Eric Voegelin (born Erich Hermann Wilhelm Vögelin, ; 1901–1985) was a German-American political philosopher. He was born in Cologne, and educated in political science at the University of Vienna, where he became an associate professor of political science in the law faculty. In 1938, he and his wife fled from the Nazi forces which had entered Vienna. They emigrated to the United States, where they became citizens in 1944. He spent most of his academic career at Louisiana State University, the University of Munich and the Hoover Institution of Stanford University.

Early life
Voegelin was born in Cologne on January 3, 1901. His parents moved to Vienna in 1910, and he eventually studied at the University of Vienna. The advisers on his dissertation were Hans Kelsen and Othmar Spann. After his habilitation there in 1928, he taught political theory and sociology. In Austria, Voegelin began lasting friendships with Alfred Schütz and with F. A. Hayek.

Career
As a result of the Anschluss in 1938, Voegelin was fired from his job. Narrowly avoiding arrest by the Gestapo and after a brief stay in Switzerland, he arrived in the United States. He taught at various universities before he joined Louisiana State University's Department of Government in 1942. Voegelin remained in Baton Rouge until 1958, when he accepted an offer by Munich's Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität to fill Max Weber's former chair in political science, which had been unoccupied since Weber's death in 1920. In Munich, he founded the Institut für Politische Wissenschaft. Voegelin returned to the United States in 1969 to join Stanford University's Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace as Henry Salvatori Fellow. There he continued his work until his death. He was a member of the Philadelphia Society.

Although some have found his books obscure, according to his student Ellis Sandoz, he was a "wonderfully lucid lecturer with the gift of explaining with complete intelligibility the most abstruse theories to the comprehension and fascination" of his students.

Work

In his later life Voegelin worked to account for the endemic political violence of the twentieth century, in an effort variously referred to as a philosophy of politics, history, or consciousness. In Voegelin's Weltanschauung, he "blamed a flawed utopian interpretation of Christianity for spawning totalitarian movements like Nazism and Communism." Voegelin eschewed any ideological labels or categorizations that readers and followers attempted to impose on his work.

Voegelin published scores of books, essays, and reviews in his lifetime. An early work was Die politischen Religionen (1938; The Political Religions), on totalitarian ideologies as political religions due to their structural similarities to religion. He wrote the multi-volume (English-language) Order and History, which began publication in 1956 and remained incomplete at the time of his death 29 years later. His 1951 Charles Walgreen lectures, published as The New Science of Politics, is sometimes seen as a prolegomenon to this series, and remains his best known work.  He left many manuscripts unpublished, including a history of political ideas, which has since been published in eight volumes.

Order and History was originally conceived as a five-volume examination of the history of order occasioned by Voegelin's personal experience of the disorder of his time. The first three volumes, Israel and Revelation, The World of the Polis, and Plato and Aristotle, appeared in rapid succession in 1956 and 1957 and focused on the evocations of order in the ancient Near East and Greece.

Voegelin then encountered difficulties which slowed down the publication. This, combined with his university administrative duties and work related to the new institute, meant that seventeen years separated the fourth from the third volume. His new concerns were indicated in the 1966 German collection Anamnesis: Zur Theorie der Geschichte und Politik. The fourth volume, The Ecumenic Age, appeared in 1974. It broke with the chronological pattern of the previous volumes by investigating symbolizations of order ranging in time from the Sumerian King List to Hegel. Work on the final volume, In Search of Order, occupied Voegelin's final days and it was published posthumously in 1987.

One of Voegelin's main points in his later work is that our experience of transcendence conveys a sense of order. Although transcendence can never be fully defined or described, it may be conveyed in symbols. A particular sense of transcendent order serves as a basis for a particular political order. A philosophy of consciousness can therefore become a philosophy of politics. Insights may become fossilised as dogma.

Voegelin is more interested in the ontological issues that arise from these experiences than the epistemological questions of how we know that a vision of order is true or not. For Voegelin, the essence of truth is trust. All philosophy begins with experience of the divine. Since God is experienced as good, one can be confident that reality is knowable. Given the possibility of knowledge, Voegelin holds there are two modes: intentionality and luminosity.  Visions of order belong to the latter category. The truth of any vision is confirmed by its orthodoxy, by what Voegelin jokingly calls its lack of originality.

Voegelin's work does not fit in any standard classifications, although some of his readers have found similarities in it to contemporaneous works by, for example, Ernst Cassirer, Martin Heidegger, and Hans-Georg Gadamer. Voegelin often invents terms or uses old ones in new ways. However, there are patterns in his work with which the reader can quickly become familiar.

According to Ellis Sandoz, Voegelin may well be America's leading philosopher, and is rightly compared with the premier minds of our century and, perhaps, of the millennia. Thomas Altizer has said that Order and History "may someday be  perceived as the most important work of Old  Testament scholarship ever written in  the United States,"  adding that it  is noteworthy  that  it  was  written  by  a  political scientist and  philosopher.

Among indications of growing engagement with Voegelin's work are the 305 page international bibliography published in 2000 by Munich's Wilhelm Fink Verlag; the presence of dedicated research centers at universities in the United States, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom; the appearance of recent translations in languages ranging from Portuguese to Japanese; and the publishing of a 34 volume collection of his primary works by the University of Missouri Press and various primary and secondary works offered by the Eric-Voegelin-Archiv of Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität.

On Gnosticism

In his The New Science of Politics, Order and History, and Science, Politics and Gnosticism, Voegelin opposed what he believed to be unsound Gnostic influences in politics.

Eugene Webb stated that Voegelin understood "gnosis" as

and 'Gnosticism' as

Apart from the Classical Christian writers against heresy, his sources on Gnosticism were secondary since the texts of the Nag Hammadi library were not yet widely available. For example, Voegelin used Hans Urs von Balthasar, Henri de Lubac, and Hans Jonas.

Voegelin perceived similarities between ancient Gnosticism and modernist political theories, particularly Communism and Nazism. He identified the root of the Gnostic impulse as alienation, that is, a sense of disconnection from society and a belief that this lack is the result of the inherent disorder, or even evil, of the world. That alienation has two effects:
 The first is the belief that the disorder of the world can be transcended by extraordinary insight, learning, or knowledge, called a Gnostic Speculation by Voegelin (the Gnostics themselves referred to that as gnosis).
 The second is the desire to implement and or create a policy to actualize the speculation, or Immanentize the eschaton: to create a sort of heaven on earth within history.

According to Voegelin, the Gnostics really reject the Christian eschaton of the kingdom of God and replace it with a human form of salvation through esoteric ritual or practice.

The primary feature that characterizes a tendency as gnostic for Voegelin is that it is motivated by the notion that the world and humanity can be fundamentally transformed and perfected through the intervention of a chosen group of people (an elite), a man-god, or men-Gods. The Übermensch is the chosen one who has a kind of special knowledge (like magic or science) about how to perfect human existence.

That stands in contrast to a notion of redemption that is achieved through the reconciliation of mankind with the divine. Marxism, therefore, qualifies as "gnostic" because it purports that the perfect society on earth can be established once capitalism has been overthrown by the proletariat. Likewise, Nazism is seen as "gnostic" because it posits that utopia can be achieved by attaining racial purity once the master race has freed itself of the racially inferior and the degenerate.

In both cases specifically analyzed by Voegelin, the totalitarian impulse is derived from the alienation of the individuals from the rest of society. That leads to a desire to dominate (libido dominandi), which has its roots in the Gnostic's conviction of the imperative of his vision but also in his lack of concord with a large body of his society. As a result, there is very little regard for the welfare of those who are harmed by the resulting politics, which ranges from coercive to calamitous (such as the English proverb: "You have to crack a few eggs to make an omelet" or its Russian variety: "When you chop wood, chips fly").

Immanentizing the eschaton

One of his most quoted passages (by such figures as William F. Buckley Jr.) is:

From this comes the catchphrase: "Don't immanentize the eschaton!", which simply means: "Do not try to make that which belongs to the afterlife happen here and now" or "Don't try to create Heaven on Earth."

When Voegelin uses the term gnosis negatively, it is to reflect the word as found in the Manichaeism and Valentinianism of antiquity. As it is later then immanentized (or manifest) in modernity in the wake of Joachim of Fiore and in the various ideological movements outlined in his works. Voegelin also builds on the term "Gnosticism" as it is defined by Hans Jonas in his The Gnostic Religion, in reference to Heidegger's Gnosticism, which is to have an understanding and control over reality that makes mankind as powerful as the role of God in reality.

Voegelin was arguing from a Hellenistic position that good gnosis is derived from pistis (faith) and that the pagan tradition made a false distinction between faith and noesis. Furthermore, the dualist perspective was the very essence of gnosticism via the misuse of noema and caused a destructive division between the internal and external world in human consciousness. To reconcile the internal (subjective) and external (objective) world of consciousness was the restoration of order.

