's masked ball, Kyle tells Wayne her plans to kill Shreck, and the two deduce each other's secret identities. At that moment, the Penguin crashes through the floor of the room, announcing his plans to kill all of the first-born sons of Gotham and take Shreck hostage. Batman arrives and interrogates Penguin's right-hand man, learning of the Penguin's hideout underneath the Arctic World exhibit at the abandoned Gotham Zoo.

Batman foils the Penguin's plan to massacre Gotham by sending his penguins to fire missiles at the city and, with Pennyworth's help, reprograms the penguins to fire upon the Penguin's hideout. Batman and Penguin fight until the Penguin falls into the toxic waters in the sewer, eventually causing him to die. Batman attempts to stop Kyle from killing Shreck and reveals his secret identity. Kyle kills Shreck by kissing him with a Taser in her mouth but mysteriously disappears. After the GCPD seizes the Penguin's destroyed lair, Wayne finds Kyle's black cat, Miss Kitty, in an alleyway, which implies that a very much alive Catwoman is watching him from a rooftop while the Bat Signal shines in the sky.

Batman Forever

Batman is called to stop the gangster Two-Face (Tommy Lee Jones) from destroying the Gotham Statue of Liberty, with help from Gordon and psychologist Chase Meridian (Nicole Kidman), who becomes instantly attracted to him. Two-Face was once Gotham's District Attorney, Harvey Dent, before a criminal scarred half of his face with acid, for which he blames Batman. The Dark Knight stops Two-Face from destroying the statue, but Two-Face escapes.

The next day, Bruce Wayne visits Wayne Enterprises and becomes acquainted with Edward Nygma (Jim Carrey), an employee who is obsessed with him. Nygma has developed the Box, a machine capable of transmitting television signals directly into the human brain. He asks Wayne to fund his invention, but Wayne turns him down. Seeking revenge, Nygma reinvents himself as "the Riddler" and allies himself with Two-Face in a plot to destroy both Batman and Bruce Wayne, whom Nygma has discovered are one and the same.

During a charity circus performance, Wayne witnesses Two-Face attack and murder a family of acrobats dubbed the Flying Graysons, leaving their youngest son, Dick (Chris O'Donnell), an orphan. Feeling a kinship with Dick, Wayne takes him in as his ward. Dick soon discovers Wayne's secret identity, and asks Wayne to take him on as his crimefighting partner so he can kill Two-Face and avenge his family. Wayne, who still feels responsible for his parents' deaths, refuses, not wanting to be responsible for another lost life.

Meanwhile, Wayne soon starts a romantic relationship with Meridian, who tries help him move on the trauma of his parents' deaths. Wayne decides to abandon his war on crime and lead a normal life with her. Before he can tell her, however, Riddler and Two-Face attack Wayne Manor, take Meridian hostage, and destroy the Batcave. Batman tracks the villainous duo to their hideout, with help from Dick, whom he has finally accepted as his crimefighting partner, Robin.

Two-Face and the Riddler take Meridian and Robin hostage, setting a trap that would force Batman to choose between saving one life or the other. Instead, Batman destroys the Box, driving the Riddler insane, and saves Meridan and Robin. Two-Face corners them at gunpoint, and while flipping his coin to decide their fates, Batman throws a handful of coins at him, causing him to fall to his death, avenging Dick's family.

Batman & Robin

New villain Mr. Freeze (Arnold Schwarzenegger) surfaces and commits a string of diamond thefts, catching the attention of Batman and Robin. After Freeze freezes but spares Robin in order to escape, Wayne chastises Dick, who has begun to chafe under Wayne's leadership. Wayne deduces that Freeze is Dr. Victor Fries, whose wife, Nora, is suffering from MacGregor's syndrome and was placed in cryogenic sleep until Freeze finds a cure. In his prior research, Fries accidentally fell backwards into a tank of modified liquid nitrogen, rendering him unable to survive outside of a subzero environment. In order to lure Freeze in, Wayne hosts a charity ball auctioning off the Wayne family diamonds with himself and Dick attending as Batman and Robin, leading to an ensuing battle and Freeze's capture. Wayne and Grayson become acquainted with Dr. Pamela Isley, who is secretly the metahuman ecoterrorist Poison Ivy, and who seduces Robin and allies with Freeze, breaking him out of Arkham Asylum. Ivy then unplugs Nora's life support and convinces Freeze that Batman is responsible.

Alfred's niece Barbara Wilson (Alicia Silverstone) comes to visit Wayne Manor, at about the same time that Wayne discovers that Alfred is dying of McGregor's Syndrome. She soon discovers the Batcave, and becomes Batgirl. Batman and Robin reluctantly allow her to help them defeat Freeze and Ivy, who are trying to turn Gotham City into a giant polar ice cap with a giant freeze ray that Freeze invented. Batgirl defeats Ivy, and the three head to the observatory to stop Freeze. Robin and Batgirl defeat Ivy's minion Bane (Robert Swenson) while Batman faces and subdues Freeze, redirecting the telescope's satellites to reflect sunlight to thaw Gotham, but Freeze detonates several bombs that he had placed around the freeze ray, destroying it. Nevertheless, Robin and Batgirl are still able to thaw the city. Batman reveals to a defeated Freeze that Nora is still alive, having been rescued in time.

Batman appeals to Freeze's humanity and asks him for the cure to MacGregor's syndrome's early stages to save Pennyworth. Freeze provides him with the cure and returns to Arkham to torment Ivy, his new cellmate, while Pennyworth makes a full recovery and reunites with Wayne, Grayson, and Barbara.

The Flash

In 2023, Barry Allen / The Flash (Ezra Miller) travels back in time to prevent the murder of his mother, and accidentally lands in an alternate 2013, where various events prior to the date of his mother's murder have changed and an older Wayne (Keaton) has retired as Batman and lives as a recluse in Wayne Manor, after having stopped "all crime" in Gotham. He encounters Barry, who has broken into the manor, as well as a younger Barry from his timeline that has just gained powers that were accidentally transferred to him by the older Barry. Wayne theorizes that the Flash has tangled multiple universes into one, and the older Barry explains that General Zod (Michael Shannon) and his army are preparing to invade Earth and that they must find Superman to help them defeat Zod. Wayne declines and leaves them.

The two Barrys break into the Batcave and use the computer to try and locate Superman. After seeing the older Barry working to find him, Wayne changes his mind and comes out of retirement to help the Barrys find Superman, who they believe is being held at a military site in Siberia. The group travels to Siberia to rescue Superman, but instead find his cousin Kara Zor-El (Sasha Calle). They return to the manor with Zor-El, who leaves to find Zod.

Wayne helps the older Barry recreate the incident that granted him his powers. Barry is struck by lightning, but before Wayne can activate it again, the circuits of the machine fry. Zor-El returns and flies Barry into the sky to be struck again, and he successfully regains his powers. Wayne, the Barrys, and Zor-El team up to fight Zod's forces in a desert. Zor-El is killed by Zod and Wayne dies after being unable to eject himself out of the Batwing which crashes into a Kryptonian ship. The Barrys attempt to go back in time to ensure both Wayne and Zor-El live, but fail. After confronting a dark alternate self, Barry goes back once again and allows his mother's death to occur, unraveling the universes and preventing Zod's successful invasion, thus averting Bruce's death.

After returning to his original timeline, the older Barry's father is proven innocent of the murder of his wife, and that reality's Bruce Wayne calls Allen to congratulate him. When he arrives to the courthouse, Wayne (Clooney) looks different than the one Allen knows (Ben Affleck), as he slightly altered the timeline on his way back to create evidence that proved his father's innocence.

Production

Casting
Multiple actors were considered for the role of Batman during production. In Tom Mankiewicz's original script which Ghostbusters director Ivan Reitman was attached to, actor Bill Murray was considered for the role in a script that featured Eddie Murphy as Dick Grayson / Robin. Gremlins director Joe Dante was attached to the project as well at one point. The script was intended as a comedy, but was altered significantly after Tim Burton's involvement. Mel Gibson, Kevin Costner, Charlie Sheen, Tom Selleck, Harrison Ford, Pierce Brosnan, Ray Liotta, Willem Dafoe, Alec Baldwin, Patrick Swayze, Kyle MacLachlan, Steven Seagal, Dennis Quaid and Jean-Claude Van Damme were all considered for the role. Eventually, producer Jon Peters suggested Michael Keaton, claiming he had the right "edgy, tormented quality" for the role, and based his argument on Keaton's dramatic performance in the film Clean and Sober. At the time, Keaton was primarily known for comedic parts in Mr. Mom and Beetlejuice, the latter also being directed by Burton. Keaton's casting as the character caused an uproar from fans of the character, who claimed Keaton was too comedic and too short for the role. Over 50,000 recorded protest letters were sent to Warner Bros. offices, and the casting was questioned by screenwriter Sam Hamm, producer Michael Uslan and even Batman co-creator Bob Kane.

Recast
While Keaton decided not to reprise the role of Batman for the third film, Tim Burton was still involved as producer and pushed Johnny Depp to replace Keaton,  before Val Kilmer got the role. Kilmer decided not to return and was replaced by George Clooney for the fourth film, with director Joel Schumacher feeling that Clooney could provide a lighter interpretation of the character than Keaton and Kilmer.

