Batman R.I.P. is an American comic book story arc published in Batman #676–681 by DC Comics. Written by Grant Morrison, penciled by Tony Daniel, and with covers by Alex Ross, the story pits the superhero Batman against the Black Glove organization as they attempt to destroy everything that he stands for. It has a number of tie-ins in other DC Comics titles describing events not told in the main story.

Plot

The Batman of Zur-en-arrh
The story begins with Batman and Robin perched onto a gothic building lit by lightning, where the former defiantly proclaims, "Batman and Robin will never die!". Events then flash back to Gotham City six months earlier, where Dr. Simon Hurt announces the Black Glove's next venture: the destruction of Batman.

Bruce Wayne is dating Jezebel Jet, a model who is very influential in her home country. Jezebel discovers Bruce was Batman relatively early in their relationship, and the revelation makes the relationship easier for Bruce to handle. He lets Jezebel so deep into his life that he even introduces her to the Batcave. Meanwhile, the Black Glove member, Le Bossu, while in his secret identity as a psychologist, contacts the Joker in Arkham Asylum and offers him a role in their assault on Batman.

Jezebel tries to convince Batman that he is simply living a life he has fabricated in his own head as a child to cope with the death of his parents. This suggestion begins to affect Batman's already-strained psyche (he almost died and was forced to re-live very traumatic moments in his life as Batman just weeks earlier) and he passes out when Jezebel says aloud a word that was on all the Bat-computer's screens: Zur-En-Arrh. As he passes out, Dr. Hurt and minions of his diabolical club, the Black Glove, infiltrate the Batcave. They drug Batman, beat Alfred, and wreak havoc upon the cave.

When Bruce Wayne is seen next, he wakes up in a pile of garbage with no memory of himself. He meets a homeless man named Honor Jackson, who recognizes that Bruce is going through drug withdrawal and helps him. As the two spend time together, traveling in what Honor calls an "odyssey" across the city, Bruce sees more evidence of his forgotten life. The two reflect on the day, and Honor gives Bruce an old broken radio as a sentimental gift. Abruptly, Bruce finds that Honor is no longer sitting next to him and learns from a local dealer that Honor had blown two hundred dollars on smack and overdosed the previous day. This statement leaves Bruce full of despair, grief, and guilt (Bruce, as Batman, had given Honor the two hundred dollars at the end of a car chase, which took place earlier in the story), but also further confuses his sense of reality. At this point, Bruce seems to snap. He makes himself a costume out of red, yellow, and purple rags, and begins referring to the broken radio as the "Bat-radia". He then calls himself "The Batman of Zur-En-Arrh" and begins taking advice from Bat-Mite (written as "might" in this case, as the character is meant to be a voice of reason to Zur-En-Arrh, as in "the Bat might do this").

The Black Glove is taking hold
The Batman of Zur-En-Arrh hunts down and dispatches two small-time members of the Black Glove, and finds that his next destination is Arkham Asylum, armed with nothing but a baseball bat, his Bat-radia, and miscellaneous bits of junk that serve in place of his utility belt. Batman and Bat-Mite ultimately make it to Arkham, where Bat-Mite says he cannot follow. Inside, Batman is confronted by Joker, who holds Jezebel Jet captive and kills her in front of him using the flowers that make up Joker's laughing gas.

As Batman regains his sanity and loses consciousness from the same poisonous flowers, Jezebel appears to be okay, the Joker is smiling, Dr. Hurt is there, and everyone is asking Batman "Now do you get it?" It is revealed that Jezebel Jet has been a part of the Black Glove all along.

The term "Zur-en-Arrh" was written all over the city by Hurt as a subliminal trigger to be used when the time was right to break Batman's mind. Dr. Hurt calls off Joker, referring to him as "my good and faithful servant". The straitjacketed Batman is buried in a shallow grave, Hurt's intention being to exhume him once oxygen deprivation has permanently damaged his mind. Back in the asylum, Joker casually murders a Black Glove member and places a bet with those who remain: that Batman will emerge from the grave undamaged and hunt them down, as he always does. While the now mentally stable Batman escapes the shallow grave that the Black Glove put him in, Joker points out that no one has investigated Batman's "Bat-radia". When they do, they activate a transmitter that brings Nightwing, Robin, Damian, and the League of Assassins right to them. Before Joker flees in an ambulance, he promises the remaining Black Glove members that he will collect his winnings from them soon and tells Hurt that he should not have called him his servant. Batman hunts down Hurt, who tries to convince Bruce that he is his father, but Batman believes him to be Mangrove Pierce, an actor who had once been his father's double. As Hurt tries to escape, Batman infiltrates his escaping helicopter, causing it to crash in a blazing explosion. Flying back to her own country, Jezebel Jet's plane is ambushed by Talia's Man-Bat Commandos. Back in present-day Gotham, Le Bossu tells his henchmen that Batman has not been seen in months and that they are free to commit crimes unmolested, when suddenly a Bat-signal-like light comes on above them, bringing the story full circle to its opening image. In the epilogue, young Bruce Wayne is walking home with his parents after seeing a Zorro movie. Bruce wonders what it would be like if Zorro showed up. Thomas Wayne responds, "The sad truth is, they'd probably throw someone like Zorro in Arkham", as he notices
someone in front of them.

Outline
Discussing the genesis of the storyline and its linkage to the rest of their run, Morrison commented:

In an interview with Comic Book Resources, Grant Morrison explained that Batman's fate in the story is "so much better than death. People have killed characters in the past, but to me, that kind of ends the story! I like to keep the story twisting and turning. So what I am doing is a fate worse than death. Things that no one would expect to happen to these guys at all. This is the end of Bruce Wayne as Batman".

Morrison talked about "Batman R.I.P." at the April 2008 New York Comic Con "Spotlight on Grant Morrison" panel: "When we begin to suspect the identity of the villain, I think it's the most, like I said the other day, it's possibly the most shocking Batman revelation in 70 years".