Social alienation
Voegelin identified the root of the Gnostic impulse as alienation, (a sense of disconnection with society) and a belief that the disconnection is the result of the inherent disorder or even evil of the world. The alienation has two effects:
 The belief that the disorder of the world can be transcended by extraordinary insight, learning, or knowledge, called a Gnostic Speculation by Voegelin (the Gnostics themselves referred to it as gnosis).
 The desire to create and implement a policy to actualize the speculation, or as Voegelin described it, to Immanentize the Eschaton, to create a sort of heaven on earth within history by triggering the Apocalypse.

Critique of Rationalism and Phenomenology

Spiritual revival
Voegelin's work does not lay out a program of reform or offer a doctrine of recovery from what he termed the "demono-maniacal" in modern politics. However, interspersed in his writings is the idea of a spiritual recovery of the primary experiences of divine order.  He was not interested so much in what religious dogmas might result in personal salvation but rather a recovery of the human in the classical sense of the daimonios aner (Plato's term for "the spiritual man"). He did not speculate on the institutional forms in which a spiritual recovery might take place but expressed confidence that the current 500-year cycle of secularism would come to an end because he stated that "you cannot deny the human forever."

In an essay published in 1965, Voegelin suggested that the Soviet Union would collapse from within because of its historical roots in philosophy and Christianity. Later, at an informal talk given at University College, Dublin, Ireland in 1972, Voegelin suggested the Soviet Union might collapse by 1980 because of its failure to succeed in its domestic commitments and external political challenges.

Reception
Eugene Webb criticized Voegelin's conception of gnosis and his analysis of Gnosticism in general. In the article "Voegelin's Gnosticism Reconsidered," Webb explained that Voegelin's concept of Gnosticism was conceived "not primarily to describe ancient phenomena but to help us understand some modern ones for which the evidence is a great deal clearer." Webb continues, "the category (of Gnosticism) is of limited usefulness for the purpose to which he put it… and the fact that the idea of Gnosticism as such has become so problematic and complex in recent years must at the very least undercut Voegelin's effort to trace a historical line of descent from ancient sources to the modern phenomena he tried to use them to illuminate."

Because Voegelin applied the concept of gnosis to a wide array of ideologies and movements such as Marxism, communism, National Socialism, progressivism, liberalism, and humanism, critics have proposed that Voegelin's concept of Gnosis lacks theoretical precision. Therefore, Voegelin's gnosis can, according to the criticis, hardly serve as a scientific basis for an analysis of political movements. Rather, the term "Gnosticism" as used by Voegelin is more of an invective just as "when on the lowest level of propaganda those who do not conform with one's own opinion are smeared as communists."

Selected bibliography
 Über die Form des amerikanischen Geistes, Tübingen 1928
 Rasse und Staat. Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1933
 Die Rassenidee in der Geistesgeschichte von Ray bis Carus. Junker & Dünnhaupt Berlin 1933
 Der autoritäre Staat, Wien 1936
 Die politischen Religionen. Bermann Fischer, Stockholm 1939. Neuauflage München 1996
 The New Science of Politics. An Introduction, Chicago University Press, Chicago 1952
 Order and History, 5 Bde. Baton Rouge 1956–1987
 Wissenschaft, Politik und Gnosis, München 1959, English translation: Science, Politics and Gnosticism, Regnery Publishing Inc., Washington DC, 1968
 Anamnesis. Zur Theorie der Geschichte und Politik, München 1966
 From Enlightment to Revolution, Durham 1975
 Autobiographische Reflexionen, Hg. Peter J. Opitz. München 1994
 Das Volk Gottes. Sektenbewegungen und der Geist der Moderne, München 1994
 Der Gottesmord. Zur Genese und Gestalt der modernen politischen Gnosis, München 1999
 Ordnung und Geschichte, 10 Bde. Hg. Dietmar Herz & Peter Opitz, München 2001–2005
 Die Neue Wissenschaft der Politik, München 2004
 Anamnesis. Zur Theorie von Geschichte und Politik, Freiburg 2005
 Das Drama des Menschseins, Passagen, Wien 2007
 Das Jüngste Gericht Friedrich Nietzsches. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2007,
 Conversations with Eric Voegelin, Mitschrift von vier Vorlesungen in Montreal in den Jahren 1965, 1967, 1970, 1976. Thomas More Institute, Montreal 1980
 Briefwechsel 1939–1949: Eric Voegelin und Hermann Broch, In: Sinn und Form, Heft 2/2008, S. 149–174
 Briefwechsel, Eric Voegelin und Karl Löwith, In: Sinn und Form, Heft 6/2007, S. 764–794
 Realitätsfinsternis. Übers. Dora Fischer-Barnicol, Hg. und Nachwort Peter J.Opitz. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2010
 Was ist Geschichte? Übers. Dora Fischer-Barnicol, Hg. und Vorwort Peter J.Opitz. Matthes & Seitz, Berlin 2015
 Glaube und Wissen. Der Briefwechsel zwischen Eric Voegelin und Leo Strauss von 1934 bis 1964. Hg. Peter J. Opitz; Wilhelm Fink, München 2010
 Luther und Calvin. Die große Verwirrung. Hg. Peter J. Opitz. Wilhelm Fink, München 2011,
 Die Natur des Rechts. Übers. und Nachwort Thomas Nawrath. Matthes & Seitz Berlin, Berlin 2012,

Rezension
 Die Ursprünge des Totalitarismus, Rezension zu Arendts Totalitarismus-Buch, in: Über den Totalitarismus. Texte Hannah Arendts aus den Jahren 1951 und 1953. S. 33–42. Übers. Ursula Ludz. Hg. Ingeborg Nordmann. HAIT, Dresden 1998

The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin
 Volume 1: On the Form of the American Mind, edited by Jürgen Gebhardt and Barry Cooper
 Volume 2: Race and State, edited by Klaus Vondung
 Volume 3: The History of the Race Idea: From Ray to Carus, edited by Klaus Vondung
 Volume 4: The Authoritarian State: An Essay on the Problem of the Austrian State, edited by Gilbert Weiss
 Volume 5: Modernity without Restraint: The Political Religions; The New Science of Politics; and Science, Politics, and Gnosticism, edited by Manfred Henningsen
 Volume 6: Anamnesis: On the Theory of History and Politics, edited by David Walsh
 Volume 7: Published Essays, 1922–1928, Edited by Thomas W. Heilke and John von Heyking
 Volume 8: Published Essays, 1929–1933, edited by Thomas W. Heilke and John von Heyking
 Volume 9: Published Essays, 1934–1939, edited by Thomas W. Heilke
 Volume 10: Published Essays, 1940–1952, edited by Ellis Sandoz
 Volume 11: Published Essays, 1953–1965, edited by Ellis Sandoz
 Volume 12: Published Essays, 1966–1985, edited by Ellis Sandoz
 Volume 13: Selected Book Reviews, edited by Jodi Cockerill and Barry Cooper
 Volume 14: Order and History, Volume I, Israel and Revelation, edited by Maurice P. Hogan
 Volume 15: Order and History, Volume II, The World of the Polis, edited by Athanasios Moulakis
 Volume 16: Order and History, Volume III, Plato and Aristotle, edited by Dante Germino
 Volume 17: Order and History, Volume IV, The Ecumenic Age, edited by Michael Franz
 Volume 18: Order and History, Volume V, In Search of Order, edited by Ellis Sandoz
 Volume 19: History of Political Ideas, Volume I, Hellenism, Rome, and Early Christianity, edited by Athanisios Moulakis
 Volume 20: History of Political Ideas, Volume II, The Middle Ages to Aquinas, edited by Peter von Sivers
 Volume 21: History of Political Ideas, Volume III, The Later Middle Ages, edited by David Walsh
 Volume 22: History of Political Ideas, Volume IV, Renaissance and Reformation, edited by David L. Morse and William M. Thompson
 Volume 23: History of Political Ideas, Volume V, Religion and the Rise of Modernity, edited by James L. Wiser
 Volume 24: History of Political Ideas, Volume VI, Revolution and the New Science, edited by Barry Cooper
 Volume 25: History of Political Ideas, Volume VII, The New Order and Last Orientation, edited by Jürgen Gebhardt and Thomas A. Hollweck
 Volume 26: History of Political Ideas, Volume VIII, Crisis and the Apocalypse of Man, edited by David Walsh
 Volume 27: Nature of the Law and Related Legal Writings, edited by Robert Anthony Pascal, James Lee Babin, and John William Corrington
 Volume 28: What Is History? And Other Late Unpublished Writings, edited by Thomas A. Hollweck and Paul Caringella
 Volume 29: Selected Correspondence, 1924–1949, edited with an introduction by Thomas Hollweck
 Volume 30: Selected Correspondence, 1950–1984, edited with an introduction by Thomas Hollweck
 Volume 31: Hitler and the Germans, edited by Detlev Clemens and Brendan Purcell
 Volume 32: The Theory of Governance and Other Miscellaneous Papers, 1921–1938, edited by William Petropulos and Gilbert Weiss
 Volume 33: The Drama of Humanity and Other Miscellaneous Papers, 1939–1985, edited by William Petropulos and Gilbert Weiss
 Volume 34: Autobiographical Reflections: Revised Edition, with a Voegelin Glossary and Cumulative Index, edited with introductions by Ellis Sandoz

See also
 Leo Strauss

References

Further reading

Primary literature
All of Voegelin's writing is published as his Collected Works (CW), reviewed by Mark Lilla, "Mr. Casaubon in America" The New York Review of Books 54/11 (June 28, 2007): 29–31.