Batsuits

The Batsuit worn by Keaton was designed by costume designer Bob Ringwood. Ringwood turned down the opportunity to work on James Bond film Licence to Kill to work on Batman. Ringwood stated that designing the Batsuit was difficult, claiming "the image of Batman in the comics is this huge, big six-foot-four hunk with a dimpled chin. Michael Keaton is a guy with average build. The problem was to make somebody who was average-sized and ordinary-looking into this bigger-than-life creature." Producer Jon Peters had requested for the Batsuit to feature a Nike product-placement, but was shot down by Burton and Ringwood, feeling that it would not be intimidating. 28 latex designs of the suit were made, as well as 25 different capes and 6 different heads. It was decided the use of spandex as in the comics and previous adaptations would not be intimidating enough, so the character was given black armor pieces.

The Batsuit was upgraded for Batman Returns, using more flexible foam latex, as well as a more traditional chest emblem. The updated Batsuit also featured a zipper to allow for urination in between takes and an updated plated armor torso that did not resemble sculpted muscles. Keaton still had difficulty hearing but found the neck movement much less restrictive than with the first costume. Due to the second costume's much thinner cowl with increased flexibility, a greater range of head-turning was allowed but could still leave gaps folding away from the cheek. The infamous "Bat-Turn" movement became an iconic part of the character's body language despite not truly needing to depend upon it, contrary to speculation from contemporary pundits. The wardrobe department spent seven weeks sculpting Batman Forever costumes on his body cast, preceding under the assumption that he would be returning. The addition of nipples and an enlarged codpiece to the Batsuit and Robin's costume in Batman & Robin was the subject of ridicule and criticism.

In other media

Television
Keaton's Batman was referenced in the Arrowverse television crossover event "Crisis on Infinite Earths". This series establishes the universe in which Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992) exist as "Earth-89", with Robert Wuhl, who portrayed Alexander Knox in Batman, reprising his role for the series for a cameo appearance. In the crossover, Bruce Wayne / Batman is mentioned as having captured the Joker (despite his apparent death) and married Selina Kyle / Catwoman.

Video games
The suit from Tim Burton's first Batman film was added as an alternate skin to Batman: Arkham Knight during a free update in August 2015.

Comic books

Film adaptations
A comic adaptation of Tim Burton's Batman titled Batman: The Official Comic Adaptation of the Warner Bros Motion Picture was released in June 1989. Longtime Batman editor at DC Dennis O'Neil adapted the screenplay, with art provided by Jerry Ordway.

A comic adaptation for Batman Returns titled Batman Returns: The Official Comic Adaptation of the Warner Bros Motion Picture was released in June 1992. The story was once again adapted by Dennis O' Neil, with pencils provided by Steve Erwin and inked embellishments by José Luis García-López. Many of the illustrations García-López did for the film's style guide were re-purposed for the comic adaptation.

Comic continuation
A comic continuation that was to chronicle the events of Tim Burton's failed third Batman film titled Batman '89 was submitted to DC Comics written by Joe Quinones and Kath Leth in March 2016. The run was inspired by DC's recent comic run Batman '66, which was a continuation of the 1966 television series starring Adam West and Burt Ward. The story was to be a direct sequel to Burton's Batman films, with visual allusions to Michael Keaton as Batman, Billy Dee Williams (who portrayed a pre-disfigurement Harvey Dent in Batman) as Two-Face, Marlon Wayans as Robin, Michelle Pfeiffer as Catwoman, and Robin Williams as The Riddler. The story would also introduce iterations of Barbara Gordon, Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn into the story's fictional universe. However, the comic run was initially rejected by DC.

In February 2021, it was confirmed that DC would in fact be proceeding to develop a comic continuation of Burton's Batman films, with Sam Hamm returning to write the script while Joe Quinones provides the comic's art.

Reception and legacy
Michael Keaton's portrayal as Batman was seen as hugely influential towards further adaptations of the character. Keaton's portrayal inspired the portrayal by Kevin Conroy in Batman: The Animated Series. As the first version of the character to carry a grapple device with a motorized reel, as well a cape that can harden and transform into a hang-glider, these concepts would become highly influential for most contemporary appearances of the character. Keaton's grim, monosyllabic persona in-costume has been paid tribute to throughout multiple adaptations of the character, including video game appearances and homages.

This adaptation of the character was also seen as the first to change their voice while in costume as Batman, something which future actors Kevin Conroy, Ben Affleck and Christian Bale would also add to their interpretations. Michael Keaton's portrayal of the character appears on AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains at #46 on the heroes side, while Jack Nicholson's portrayal as the Joker ranked 45th on the villains side.

Birdman comparisons

Due to his involvement in the film, Michael Keaton's role in the film Birdman directed by Alejandro G. Iñárritu has been compared to Keaton's own experiences as Batman. Many people have come to the conclusion that the film is a reflection of Michael Keaton's life post-Batman, as the film itself focuses on Riggan Thompson, a struggling, aging actor who is best known for having played a winged superhero earlier in his career.

When Iñárritu contacted Keaton about taking the role of Riggan, Keaton asked him if he was making fun of him for playing Batman. Despite comparisons between Riggan and Keaton and many people believing that the role was taken by the actor to let out frustration at the role, Keaton has claimed that he loves talking about his time as Batman, and is extremely grateful for the role.

Keaton was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance in Birdman, his first-ever nomination, and this was what helped him gain the villainous role of Adrian Toomes / Vulture in Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017) and Morbius (2022), which are respectively set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and Sony's Spider-Man Universe (SSU).

See also
Bruce Wayne (Dark Knight trilogy)
Bruce Wayne (DC Extended Universe)

References

External links

Action film characters
Alternative versions of Batman
Batman (1989 film series)
Batman in other media
Batman live-action film characters
Characters created by Tim Burton
DC Comics superheroes
DC Comics male superheroes
DC Extended Universe characters
Fictional aviators
Fictional blade and dart throwers
Fictional business executives
Fictional hackers
Fictional philanthropists
Fictional socialites
Fictional vigilantes
Film characters introduced in 1989
Male characters in film
Orphan characters in film
Superheroes with alter egos

Bruce Wayne (1989 film series character)


Matthias Ulungura (1921–1980) (in some sources also referred to as Matthias Ngapiatulawai) was an Indigenous Australian from the Tiwi Islands, who in 1942 became the first Australian to take a Japanese prisoner of war on Australian soil.

The capture

Ulungura was a member of the Tiwi people, who in 1942 was living on Melville Island.  On 19 February, a damaged Japanese fighter returning from an attack on an aerodrome on nearby Bathurst Island crashed near Snake Bay on Melville Island.  The Japanese pilot, Hajime Toyoshima, survived the crash, but Ulungura crept up behind him, surprising him with a tomahawk, and took him prisoner. In Ulungura's words:

Ulungura took his prisoner to the RAAF guards stationed at the Bathurst Island aerodrome, where he was transferred into their custody.  Toyoshima initially used the alias of Tadao Minami and claimed he had been washed ashore in an attempt to prevent his captors from locating his downed plane, but after questioning police saw through his story and located the wreckage.  The wreckage was transferred to Darwin, and Toyoshima was taken to a prisoner of war camp, where he died in 1944 during the Cowra breakout.

Although Ulungura could not be enlisted because of his race (Australian military policy at the time forbade Indigenous Australians from enlisting), Corporal Moore, one of the two guards permanently stationed on Bathurst Island, took Ulungura on as his personal bodyguard and assistant.

Memorials
The government of the Northern Territory in 1985 unveiled a memorial to Ulungura.  The dedication for the memorial, which took the form of a cairn, was attended by Chief Minister Ian Tuxworth and Opposition Leader Bob Collins.

Despite Ulungura's role as the first Australian to take a Japanese prisoner of war in Australia, he remains relatively unknown.  Indigenous leader Mick Dodson has remarked that "the fact that an Aboriginal man took the first Japanese prisoner of war on Australian soil was hardly known in Australia."

A life-sized bronze statue of Matthias Ulungura was erected on Bathurst Island in 2016.

References

Indigenous Australian people
Tiwi Islands people
Australian people of World War II
1921 births
1980 deaths

Matthias Ulungura


JPEG 2000 (JP2) is an image compression standard and coding system. It was developed from 1997 to 2000 by a Joint Photographic Experts Group committee chaired by Touradj Ebrahimi (later the JPEG president), with the intention of superseding their original JPEG standard (created in 1992), which is based on a discrete cosine transform (DCT), with a newly designed, wavelet-based method. The standardized filename extension is .jp2 for ISO/IEC 15444-1 conforming files and .jpx for the extended part-2 specifications, published as ISO/IEC 15444-2. The registered MIME types are defined in RFC 3745. For ISO/IEC 15444-1 it is image/jp2.

The JPEG 2000 project was motivated by Ricoh's submission in 1995 of the CREW (Compression with Reversible Embedded Wavelets) algorithm to the standardization effort of JPEG-LS. Ultimately the LOCO-I algorithm was selected as the basis for JPEG-LS, but many of the features of CREW ended up in the JPEG 2000 standard.

JPEG 2000 codestreams are regions of interest that offer several mechanisms to support spatial random access or region of interest access at varying degrees of granularity. It is possible to store different parts of the same picture using different quality.

JPEG 2000 is a compression standard based on a discrete wavelet transform (DWT). The standard could be adapted for motion imaging video compression with the Motion JPEG 2000 extension. JPEG 2000 technology was selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004. However, JPEG 2000 is still not widely supported in web browsers (other than Safari)  and hence is not generally used on the World Wide Web.