DC Universe #0 shed some light on the potential plot of the series, with a scene between Batman and the Joker written as a prelude to the upcoming storyline. In the sequence, Batman confronts the Joker about the mysterious "Black Glove", villains who were behind the attempt to kill Batman during Morrison's "The Black Glove" (International Club of Heroes) arc in Batman #667–669. The Joker, nonchalantly dealing out a "dead man's hand" from a deck of cards, taunts Batman regarding his fear of the mystery villain and how the Black Glove intends on destroying him.

Related titles
Each title involved in the "Batman R.I.P." arc has its own story that relates to the other titles, especially the main one of Batman, but the timelines of each do not coincide with the order in which they are published. For instance, the Detective Comics story occurs a few nights prior to the main story in the flagship Batman.

Likely part of the "R.I.P." aftermath, the ongoing Nightwing, Robin, and Birds of Prey titles ended in February 2009. No specific reason was given.

A portion of the storyline runs through Batman #682–683, and is intertwined with Final Crisis, in which Batman is Bruce Wayne. Writer Grant Morrison, in regards to the chronology of "R.I.P." and Final Crisis (because they were both being published simultaneously), said: "First it's 'R.I.P.'. Then the two-parter (#682–683) goes through Batman's whole career, in a big summing up of everything that also ties and leads directly into Final Crisis (Final Crisis #5 is where 'R.I.P.' resumes), and the final fate of Batman (Final Crisis #6)".

In Paul Dini's Heart of Hush storyline that ran in Detective Comics #846–850, parallel to the main story in Batman (but actually a prologue to it), Thomas Elliot returns to Gotham City to enact a plan to kill Batman before the Black Glove. Also explored in this arc is his connection to the Gotham underworld, and how his family history helped transform Elliot into Hush. This story continues into Detective Comics #852 and Batman #685, a two-part "Faces of Evil" storyline that is also labeled as "Last Rites". In "The Great Leap" storyline that ran in Nightwing #147–150, Two-Face tasks Nightwing to protect an old flame of Harvey Dent's, Carol Bermingham, a witness in a high-profile mob trial. Nightwing is, in fact, protecting Carol from Two-Face himself. In "Scattered Pieces", which ran in Robin #175–176, also parallel to the main story, Batman is missing and rampaging through the city in a delusional state. Nightwing is imprisoned in Arkham Asylum and Robin, fearing that Batman could have lost his sanity and gone rogue, tasks himself with finding his mentor and stopping him if necessary. In "Outsiders No More", which ran in Batman and the Outsiders #11–13, Batgirl, having a reduced roster, takes command and comes to the conclusion that no one can replace the Caped Crusader. She starts seeking out a group of new Outsiders whose combined skills could match Batman's.

Aftermath
Batman #683 reveals that Batman survives the explosion and returns to the Batcave to examine the gathered evidence on the Black Glove. However, the events of Final Crisis draw his attention elsewhere. The events between R.I.P. and Final Crisis are covered in greater detail in Batman #701 and #702, which are presented as a missing chapter of R.I.P.

In the crossover story Final Crisis, Darkseid attempts to mind-control Batman, capturing him while he is investigating the death of the New God Orion and attempting to create an army of clones based on him, but cannot, and only manages to make imperfect copies of him, the clones being unable to cope with the psychological stress of being Batman. After escaping, Batman uses the same bullet that killed Orion to shoot Darkseid. At the same time, Darkseid strikes him with the Omega Sanction. Superman is later seen holding Batman's charred body (later revealed to be one of the clones rather than the true Batman). The Batman is now presumed dead and the Bat-Family and all of Gotham must figure out what will happen without him. In the end of Final Crisis #7, Anthro dies of old age and someone wearing Batman's pants, trunks, and boots places a utility belt over the dead body and then draws the Batman logo on a wall of the cave.

The main Batman title featured several months of retrospective stories that showcase the legacy of the Batman. Those were followed by a two-part story by Neil Gaiman called "Batman: Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader?", a play on the Superman story, "Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?" by Alan Moore, which was also the last story before major changes in that character. According to DC Senior Vice President and executive editor, Dan DiDio, Bruce Wayne does not really die in the storyline, although it leads to his absence. Part of the aftermath later plays out in Blackest Night: Batman.

The titles Nightwing, Robin, and Birds of Prey were canceled, and both Batman and Detective Comics went on hiatus for three months in March 2009. In March, April, and May, a three-part series titled Batman: Battle for the Cowl, written and illustrated by Tony Daniel, focused on the aftermath of the series and the battle for Gotham. Tied to this was a three-part Oracle mini-series, a three-part Azrael mini-series, and two bookends titled Gotham City Gazette that encompassed the changes in all of those series. In addition, five one-shots were published focusing on key characters in upcoming storylines. These featured Man-Bat, Commissioner Gordon, the Network, the Underground, and Arkham Asylum.

Bruce Wayne returned in Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne, which shows him trying to regain his memory and making his way back from the distant past, to the present, and to the end of time.

It was not until after Bruce Wayne's return in Batman and Robin #16 that the true meaning of the R.I.P. acronym was revealed as Rot In Purgatory.

Publication

Collected editions
 Hardcover (), DC Comics, 2009.
 Trade paperback (), DC Comics, 2010.
 Unwrapped, hardcover (), DC Comics, 2015.