Primary sources
 The closest to an introduction to his thought in his own words is the Autobiographical Reflections.
 , 240 pp.
 Register of the Eric Voegelin papers 1901–1997 at the Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University Stanford, CA, 2012 (120 PDFs).

Secondary literature
 Cooper, Barry: Eric Voegelin and the Foundations of Modern Political Science, University of Missouri Press, 1999.
 Hund, Wulf D.: The Racism of Eric Voegelin. In: Journal of World Philosophies, 4, 2019, 2, pp. 1–22.
 Federici, Michael: Eric Voegelin: The Restoration of Order, ISI Books 2002, basic introduction.
 McAllister, Ted V: Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin and The Search for a Postliberal Order' University Press of Kansas, 1995.
 Sandoz, Ellis: The Voegelinian Revolution: A Biographical Introduction Louisiana State UP, 1981, advanced.
 Trepanier, Lee,  and Steven F. McGuire, eds. Eric Voegelin and the Continental Tradition: Explorations in Modern Political Thought  (University of Missouri Press; 2011) 284 pp; essays on his relationship to Hegel, Schelling, Kierkegaard, Heidegger, and Gadamer.
 .
 Webb, Eugene: Eric Voegelin: Philosopher of History University of Washington Press, 1981.
 .

External links

 Eric Voegelin papers at the Hoover Institution Archives
 Eric-Voegelin-Archiv
 The Eric Voegelin Institute, LSU
 The Centre of Eric Voegelin Studies (EVS), Ghent University
 Eric Voegelin Study Page
 Brief Excerpts from Eric Voegelin's Works
 Stephen Mcknight "Gnosticism and Modernity: Voegelin's Reconsiderations Twenty Years After The New Science of Politics"
 Intellectual Conservatives Greatest Works No 23
 The suggestion of pneumopathological consciousness as the proper term of Voegelin's intended Gnosticism
 Voegelin—Research News
 Eric Voegelin-Bibliothek at FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg (Eric Voegelin Library)

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Eric Voegelin


The Natuna Sea () is an extensive shallow sea located around the Natuna Regency, extending south of the Riau Islands, east of the Lingga Regency and west of Borneo, to the Bangka Belitung Islands.  The islands of the Badas and Tambelan Archipelago are located at its center.  Mostly located within Indonesian territorial waters, it is the southernmost portion of the South China Sea, and geologically part of Sunda Shelf.  It communicates with the Java Sea to its southeast via the Karimata and Gaspar Strait east and west of Belitung, and with the Strait of Malacca to the west via the Berhala and Singapore Strait.

The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition (1953), does not list a Natuna Sea. Instead, the area encompassed by the Natuna Sea is considered the southern portion of the South China Sea. The 1986 draft of the IHO's Limits of Oceans and Seas proposed the Natuna Sea, which extends south from the Natuna and Anambas Islands to the Belitung Islands. However, the 1986 draft edition was never approved.

Extent
The Anambas and Natuna Islands comprise an island arc that connects the southeastern tip of the Malay peninsula to the western tip of Borneo. This creates the northern boundary of Natuna Sea. On the south, the southeast coast of Sumatra, the Lingga Islands, Bangka and Belitung islands creates its southern boundary and its opening to the Karimata Strait and Java Sea.

Geography
Just like the South China Sea, the Natuna Sea is a marginal part of the Pacific Ocean.
The Natuna sea contains several archipelagos, including:
 The Natuna Islands in Natuna Regency
 Greater Natuna Archipelago in Natuna Regency
 South Natuna Archipelago in Natuna Regency
 Anambas Archipelago in Anambas Islands Regency
 Lingga Archipelago in Lingga Regency
 Tambelan Archipelago in Bintan Regency
 Riau Archipelago
All of these archipelagos are administrated within Riau Islands province.

North Natuna Sea

In July 2017, Indonesia renamed the northern reaches of its exclusive economic zone in the South China Sea as the "North Natuna Sea", which is located north of the Indonesian Natuna Regency, bordering southern Vietnam's exclusive economic zone. The North Natuna Sea is located between the Natuna Islands and Cape Cà Mau on the southern tip of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam.

See also
 West Philippine Sea

References

Natuna Regency
Seas of Indonesia
Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean
Maritime Southeast Asia

Natuna Sea


The little eagle (Hieraaetus morphnoides) is a very small eagle endemic to Australia.

Taxonomy
John Gould described the little eagle in 1841. The distinctive pygmy eagle has long been considered a subspecies, but a 2009 genetic study shows it to be distinctive genetically and warrants species status. It is a near relative of both the Palearctic booted eagle and the massive but now extinct Haast's eagle of New Zealand.

Description

The little eagle is a medium-sized bird of prey, measuring 45–55 cm (17–21.5 inches) in length and weighing 815 g (1.8 lb), roughly the size of a peregrine falcon.It has fully feathered legs and a square-cut, barred tail. Wingspan is about 120 cm with males having longer wings in proportion to their bodies, but being nearly half the weight of females. It is a powerful bird and during flight has strong wing beats, glides on flat wings and soars on slightly raised or flat wings.

The little eagle occurs in light and dark colour forms and generally these colours change with age. The most common is the light form which is dark brown occurring on the back and wings with black streaks on the head and neck, and a sandy to pale under body. The dark form of this eagle is similar except the head and under body is usually darker brown or rich rufous. The sexes are similar with females being larger and typically darker. Juveniles are similar to adults but tend to be more strongly rufous in colour with less contrast in patterns.

Distribution and habitat
Although the little eagle has a large range and can be found in most parts of Australia, except heavily forested parts of the Great Dividing Range. It tends to inhabit open woodland, grassland and arid regions, shunning dense forest. Like so many Australian natives, it faces a deteriorating population due to a loss of habitat and competition from other species. One of the biggest factors to the decline of the little eagle is the decline of rabbits due to the release of the calicivirus, the eagle relied heavily on the rabbit population due to the extinction and massive decline of native terrestrial mammals of rabbit size or smaller such as large rodents, bandicoots, bettongs, juvenile banded hare-wallaby and other wallabies.

In the first national bird atlas in 1977–81, the little eagle was reported in 65% of one degree grid cells across Australia, with mostly high reporting rates (more than 40% of surveys per grid) across New South Wales and Victoria. Breeding was recorded in 11% of cells, with the highest rates in New South Wales (NSW) and Victoria. During the second national bird atlas in 1998–2002, the little eagle was recorded in 59% of grid cells, at mostly low reporting rates (recorded in less than 20% of surveys per grid). Breeding was recorded in 5% of grid cells. Overall, there has been a national decline in reporting rate of 14%. In NSW over the last 20 years (two little eagle generations) the decline in reporting rate has been 39%, and over the past 30 years has been 50%, with an accelerating trend since the 1990s. The decline in reporting rate over the past 20 years for the South Eastern Highlands bioregion has been greater than 20%. This bioregion includes the ACT.

The little eagle was once common in the ACT, but has undergone significant decline (greater than 70%) over the last 20 years. In the late 1980s there was an estimated 13 breeding pairs in the ACT, occurring mainly in the northern half of the ACT with the highest concentrations found in the Murrumbidgee and the Molonglo river corridors. By 2005 the only breeding record in the ACT was of an unsuccessful nest near Uriarra Crossing. A more intensive ACT survey in 2007 found three breeding pairs, which fledged a total of four young. In 2008 four breeding pairs were recorded and four young were fledged. In 2009, three breeding pairs were recorded with three young being fledged.

Typical habitat for the little eagle includes woodland or open forest. Higher abundance of the species is associated with hillsides where there is a mixture of wooded and open areas such as riparian woodlands, forest margins and wooded farmland. Little eagles usually avoid large areas of dense forest, preferring to hunt in open woodland, where the birds use trees for lookouts. In the ACT, little eagles inhabit frequent open woodland and riparian areas.

Reproduction
Little eagles nest in open woodland (usually on hillsides) and along tree-lined watercourses, with the nest typically placed in a mature, living tree. The birds build a stick nest lined with leaves and may use different nests in successive years, including those of other birds such as crows. A pair of little eagles will only reproduce once a year and each pair will only produce one or two eggs per season, usually laid in late August to early September. After an incubation period of about 37 days, one or two young are fledged after approximately eight weeks. Maturity in terms of breeding takes two to three years, leaving a large population of juvenile eagles, mature eagles constitute roughly less than three-quarters of the population.

Little eagle nesting territories are defended against intruders and advertised by soaring, undulating flight display, conspicuous perching and/or calling. Movement behaviour varies between individuals, and may be partly migratory (being an altitudinal migrant), dispersive or permanently resident. They tend to slip away at the first sign of human intrusion.