Design goals
While there is a modest increase in compression performance of JPEG 2000 compared to JPEG, the main advantage offered by JPEG 2000 is the significant flexibility of the codestream. The codestream obtained after compression of an image with JPEG 2000 is scalable in nature, meaning that it can be decoded in a number of ways; for instance, by truncating the codestream at any point, one may obtain a representation of the image at a lower resolution, or signal-to-noise ratio – see scalable compression. By ordering the codestream in various ways, applications can achieve significant performance increases. However, as a consequence of this flexibility, JPEG 2000 requires codecs that are complex and computationally demanding. Another difference, in comparison with JPEG, is in terms of visual artifacts: JPEG 2000 only produces ringing artifacts, manifested as blur and rings near edges in the image, while JPEG produces both ringing artifacts and 'blocking' artifacts, due to its 8×8 blocks.

JPEG 2000 has been published as an ISO standard, ISO/IEC 15444. The cost of obtaining all documents for the standard has been estimated at 2,718CHF (US$2,720 as of 2015).

Applications
Notable markets and applications intended to be served by the standard include:
 Consumer applications such as multimedia devices (e.g. digital cameras, personal digital assistants, 3G mobile phones, color facsimile, printers, scanners)
 Client/server communication (e.g. the Internet, image database, video streaming, video server)
 Military/surveillance (e.g. HD satellite images, Motion detection, network distribution and storage)
 Medical imagery, esp. the DICOM specifications for medical data interchange.
 Biometrics.
 Remote sensing
 High-quality frame-based video recording, editing and storage.
 Live HDTV feed contribution (I-frame only video compression with low transmission latency), such as live HDTV feed of a sport event linked to the TV station studio
 Digital cinema, such as Digital Cinema Package
 Digitized Audio-visual contents and images for long term digital preservation
 World Meteorological Organization has built JPEG 2000 Compression into the new GRIB2 file format.  The GRIB file structure is designed for global distribution of meteorological data.  The implementation of JPEG 2000 compression in GRIB2 has reduced file sizes up to 80%.

Improvements over the 1992 JPEG standard

Multiple resolution representation
JPEG 2000 decomposes the image into a multiple resolution representation in the course of its compression process. This pyramid representation can be put to use for other image presentation purposes beyond compression.

Progressive transmission by pixel and resolution accuracy
These features are more commonly known as progressive decoding and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) scalability. JPEG 2000 provides efficient codestream organizations which are progressive by pixel accuracy and by image resolution (or by image size). This way, after a smaller part of the whole file has been received, the viewer can see a lower quality version of the final picture. The quality then improves progressively through downloading more data bits from the source.

Choice of lossless or lossy compression
Like the Lossless JPEG standard, the JPEG 2000 standard provides both lossless and lossy compression in a single compression architecture. Lossless compression is provided by the use of a reversible integer wavelet transform in JPEG 2000.

Error resilience
Like JPEG 1992, JPEG 2000 is robust to bit errors introduced by noisy communication channels, due to the coding of data in relatively small independent blocks.

Flexible file format
The JP2 and JPX file formats allow for handling of color-space information, metadata, and for interactivity in networked applications as developed in the JPEG Part 9 JPIP protocol.

High dynamic range support
JPEG 2000 supports bit depths of 1 to 38 bits per component. Supported color spaces include monochrome, 3 types of YCbCr, sRGB, PhotoYCC, CMY(K), YCCK and CIELab. It also later added support for CIEJab (CIECAM02), e-sRGB, ROMM, YPbPr and others.

Side channel spatial information
Full support for transparency and alpha planes.

JPEG 2000 image coding system – Parts
The JPEG 2000 image coding system (ISO/IEC 15444) consists of the following parts:

Technical discussion
The aim of JPEG 2000 is not only improving compression performance over JPEG but also adding (or improving) features such as scalability and editability. JPEG 2000's improvement in compression performance relative to the original JPEG standard is actually rather modest and should not ordinarily be the primary consideration for evaluating the design.  Very low and very high compression rates are supported in JPEG 2000. The ability of the design to handle a very large range of effective bit rates is one of the strengths of JPEG 2000. For example, to reduce the number of bits for a picture below a certain amount, the advisable thing to do with the first JPEG standard is to reduce the resolution of the input image before encoding it. That is unnecessary when using JPEG 2000, because JPEG 2000 already does this automatically through its multi-resolution decomposition structure. The following sections describe the algorithm of JPEG 2000.

According to the Royal Library of the Netherlands, "the current JP2 format specification leaves room for multiple interpretations when it comes to the support of ICC profiles, and the handling of grid resolution information".

Color components transformation
Initially images have to be transformed from the RGB color space to another color space, leading to three components that are handled separately. There are two possible choices:
 Irreversible Color Transform (ICT) uses the well known BT.601 YCC color space. It is called "irreversible" because it has to be implemented in floating or fix-point and causes round-off errors. The ICT shall be used only with the 9/7 wavelet transform.
 Reversible Color Transform (RCT) uses a modified YUV color space (almost the same as YCC) that does not introduce quantization errors, so it is fully reversible. Proper implementation of the RCT requires that numbers be rounded as specified and cannot be expressed exactly in matrix form. The RCT shall be used only with the 5/3 wavelet transform. The transformations are:

If R, G, and B are normalized to the same precision, then numeric precision of C and C is one bit greater than the precision of the original components. This increase in precision is necessary to ensure reversibility. The chrominance components can be, but do not necessarily have to be, downscaled in resolution; in fact, since the wavelet transformation already separates images into scales, downsampling is more effectively handled by dropping the finest wavelet scale. This step is called multiple component transformation in the JPEG 2000 language since its usage is not restricted to the RGB color model.

Tiling
After color transformation, the image is split into so-called tiles, rectangular regions of the image that are transformed and encoded separately. Tiles can be any size, and it is also possible to consider the whole image as one single tile. Once the size is chosen, all the tiles will have the same size (except optionally those on the right and bottom borders). Dividing the image into tiles is advantageous in that the decoder will need less memory to decode the image and it can opt to decode only selected tiles to achieve a partial decoding of the image. The disadvantage of this approach is that the quality of the picture decreases due to a lower peak signal-to-noise ratio. Using many tiles can create a blocking effect similar to the older JPEG 1992 standard.

Wavelet transform

These tiles are then wavelet-transformed to an arbitrary depth, in contrast to JPEG 1992 which uses an 8×8 block-size discrete cosine transform. JPEG 2000 uses two different wavelet transforms:

 irreversible: the CDF 9/7 wavelet transform (developed by Ingrid Daubechies). It is said to be "irreversible" because it introduces quantization noise that depends on the precision of the decoder.
 reversible: a rounded version of the biorthogonal Le Gall–Tabatabai (LGT) 5/3 wavelet transform (developed by Didier Le Gall and Ali J. Tabatabai). It uses only integer coefficients, so the output does not require rounding (quantization) and so it does not introduce any quantization noise. It is used in lossless coding.

The wavelet transforms are implemented by the lifting scheme or by convolution.

Quantization
After the wavelet transform, the coefficients are scalar-quantized to reduce the number of bits to represent them, at the expense of quality. The output is a set of integer numbers which have to be encoded bit-by-bit. The parameter that can be changed to set the final quality is the quantization step: the greater the step, the greater is the compression and the loss of quality. With a quantization step that equals 1, no quantization is performed (it is used in lossless compression).

Coding

The result of the previous process is a collection of sub-bands which represent several approximation scales. A sub-band is a set of coefficients—real numbers which represent aspects of the image associated with a certain frequency range as well as a spatial area of the image.

The quantized sub-bands are split further into precincts, rectangular regions in the wavelet domain. They are typically sized so that they provide an efficient way to access only part of the (reconstructed) image, though this is not a requirement.

Precincts are split further into code blocks. Code blocks are in a single sub-band and have equal sizes—except those located at the edges of the image. The encoder has to encode the bits of all quantized coefficients of a code block, starting with the most significant bits and progressing to less significant bits by a process called the EBCOT scheme. EBCOT here stands for Embedded Block Coding with Optimal Truncation. In this encoding process, each bit plane of the code block gets encoded in three so-called coding passes, first encoding bits (and signs) of insignificant coefficients with significant neighbors (i.e., with 1-bits in higher bit planes), then refinement bits of significant coefficients and finally coefficients without significant neighbors. The three passes are called Significance Propagation, Magnitude Refinement and Cleanup pass, respectively.

In lossless mode all bit planes have to be encoded by the EBCOT, and no bit planes can be dropped.

The bits selected by these coding passes then get encoded by a context-driven binary arithmetic coder, namely the binary MQ-coder (as also employed by JBIG2). The context of a coefficient is formed by the state of its eight neighbors in the code block.

The result is a bit-stream that is split into packets where a packet groups selected passes of all code blocks from a precinct into one indivisible unit. Packets are the key to quality scalability (i.e., packets containing less significant bits can be discarded to achieve lower bit rates and higher distortion).

Packets from all sub-bands are then collected in so-called layers.
The way the packets are built up from the code-block coding passes, and thus which packets a layer will contain, is not defined by the JPEG 2000 standard, but in general a codec will try to build layers in such a way that the image quality will increase monotonically with each layer, and the image distortion will shrink from layer to layer. Thus, layers define the progression by image quality within the codestream.

The problem is now to find the optimal packet length for all code blocks which minimizes the overall distortion in a way that the generated target bitrate equals the demanded bit rate.

While the standard does not define a procedure as to how to perform this form of rate–distortion optimization, the general outline is given in one of its many appendices: For each bit encoded by the EBCOT coder, the improvement in image quality, defined as mean square error, gets measured; this can be implemented by an easy table-lookup algorithm. Furthermore, the length of the resulting codestream gets measured. This forms for each code block a graph in the rate–distortion plane, giving image quality over bitstream length. The optimal selection for the truncation points, thus for the packet-build-up points is then given by defining critical slopes of these curves, and picking all those coding passes whose curve in the rate–distortion graph is steeper than the given critical slope. This method can be seen as a special application of the method of Lagrange multiplier which is used for optimization problems under constraints. The Lagrange multiplier, typically denoted by λ, turns out to be the critical slope, the constraint is the demanded target bitrate, and the value to optimize is the overall distortion.