Main storyline
Pre-"R.I.P."
The "Batman R.I.P." storyline is the aftermath of "The Black Glove" storyline told in the following comics:
 Batman #667–669 "The Black Glove" (first mention and solo appearance of a Black Glove member); reprinted in both The Black Glove and Batman and Son
 Batman #672–675 "Space Medicine" (concludes "The Three Ghosts of Batman" storyline, mentioned earlier in Batman #664–666); reprinted in both The Black Glove and Batman and Son
 DC Universe #0 (three-page interior prelude to "Batman R.I.P."); reprinted in Batman R.I.P.
 Batman #676–681; reprinted in Batman R.I.P.
Last Rites
 Batman #682–683 (expands on the events in the bunker in Bludhaven in Final Crisis); reprinted in Batman R.I.P.
R.I.P. – The Missing Chapter
 Batman #701–702 (expands on the events that take place between "Batman R.I.P." and Final Crisis); reprinted in Time and the Batman
Final Crisis
 Final Crisis #1–2, 5–7 (resumes from "Batman R.I.P." with the fate of Batman); reprinted in Final Crisis

All of the above are included in the four trade paperbacks Batman and Son, Batman R.I.P., Final Crisis and Time and the Batman.

Tie-ins (not written by Grant Morrison)
"R.I.P."
 Detective Comics #846–850 "Heart of Hush" (takes place immediately before Morrison's officially titled main "Batman R.I.P." storyline)
 Nightwing (vol. 2) #147–150 "The Great Leap" (epilogued in Nightwing (vol. 2) #151; labeled "Last Rites")
 Robin (vol. 4) #175–182
 Batman and the Outsiders (vol. 2) #11–13 (takes place in accordance with Batman #680–681)
Last Rites
 Detective Comics #851 "The Last Days of Gotham" (Part 1 of 2)
 Batman #684 "The Last Days of Gotham" (Part 2 of 2)
 Detective Comics #852 "Faces of Evil" (Hush) ("Heart of Hush" epilogue, part 1 of 2)
 Batman #685 "Faces of Evil" (Catwoman) ("Heart of Hush" epilogue, part 2 of 2)
 Nightwing (vol. 2) #151 (although labeled "Last Rites", it is the epilogue to the Nightwing "R.I.P." storyline)
 Nightwing (vol. 2) #152 "Faces of Evil" (Ra's al Ghul) (Ra's reflects on Bruce's death)
 Nightwing (vol. 2) #153 (the last issue of Nightwing (vol. 2))
 Robin (vol. 4) #183 (the last issue of Robin (vol. 4); later relaunched as Red Robin)

References to earlier comics
The "Batman R.I.P." storyline references earlier comics involving The Black Casebook and the Club of Heroes. The following comics are referenced:
 Detective Comics #121 "Commissioner Gordon Walks a Beat"
 Batman #47 "The Origin of the Batman"
 Batman #62 "The Batman of England"
 Batman #65 "A Partner for Batman!"
 Batman #86 "Batman – Indian Chief"
 Detective Comics #215 "The Batmen of All Nations!"
 World's Finest Comics #89 "The Club of Heroes"
 Detective Comics #235 "The First Batman"
 Detective Comics #241 "The Rainbow Batman"
 Detective Comics #247 "The Man Who Ended Batman's Career"
 Batman #112 "Am I Really Batman?"
 Batman #113 "The Superman of Planet-X!"
 Detective Comics #267 "Batman Meets Bat-Mite"
 Batman #134 "The Rainbow Creature"
 Batman #153 "Prisoners of Three Worlds"
 Batman #156 "Robin Dies at Dawn" (first appearance of Doctor Hurt)
 Batman #162 "The Batman Creature"
 Batman: The Killing Joke
 52 #30 (Week 30) and #47 (Week 47)

Promotion
At New York Comic Con 2008, DC Comics gave away pins featuring Nightwing, Tim Drake, Jason Todd, and Hush with the words "I Am Batman" beneath them. The pins were also being given away at the Newsarama booth by DC's executive editor, Dan DiDio, during HeroesCon 2008 in Charlotte, North Carolina, and again by DiDio at Emerald City Comic-Con in Seattle.

Comics across the DC Universe also featured a checklist of the related issues, alongside a picture featuring Batman's empty cowl hanging on a cross-shaped tombstone.

Critical reception
Popcultureshock wrote that the story was "a creative and intriguing Batman tale", but that elements of the story were repetitive of earlier ones and that "some readers will likely feel cheated that the real conclusion to what happens to Batman will occur in Final Crisis and not R.I.P." A popular Batman website, Batman-On-Film.com, posted a review that gave the series positive marks: "Does [the series'] sentiment not reflect who and what Batman is all about? How, even with all of the restrictions that come with humanity, we are still capable of superhuman achievement?"

The deluxe edition hardcover of the series made the New York Times Graphic Books Best Seller List in May 2009.

Cody Walker writing for Sequart Organization, called the story a "psychological deconstruction of the Dark Knight". He noted the repeated use of the colors red and black: "The Joker sees his world in black and red, and through the use of black and red imagery, Dr. Hurt is transforming Batman's mind so he can break the hero and transform his mind into a psychotic mess much like the Joker". He compares the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh persona's ridiculousness to the Joker, and notes the theme of identity in the story. Both Walker and Thom Dunn writing for Tor.com mentioned how the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh persona is Batman without Bruce Wayne. According to Dunn, the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh persona is "essentially, the pure id of Batman, reverting him to a primal, almost childlike state".

Other media
 Bruce Timm expressed interest in an animated adaptation of Batman R.I.P. in an interview at Comic Con.
 Several members of the Black Glove appear in the "What If" Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "The Knights of Tomorrow!"

References

External links
 Review of Batman #676, Comic Book Resources
 Review of Batman R.I.P. Deluxe Edition, Comic Book Resources

Comics by Grant Morrison

Batman R.I.P.


The Willans engine or central valve engine was a high-speed stationary steam engine used mainly for electricity generation around the start of the 20th century.

Willans' engine was one of the best-known examples of the steeple compound engine. These were double- or triple-expansion compound engines, with the unusual features of single-acting cylinders and a central spindle valve shared between all the cylinders of that spindle. The cylinders are arranged as tandem compounds, with high- and low-pressure cylinders mounted on the same vertical shaft. This vertical arrangement of the steeple compound gives a compact floor layout for an engine of such power.