Diet

Little eagles hunt live prey and occasionally take carrion. The eagles search for prey by soaring, up to  altitude, or by using an elevated exposed perch. The species is an agile, fast hunter swooping to take prey on the ground in the open but also from trees and shrubs. Recorded prey species (from feeding observations, nest remains and faecal pellets) show considerable variation indicating a broad diet, which seems to be determined primarily by the availability of prey of a suitable size. The little eagle would originally feed on small birds, mammals and reptiles and supplement its diet with large insects on occasion, however with the introduction of rabbits and foxes the little eagle's diet changed. Rabbits became widely abundant very quickly after being introduced, competing for habitat with native mammals. The introduction of foxes can also be attributed to the decline of the little eagle's main source of prey. The rabbit however is an ideal source of prey also, and so the rabbit population became the little eagle's main diet until the release of the calicivirus which decreased the rabbit population from between 65 and 85% in arid and semi-arid areas. Their diet varies geographically; the diet in Northern Australia has a high proportion of birds, in the arid zone is mostly lizards, and in Southern Australia has a high proportion of juvenile rabbits. In the ACT region its diet comprises mostly rabbits and to a lesser extent birds (especially rosellas, magpie-larks and starlings).

There is some evidence of prey partitioning between little eagles and the sympatric, larger wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax), with the latter tending to take larger prey and to eat more carrion. However, rabbits are the most common dietary item for both eagle species near Canberra, indicating potential for competition for prey. Both species also eat carrion and it is possible that the more numerous wedge-tailed eagles in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) region keep little eagles away from macropod carcasses, and that little eagles would eat more carrion if not excluded by wedge-tailed eagles.

Conservation status

The little eagle was declared as 'Vulnerable' in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) "under Section 38 of the Nature Conservation Act 1980". It was also listed as 'Vulnerable' in New South Wales (NSW) in Part 1 of Schedule 2 of "the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995" and Gazetted on 12 February 2012.

The little eagle is listed on the IUCN Red List as of least concern. Reasons for it being classified as 'least concern' are that the bird of prey has a huge range, spanning up to 20,000km2 and the population size is only decreasing at a rate of 10% per ten years or 3 generations, instead of the required 30%. The Red List amended the status of the little eagle from "Not Recognized" in 2006 to "Least Concern". Also, the NSW Scientific Committee has made the determination to list the little eagle as a Vulnerable species under the Vulnerable species listing. The reasons for this listing is the reduction of habitat quality or diversity and genetic diversity.

Threats
The main threats to the species are the destruction and degradation of its foraging and breeding habitat causing it to come into competition with the larger and more dominant wedge-tailed eagle. The wedge-tailed eagle is not necessarily a predator of the little eagle but the two species share common habitat and prey and the large size and dominant nature of the wedge-tailed eagle could mean that the little eagle would be forced out of hunting and breeding grounds or even killed and eaten.

References

External links

Gostelow, Ebenezer Edward (1935). "The Australian little eagle" watercolour 63.5 x 46 cm.

little eagle
little eagle
Birds of Australia
Birds of prey of Oceania
Diurnal raptors of Australia
little eagle

Little eagle


The Australian Faunal Directory (AFD) is an online catalogue of taxonomic and biological information on all animal species known to occur within Australia. It is a program of the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water of the Government of Australia. By May 12, 2021, the Australian Faunal Directory has collected information about 126,442 species and subspecies. It includes the data from the discontinued Zoological Catalogue of Australia and is regularly updated. Started in the 1980s, it set a goal to compile a "list of all Australian fauna including terrestrial vertebrates, ants and marine fauna" and create an "Australian biotaxonomic information system". This important electronic key and educative package enables faster and orderly identification of Australian centipede species .

References

 http://www.environment.gov.au/science/abrs/publications/fauna
 http://www.environment.gov.au/science/abrs/publications/zoological-catalogue-of-australia

External links

Fauna of Australia
Australian science websites

Australian Faunal Directory


Giovanni Conversini, also known as Giovanni di Conversino or John of Ravenna  (Buda, 1343 – Muggia, 27 September 1408), was an Italian educator, whose students included  Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino da Verona. He is one of two individuals of that name in Petrarch's letters.

A son of Conversanus, he was first heard of on November 17, 1368 as appointed to the professorship of rhetoric at Florence, where he had for some time held the post of notary at the courts of justice. About 1370, he entered the service of the ducal house of Padua, the Carraras, in which he continued at least until 1404, although the whole of that period was not spent in Padua. Between 1375 and 1379, he was a schoolmaster at Belluno, but was dismissed as "too good for his post" and "not adapted for teaching boys". On March 22, 1382, he was appointed professor of rhetoric at Padua.

During the struggle between the Carraresi and Visconti families, he spent five years at Udine, from 1387 to 1392. Between 1395 and 1404, he was chancellor of Francis of Carrara, and is heard of for the last time in 1406 as living at Venice. His history of the Carraras, a tasteless production in barbarous Latin, says little for his literary capacity; but as a teacher he enjoyed a great reputation, amongst his pupils being Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino da Verona.

Notes

References

Further reading

1343 births
1408 deaths
Academic staff of the University of Florence
professor
14th-century Italian jurists
15th-century Italian jurists
14th-century writers in Latin
14th-century Neo-Latin writers

Giovanni Conversini


Avraham Eliezer Alperstein ( 1853 – January 28, 1917) was an Orthodox Rabbi, Rosh yeshiva, publisher, communal leader and exceptional Talmudic scholar. He published the first ever section of Talmud in the United States.

Studying under the Ridbaz and the Beis HaLevi in his youth and then in Vilna and Kovno, Rabbi Alperstein obtained an extraordinary knowledge of both the Talmud Bavli and the Talmud Yerushalmi. He received Semicha from Rabbi Mordechai Meltzer (Rabbi of Lida), and Rabbi Aryeh Leib Shachnovitz (Rabbi of Bielsk).

Upon gaining semicha, Rabbi Alperstein briefly served as rabbi of the Kamenitzer shul in Vilna before becoming rabbi of nearby Novhorod-Siverskyi. A few years later he accepted a position as rabbi of the Zevach Tzedek shul in the vibrant Jewish community of Slabodka.

Rabbi Alperstein immigrated to the United States in 1881, becoming rabbi of Khal Adath Jeshurun in New York. In 1884, he went to Chicago to take another rabbinic pulpit, serving there for 15 years as rabbi of various shuls including Congregation Oheb Shalom Bnai Marienpol, Anshei Kovno, and the Suvalker shul. While in the city, he published his commentary to Tractate Bikkurim of the Jerusalem Talmud. The work boasted two notable approbations, one from the Beis HaLevi of Brisk and the other from Rabbi Jacob Joseph of New York. Moving in 1899 to St. Paul, Rabbi Alperstein returned to New York in 1901 to become rabbi of the Yagustava shul on Rutgers Street.

RIETS
Upon his return to New York, Rabbi Alperstein was delighted to learn that his colleagues Rabbis Moshe Matlin and Yehuda David Bernstein had opened a Lithuanian-style yeshiva named in honour of the distinguished Rabbi Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor of Kovno. Desiring to assist the yeshiva, Rabbi Alperstein's abilities as a dynamic public speaker in Yiddish proved useful as he campaigned throughout the Shteiblach of the Lower East Side for funds for RIETS.

In 1903, when RIETS felt it had outgrown its premises at the Kalvarier shul, Rabbi Alperstein arranged for the yeshiva to transfer to his own Yagustava shul. By 1905, the year he became rabbi at Congregation Mishkon Yisroel, approximately 100 students were engaged in Torah study in RIETS, under the tutelage of several rabbis including Rabbi Alperstein.

Rabbi Alperstein was highly active in the areas of Kashrut and Jewish education. He was one of the founders of the Agudath Harabbonim, serving as its vice-president and directing the New York branch. He died on January 28, 1917, and was buried in Mount Judah Cemetery, New York. His wife founded the 'Beth Abraham Home for the Incurably Sick' in the Bronx in his memory, which today is the Beth Abraham Hospital, part of the Montefiore Medical Center.

Writings
Sefer HaRaal uPri Genusar (Chicago, 1888) - a triple commentary on Maseches Bikkurim of the Talmud Yerushalmi, the first ever section of Talmud published in America
unpublished responsa, as well as writings on Tractate Berachot of the Jerusalem Talmud and Tractate Niddah of the Babylonian Talmud
several Torah articles in the Jerusalem rabbinic journal Ha-Measef

References
RIETS Rosh Yeshiva Gallery biography
Toldot Anshei Shem biography (Hebrew)
Goldman, Yosef. Hebrew Printing in America, 1735-1926, A History and Annotated Bibliography (YGBooks 2006). .
Sherman, Moshe D. Orthodox Judaism in America: A Biographical Dictionary and Sourcebook (Greenwood Press 2006). .

1850s births
1917 deaths

Year of birth uncertain
American Haredi rabbis
Yeshiva University rosh yeshivas
People from Kobryn

Avraham Eliezer Alperstein


The Trenton Gas Field is located in east central Indiana and the most western portion of west central Ohio. The field was discovered in 1876, but the size and magnitude of the field was not known until the 1880s. The field was the largest natural gas discovery up to that time, with an area of , somewhat smaller in area than the state of Connecticut, containing over  of natural gas. The field also contained the first giant oil reserve discovered in the United States, with an estimated  of oil. The discovery led to the Indiana Gas Boom.