Packets can be reordered almost arbitrarily in the JPEG 2000 bit-stream; this gives the encoder as well as image servers a high degree of freedom.

Already encoded images can be sent over networks with arbitrary bit rates by using a layer-progressive encoding order. On the other hand, color components can be moved back in the bit-stream; lower resolutions (corresponding to low-frequency sub-bands) could be sent first for image previewing. Finally, spatial browsing of large images is possible through appropriate tile or partition selection. All these operations do not require any re-encoding but only byte-wise copy operations.

Compression ratio

Compared to the previous JPEG standard, JPEG 2000 delivers a typical compression gain in the range of 20%, depending on the image characteristics. Higher-resolution images tend to benefit more, where JPEG 2000's spatial-redundancy prediction can contribute more to the compression process. In very low-bitrate applications, studies have shown JPEG 2000 to be outperformed by the intra-frame coding mode of H.264.

Computational complexity and performance
JPEG 2000 is much more complicated in terms of computational complexity in comparison with JPEG standard. Tiling, color component transform, discrete wavelet transform, and quantization could be done pretty fast, though entropy codec is time-consuming and quite complicated. EBCOT context modelling and arithmetic MQ-coder take most of the time of JPEG 2000 codec.

On CPU the main idea of getting fast JPEG 2000 encoding and decoding is closely connected with AVX/SSE and multithreading to process each tile in a separate thread. The fastest JPEG 2000 solutions utilize both CPU and GPU power to get high performance benchmarks.

File format and codestream
Similar to JPEG-1, JPEG 2000 defines both a file format and a codestream. Whereas JPEG 2000 entirely describes the image samples, JPEG-1 includes additional meta-information such as the resolution of the image or the color space that has been used to encode the image. JPEG 2000 images should—if stored as files—be boxed in the JPEG 2000 file format, where they get the .jp2 extension. The part-2 extension to JPEG 2000 (ISO/IEC 15444-2) enriches the file format by including mechanisms for animation or composition of several codestreams into one single image. This extended file format is called JPX, and should use the file extension .jpf, although .jpx is also used.

There is no standardized extension for codestream data because codestream data is not to be considered to be stored in files in the first place, though when done for testing purposes, the extension .jpc, .j2k or .j2c is commonly used.

Metadata
For traditional JPEG, additional metadata, e.g. lighting and exposure conditions, is kept in an application marker in the Exif format specified by the JEITA. JPEG 2000 chooses a different route, encoding the same metadata in XML form. The reference between the Exif tags and the XML elements is standardized by the ISO TC42 committee in the standard 12234-1.4.

Extensible Metadata Platform can also be embedded in JPEG 2000.

Legal status

ISO 15444 is covered by patents, but the contributing companies and organizations agreed that licenses for its first part—the core coding system—can be obtained free of charge from all contributors.

The JPEG committee has stated:

However, the JPEG committee acknowledged in 2004 that undeclared submarine patents may present a hazard:

In ISO/IEC 15444-1:2016, the JPEG committee stated in "Annex L: Patent statement":

Related standards
Several additional parts of the JPEG 2000 standard exist; amongst them are ISO/IEC 15444-2:2000, JPEG 2000 extensions defining the .jpx file format, featuring for example Trellis quantization, an extended file format and additional color spaces, ISO/IEC 15444-4:2000, the reference testing and ISO/IEC 15444-6:2000, the compound image file format (.jpm), allowing compression of compound text/image graphics.

Extensions for secure image transfer, JPSEC (ISO/IEC 15444-8), enhanced error-correction schemes for wireless applications, JPWL (ISO/IEC 15444-11) and extensions for encoding of volumetric images, JP3D (ISO/IEC 15444-10) are also already available from the ISO.

JPIP protocol for streaming JPEG 2000 images
In 2005, a JPEG 2000–based image browsing protocol, called JPIP was published as ISO/IEC 15444-9. Within this framework, only selected regions of potentially huge images have to be transmitted from an image server on the request of a client, thus reducing the required bandwidth.

JPEG 2000 data may also be streamed using the ECWP and ECWPS protocols found within the ERDAS ECW/JP2 SDK.

Motion JPEG 2000

Motion JPEG 2000, (MJ2), originally defined in Part 3 of the ISO Standard for JPEG2000 (ISO/IEC 15444-3:2002,) as a standalone document, has now been expressed by ISO/IEC 15444-3:2002/Amd 2:2003 in terms of the ISO Base format, ISO/IEC 15444-12 and in ITU-T Recommendation T.802. It specifies the use of the JPEG 2000 format for timed sequences of images (motion sequences), possibly combined with audio, and composed into an overall presentation. It also defines a file format, based on ISO base media file format (ISO 15444-12). Filename extensions for Motion JPEG 2000 video files are .mj2 and .mjp2 according to RFC 3745.

It is an open ISO standard and an advanced update to MJPEG (or MJ), which was based on the legacy JPEG format. Unlike common video formats, such as MPEG-4 Part 2, WMV, and H.264, MJ2 does not employ temporal or inter-frame compression. Instead, each frame is an independent entity encoded by either a lossy or lossless variant of JPEG 2000. Its physical structure does not depend on time ordering, but it does employ a separate profile to complement the data. For audio, it supports LPCM encoding, as well as various MPEG-4 variants, as "raw" or complement data.

Motion JPEG 2000 (often referenced as MJ2 or MJP2) is considered as a digital archival format by the Library of Congress though MXF_OP1a_JP2_LL (lossless JPEG 2000 wrapped in MXF operational pattern 1a) is preferred by the LOC Packard Campus for Audio-Visual Conservation.

ISO base media file format
ISO/IEC 15444-12 is identical with ISO/IEC 14496-12 (MPEG-4 Part 12) and it defines ISO base media file format. For example, Motion JPEG 2000 file format, MP4 file format or 3GP file format are also based on this ISO base media file format.

GML JP2 georeferencing
The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) has defined a metadata standard for georeferencing JPEG 2000 images with embedded XML using the Geography Markup Language (GML) format: GML in JPEG 2000 for Geographic Imagery Encoding (GMLJP2), version 1.0.0, dated 2006-01-18.  Version 2.0, entitled GML in JPEG 2000 (GMLJP2) Encoding Standard Part 1: Core was approved 2014-06-30.

JP2 and JPX files containing GMLJP2 markup can be located and displayed in the correct position on the Earth's surface by a suitable Geographic Information System (GIS), in a similar way to GeoTIFF and GTG images.

Application support

Applications

Libraries

See also
 AVIF
 Comparison of graphics file formats
 Digital cinema
 DjVu – a compression format that also uses wavelets and that is designed for use on the web.
 ECW – a wavelet compression format that compares well to JPEG 2000.
 High bit rate media transport
 JPEG-LS – another lossless image compression standard from JPEG.
 JPEG XL - Long-term replacement for JPEG 2000, JPEG-LS, JPEG, and related formats.
 JPIP – JPEG 2000 Interactive Protocol
 MrSID – a wavelet compression format that compares well to JPEG 2000
 PGF – a fast wavelet compression format that compares well to JPEG 2000
 QuickTime – a multimedia framework, application and web browser plugin developed by Apple, capable of encoding, decoding and playing various multimedia files (including JPEG 2000 images by default).
 Video compression picture types
 Wavelet
 WebP – an image format related to WebM, supporting lossy and lossless compression

References

Sources

 Official JPEG 2000 page
 Final Committee Drafts of JPEG 2000 standard (as the official JPEG 2000 standard is not freely available, the final drafts are the most accurate freely available documentation about this standard)
 Gormish Notes on JPEG 2000
 Technical overview of JPEG 2000 (PDF)

External links

 nvJPEG2000 – Nvidia's CUDA decoder and encoder

2000
Graphics file formats
Image compression
ISO/IEC standards
ITU-T recommendations
Open formats
Wavelets

JPEG 2000


The Lincoln Town Car was an American-made full size sedan. It was launched in 1980 as a 1981 model. However, the Town Car name was first used on the Lincoln Continental starting in 1959 and ending in 1979. For 1980, the Town Car name was used on a downsized version of the Continental before it was used on its own model. The first official generation of the Town Car was made from 1981 to 1989. For 1990, the second generation got a complete redesign and was facelifted for the 1995 model year. For 1998, the Town Car entered its third generation and got a rounder, more sleek design. For 2003, the Panther platform got new rack and pinion steering along with a slight redesign which lasted till its end in 2011. The Lincoln Town Car was distributed by The Ford Motor Company, Ford's Lincoln (automobile) division. This automobile was the most used limousine in the United States and in Canada. The automobiles are sometimes used as taxis. They were used as hearses as well. The Town Car was discontinued in 2011.

1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
Sedans
Town Car

Lincoln Town Car


Andy Page is a fictional character appearing in several well-known short stories written by popular Australian writer and poet Henry Lawson. Andy is rarely found without the company of good mates Jim Bently and Dave Regan, and is generally the 'straight man' of the trio.

Andy's character first appeared in Lawson's short story, "Andy Page's Rival." This story was published in Lawson's collection On the Track in 1900.

"The Iron-Bark Chip," which includes the characters of Andy Page, Dave Regan, and Jack Bentley (most likely the character more commonly known as Jim Bently) was published in the same collection.

Possibly the most popular Andy Page story would be Lawson's humorous "The Loaded Dog", in which Dave's imaginative idea of fishing with explosives backfires when the cartridge is left unattended.