Willans engines were not the first high-speed engines for electricity generation, but they were soon adopted to become the predominant type in service.

Applications

Electricity generation
The engines were developed by Peter W. Willans and Mark Robinson at Thames Ditton, primarily for the increasing market in electrical generation. In 1884 they were granted a patent for the central valve principle.

By the 1890s, more of the Willans type were in service for electricity generation than any other type. As with other high-speed steam engines, the need was for a steam engine that ran at sufficiently high speeds to drive dynamos directly and also that had accurate speed regulation under changing load, so as to maintain the correct voltage. Maintaining the correct frequency for AC systems was even more important, but AC systems tended to favour slow-speed engines with large flywheels, rather than the high-speed engines used for DC.

Other uses

Mills
Willans engines were also used for powering textile mills, although as many mills had been built by this date, the longer-established cross-compound Corliss and drop-valve engines are better known in this application. The Willans engine, its low inertia and accurate speed control made it highly suitable for mill work. The constant shaft speed it delivered, even under a varying load, was considered to improve spinning quality and reduced the number of ends broken by shock loads.

Naval
Willans engines were used for powering the Admiralty's anti-torpedo boats. It was reported that the boats were fast, the engines noiseless.

Operation

Single-acting operation
The Willans engine was single-acting; steam pressure was only applied to the upper surface of the pistons. This was a common feature of high-speed engines at this time, in a measure to reduce knocking and increased wear, thus permitting higher operating speeds. The principle was that in a single-acting engine the forces on the connecting rod and its bearings always act to compress the rod, rather than reversing direction twice in every revolution, as for the double-acting engine. The lower bearing brasses, which carried a load only during starting, were smaller than the crankpin and the main working brasses above. Although single-acting engines produce only half the power of an equivalent double-acting engine, or else must run at twice their speed, this reduced knocking could allow them to run more than twice as fast.

Air cushion
In the conventional double-acting engine, residual steam was trapped in the exhausting cylinder after the valve closed and compressed. This compressed steam has a cushioning effect and acts to brake the piston at the end of stroke. In the single-acting engine there is no similar effect at the end of the power stroke. This had previously been a limitation on the operating speed of single-acting engines.

In the Willans engine, cushioning at the end of stroke was provided by an additional air cylinder below the others. The air piston also acted as a trunk guide. During the upward stroke, inertia of the engine continues its movement upwards and before the next stroke begins there is otherwise nothing to retard it. The enclosed air cylinder acts as a compressed air dashpot above the trunk guide piston.

Central spindle valve

The most distinctive feature of the engine was its central spindle valve. This acted as a multi-stage piston valve, controlling admission of steam into each of the compound cylinders. Unusually the valve worked within the hollow piston rod or trunk, rather than in the cylinder block or valvechest. This hollow piston rod linked all of the cylinders and was machined with ports.

The valvegear actuating the valve was very simple. Each piston had two parallel connecting rods, working on separated crankpin journals between the same crank webs. An eccentric between the two crankpins drove the centrally-mounted valve spindle by another short connecting rod. Because of the need to allow the valve rod to pass through between them, the piston had two overhung stub gudgeon pins, rather than a single through pin.

Inlet steam was supplied to the top of the piston rod trunk through distinctive domed caps. If the engine was intended for a fixed cutoff, the inlet steam was controlled solely by the valve and trunk. Where variable cutoff was to be used, this was achieved very simply by a rotating collar with angled ports that overlapped the ports in the trunk and so controlled their timing.

Lubrication
Lubrication of the Willans engine was by splash from an enclosed crankcase. This was filled with a mixture of oil and water. Excess water from condensate was drained out of the crankcase as it accumulated, but the engines did not have the separated glands between the cylinder and crankcase, with a drainage space between them, that were used by the Carel, Belliss and Morcom, or Alley & MacLellan (later Sentinel) engines.

Withdrawal
Willans engines gradually fell from use post-World War I, for two reasons.

Firstly, Belliss and Morcom further developed the high-speed engine. Their invention in 1890 of the oil pump and forced lubrication system solved the problem of the bearing rattling under a reversing load. This allowed them to produce double-acting engines that were more compact than single-acting. Where a single cylinder engine could replace a small twin cylinder engine, this was also a useful cost saving. Although some steam generating sets remained in use well into the 1980s, these were almost all of the Belliss and Morcom double-acting type.

Secondly, the growth of electricity generation and the development of the National Grid favoured fewer, larger generating stations, rather than the small local stations of the first generation. These large plants could more efficiently use large steam turbines and could afford the complicated high-superheat water-tube boilers used with them.

Similar engines

Carel's engine
The Carel engine, built by SA des Moteurs á Grand Vitesse. Brevet Carel's of Sclessin-Liège, Belgium, was very similar to the Willans. It used a similar layout of paired cylinders, in numbers from two to eight. It too was built for double- and triple-expansion. Like the Willans engine it used single-acting cylinders and also used the Willans air-cushion trunk guide. It differed in the design of its valves, as these were rotary. Each pair of cylinders had a shared rotary valve between them, driven by a half-speed bevel gear. Like the Paget locomotive, the valves were of cast-iron and ran in a phosphor bronze sleeve within the cylinder. As the valve and cylinders must operate in phase, the ports are duplicated. The advantage overall is a reduction in linear valve speed. Such rotary valves were often tried at this period, yet rarely successfully. Lubrication was difficult at this time and superheating was limited, if the valves were not to seize.

Paxman's Peache's Patent engine
The 'Peache Patent' engine was produced by Davey, Paxman & Co of Colchester, who built 260 of them between 1895 and 1913. James Courthope Peache had previously worked for Willans & Robinson as Works Manager at the Ferry Works. He left Willans in January 1892 and in 1893 he approached James Paxman with his own design of a high-speed single-acting engine. He later returned to Willans, in 1904 becoming a Director of the company, now based in Rugby, and by 1908 became Managing Director.