Almost all of the natural gas was removed from the field by 1910, but only about 10% of the oil had been removed at that point. The lack of pressure caused by the removal of the gas led to a complete stoppage of oil production, even though an estimated  of oil remained in the field. Beginning in the late 20th century, oil production resumed at a slow pace after advances in artificial lift technology.

Oil and gas production from this field led the Standard Oil Company to establish refinery operations in Indiana. The firm's production and refinery interests led, in turn, to Standard's Indiana interests being grouped together after the 1911 breakup of the firm due to antitrust action, leading to the formation of the Standard Oil Company of Indiana.

See also

Trenton Limestone
Petroleum industry in Ohio

Notes

Sources

Energy in Indiana
Oil fields of the United States
Energy in Ohio

Trenton Gas Field


Karisma Kapoor (born 25 June 1974) is an Indian actress who primarily works in Hindi films. A member of the Kapoor family, she is the daughter of actors Randhir Kapoor and Babita, and the elder sister of actress Kareena Kapoor. Kapoor is the recipient of several accolades, including a National Film Award and four Filmfare Awards.

Kapoor made her acting debut with the film Prem Qaidi in 1991 and subsequently played the leading lady in a number of box office hits, including Jigar (1992), Anari (1993), Raja Babu (1994), Coolie No. 1 (1995), Saajan Chale Sasural (1996), and Jeet (1996). Starring roles in the top-grossing romances Raja Hindustani (1996) and Dil To Pagal Hai (1997), established her as a star. She won the Filmfare Award for Best Actress for the former, and the National Film Award and the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress for the latter.

Kapoor cemented her status by starring in five of David Dhawan's comedies—Judwaa (1997), Hero No.1 (1997), Biwi No.1 (1999), Haseena Maan Jaayegi (1999) and Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge (2000), and the family drama Hum Saath-Saath Hain (1999). In the early 2000s, Kapoor won the Best Actress and Best Actress (Critics) awards at Filmfare for her titular roles in the dramas Fiza (2000) and Zubeidaa (2001), respectively. She took a sabbatical from acting after leading the television soap opera Karishma: The Miracles of Destiny (2003–2004), and has since acted sporadically, starring in the thriller Dangerous Ishhq (2012) and the web series Mentalhood (2020).

Kapoor was married to businessman Sanjay Kapur from 2003 to 2016 – the couple has two children together. She has featured as a talent judge for several reality shows.

Early life and background

Karisma Kapoor was born on 25 June 1974 in Mumbai, to actors Randhir Kapoor and Babita (née Shivdasani). Her younger sister, Kareena, is also a film actress. Her paternal grandfather was the actor and filmmaker Raj Kapoor, while her maternal grandfather was actor Hari Shivdasani. Her paternal great-grandfather was actor Prithviraj Kapoor. The actors Rishi and Rajiv Kapoor are her uncles, while the actress Neetu Singh and entrepreneur Ritu Nanda are her aunts. Her first cousins includes the actors Ranbir Kapoor, Armaan Jain and Aadar Jain, and Nikhil Nanda. The actors Shammi and Shashi Kapoor are her grand-uncles, and the late actress Sadhana was her mother's first cousin.

Kapoor is informally called as "Lolo" at her home. According to Kapoor, the name, Lolo, was derived after her mother made a passing reference to the Italian actress Gina Lollobrigida. Both of her paternal and maternal grandparents were from Peshawar, Lyallpur and Karachi respectively, who moved to Bombay for their film careers before the partition of India. Kapoor is of Punjabi Hindu descent on her father's side, and on her mother's side she is of Sindhi Hindu and British descent.

Particularly inspired by the work of actresses Sridevi and Madhuri Dixit, Kapoor was keen on pursuing acting since childhood. While growing up, Kapoor regularly attended award ceremonies and accompanied by her parents to film sets. However, despite her family background, her father disapproved of women working in films, because he believed it conflicted with the traditional maternal duties and responsibility of women in the family. This led to a conflict between her parents and they separated in 1988. She and her sister Kareena were raised by their mother, who worked several jobs to raise them, until she made her debut in films as an actress. The couple reconciled in 2007, after living separately for several years. Kapoor studied at the Cathedral and John Connon School and later, for a few months at Sophia College. Kapoor later said that she left college to pursue acting for financial support.

Career

Debut and early roles (1991-1996)

Kapoor made her acting debut in 1991 at the age of 16 with the romantic drama Prem Qaidi, opposite debutant Harish Kumar. Upon release, the film emerged as a moderate box office success and received mixed reviews from critics, as did Kapoor's performance, with Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama describing it as "mechanical". The following year, Kapoor's first five releases—Police Officer, Jaagruti, Nishchaiy, Sapne Sajan Ke and Deedar—flopped at the box office. Jaagruti and Nishchaiy marked her first two collaborations with Salman Khan, while Deedar marked her first collaboration with Akshay Kumar. She next starred in the action drama Jigar (1992), followed by the romantic drama Anari (1993), both of which emerged as box office hits and among the highest-grossing films of their respective years. Jigar marked Kapoor's first of several collaborations with Ajay Devgn, while Anari featured her in the leading role of Rajnandini, a princess who falls in love with her poor servant (played by Daggubati Venkatesh).

Kapoor's next four releases of 1993 were the dramas Muqabla (which marked first of her many collaborations with Govinda), Sangraam, Shaktiman and Dhanwaan. With the exception of Muqabla, none of these films performed well either critically or commercially. In 1994, Kapoor had nine film releases – four of them — Prem Shakti, Dulaara, Andaz and Aatish — were critical and commercial failures. Her first hit that year was David Dhawan's comedy film Raja Babu, opposite Govinda, in which she played Madhubala, an educated arrogant girl who calls off her engagement upon discovering her fiancée's illiteracy. Kapoor next played the blind wife of Govinda's character in the hit action drama Khuddar, following which she starred with Salman Khan, Aamir Khan and Raveena Tandon in Rajkumar Santoshi's acclaimed comedy film Andaz Apna Apna. Kapoor played Raveena Bajaj, the daughter of a London-based business tycoon, who travels to India in search of true love, and falls for Salman Khan's character. Although the film underperformed at the box office, it developed a significant cult following over the years since its release.

Kapoor's final two releases of the year were the action drama Suhaag (alongside Ajay Devgn, Akshay Kumar and Nagma) and the comedy-drama Gopi Kishan (alongside Suniel Shetty and Shilpa Shirodkar), both of which were critically and commercially successful. In the former, she starred as a college student and Devgn's love interest, while in the latter, she played a police commissioner's daughter who falls in love with a criminal. In 1995, after appearing in the box office flops Jawab and Maidan-E-Jung, Kapoor starred as Malti, a rich girl who marries a poor coolie (played by Govinda) in David Dhawan's blockbuster comedy film Coolie No. 1.  The film garnered positive reviews and emerged as a commercial success, grossing  in India. On her initial career struggle, she later said:
When I first entered the industry, things were made tough for me. I am not saying that I was singled out. I think every star kid has to go through this. Everyone was so unfair to me. Other newcomers were praised for every little achievement, but I was not given an iota of acknowledgement. When it came to me, it was always, 'Okay, she has done well, but what's the big deal about her?'. Nobody gave a 17-year-old credit for doing my job reasonably well.

Breakthrough and rise to stardom (1996–1999)
In 1996, Kapoor appeared in 10 films. Five of them—Papi Gudia, Megha, Bal Bramhachari, Sapoot and Rakshak — were commercially unsuccessful. Her next release was David Dhawan's romantic comedy Saajan Chale Sasural, co-starring Govinda and Tabu. Saajan Chale Sasural emerged as a commercial success. For her fifth release, Kapoor was paired opposite Suneil Shetty in S. Deepak's box office hit Krishna. She starred alongside Sunny Deol, Salman Khan and Tabu in Raj Kanwar's romantic drama Jeet. She played Kajal, a woman who falls in love with a criminal, but ends up marrying another man. Finishing up as the second highest-grossing film of the year, Jeet emerged as a "super-hit" at the box office. Critical reaction was positive on both the film as well as Kapoor's performance.

That same year, Kapoor starred in Dharmesh Darshan's romantic drama Raja Hindustani opposite Aamir Khan, in which she played a rich, beautiful heiress who falls for a lowly guide and driver. A modern-day remake of Jab Jab Phool Khile (1965), the film emerged as the highest-grossing film of the year and won Kapoor her first Filmfare Award for Best Actress. Reviewing her performance for India Today, Anupama Chopra described Kapoor as a "revelation" and "the lifeblood of this otherwise banal film." The film's success established Kapoor as a leading actress of Hindi cinema, and marked a significant turning point in her career. Raja Hindustani was not only the biggest commercial success of 1996, but also one of the most successful films of all time in India with worldwide revenues of . Kapoor's final release of 1996 was Suneel Darshan's action film Ajay, with Sunny Deol. The film was also a financial success.