Andy, like Dave, is extremely fond of fishing. According to "The Loaded Dog," "Andy would fish for three hours at a stretch if encouraged by a 'nibble' or a 'bite' now and then— say once in twenty minutes." Whilst Dave thought up the idea for the explosive fishing cartridge, Andy implemented it. "Andy usually put Dave's theories into practice if they were practicable, or bore the blame for the failure and the chaffing of his mates if they weren't."

References

Characters in short stories
Male characters in literature
Literary characters introduced in 1900

Andy Page


Ray C. Davis is an American businessman. He served as the co-chief executive officer (CEO) and chairman for Energy Transfer Partners (ETP) and chairman of Energy Transfer Equity (ETE). He is co-owner and co-chairman of the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball (MLB).

Business career
Davis worked in the energy industry for forty years, until he retired as the CEO of ETP and ETE in 2007. He remained with the company as a director and operates Avatar Investments LP, a Dallas-based investment firm. In 2008, Davis made his first appearance on the Forbes 400 list, ranking 367th with a net worth of $1 billion. In 2012, he ranked 315th with a net worth of $1.5 billion, and he ranked 296th in 2013 with a net worth of $1.9 billion.

Texas Rangers ownership
When the Rangers were put up for sale in 2010, Davis joined a group headed by Chuck Greenberg and Nolan Ryan, which purchased the club. Davis and Bob R. Simpson provided the majority of the $593 million sale price. Davis and Simpson became co-chairmen of the Rangers, but remained mostly behind the scenes as senior consultants while allowing Greenberg and Ryan to operate the team as CEO and president, respectively. This arrangement continued after Greenberg left in 2011 and ceded his post as CEO to Ryan. Following Ryan's resignation from the Rangers in 2013, MLB approved the Rangers' request to have Davis replace Ryan as the team's control person, thus making him the primary person accountable to the commissioner's office for the team's operations. However, Davis and Simpson have continued to stay in the background as senior consultants. For the most part, they left day-to-day operations in the hands of baseball operations heads Jon Daniels until 2022 (as general manager from 2013 to 2020 and as president of baseball operations from 2020 to 2022) and Chris Young since 2023 (as general manager).

Personal life
Davis is a somewhat reclusive man who prefers to avoid the limelight. In 2010, he rebuffed an attempt by D Magazine to get a comment on his purchase of the Rangers, saying that he doesn't grant interviews.

References

Living people
Texas Rangers owners
American energy industry businesspeople
American corporate directors
American billionaires
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ray Davis (businessman)


Willy Vandersteen (15 February 1913 – 28 August 1990) was a Belgian maker of comic books. In his life, he made a large studio and published more than 1,000 comic albums in over 25 series.  He sold more than 200 million copies worldwide.

He is considered together with Marc Sleen the founding father of Flemish comics. He is mainly popular in Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Hergé called him "The Brueghel of the comic strip". The creation of his own studio and the mass production and commercialization of his work turned him into "the Walt Disney of the Low Countries".

Vandersteen is best known for Suske en Wiske (published in English as Spike and Suzy, Luke and Lucy, Willy and Wanda or Bob and Bobette). In 2008 it sold 3.5 million books. His other major series are De Rode Ridder with over 200 albums and Bessy with almost 1,000 albums published in Germany.

Awards and recognition
 1959: Honorary citizen of the community Deurne near Antwerp
 1977: Angoulême International Comics Festival prize for Best Foreign Author, France
 2007: Prestige award at the Prix Saint-Michel in Brussels
 Vandersteen is also honorary citizen of Kalmthout. A statue of Vandersteen is located on Willy Vandersteen Square.

According to UNESCO's Index Translationum, Vandersteen is the second most often translated Dutch language author, after Anne Frank.

References

1913 births
1990 deaths
Belgian comics artists
People from Antwerp

Willy Vandersteen


Exogamy is the social norm of mating or marrying outside one's social group. The group defines the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. One form of exogamy is dual exogamy, in which two groups continually intermarry with each other.

In social science, exogamy is viewed as a combination of two related aspects: biological and cultural. Biological exogamy is the marriage of people who are not blood relatives.  This is regulated by incest taboos and laws against incest. Cultural exogamy is marrying outside a specific cultural group; the opposite being endogamy, marriage within a social group.

Biology of exogamy
Exogamy often results in two individuals that are not closely genetically related marrying each other; that is, outbreeding as opposed to inbreeding. In moderation, this benefits the offspring as it reduces the risk of the offspring inheriting two copies of a defective gene. Increasing the genetic diversity of the offspring improves the chances of offspring reproducing, up until the fourth-cousin level of relatedness; however, reproduction between individuals on the fourth-cousin level of relatedness decreases evolutionary fitness. In native populations, exogamy might be detrimental if "the benefits of local adaptation are greater than the cost of inbreeding." However, non-native, "invasive" populations that have "not yet established a pattern of local adaptation" may derive some adaptive benefit from admixture.

Nancy Wilmsen Thornhill states that the drive in humans to not reproduce or be attracted to one's immediate family is evolutionarily adaptive, as it reduces the risk of children having genetic defects caused by inbreeding, as a result of inheriting two copies of a deleterious recessive gene.

In one Old Order Amish society, inbreeding increases the risk of "neonatal and postneonatal mortality." In French populations, people who reproduce with their first cousin develop cystinosis at a greater rate than the general population.

Cultural exogamy

Cultural exogamy is the custom of marrying outside a specified group of people to which a person belongs. Thus, persons may be expected to marry outside their totem clan(s) or other groups, in addition to outside closer blood relatives.

Researchers have proposed different theories to account for the origin of exogamy. Edvard Westermarck said an aversion to marriage between blood relatives or near kin emerged with a parental deterrence of incest. From a genetic point of view, aversion to breeding with close relatives results in fewer congenital diseases. If one person has a faulty gene, breeding outside his group increases the chances that his partner will have another functional type gene and their child may not suffer the defect. Outbreeding favours the condition of heterozygosity, that is having two nonidentical copies of a given gene.
J. F. McLennan holds that exogamy was due originally to a scarcity of women among small bands. Men were obliged to seek wives from other groups, including marriage by capture, and exogamy developed as a cultural custom.

Émile Durkheim derives exogamy from totemism. He said that a people had religious respect for the blood of a totemic clan, for the clan totem is a god and is present especially in the blood, a sacred substance.

In some forms of Hinduism such as Shaktism, people can only marry outside their gotra which is a traditional group of people who may be distantly related but have been living in the same area or have an ancestral home in the same area.

Morgan maintains that exogamy was introduced to prevent marriage between blood relations, especially between brother and sister, which had been common in an earlier state of promiscuity. Frazer says that exogamy was begun to maintain the survival of family groups, especially when single families became larger political groups.

Claude Lévi-Strauss introduced the "Alliance Theory" of exogamy, that is, that small groups must force their members to marry outside so as to build alliances with other groups. According to this theory, groups that engaged in exogamy would flourish, while those that did not would all die, either literally or because they lacked sufficient ties for cultural and economic exchange, leaving them at a disadvantage. The exchange of men or women served as a uniting force between groups.

Dual exogamy
Dual exogamy is a traditional form of arranging marriages in numerous modern societies and in many societies described in classical literature. It can be matrilineal or patrilineal. It is practiced by some Australian tribes, historically widespread in the Turkic societies, Taï societies (Ivory Coast), Eskimo, among Ugrians and others. In tribal societies, the dual exogamy union lasted for many generations, ultimately uniting the groups initially unrelated by blood or language into a single tribe or nation.

Linguistic exogamy
Linguistic exogamy is a form of cultural exogamy in which marriage occurs only between speakers of different languages. The custom is common among indigenous groups in the northwest Amazon, such as the Tucano tribes.

See also
 Chinese surname: surname exogamy in China
 Emmanuel Todd, author of several demographic-history textbooks on the impact of exogamy on political-religious ideology
 Endogamy
 Gotra: exogamous unit in India
 Heterophily
 Hypergamy
 Interfaith marriage
 Interracial marriage
 Kinship
 Miscegenation

References

External links

Multiculturalism
Population genetics

Exogamy


In Greek mythology, the Ophiotaurus was a creature that was part bull and part serpent. Ovid's poem, Fasti (3.793 ff) is the only work where it is mentioned. There, it is said that when the creature's entrails were burnt, the person to do so could defeat the gods.

The Ophiotaurus appears in the third book in the "Percy Jackson & the Olympians" series, The Titan's Curse. Percy Jackson first thinks it is a female and names it "Bessie". It reappears in Battle of the Labyrinth and The Last Olympian.

References
 Theoi Project - Tauros Ophis (Ophiotauros)

Greek legendary creatures

Ophiotaurus


From Nine to Nine or Between Nine and Nine (German title: Zwischen neun und neun; original title: Freiheit) is a novel by Leo Perutz first published in 1918. It is about a turbulent day in the life of an impoverished student in Imperial Vienna. The commission of a desperate crime at the beginning of the novel triggers a chain reaction during which the protagonist is thrown into a series of grotesque situations while all around him people carry on with their normal lives without noticing anything out of the ordinary.

Originally serialized in various newspapers in Prague, Vienna, and Berlin, From Nine to Nine became a very popular book and was translated into eight languages during the 1920s. In 1922 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer bought the film rights, but the film was never made.