The Peache engine was considered as another single-acting tandem compound, although it had an unusual design of cylinder. The middle volume of the high- and low-pressure cylinders was in common, without the usual gland to isolate them.  The high-pressure piston acts downwards and the low-pressure acts upwards. The space between the pistons, referred to as the 'controlling cylinder' is partially filled with steam tapped from the high-pressure cylinder. As this is compressed when the pistons move upwards, it acts in a similar manner to the air-cushion of the Willans.

Piston valves behind the cylinders were worked by a form of radial valvegear, driven by the connecting rod.

Unusually for a steam engine, but somewhat advantageously for a single-acting engine, the Peache was a desaxe engine. By slightly offsetting the crankshaft and piston axis, the crosshead forces remained towards the rear of the engine, throughout the operating cycle. Like the single-acting principle itself, this constant direction of forces helped to reduce vibration and wear.

Survivors

Few examples of these large electrical generation engines survive, including the Willans. A few of the examples still survive, including a very small one in the Science Museum. This is a 10 kW engine at 450 rpm and is displayed alongside its original bipolar dynamo. A single cylinder from a larger engine is also displayed, sectioned (illus.).

A 1901, 140 bhp three cylinder generating set was retired in 1957 from the Maples furniture shop in London and placed on display at the original Willans factory in Rugby. In 2011 this was recognised with an Engineering Heritage Award. In 2017 it was transferred to the Internal Fire – Museum of Power in West Wales.

A three-cylinder, two-stage engine is preserved in the Science and Tecnic Museum of Catalonia (mNACTEC).

Notes

References

Stationary steam engines
Compound steam engines

Willans engine


Roderick MacKinnon (born 19 February 1956) is a professor of Molecular Neurobiology and Biophysics at Rockefeller University. He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry together with Peter Agre in 2003 for his work on the structure and operation of ion channels.

Biography

Early life and education
MacKinnon was born in Burlington, Massachusetts and initially attended the University of Massachusetts Boston. MacKinnon then transferred to Brandeis University after one year, and there he received a bachelor's degree in biochemistry in 1978, studying calcium transport through the cell membrane for his honors thesis in Christopher Miller's laboratory. It was also at Brandeis where MacKinnon met his future wife and working-colleague Alice Lee.

After receiving his degree from Brandeis, MacKinnon entered medical school at Tufts University. He got his M.D. in 1982 and received training in Internal Medicine at Beth Israel Hospital in Boston. He did not feel satisfied enough with the medical profession, so in 1986 he returned to Christopher Miller's laboratory at Brandeis for postdoctoral studies.

Career
In 1989 he was appointed assistant professor at Harvard University where he studied the interaction of the potassium channel with a specific toxin taken from scorpion venom. He learned how to purify proteins and to use X-ray crystallography. In 1996, he moved to Rockefeller University as a professor and head of the Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology and Biophysics. There, he started to work on the structure of the potassium channel. These channels are of particular importance to the nervous system and the heart. The channels enable potassium ions to cross the cell membrane.

Scientific contributions
Potassium channels demonstrate a seemingly strange activity: they permit the passage of potassium ions, whereas they do not allow the passage of the much smaller sodium ions. Before MacKinnon's work, the detailed molecular architecture of potassium channels and the exact means by which they conduct ions remained speculative. In 1998, despite barriers to the structural study of integral membrane proteins that had stopped most attempts for decades, MacKinnon and colleagues determined the three-dimensional molecular structure of a potassium channel from bacteria utilizing X-ray crystallography. With this structure and other biochemical experiments, MacKinnon and colleagues were able to explain the exact mechanism by which potassium channel selectivity occurs.

His prize-winning research was conducted primarily at the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS) of Cornell University, and at the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) of Brookhaven National Laboratory.

Awards and distinctions
1997 - Newcomb Cleveland Prize
1998 - W. Alden Spencer Award
1999 - Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
2000 - Elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
2000 - Rosenstiel Award
2001 - Gairdner Foundation International Award
2003 - Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University
2003 - Nobel Prize in Chemistry

References

Other websites
Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy
 Interview with Roderick MacKinnon by Harry Kroto Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust.
 Website of his lab at the Rockefeller University
 Ion Channel Chemistry: The Electrical System of Life Transcribed video of a May 2008 talk by MacKinnon, sponsored by the Oregon State University Libraries.
 Nobel Lecture by Roderick MacKinnon, 2003

1956 births
Living people
Scientists from Massachusetts
American Nobel Prize winners
American chemists
American neuroscientists
Rockefeller University faculty

Roderick MacKinnon


Devil's Peak is part of the mountainous backdrop to Cape Town, South Africa. When looking at Table Mountain from the city centre, or when looking towards the city across Table Bay, the skyline from left to right consists of Devil's Peak, the flat summit of Table Mountain, the peak of Lion's Head, and Signal Hill.

The central districts of Cape Town are located within this natural amphitheatre. The city grew out of a settlement founded on the shore below the mountains in 1652 by Jan van Riebeeck, for the Dutch East India Company. Some of the first farms in the Cape were established on the slopes of Devil's Peak, along the Liesbeek River.

Devil's Peak stands  high, less than Table Mountain's , and there are a number of hiking routes to the summit.

Landmarks

The Rhodes Memorial to Cecil Rhodes, and the University of Cape Town are situated on the eastern slopes of Devil's Peak. Other landmarks on the eastern slopes are Mostert's Mill, Groote Schuur Hospital, and the Groote Schuur estate, including a number of presidential and ministerial residences.

A number of historic military blockhouses are situated on Devil's Peak, along with a number of cannons intended to defend the city from attack from the south. There is an abandoned fire lookout high up on Mowbray Ridge.