In 1997, Kapoor re-united with David Dhawan for two projects, the comedy film Judwaa (alongside Salman Khan and Rambha), and the romantic comedy Hero No. 1 (opposite Govinda). The former's concept was similar to Gopi Kishan – it tells the story of twin brothers who are separated at birth and re-unite in their youth. Kapoor and Rambha played the love interests of Khan's characters. In Hero No. 1, she played Meena Nath, a girl who falls in love with Govinda's character despite facing disapproval from her strict grandfather (played by Paresh Rawal). Both films were critically and commercial successful, and Kapoor gained praise for her comedic timing. She eventually received a nomination for the Zee Cine Award for Best Actress for Hero No. 1. She next starred in the Mehul Kumar-directed dramas Lahu Ke Do Rang and Mrityudata, both of which were critical and commercial failures.

Kapoor's fifth and final release of 1997 was Yash Chopra's musical romantic drama Dil To Pagal Hai. Co-starring Shah Rukh Khan, Madhuri Dixit and Akshay Kumar, the film depicts the love lives of the cast and crew in a musical dance troupe. Kapoor played Nisha, a bubbly dancer who secretly falls in love with her best friend (played by Khan), however, she unites her with the girl he loves (played by Dixit). Initially hesitant to take on the supporting role, Kapoor was cast by Chopra (who was impressed by her work in Raja Hindustani) after several leading actresses of the time had rejected it. Dil To Pagal Hai emerged as a blockbuster at the box office and proved to be the highest-grossing film of the year. Kapoor received widespread praise for her portrayal, and she eventually won the National Film Award and Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress.

Kapoor's diminutive comeback in 1999 proved to be good as she took part in the year's most successful films. Kapoor starred in four hits. She next re-united with Dhawan and Salman Khan (alongside Sushmita Sen) for the romantic comedy Biwi No.1, in which she portrayed Pooja, a woman whose husband gets involved in an extra-marital affair with a model. The film, which emerged as a major commercial success, earned Kapoor critical praise for her performance. Mohammad Ali Ikram of Planet Bollywood commented: "Kapoor may not look like a mother of two offsprings, but she continues to mature as an actress with each successive film." Kapoor received a second Best Actress nomination at Filmfare for her work in the film. She proved to be successful with comedy films, as another of David Dhawan's films Haseena Maan Jaayegi, did fairly well at the box office. Kapoor collaborated for the first time with the Rajshri Productions for the family drama Hum Saath-Saath Hain: We Stand United. The film featured an ensemble cast (Mohnish Behl, Salman Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Tabu and Sonali Bendre), proving to be one of the biggest Hindi film successes of all time in the market, earning  worldwide. Her last release of the year, Jaanwar, opposite Akshay Kumar, was another box office hit, making her the most successful actress of the year. Silsila Hai Pyar Ka was her other film of the year.

Further acclaim and roles (2000–2002)

Kapoor's first release of 2000 was Dhawan's romantic comedy Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge, opposite Salman Khan. She played Sapna, a girl who falls for Khan's character while on a foreign trip, however, she finds it tough to convince her three uncles of this relationship. The film finished up as one of the biggest hits of the year. Aparajita Saha of Rediff commented: "Karisma Kapoor and Salman Khan elicit more than their fair share of cat-calls in the movie and make a delectable pair. Both are in form – Karisma looks glamorous and at ease while Salman has perfected the lost-boy-muscle-man get-up". Kapoor's next two releases, the romantic comedies Chal Mere Bhai (opposite Khan and Dutt) and Hum To Mohabbat Karega (opposite Bobby Deol) failed to do well at the box office.

That same year, Kapoor won her second Filmfare Award for Best Actress for portraying the title role of a disillusioned girl in search of her brother, in Khalid Mohammed's acclaimed crime drama Fiza. Cast against type in a non-glamorous role, her performance was highly applauded and several critics noted her for showing great emotional range and depth. Mimmy Jain of The Indian Express, in a positive review, wrote: "As the young girl who is sick of the suspense and disruption that her brother's disappearance has caused in her family's life, as the obstinate daughter who will not listen to her mother's plea to let her keep hoping for her son, as the determined sister who keeps on in her hunt for her brother despite all odds and then seeks to keep him on the right path, this is a new Karisma, and one that delivers a superbly flawless performance." The film emerged as a "semi-hit" at the box office with a worldwide gross of .

In 2001, she achieved further critical acclaim for her portrayal of an ill-fated actress in the biographical drama Zubeidaa. Directed by Shyam Benegal, the film was based on the life of Zubeida Begum, who married a Sikh, Hanwant Singh. The Tribune complimented her by arguing that she "has surpassed herself as the passionate, defiant, willful and troubled Zubeidaa, the truly modern woman." In an interview with Rediff she explained: "I have been here so long, I have done everything. lead roles, supporting roles, everything. How do I grow as a performer? If I keep doing commercial cinema, I will stagnate and I wanted to grow". For her work, she was awarded the Best Actress (Critics) and also garnered a Best Actress nomination at the ceremony. Co-starring Rekha and Manoj Bajpai, the film had worldwide earnings of over . She next starred alongside Bobby Deol and Rahul Dev in Indra Kumar's Aashiq – the movie received little praise from critics, though it proved to be a modest success, grossing over  domestically. Suneel Darshan's social drama Ek Rishtaa: The Bond of Love was Kapoor's next release. Co-starring Amitabh Bachchan and Akshay Kumar, the film became one of the biggest hits of the year.

In 2002, Kapoor had three film releases, the first of which was the romantic drama Haan Maine Bhi Pyaar Kiya, opposite Akshay Kumar and Abhishek Bachchan. She next starred alongside Nana Patekar in the woman-centric drama Shakti: The Power, playing the role of Nandini, a woman who wants to fly away from her in-laws (involved in feudal gang wars) along with her son, after her husband's death. The film, a remake of the Telugu film Antahpuram (1998), was itself based on the life of author Betty Mahmoody. Shakti: The Power was critically acclaimed and also earned Kapoor highly positive reviews for her portrayal – Taran Adarsh reviewed: "The power clearly belongs to Kapoor. Breathing fire and venom to win back her son from the clutches of a despot, the actress gives it all to the character of a helpless mother and proves what a virtuoso performer she is. Playing the part of a wounded tigress, this is one performance that overshadows all the performances the year has seen so far". Kapoor's work in the film earned her Best Actress nominations at several award ceremonies, including a fifth nomination at Filmfare. Her final release that year was Indra Kumar's romantic drama Rishtey, alongside Anil Kapoor and Shilpa Shetty. She featured as Komal, a wealthy woman who falls in love with a poorer man and marries him against her father's wishes. Despite much anticipation, Kapoor's all three releases that year underperformed at the box office.

Recent work and expansion (2003–present)

In 2003, she starred in Baaz: A Bird in Danger, which was her only release that year. However, the film performed poorly at the box-office. Later in the same year, she made her television debut in the Sahara One soap opera Karishma – The Miracles of Destiny, in which she played a dual role of a grandmother and granddaughter. The serial ended after 260 episodes in 2004 and she took a sabbatical from full-time acting for several years.

In 2006, Kapoor was seen in Mere Jeevan Saathi – the film had been shot and completed in 2003, but was delayed for three years. In 2008, alongside actor Arjun Rampal and director–choreographer Farah Khan, Kapoor began judging season four of the dance show Nach Baliye, and continued the following year with the comedy show Hans Baliye. In addition, she had a cameo in the song "Deewangi Deewangi" from the 2007 melodrama Om Shanti Om, and in 2008, was as a guest on the reality television show Wife Bina Life (2010).

Kapoor made her comeback as an actress with a leading role in Vikram Bhatt's supernatural thriller Dangerous Ishhq. Co-starring Rajneesh Duggal, the film spans a period of four centuries and tells four different love stories set in different time periods. Kapoor played four characters, one from each century. A major critical and box office failure, the film generated positive reviews for Kapoor's portrayal. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama commented: "Kapoor puts forth her best efforts, getting to deliver lines in varied dialects. She gets the dialects right, especially Urdu and Rajasthani, but there's not much scope for her to display her acting prowess". In 2013, Kapoor made a special appearance along with several other actors in the titular song of the anthology film Bombay Talkies, which was made to honour the Hindi film industry for completing a centenary. In 2019, Kapoor made a special appearance in the Aanand L. Rai-directed romantic comedy Zero.

Kapoor made her web debut with Ekta Kapoor's  Mentalhood that released on ALTBalaji in 2020. The series revolves around different natures of mothers and showcases how they try their best to raise their children. Firstpost noted, "One gradually warms up to Karisma in Mentalhood. Not at any point does she attempt to steal the spotlight, and blends well into the stellar ensemble the show offers."

Kapoor will mark her screen comeback after 6 years with Homi Adajania's Murder Mubarak. She has also completed her second web series Brown.

Personal life
Kapoor was in a relationship with her 'Jigar' co-star Ajay Devgn from 1992 till they broke up in 1995. She got engaged to Abhishek Bachchan in 2002, but the engagement was called off after a few months. This ended their relationship of a few years and no reason was given for the break-up.