Plot summary
Stanislaus Demba, an honest, well-intentioned student with little money at his disposal, is desperately in love with Sonja Hartmann, an office girl easily impressed by young men with money—a superficial young woman who, by common consent, is not worthy of his love and adoration. When Demba learns that Sonja is about to go on a holiday with another man, he tries to sell some valuable old library tomes which he has borrowed but never returned to a shady antiques dealer so that he can offer Sonja a more expensive trip. The prospective buyer of the books, however, calls the police, and Demba is arrested. While he is being handcuffed Demba jumps out of an attic window and makes his escape.

It is nine o'clock in the morning, and Demba embarks on his odyssey by furtively wandering around the streets of Vienna while hiding his handcuffed hands under his overcoat. His two immediate aims now are (a) to get rid of his handcuffs by some means or other without being caught by the police and (b) to raise the money necessary for a trip to, say, Venice, Italy. People who realize that he is unwilling to show his hands either believe he is some kind of freak with a deformity or a dangerous criminal carrying a pistol. Throughout the first part of the novel, Demba repeatedly refers to "his hands being tied", but everyone—including the majority of readers—assumes that he is speaking metaphorically.

There is a twist ending to the novel.

Translations

 From Nine to Nine - Translated by Lily Lore. 1926 The Viking Press
 Between Nine and Nine -
 Translated by Edward Larkin and Thomas Ahrens. 2009 Ariadne Press

References

 Hans-Harald Müller: "Begegnung mit dem Tod ohne Folgen", Zwischen neun und neun (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2004), pp. 215ff.

Read on

 Ambrose Bierce: "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge" (short story, 1891)
 William Golding: Pincher Martin (novel, 1956)

External links
Zwischen neun und neun, original German text at Project Gutenberg

1918 German-language novels
1918 speculative fiction novels
Austrian speculative fiction novels
Novels set in Vienna
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in newspapers
Viking Press books
20th-century Austrian novels
Novels set in one day

From Nine to Nine


The Khamseh Arabs are an Arab nomadic and pastoral tribe of the Fars Province in Iran. They are a part of Khamseh confederation. They speak a dialect of Arabic.

Branches
The tribe has two branches: Sheybani and Jabbareh

Sources
 Ali Mohammad Najafi, Great Men of Arab Tribe and the Tribes
 Ali Mohammad Najafi, Khamseh Tribes happenings

Ethnic groups in Iran

Khamseh Arabs


Leonid Borisovich Nevzlin (; , born 21 September 1959) is a Russian-born Israeli businessman, investor, and philanthropist.

Nevzlin occupied various high-ranking positions at Group Menatep and its subsidiary, the Yukos Oil Company. In 2003, the Russian state expropriated Yukos and began a campaign of persecution against its executives. Nevzlin was tried in absentia in Russia in March 2008, found guilty of several counts of conspiracy to murder and sentenced to life imprisonment. In 2014, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of Nevzlin and other Yukos shareholders, calling the actions of the Russian state "a ruthless campaign to destroy Yukos and to expropriate its assets".

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Nevzlin renounced his Russian citizenship, stating that: "Everything that Putin touches dies. Russian citizenship itself has become a mark of disgrace that I no longer want to bear".

Professional career
From 1981 to 1987, Nevzlin was a software engineer at Zarubezhgeologia, an external trade organization of the Soviet Ministry of Geology. In 1987, he met Mikhail Khodorkovsky and became a deputy director at the Center for Scientific and Technical Creativity of the Youth (MENATEP), attached to the Komsomol committee in Moscow's Frunzensky District.

MENATEP established one of the first private banks in Russia, Bank Menatep. From 1989 to 1991, Nevzlin served as president of the bank, after which he held other high-ranking positions, including vice chairman of the board (1993–1996) and head of public relations (1994–1996). Nevzlin also worked at Group Menatep, focusing on corporate communications, government relations, and human resources. In April 1996 he became vice president of Yukos, in which Menatep had acquired a 78% share in December 1995.

From September 1997 to October 1998, Nevzlin served as first deputy director general of the Russian news agency ITAR TASS, creating a plan to gradually transform it into a joint-stock company. In April 1998, Nevzlin became first vice chairman of Bank Menatep. In 1999 he became first vice chairman of the board of directors of Yukos. From November 2001 to March 2003, he represented the Republic of Mordovia as a senator in the Federation Council of Russia. From June to November 2003, he served as the rector of the Russian State University for the Humanities. In 2003 and 2004, Nevzlin was featured on Forbes magazine's list of the world's 100 wealthiest people. In 2010, his wealth was estimated at US$1.3 billion.

Nevzlin is a co-owner and board member of Haaretz, one of Israel's liberal newspaper publishers, having purchased a 20% stake in the company in 2011 for 140 million shekels. Members of the Schocken family, descendants of the newspaper's founders, retain a 60 percent stake in the company. In 2014, Nevzlin founded the monthly Hebrew-language magazine "Liberal", which publishes analyses of Israeli political life, communications and culture. The inaugural issue appeared in May 2014.

Legal disputes
In 2003, following prolonged clashes with the Kremlin, Yukos' controlling shareholder, Mikhail Khodorkovsky, and another senior executive, Platon Lebedev, were arrested on charges of fraud and tax evasion. Both were convicted in 2005 following trials that were widely condemned internationally as procedurally flawed and politically motivated. Khodorkovsky was found guilty and the sentence for tax evasion and fraud was upheld by the European Court of Human Rights for the same affair. Yukos' assets were subsequently awarded to state-owned companies in a series of forced auctions. Yukos was declared bankrupt in August 2006.

Nevzlin left Russia for Israel in 2003. In 2004 the Russian Prosecutor General's Office sought Nevzlin's extradition over hotly disputed criminal allegations against him related to his tenure at Yukos. The Israeli government rejected the extradition request due to insufficient evidence. Two members of the Israeli public who felt aggrieved by their government's decision sued to have it reversed. They also petitioned the interior minister to revoke Nevzlin's Israeli citizenship on the grounds that it was obtained under false pretenses. Nevzlin's attorney, David Libai, argued that the charges against him were the result of political persecution. A spokesman for Nevzlin stated in reaction to the extradition request, "Amnesty International, the European Parliament, and the court in the UK, are only some of the bodies that have found that Russian president Vladimir Putin is persecuting Mikhail Khodorovsky, Leonid Nevzlin, and the other shareholders in Yukos, who dared to support democratic opposition parties and openly come out against him. Putin does not hesitate to make use of the Russian authorities that are subordinate to him to create false charges – in the best tradition of the KGB, in which Putin grew up."

In May 2008, Israel's Supreme Court found there was no evidence directly connecting Nevzlin to the criminal allegations made against him. The court rejected extradition and denied the motion to strip Nevzlin of his citizenship. Israel's interior minister and attorney general were ordered to pay Nevzlin's court costs for this case. Nevzlin was tried in absentia in Russia in March 2008, found guilty of several counts of conspiracy to murder and sentenced to life imprisonment. Nevzlin called the court case a show trial orchestrated by Vladimir Putin.

In 2014, the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, despite the Russian Duma having never ratified the treaty under which this judgment was made, therefore making a non-legally-binding judgment, ruled unanimously that the Russian authorities had conducted a "ruthless campaign to destroy Yukos, appropriate its assets and eliminate Mr. [Mikhail] Khodorkovsky as a political opponent". According to the panel, the forced auction of core parts of the company through contested bankruptcy proceedings "was not driven by motives of tax collection but by the desire of the State to acquire Yukos' most valuable asset and bankrupt Yukos.... In short, it was in effect a devious and calculated expropriation".

The former Yukos shareholders were awarded damages totaling $50 billion – the largest arbitration award in history. As the biggest shareholder of GML, the former Yukos holding company that brought the legal case, with a 70 per cent stake, Nevzlin stands to be the biggest single beneficiary from The Hague's ruling. The Russian government failed to meet the deadline of 15 January 2015 for paying the award. Early news reports indicated that the former Yukos investors would seek redress by asking U.S. and EU courts to seize Russian-owned assets on their own territories.

Public affairs and philanthropy
Nevzlin was awarded the Order of Friendship, one of the Russian Federation's highest honors, for his efforts in supporting Boris Yeltsin's reelection campaign in 1996.

From March to December 2001 Nevzlin served as president of the Russian Jewish Congress. He was a key player in Jewish historical and heritage research projects, including the establishment of the Moscow Jewish Cultural Center and the International Center for Russian and Eastern European Jewish Studies in Moscow. Moreover, Nevzlin contributed to numerous other Jewish educational programs developed in collaboration with World ORT, the Jewish Agency for Israel and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee.

Since moving to Israel, Nevzlin has established the NADAV Foundation, which supports projects in Jewish studies and education, Israel-Diaspora relations and Jewish peoplehood. Its annual "NADAV Peoplehood Prize" has been awarded to such figures as author Elie Wiesel, retired Israeli Supreme Court Chief Justice Aharon Barak, and, most recently, Rabbi David Stav, an Israeli Orthodox rabbi.

Nevzlin created the Leonid Nevzlin Research Center for Russian and Eastern European Jewry at Jerusalem's Hebrew University. He has also served on the boards of both the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv University.

In collaboration with the Israeli government, Nevzlin created a relief fund in 2004 to revive Beit Hatfutsot – the Museum of the Jewish People, located on the campus of Tel Aviv University, and was elected chairman of its International Board of governors. The NADAV Foundation launched the International School for Jewish Peoplehood Studies at Beit Hatfutsot in 2006, and the Nevzlin Center for Jewish Peoplehood at the Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya in 2010.

Nevzlin has served on the board of governors of the Jewish Agency for Israel and the board of trustees of Keren Hayesod, the United Israel Appeal, and as associate chairman of the board of directors of the Jewish People Policy Planning Institute.

Nevzlin is also a long-term supporter of Israeli healthcare charity Ezra LeMarpeh.