Hiking
There are a lot of easy walks on the lower slopes of the mountain. A popular short hike is from Rhodes Memorial to the King's blockhouse.  The only generally accessible ascent of the peak is from the Saddle, between the peak and Table Mountain. There are three routes to reach the Saddle: from Tafelberg Road on the city side, up Newlands Ravine from Newlands Forest, or the upper contour path from Mowbray Ridge and Minor Peak. Once on the Saddle, a straightforward path climbs directly to the summit, which has a 360° view of Cape Town and Table Mountain. A number of the gorges on the West side of the mountain are steep, wet and dangerous,particularly Second Waterfall Ravine, Dark Gorge and Els Ravine.

Vegetation

The northern slopes overlooking the city centre are covered in typical Cape Peninsula Shale Fynbos. These slopes are hotter and prone to frequent fires, and as a result the vegetation is low. Here can also be found a small stretch of critically endangered Peninsula Shale Renosterveld vegetation, an endemic vegetation type that used to dominate the Cape Town City Bowl but is now mostly lost due to urban development.

The slopes on the Southern Suburbs side however, are naturally wetter and more protected from fires, so these slopes were originally partially covered with deep indigenous forests. Some of these dense afro-montane forests still remain in the gorges, but most of them were cut down to make way for commercial pine plantations. Near Rhodes Memorial there are a stands of the native silver tree, one of the few remaining areas where the tree still grows wild.

During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th, Devil's Peak (and other adjacent heights) were commercially planted with plantations of cluster pines, a problematic invasive non-indigenous tree. More recently, local authorities and volunteers felled the pines from the higher slopes while maintaining pine and gum plantations in Newlands Forest on the lower reaches of the mountain for recreational purposes. The original indigenous Afro-montane forest is also slowly re-growing on the southern slopes and above Newlands forest where the pines have been cleared, with programmes to remove pines and other alien vegetation continuing. Stone pines (a non-invasive alien tree) still remain in the area around Rhodes Memorial.

Fauna

Indigenous animals include porcupines, caracals, small grey mongoose, rock hyraxes (also known as dassies), and many species of bird. Near Rhodes Memorial, some of the lower slopes of Devil's Peak were artificially maintained as savanna, with eland, wildebeest and zebra kept there, with the zebras forming part of the Quagga Project. These animals were removed from the enclosure in early 2018 due to the uncertain water supply during the Cape Town water crisis.

In the 1930s, a few Himalayan tahrs (wild goats) escaped from a zoo on the slopes of Devil's Peak and bred until their population on the Table Mountain range was over 700. A culling programme has eliminated most of them, although a few still remain. Some of the original local species of small antelope are being re-introduced to replace the tahrs. Fallow deer were once kept in the area of Rhodes Memorial, but were removed starting in 2006.

Geology

The upper, rocky parts of Devil's Peak, Table Mountain and Lion's Head consist of a hard, uniform and resistant sandstone commonly known as the Table Mountain sandstone or TMS. (This is, however, no longer used as a formal geological name). The tough sandstone rests conformably upon a basal shale that in turn lies unconformably upon a basement of older (Late Precambrian) rocks (Malmesbury shale/slate and the Cape Granite). The basal shale and the older rocks below it weather much faster than the TMS and for this reason the lower slopes are smoother in all parts, with few outcrops and deeper soil. Millions of years of erosion have stripped all of the TMS from Signal Hill and that is why it looks very rounded compared to its sister peaks. There is a road that runs almost on the contour from the lower cable station on Table Mountain along the mountain to Devil's Peak. As it turns east around the bulk of Devil's Peak the road cuttings expose a few famous geological unconformities, which illustrate very clearly that the Malmesbury rocks were folded, baked, intruded by granite and planed down by millions of years of erosion before the area sank below the ocean and a new sequence of sediments, including the TMS, began to accumulate.

Origins of the name
Devil's Peak was originally known as Windberg or Charles Mountain. The English term Devil's Peak is a 19th-century translation from the Dutch Duivels Kop, and supposedly comes from the folk-tale about a Dutch man called Jan van Hunks, a prodigious pipe smoker who lived at the foot of the mountain circa 1700. He was forced by his wife to leave the house whenever he smoked his pipe. One day, while smoking on the slopes of the peak, he met a mysterious stranger who also smoked.  They each bragged of how much they smoked and so they fell into a pipe-smoking contest. The stranger turned out to be the devil and Van Hunks eventually won the contest, but not before the smoke that they had made had covered the mountain, forming the table cloth cloud. The story was captured by the 19th century poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti in his poem Jan van Hunks (alternatively called The Dutchman's Wager).
However, since Rosetti's poem was only published in 1909, it's unlikely that this was the true source of the name, rather an urban legend.

It has been claimed that the name is a corruption of Duifespiek ("Dove's Peak") to Duivelspiek ("Devil's Peak"), since the Dutch words for devil and dove are relatively close in sound. The Dutch word "Duivelspiek" has been the common Afrikaans language name for the mountain and the suburb on the east side of the city bowl. The name may have been derived from the mountain's 'three pronged' spear shape, which is reminiscent of the spear held by the Devil in many images.

Another explanation is provided by Devil's Peak Brewery. Forty years before Vasco de Gama rounded the Cape in 1497, the Venetian cartographer Fra Mauro created a map of the world for King Alfonso V of Portugal, based on knowledge drawn from the Arabians. On this map, which became the definitive view of the world for the early Portuguese explorers, he named the southernmost tip of Africa Cabo de Diab – the Devil's Cape. It is possible the association with the devil migrated from there to the mountain.