On 29 September 2003, she married industrialist Sunjay Kapur, the CEO of Sixt India, in a high-profile Sikh wedding ceremony at her ancestral home, Krishna Raj Bungalow, in Mumbai. The couple has a daughter, born in 2005 and a son, born in 2010. In 2014, the couple filed for divorce through mutual consent. In November 2015, the couple had filed applications to withdraw their consent to it. The couple's divorce was finalised in 2016.

On taking a break from her acting career for her kids and family, Kapoor said, it was a "conscious decision". She further said,

Off-screen work
Kapoor supports her close friend Salman Khan's charitable trust Being Human Foundation, for which she walked ramp during "The Couture for a Cause - The Being Human Show" in 2010. In 2005, along with other Bollywood stars, Kapoor performed at the HELP! Telethon Concert, raising money for the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. In 2010, Kapoor, along with Salman Khan and several other Bollywood actresses walked at the HDIL India Couture Week, for a charity cause. Kapoor was a goodwill ambassador for Pinkathon 2012 for breast cancer awareness.         In 2013, Kapoor participated in a campaign with Priyanka Chopra to highlight the rights of girls in India.

Kapoor has also been a celebrity endorser for many brands, including Kellogg's, Crescent Lawn, Admix Retail, Danone and Garnier Colour. Kapoor has walked the runway for such designers as Manish Malhotra, Arpita Mehta, and Vikram Phadnis.

Kapoor has been part of several stage shows and world tours since the '90s. The Heartthrobs: Live in Concert was performed across the United States and Canada alongside Arjun Rampal, Hrithik Roshan, Kareena Kapoor and Aftab Shivdasani. In 2016, Kapoor participated in the Hiru Golden Film Awards in Sri Lanka as a special guest along with several other Bollywood actors, including Neil Nitin Mukesh, Suniel Shetty (Sunil Shetty), Jackie Shroff, Sridevi, and Madhuri Dixit.

Kapoor is a shareholder in the children's product company, Babyoye.com, an ecommerce startup specialising in selling infant- and mother-care products. In 2013, she wrote a book "My Yummy Mummy Guide: From Getting Pregnant to losing all the weight and beyond", a guide to motherhood filed with post pregnancy tips for women.

Reception and public image

Kapoor is considered in the media as one of the most popular actresses of Bollywood. Deven Sharma of Filmfare termed Kapoor "a force to reckon with commercially", he noted, "Karisma Kapoor was a strong contender to both Madhuri Dixit and Sridevi's domination to the '90s." She has been described by The Tribune as "possessing exuberance and energy". Times of India termed her "inimitable" due to her body of work and the essence that she brought into movies in the 90s. Kapoor appeared on Forbes Indias "Celebrity 100" list, peaking at the 77th position in 2012, with an estimated annual earning of . As of 2016, her eight films have grossed, making worth more than .

One of the highest paid actress of the 90s, Kapoor appeared on Box Office Indias "Top Actresses" for five years (1996-2000) and ranked first thrice (1996, 1997 and 1999). In its "All Time Top Actresses" list, she was placed 8th. Kapoor's beauty and performances have made her a style icon. Nikita Sawant of Femina feels Kapoor embodies the statement, "Some people get better with age". In 2022 and 2023, she was voted "Sexiest Actress Alive" by the Glamour Magazine.   In 2013, she ranked 4th in The Times of Indias "50 Beautiful Faces" list. Kapoor's hand-print was unveiled at the Walk of the Stars at Bandra Bandstand.

Kapoor's sister Kareena Kapoor admits, "Working with Lolo will be a dream come true. She was and will always be my favorite actress." According to Rediff.com, she became "choosy about her roles" post a slew of out-and-out commercial films. NDTV termed her "The OG Bollywood Queen". Filmfare terms her as one of the "most celebrated stars" in the Hindi film industry. The Hindu said that she is blessed with "a radiant look and an enviable figure". Kapoor is widely praised for her performance in Raja Hindustani , Dil To Pagal Hai, Biwi No.1, Fiza, Zubeidaa and Shakti: The Power. Eastern Eye noted that Kapoor's filmography is filled with "an array of successful films".

Rediff.com said that Kapoor did everything from "raunchy numbers" to "serious roles". It credited her serious roles as the factor that consolidated her position as an "established actress". In an interview, Kapoor said,

Accolades
Kapoor is the recipient of a National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress for Dil To Pagal Hai (1997), and four Filmfare Awards out of eight nominations: Best Actress for Raja Hindustani (1996) and Fiza (2000), Best Supporting Actress for Dil To Pagal Hai (1997), and Best Actress (Critics) for Zubeidaa (2001).

Film awards

Other awards

Honours and recognitions
 2000: Honoured as a Young Achiever by the Indo-American Society Young Achievers Award.
 2018: Honoured with Extraordinary Women Award by Rotary Club of Bombay West.
 2023: Indian Achievers Award for Power Corridors by Government of India.

See also
 Kapoor Family

References

External links

1974 births
Living people
Karisma
Indian film actresses
Indian television actresses
Punjabi people
Sindhi people
Indian people of English descent
Actresses of European descent in Indian films
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Best Supporting Actress National Film Award winners
Filmfare Awards winners
International Indian Film Academy Awards winners
Zee Cine Awards winners
Actresses from Mumbai
20th-century Indian actresses
21st-century Indian actresses
Anglo-Indian people
Cathedral and John Connon School alumni

Karisma Kapoor


Rudolf II, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg, nicknamed Rudolf the Blind, ( – 6 December 1370 in Wittenberg) was a member of the House of Ascania. He was Elector of Saxony and Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg from 1356 until his death. He was the eldest son of Duke Rudolf I of Saxe-Wittenberg and his wife, Judith of Brandenburg-Salzwedel.

Life
Rudolf II acted in the diplomatic service of his father from an early age.

On 25 August 1345, he fought on the side of King Philip VI of France in the Battle of Crécy.  After King John of Bohemia died, Rudolf II took over the leadership of the German auxiliary troops.  Although the French lost the battle, Philip VI thanked Rudolf II and gave him a bloody thorn that was said to have been part of the Crown of Thorns.  In those days, relics were deeply venerated and such a gift was very valuable.  It was even valuable economically, as the place where such a relic was kept, drew large numbers of pilgrims, providing a steady stream of revenue.  His father and stepmother had built a basilica chapel in the All Saints' Church in Wittenberg.  Due to the acquisition of the relic, this chapel evolved into the seat of a provost.  After his father's death, Rudolf II reaffirmed the Church's rights and expanded its possessions.

When Rudolf I felt he was too old to travel to the Imperial Diet, he gave Rudolf II the power to represent him at the Diet.  After Rudolf I died on 12 March 1356, Rudolf II asked the imperial court in Metz on 27 December 1356 to reaffirm the rights of the Saxe-Wittenberg line of the House of Ascania, against opposing claims from the Saxe-Lauenburg line.

Rudolf II continued his father's policies.  Like his father, he had to deal with claims on the Saxon electoral vote by the Saxe-Lauenburg line, and on the County of Brehna by the Margraves of Meissen of the House of Wettin, which had once held Brehna.  When the Wettins also began to question his rights to Herzberg, Prettin, Trebnitz, Klöden, Pretzsch, Schmiedeberg and other possessions, he had to respond militarily.  This conflict and other political activities drained his financial resources.  In 1359, he sold the city of Allstedt to Gebhard XIV of Querfurt and exchanged Gatterslaben Castle with Archbishop Dietrich of Magdeburg for Wiesenburg Castle and Schweinitz.

Territorial acquisitions
In 1360, he acquire the Lordship of LIebenwerda, which bounded his territory on the east side.  In 1370, he acquired the County of Barby with Walternien Castle, which he gave to the Barby family as a fief.

In 1369, William II, the last Prince of Lüneburg died and Emperor Charles IV ruled that the Principality of Lüneburg was a completed fief and awarded it to Albert, who was a grandson of William II via his mother and a nephew of Rudolf II via his father.  Duke Magnus II Torquatus of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel disagreed with this outcome, which led to the Lüneburg War of Succession, which lasted long after Rudolf II's death.

Domestic policies
A major theme of his domestic political activities was his endeavour to secure his revenues.  For example, he gave the city of Herzberg the right to mine salt and protected the salt route via Halle and Bitterfeld to Torgau.  In order to combat robber barons, he outlawed such practices and concluded alliances with other cities.  In 1358, during his reign, he destroyed Ließnitz castle, a den of robbers on the site where the city of Kropstädt would later be built.  He arbitrated in a dispute between the Castle Church and the City Church of Wittenberg.

From 1370, he styled himself Elector of Saxony, a title he had been granted by the Golden Bull of 1356.
Towards the end of his life, he almost completely lost his eyesight, which earned him the nickname Rudolf the Blind.

Death
Rudolf II died on 6 December 1370.  As he had no sons or male-line grandsons, he was succeeded by his younger brother, Wenceslas I.

During excavations at the site of a former Franciscan monastery in Wittenberg in 2009, Rudolf's grave was discovered by archaeologists. He had been buried in a wooden coffin, next to his wife and daughter. His sword and his lead seal had been put in his grave.