Family and education
Nevzlin was born in Moscow on 21 September 1959 into a family of Lithuanian Jewish origin. He graduated from the Gubkin Russian State University of Oil and Gas in 1981, and earned an MA from the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, majoring in management and marketing. Nevzlin has married three times and has five children including Irina Nevzlin, chair of the board of directors at Beit Hatfutsot. Through Irina, he is the father in law of Israeli politician Yuli Edelstein.

In 2014, Nevzlin acquired an apartment in the new, upscale Waldorf-Astoria hotel/apartment complex in the center of Jerusalem at a cost of 40 million shekels (approximately US$11.5 million).

Writings
Nevzlin is the author of the two books "Человек с рублём" ("Man with a Ruble", coauthored with Mikhail Khodorkovsky), in praise of free-market economics, and "Public Relations – кому это надо?" ("Public Relations – Who Needs Them?").

See also
 Vladimir Petukhov

 David E. Hoffman The Oligarchs: Wealth and Power in the New Russia (PublicAffairs, 2002),
Alex Gibney's 2019 film Citizen K and  where Nevzlin plays himself.

Publications
 Chelovek s rublyom. (en: The man with the Rubel.), with Mikhail Khodorkovsky, Moscow: Menatep-Inform 1992,

References

External links

 The NADAV Fund website
Nevzlin's blog

1959 births
Living people
20th-century Russian businesspeople
21st-century businesspeople
Fugitive financiers
Fugitives wanted by Russia
Haaretz people
Israeli billionaires
Israeli chief executives
Israeli investors
Israeli people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
Israeli philanthropists
Jewish Israeli politicians
Members of the Federation Council of Russia (after 2000)
Businesspeople from Moscow
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Russia
Russian businesspeople in the oil industry
Russian emigrants to Israel
Russian investors
Russian Jews
Russian philanthropists
Russian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Software engineers
Soviet engineers
Yukos
Plekhanov Russian University of Economics alumni
Russian activists against the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Russian businesspeople in Israel
People listed in Russia as foreign agents

Leonid Nevzlin


Jacqueline Bird (née Macpherson, born 31 July 1962) is a Scottish journalist and broadcaster, best known as a former anchor of the BBC Scotland's national news programme Reporting Scotland until April 2019. Since 2022, she has been serving as the president of the National Trust for Scotland.

Early life
Jacqueline Macpherson was born on 31 July 1962 in Bellshill, North Lanarkshire, the daughter of Linda and Ronnie Macpherson. Bird attended Earnock High School in Hamilton.

Career

Bird was 17 when she started work for DC Thomson in Dundee working on teenage magazines and eventually became the pop editor at Jackie magazine. Subsequently, she worked as a broadcast journalist on Radio Clyde's news team and then as a food critic for the Glasgow Evening Times. After working as a reporter for The Sun newspaper, Bird joined Television South in Maidstone as a reporter and presenter for the South East edition of regional news programme Coast to Coast.

Bird left TVS to join BBC Scotland, making her debut as a main presenter of Reporting Scotland on Monday 16 October 1989. She has also been a main presenter of key event programming for BBC Scotland, including Hogmanay Live and the Scottish Children in Need opt-outs.

Bird is also a newspaper columnist and has written and produced comedy series The Lewis Lectures and Having it All for BBC Radio Scotland.

On 13 June 2012, she was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (D Litt) in a graduation ceremony at the University of Glasgow.

In October 2014, Bird celebrated 25 years of working on Reporting Scotland, as the programme's longest serving presenter.

On 11 April 2019, BBC Scotland announced Bird had left Reporting Scotland after nearly 30 years as a main presenter to concentrate on other projects. Bird presented her final programme the previous evening, without announcing her departure.

Other work
Bird has also toured with  Echo & the Bunnymen and worked with Paul Weller.

In November 2016, she appeared as herself in the episode, "Down and Out" in series 7 of Scottish sitcom Still Game. In 2018, Bird made a brief cameo appearance in the zombie Christmas musical film Anna and the Apocalypse.

Personal life
Bird met Bob Bird, a newspaper editor, at The Sun in Glasgow. They married and moved to London, where they had their two children. In 2006, the couple divorced and the following year she remarried. She lives in the conservation village of Carmunnock.

In 2012 Bird had sections of her small and large intestine removed after suffering a rare bowel condition.

References

External links
/pressoffice

1962 births
BBC Scotland newsreaders and journalists
Living people
People from Bellshill
British women television journalists
British women radio presenters
National Trust for Scotland people

Jackie Bird


In mathematics, a braided vector space is a vector space together with an additional structure map  symbolizing interchanging of two vector tensor copies:

such that the Yang–Baxter equation is fulfilled. Hence drawing tensor diagrams with  an overcrossing the corresponding composed morphism is unchanged when a Reidemeister move is applied to the tensor diagram and thus they present a representation of the braid group.

As first example, every vector space is braided via the trivial braiding (simply flipping). A superspace has a braiding with negative sign in braiding two odd vectors. More generally, a diagonal braiding means that for a -base  we have

A good source for braided vector spaces entire braided monoidal categories with braidings  between any objects , most importantly the modules over quasitriangular Hopf algebras and Yetter–Drinfeld modules over finite groups (such as  above)

If  additionally possesses an algebra structure inside the braided category ("braided algebra") one has a braided commutator (e.g. for a superspace the anticommutator):

Examples of such braided algebras (and even Hopf algebras) are the Nichols algebras, that are by definition generated by a given braided vectorspace. They appear as quantum Borel part of quantum groups and often (e.g. when finite or over an abelian group) possess an arithmetic root system, multiple Dynkin diagrams and a PBW-basis made up of braided commutators just like the ones in semisimple Lie algebras.

Hopf algebras
Quantum groups

Braided vector space


Jerome Bayard Clark (April 5, 1882 – August 26, 1959) was a U.S. Representative from North Carolina.

Early life
Born on Phoebus Plantation near Elizabethtown, North Carolina, Clark attended Davidson College, where he was a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he studied law. Clark was admitted to the bar in 1906 and commenced practice in Elizabethtown, North Carolina. He married Helen Purdie Robinson and they had four children:  Martha Holton Clark, Jerome Bayard Clark Jr., Heman Robinson Clark, and Helen Purdie Clark.  From 1910-1920 Clark served as president of the Bank of Elizabethtown, and in the state House of Representatives in 1915.

Clark then moved to Fayetteville, North Carolina in 1920 and continued the practice of law, serving as a member of the State Democratic committee from 1909-1919 and, later, as a member of the North Carolina State Judicial Conference from 1924-1928.

Clark was an avid sailor, outdoorsman and noted short story writer. Many of his tales were published in The Blade Journal under his pen name, Mr. Bide. A nature park (Clark Park) is named in his honor in Fayetteville. His portrait is displayed in the Bladen County Courthouse in Elizabethtown.

US Congress
Clark was elected as a Democrat to the Seventy-first and to the nine succeeding Congresses (March 4, 1929 – January 3, 1949). Clark served as chairman of the Committee on Elections No. 1 (Seventy-second and Seventy-third Congresses).

Clark was not a candidate for renomination in 1948 and he resumed the practice of law. He died in Fayetteville, North Carolina on August 26, 1959 and is interred in Cross Creek Cemetery No. 3.

Sources

1882 births
1959 deaths
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from North Carolina
Democratic Party members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
Davidson College alumni
University of North Carolina School of Law alumni
People from Elizabethtown, North Carolina
20th-century American politicians

J. Bayard Clark


Common Missile was an intercontinental ballistic missile project, developed to satisfy U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force operational system requirements for both SLBM and silo-launched ICBM, defined in the 1978 commonality study.

Description
The Common Missile was designed as a four-stage solid propellant, stellar-inertial guided intercontinental ballistic missile capable of delivering up to six Mark 21 reentry vehicles to independent targets. It is propelled from a canister by a gas generator prior to first stage ignition. The post boost vehicle consists of a structure to house the guidance and solid propulsion systems and a platform to mount the reentry vehicles. The post boost vehicle provides the reentry vehicle spacing and deployment maneuvers. The basic dimensions, length, and diameter, were derived from submarine launcher volumetric constraints. The booster stages were sized to provide for Navy guidance access requirements at the II-III interstage and for at-sea maintenance access. The missile was designed to fill the current Trident submarine tube.

References

Abandoned military rocket and missile projects of the United States
Intercontinental ballistic missiles of the Cold War
Intercontinental ballistic missiles of the United States
Submarine-launched ballistic missiles of the United States

Common Missile


Pearls is an album by Ronnie Drew in collaboration with a group called Grand Canal.  It consists mainly of poetry recited by Drew over music performed by the group.  Released in 2007, it also features previously released recordings from The Celtic Poets by Jah Wobble's Invaders of the Heart.

Track listing
 "Providence"
 "Steel Boat Runners"
 "Gone in the Wind"
 "At the Tail End of a Hurricane"
 "About SuperHeroes"
 "London Rain"
 "Bagpipe Music"
 "The Dunes"
 "A Man I Knew"
 "Clear Air Turbulence"
 "Saturn"

Tracks 1, 2, 4, 5 and 10 by Grand Canal
Tracks 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 11 from The Celtic Poets by Jah Wobble's Invaders of the Heart

In 2008, this album was given away free with the Sunday Independent and featured an extra track called "Longing".

Ronnie Drew albums
2007 albums

Pearls (Ronnie Drew album)


Edward Rooker (c. 1712 – 22 November 1774) was an English engraver, draughtsman and actor.