1971 plane crash

On 26 May 1971, three South African Air Force Hawker-Siddeley HS125 (Code named Mercurius) aircraft crashed into Devil's Peak, killing all 11 on board. The aircraft were flying in close formation, practicing for a fly-past during the upcoming 10th-anniversary Republic Day celebrations on 31 May. The aircraft, flying by sight along the N2 highway, banked to the right three seconds too late, crashing into the side of the mountain not far above Rhodes Memorial and the University of Cape Town. A low cloud base was cited as a contributory factor. The impact was heard throughout the surrounding suburbs. For many years a radar reflector beacon stood on Plumpudding Hill above Rhodes Memorial to prevent similar incidents.

See also

References

Table Mountain
Aviation accidents and incidents in South Africa
Table Mountain National Park

Devil's Peak (Cape Town)


Mohammed Hassan Dbouk (in Arabic محمد حسن دبوق) was a Lebanese-Canadian accredited journalist with al-Manar television in Lebanon. He is alleged to have received intelligence training at Iranian camps alongside the Revolutionary Guard, and to have used his credentials to film Hezbollah targets prior to, and during, attacks, and used the footage to create "propaganda videos" which he credited to himself.

Life in Canada
After immigrating to Vancouver claiming to be a refugee in 1998, Dbouk allegedly operated a branch of Hezbollah in the city for nine months, raising $1,300,000, through credit card and banking scams, and spending the money on military equipment subsequently smuggled back into Lebanon with the help of his brother-in-law Ali Adham Amhaz.

He reported to procurement chief Haj Hassan al-Laqqis, and was responsible for shipping night vision goggles, GPS systems, stun guns, nitrogen cutters and laser range finders to Hezbollah. His "cell" also sought to obtain life insurance policies for Lebanese militants.

Believed to be a colleague of Imad Mughniyah based on a fax intercepted by Canadian authorities, he was the subject of a wiretap by the Canadian Security Intelligence Service, who recorded him speaking to a colleague named Said about a Southern Lebanese man who might go for a "walk" soon and never return, and whether Said could serve as a reference to get him some necessary travel papers and documentation.

He was indicted, but believed to have fled to Lebanon. After his flight, childhood friend Said Harb took a companion up to Vancouver from their North Carolina home, and made a number of purchases of military equipment under the direction of Dbouk.

References

Living people
Lebanese emigrants to Canada
Lebanese journalists
Hezbollah
Canadian male criminals
Lebanese criminals
Year of birth missing (living people)

Mohammed Hassan Dbouk


London Designer Outlet (abbreviated LDO) is a semi-outdoor shopping centre in Wembley in the London Borough of Brent. Located on Wembley Park Boulevard adjacent to both Wembley Stadium and The SSE Arena, it opened in 2013 as the first outlet centre in Greater London.

History
It officially opened on 24 October 2013, London's first outlet exclusive centre, as part of the  Wembley Park Redevelopment project by owners Quintain. The development cost £65 million. The total retail space of the shopping centre is .

As of late 2018, total revenues at London Designer Outlet have risen 97% since its opening, and it attracts 7 million visitors a year.

Retail area

The Outlet centre consists of some  which houses over 70 stores and restaurants across three floors, of which around 50 are outlet shops selling goods at a minimum discount of 30% off RRP, though with many outlet stores offering savings of up to 70% off RRP year-round. Along with this the outlet centre also has space for events which is used during seasonal time periods, most recently to screen the Royal Wedding, Wimbledon and the World Cup, though it is also used for music and cultural events as well. LDO's 20 coffee shops and restaurants provide 2,000 covers and there is also a nine-screen, 1,800 seat Cineworld cinema. BREEAM Retail gave it a 'Very Good' rating as well as a 'Very Positive' on Brent's Sustainable Development Checklist.

With its location next to Wembley Stadium and its line-up of well-known brands, LDO is becoming famous for its 'athleisure' stores, though its top performers reflect its greater diversity and include one of the top Gap outlet stores in Europe, one of the top Nike outlet stores in Europe and the top Guess outlet store in Europe. It opened UK 'firsts' for outlet stores from H&M, Converse, and Haribo.

London Designer Outlet became the first shopping centre in the UK to offer 'store to door' delivery via DropIt with delivery within 24 hours to any postal code in mainland Britain, for a flat rate of £10.50 for an unlimited number of LDO shopping bags condensed into one delivery.

Transport

Trains
Wembley Stadium station for Chiltern Railways is located some 300 yards from London Designer Outlet, while Wembley Park tube station on the Jubilee line and Metropolitan line is half a mile away, accessed through Wembley Park Boulevard and Olympic Way. In addition, Wembley Central station for Southern Railways, London Overground, and the Bakerloo line, is also less than a mile from the centre.

Buses
The centre is served by London Buses routes 83, 92, 182, 206, 223,  297 and 483.

Parking

LDO has a 1,000-space multi-storey "Red" Car Park, located opposite its main entrance. This car park is also used by Wembley Stadium and The SSE Arena on event days.

In popular culture
In November 2015, British Rapper Tion Wayne filmed a music video for his single Be Like That at the outlet centre.

References

External links
 Official Website

Redevelopment projects in London
Shopping centres in the London Borough of Brent
Tourist attractions in the London Borough of Brent
Shopping malls established in 2013
2013 establishments in England
Wembley
Privately owned public spaces
Outlet malls in England

London Designer Outlet


Arya Samaj in Tanzania had been in existence since the early 1900s and prior to independence the whole of East Africa was served by a single Arya Samaj. After independence a separate Pratinidhi Sabha was formed in Tanzania on 19 July 1974.

History
Arya Samaj had initially been established in Dar-es-Salaam by Karsandas Dwarikadas. The Arya Samaj, thanks to generous donation by its supporters, constructed a building in the city. A school for girls was established which provided instruction in English, Hindi and Gujarati which later became the Dayanand Anglo Vedic (DAV) Secondary School. Vedic preachers from India, who toured Africa, also stopped over in Dar-es-Salaam. Other Arya Samajs were established in Tabora, Mwanza and Tanga.