Marriage and issue
Before 8 May 1336, Rudolf II married Elisabeth (d. 30 May 1373, buried at Wittenberg Franciscan monastery), the daughter of Landgrave Otto of Hesse. They had one daughter:
 Elisabeth (d. young 1353, buried at Wittenberg Franciscan Monastery).

Sources (including German Wikipedia) named a second marriage with Elisabeth (d. 15 November 1373), the daughter of Count Ulrich II of Lindow-Ruppin, and the existence of a son, Albert, who died soon after birth in 1371. However, this seems unlikely, because the findings at Wittenberg monastery on 2009 showed that Rudolf II was buried with his Hessian wife (presumably the only one because no trace of other grave from another consort was found) and one daughter (who also discarted the existence of a second daughter born from the "first" marriage, Beate, who died ca. 1373).

Ancestors

See also
 House of Ascania

References

 Paul Braun: Von der Wittenberger Stiftskirche, in: Blätter für Heimatgeschichte. Beilage der Wittenberger Zeitung, January 1929
 Georg Hirschfeld: Geschichte der Sächsisch-Askanischen Kurfürsten, Verlag Sittenfeld, Berlin, 1884
 Friedrich Israel: Das Wittenberger Universitätsarchiv. Seine Geschichte und seine Bestände, Gebauer-Schwetschke Verlag, Halle (Saale), 1913
 Heinrich Kühne: Die Askanier. Aus der Geschichte der sächsisch-askanischen Herzöge und Kurfürsten von Sachsen-Wittenberg, Drei-Kastanien-Verlag, Wittenberg, 1999,
 Helga Wäß: Form und Wahrnehmung mitteldeutscher Gedächtnisskulptur im 14. Jahrhundert. Ein Beitrag zu mittelalterlichen Grabmonumenten, Epitaphen und Kuriosa in Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Thüringen, Nord-Hessen, Ost-Westfalen und Südniedersachsen, Edition Tenea, Berlin, 2006,  (two volumes; also thesis, University of Göttingen, 2001)
 Katalog ausgewählter Objekte vom Hohen Mittelalter bis zum Anfang des 15. Jahrhunderts (zur Deckplatte der Doppeltumba Rudolfs II. und seiner Gemahlin Elisabeth, p. 603 - 607.

External links

 Article about the excavation of his grave

Prince-electors of Saxony
Dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg
House of Ascania
1300s births
1370 deaths

Rudolf II, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg


Richard James Lumsden (born 24 June 1965) is an English actor, writer, composer and musician. He has made regular appearances on TV and film throughout his career. Notable series include Channel 4's Emmy-award winning Sugar Rush, Is it Legal, Wonderful You and The Singapore Grip. He played Ray in Radio 4's long-running comedy Clare in the Community.

Career

Television
Lumsden's early television work includes Foggy in two series of First of the Summer Wine, Nutter in The Sharp End, Waterfront Beat, One Foot In The Grave, Brittas Empire, Nelson's Column, Grace and Favour, Coogan's Run - Death Of A Salesman, and Hornblower.

He played Colin in three series of Simon Nye's Is it Legal?, Henry in Wonderful You, Charles in All About Me, Roger in The House That Jack Built, as well as episodes of Dangerfield, People Like Us, Hardware, Love Soup, The Croydon Poisonings. Nathan in two series of Sugar Rush, and appearances in Party Animals, Suburban Shootout, Dis/connected, U Be Dead, and Free Agents. He appeared as Martin in series three of The Catherine Tate Show, and Arnold, an ex-boyfriend of Clare Bates in EastEnders.

Other tv shows include; Grown Ups, Summer In Transylvania, Garrow's Law, two series of The Impressions Show, three series of Life Of Riley, Vexed, Midsommer Murders, Rebecca Front's Little Cracker, By Any Means, All At Sea, as well as sixteen appearances as different characters in Holby City, Casualty and Doctors, all for the BBC.

More recent TV work includes Remember Me, Trollied, Father Brown, three series as Tony in BBC's Millie In Between, Crazyhead, Doc Marten, Shakespeare and Hathaway. He played General Percival in ITV's WW2 drama The Singapore Grip filmed in Malaysia, and Taylor Lawson in series 25 of Silent Witness.

Film
Lumsden played Robert Ferrars in Ang Lee's Sense and Sensibility. He also appeared in The Avengers, Room To Rent, Silent Cry, Gospel of John, Attila The Hun, City Slacker, Morris A Life With Bells On (for which he also composed the music) and Ben Wheatley's Sightseers.

In 2014, Lumsden starred in the independent British feature film Downhill, directed by James Rouse, a comedy about four friends attempting Alfred Wainwright's Coast to Coast Walk. He played Ballested in Jan Vardoen's Heart Of Lightness, shot in Norway's Arctic Circle, and General Ismay in Joe Wright's Darkest Hour (2016).

Most recently Lumsden starred as Paul in Brook Driver & Finn Bruce's debut feature film Swede Caroline, alongside Jo Hartley & Celyn Jones, due for release in 2022/23.

Theatre
Notable theatre work includes: White Teeth (Kiln, 2018), It's All Made Up (Royal Court, 2017), Cartwright (Telegin) in Chekhov's Uncle Vanya for director Robert Icke (also providing the on-stage musical accompaniment, 2016).[4],  and Mr Webb in David Cromer's internationally celebrated production of Our Town (2014), both at the Almeida in London.

He performed his own one–man musical play We Could Be Heroes at the Bridewell Theatre, 2004, later transferring to the Mill Theatre, Yvonne Arnaud in Guildford and the Arts Theatre, West End. His repertory theatre work at Stoke-on-Trent and Basingstoke includes the title roles in Hamlet and Master Harold & The Boys, and productions of As You Like It, King Lear, A Trip To Scarborough, Amadeus, Juno and the Paycock, Far From The Madding Crowd and Having A Ball. He played Roche in Rat in the Skull at Theater Exchange, Minneapolis USA, and John Thorpe in Northanger Abbey at Greenwich.

Writing
His writing work includes a seven-hour drama Wonderful You for ITV (co-written with Chris Niel), in which he also starred, a one-man musical We Can Be Heroes which he performed in London, and five verse plays for BBC Radio 4: John Dodd Gets Taken for a Ride (shortlisted for the BBC / Society of Authors' Imison award for new writing), A Good Place For Fishing which starred Anne Reid, and Man in the Moon, with Tom Courtenay (shortlisted for the BBC/ Society of Authors' Tinniswood award) and A Book By Lester Tricklebank (with Stephen Tompkinson). Readings of his play Skeletons have taken place at Soho Theatre and Leicester Square Theatre.

Hs debut novel The Six Loves of Billy Binns, was published by Tinder Press In January 2019.[5]  He had previously adapted his story for Radio 4 under the same title, also starring Tom Courtenay.

Music
Lumsden plays a number of instruments including piano, guitars, bass, banjo, ukulele etc., and has composed music for cinema, television & theatre, including the orchestral & folk soundtrack to the 2009 film Morris: A Life with Bells On, a full musical score for Alice in Wonderland at the New Vic Theatre in Stoke, title music for BBC's The Morning Show, and incidental music for numerous TV dramas and theatre productions. He has played many UK gigs with his band Henry Kissing Her, releasing two albums; A Little of Who You Fancy (1996) & Pull (2006). He also released a CD of piano music, Concert From The Eyrie (2001). In 2012, Lumsden and fiddle virtuoso John Dipper released the folk album Sunshine Takes You. Lumsden released his 'final' album of songs, The Unhurt in 2020.

Background
Lumsden attended Lady Manners School, situated in Bakewell in the Peak District, before he trained at the Guildford School of Acting, graduating in 1986. In 1995, Lumsden married actress Sophie Thompson; they separated in 2015. They have two sons, Ernie James (born 1997) and Walter Eric (born 2000).

Filmography

References

External links
RichardLumsden.com

1965 births
Alumni of the Guildford School of Acting
English male film actors
English television composers
English film score composers
English male film score composers
English musical theatre composers
English pop musicians
English male radio actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Male actors from Lancashire
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors

Richard Lumsden


Antiphon was an Ancient Greek philosopher, who lived in the 5th century BC. He is also known as Antiphon of Athens or Antiphon the Sophist, in English. His identity is not known. At the end of the 5th century, there were many people named Antiphon in Athens: There was a person that was writer, orator, and politician,called Antiphon the Orator. People do not agree if this was the same person as the philosopher. There was also a poet writing tragedies, a fortune-teller, and a person helping people make sense of their dreams. All of them were called Antiphon.

Three works are attributed to Antiphon the Sophist
On Truth (Peri aletheias) - only known in parts, no complete copy exists
On common sense (Perí homonoías)
On politics (Politikos) - almost nothing survives of this speech attributed to him.
On dreams (Perí kríseōs oneírōn) is probably not the work of Antiphon the Sophist.
Antiphon was also a mathematician: By inscribing polygons on a circle he was able to give an upper and lower limit for the value of Pi.This was later used when people tried to square the circle.

Ancient Greek philosophers

Antiphon the Sophist