Life and work

Rooker was born in Towcester in Northamptonshire around 1712, to Michael and Ann Rooker, and was a pupil of Henry Roberts, a landscape engraver. He became celebrated for his architectural plates, which he executed in an extremely rich and artistic style. Art historian Horace Walpole termed him the "Marc Antonio" of architecture.

Among Rooker's early works are a view on the Thames from Somerset House (1750), and a view of Vauxhall Gardens (1751), both after Canaletto; a view of the Parthenon for Dalton's 'Views of Sicily and Greece' (1751), and a section of St. Paul's Cathedral, decorated according to the
original intention of Sir Christopher Wren, from a drawing by J. Gwyn and S. Wale
(1755).

Rooker also contributed plates to Sir William Chambers' 'Civil Architecture' (1759) and 'Kew Gardens' (1763), James Stuart's 'The Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece' (1762), and Robert Adam's 'Ruins of the
Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro' (1764).

Perhaps Rooker's finest work is a set of six views of London, engraved in the manner of Piranesi from drawings by Paul and Thomas Sandby, which
he published himself in 1766. In that year he also drew and engraved a large view of Blackfriars Bridge, then in course of construction. He engraved many landscapes after William Pars, Paul Sandby, Richard Wilson, and others. He also etched, in conjunction with Sandby, three of the set of six large plates of subjects from Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata" (painted by John Collins [c. 1725 - c. 1759]).

The headings of the 'Oxford Almanacks' from 1769 to 1775 were all the joint work of Edward and his son Michael. Rooker was an original member of the Incorporated Society of Artists, and exhibited with them from 1760 to 1768. His last work was done for the 'Copper Plate Magazine', forming a series of landscapes and portraits, which began to appear a few months before his
death.

Rooker was also an actor, working at the Drury Lane Theatre in London between 1752 and 1774, often playing the role of the harlequin.

Edward Rooker died on 22 November 1774 at his house in Great Russell Street in Bloomsbury. His son Michael Angelo Rooker was a notable artist and engraver. Another son Edward Rooker Jr. was also an engraver.

References

External links

Edward & Michael "Angelo" Rooker (Towcester families)
Works by Edward Rooker (Government Art Collection)
A View of the Wilderness, with the Alhambra (c. 1763 engraving after W. Pars - Royal Collection)

English engravers
British draughtsmen
English male stage actors
1712 births
1774 deaths
People from Towcester
18th-century English male actors

Edward Rooker


Kovindapillai Alvapillai, OBE (23 November 1905 – 17 February 1979) was a leading Ceylon Tamil civil servant.

Early life
Alvapillai was born on 23 November 1905. He was the son of Kovindapillai and Seethevi Pillai (Thangam) from Thumpalai near Point Pedro in northern British Ceylon. Alvapillai had an elder sister (Nagaratnam), younger brother (Sathasivam Pillai) and younger sister (Theva Yogam). His father died when Alvapillai was ten years old. He was educated at Hartley College, Point Pedro. He passed the Senior Cambridge examination with distinction and honours. He then went to Ceylon University College. After graduation he went to the University of London from where he graduated with a first class honours degree in mathematics.

Alvapillai married Kanagammah, daughter of V. Nallathamby and Vallipillai from Tellippalai. They had two sons (Vijayaraghavan and Senthilkumar) and a daughter (Bhavani).

Alvapillai was the President of the Colombo Vivekananda Society and Colombo Tamil Sangam and one of the founders of Colombo Hindu College.

Career
On returning to Ceylon Alvapillai joined the Ceylon Civil Service in 1929 as a cadet. He was appointed Deputy Commissioner of Food Purchase in 1942. In 1945 he was appointed Director of Food Supplies. Later he became Food Commissioner. In 1953 he was appointed Permanent Secretary to the Minister of Agriculture and Food. In 1959 he became Permanent Secretary to the Minister of Commerce and Trade.
During his career Alvapillai worked for some of the leading ministers in post-independence Ceylon: Oliver Goonetilleke, Philip Gunawardena, T. B. Ilangaratne, J. R. Jayewardene, A. Ratnayaka, Maithripala Senanayake and V. A. Sugathadasa. He retired in 1965.

In the 1948 Birthday Honours Alvapillai was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire.

After retirement Alvapillai served as Chairman of a number of state-owned corporations – Ceylon Petroleum Corporation, Ceylon State Flour Corporation and Ceylon Shipping Corporation.

Death
Alvapillai died on 17 February 1979 aged 73.

References

1905 births
1979 deaths
Alumni of Hartley College
Alumni of the Ceylon University College
Alumni of the University of London
Ceylonese Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People from Northern Province, Sri Lanka
People from British Ceylon
Permanent secretaries of Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan Tamil people
Sri Lankan civil servants

K. Alvapillai


First Love is a 1939 American musical film directed by Henry Koster and starring Deanna Durbin. Based on the fairy tale Cinderella, the film is about an orphan who is sent to live with her wealthy aunt and uncle after graduating from boarding school. Her life is made difficult by her snobby cousin who arranges that she stay home while the rest of the family attends a major social ball. With the help of her uncle, she makes it to the ball, where she meets and falls in love with her cousin's boyfriend. The film received Academy Award nominations for Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, and Best Music.

Plot
Constance Harding is an unhappy orphan who will soon graduate from Miss Wiggins' school for girls. Her only real relatives are members from the James Clinton family, but they show little interest in the teenager. She is brought to New York by one of their butlers, where she moves in with a bunch of snobs. The upperclass people are not impressed with her, but Connie is able to befriend the servants.

One afternoon, her cousin Barbara Clinton orders Connie to stop Ted Drake from going riding without her. Connie tries the best she can, which results in embarrassing herself. She has secretly fallen in love with him and is filled with joy when she learns the Drake family is organizing a ball. The servants raise money to buy her a fashionable dress. However, Barbara spreads a lie and Connie is eventually prohibited from attending the ball.

Connie is heartbroken, until the servants arrange a limousine she can use until midnight. Meanwhile, the police detain the Clinton family car until almost midnight when they can be brought before a judge, since the chauffeur is missing the vehicle's proof of ownership. At the ball, everyone is impressed with her singing talents. Ted notices her and tries to charm her. They eventually kiss, when Connie realizes it is midnight. She runs off, but accidentally leaves one of her slippers behind. Ted finds the slipper and tries to locate the owner.

Arriving at the ball just before midnight, Barbara spots Connie leaving the ball. Infuriated, she tries to break Connie's confidence and fires all the servants. The next day, Connie is missing as well, and her uncle James berates Grace, Barbara, and Walter for their hostile/indifferent attitude to Connie. Meanwhile, Connie returns to Miss Wiggins' school in the hope of becoming a music teacher. Ted follows her and they reunite in the end.

Cast
 Deanna Durbin as Constance (Connie) Harding
 Robert Stack as Ted Drake
 Eugene Pallette as James F. Clinton
 Helen Parrish as Barbara Clinton
 Lewis Howard as Walter Clinton
 Leatrice Joy as Grace Shute Clinton
 June Storey as Wilma van Everett
 Frank Jenks as Mike the Cop
 Kathleen Howard as Miss Wiggins
 Thurston Hall as Anthony Drake
 Marcia Mae Jones as Marcia Parker
 Samuel S. Hinds as Mr. Parker
 Doris Lloyd as Mrs. Parker
 Charles Coleman as George, Clinton's Butler
 Jack Mulhall as Terry
 Mary Treen as Agnes, Barbara's Maid
 Dorothy Vaughan as Ollie, Mrs. Clinton's Maid
 Lucille Ward as Clinton's Cook
 Larry Steers as Ball Guest (uncredited)
 Eric Wilton as Drake's Butler (uncredited)

Production
In April 1938, Universal announced Durbin would star in Cinderella directed by Henry Koster and producer by Joe Pasternak from a script by Bruce Manning and Felix Jackson, in color.
In May the studio said Durbin would make the film following Three Smart Girls Grow Up. However in late May it was reported the film was abandoned due to protests by exhibitors and also the objections of Walt Disney who said he owned the title.

In June 1938, Peter Milne and Irma Von Curbe were reported writing the script, now called First Love.

In January 1939, Charles Boyer signed to co star.

The film was pushed back to Durbin could make After School Days.

Eventually Boyer dropped out of the film. Lewis Howard and Robert Stack were signed to make their debuts. Filming started June 1939. The movie was shot in black and white.

Filming started with writer Bruce Manning saying he was unsure of the ending.

Joe Pasternak later wrote in his memoirs there had been pressure at Universal to put Durbin in older roles:
I insisted that Deanna was one of those personalities which the world not only takes  to its bosom but insists as regarding as its personal prop-erty. We dressed her, as I said, with great consideration for her position. The occasion of her first kiss was as significant to us, and, as it happened, to her audience, as must be the first kiss of any girl sixteen years old. We instituted a veritable Gone With the Wind-style search for the right boy. Robert Stack finally won it. A million words must have been written on the subject. I do not contend that there were not more weighty matters at the
time. But it is proof, I think, of the interest that every stage of Deanna's development held for the world.

Reception
In his review in The New York Times, Frank S. Nugent wrote that the film "affords the usual pleasant scope for the talents, graces and charming accomplishments of Miss Deanna Durbin." Nugent continued:

The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
 2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated

References

External links

First Love (1939) at the Toronto Film Society

1939 films
Films directed by Henry Koster
1930s English-language films
American black-and-white films
Universal Pictures films
1939 musical films
Films about orphans
Films based on Charles Perrault's Cinderella
Films set in New York City
Films produced by Joe Pasternak
American musical films
Films scored by Hans J. Salter
1930s American films
English-language musical films

First Love (1939 film)