Arya Samaj in Tanga
The Arya Samaj of Tanga was formally established on 2 February 1947. Weekly prayer meetings were held and a building was erected in the name of the Samaj. The Arya Samaj also provided Hindi education for which a number of people provided free service. The Samaj supported the "Dayanand Home" in Nairobi and provided scholarships to deserving students. The Samaj has maintained a library of books in English, Hindi and Gujarati. The Arya Samaj in Tanga has worked in close cooperation with other Hindu organisations in the region.

Arya Samaj in Zanzibar
The Arya Samaj was established in Zanzibar in 1907. The Samaj constructed a large building and for fifty years took over the responsibility for the religious, cultural and educational activities among the Hindus in Zanzibar. It built a girls' school and a library. Regular prayer meetings were held and Hindu festivals celebrated. After 1960, political developments led to many Indians leaving the islands and at present there are only a few Hindu families left.

References

Arya Samaj
Hinduism in Tanzania

Arya Samaj in Tanzania


Bernhard Rosenkränzer (born February 18, 1977) is the founder and main developer of Ark Linux (later merged into OpenMandriva) and a contributor to various other free software projects such as KDE and OpenOffice.org. To many in the Linux community he is known as "Bero", a concatenation of the first two letters of his given and surnames.

His primary interest and work focus is in getting open source and free software ready for the desktop.

Rosenkränzer entered RWTH Aachen University in 1998, where he studied computer science. Before he started classes, he optimized Red Hat Linux by creating his own Linux distribution known as "BeroLinux". During his studies, he started working for Mandrake Linux (later known as Mandriva). Rosenkränzer later accepted an offer to work for Red Hat Linux as a KDE package developer. However, he quit the job due to differences with Red Hat about the future of KDE in Red Hat.

Rosenkränzer also invented an improved system for satellite television distribution to schools in Ethiopia.

Until 2019, Rosenkränzer worked at Linaro, an organization dedicated to improving Linux on ARM processors. He also used to work for ROSA Laboratories, a company delivering their own custom brand of Mandriva Linux for the Russian government. As part of this work, Ark Linux has been merged into OpenMandriva.
After leaving Linaro, he turned his side project, an Open Source company called LinDev (short for LINux DEVelopment), into his main business. LinDev is currently involved with building the Eclipse Foundation's Oniro Embedded operating system and works with Ampere Computing on ARM based Linux servers.

In 2012, he has been involved with speeding up Linaro's Android builds by modifying Bionic (software) and making better use of the toolchain.

In 2017, he was the first to build and demo working prototypes of AArch64 based desktop and laptop machines.

He is currently the president of the OpenMandriva Association.

Notes

External links
Interview with Bernhard Rosenkraenzer about Ark Linux by Eugenia Loli, OS News, March 13, 2003.
Interview with Bernhard Rosenkraenzer and other Ark Linux team members by Marc Duerner, ProLinux, July 10, 2003.
 Interview with Bernhard Rosenkraenzer, Desktop Linux, March 24, 2003.
Article and video about the aarch64 desktop and laptop projects, CNXSoft — Embedded Systems News, October 3, 2017.
Linaro Website
OpenMandriva Website
ROSA Laboratories Web site  — A Russian Linux developer company
LinDev web site

Free software programmers
RWTH Aachen University alumni
Living people
1977 births

Bernhard Rosenkränzer


The word classicism, in the arts, is used when talking about art from the Ancient Greeks and Romans and their influence. The art of classicism often involves a thoughtful approach to the arts in which beauty and form is admired, rather than passion or any kind of exaggeration.

Classicism influenced several periods in European history, especially the Italian Renaissance, Age of Reason, the Age of Enlightenment and some movements in Modernism.

Classicism can apply to painting, sculpture, architecture, music, dance, literature or philosophy.

Related pages
 Neoclassicism
 Classical music
 Classical music period

Other websites
 , explains the difference between Classicism and Baroque

Art movements

Classicism


The Insights Association, formed by the merger of the Council of American Survey Research Organizations (CASRO) and the Marketing Research Association (MRA) in January 2017 with more than 325 member companies and their 32,000 employees, all of whom are afforded membership benefits, represent nearly $8 billion in global annual revenue—about 85% of the U.S. research industry and 30% of the global research industry. As of 2023, it has six U.S. regional chapters and one Canadian chapter. IA's members annually reaffirm their adherence to the IA Code of Standards and Ethics (last updated December 2022), a code that sets the standards of professional and ethical conduct for all IA members and the research and data analytics industry and profession.

Through its subsidiary CIRQ (Certification Institute for Research Quality) that was established in 2009, IA provides assessment and certification services to market research firms seeking certification to ISO quality standards, specifically 20252:2019 (market research standard) and ISO/IEC 27001:2022 and ISO/IEC 27701:2019 (information security standard).

IA has a full-time Washington, DC-based lobbyist who monitors legislative and regulatory activity on the Federal and state level that may potentially impact insights business practices.

See also
 American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR)
 ESOMAR (European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research)
 World Association for Public Opinion Research (WAPOR)
 European Survey Research Association (ESRA)

References

Professional associations based in the United States
Trade associations based in the United States

Insights Association


Salame ticinese (also Salame nostrano) is a variety of salami originating in Ticino, the southernmost region of Switzerland. It is characterized by coarsely ground meat and it is often made into small sausages, called salametti. It is an emblematic air-dried cured pork meat of Ticino, along with prosciutto crudo and coppa. These are referred to as salumi.

For the production of salami, first choice meats are used. They are selected from the shoulder, nut, thigh and bacon trimmings. The lard is extracted from the fatty tissue of the back and cut into cubes. The meat is coarsely minced and seasoned with salt, saltpeter, pepper, spices and sometimes garlic and wine. The maturation of the salami can last, depending on the size, from a month up to a year or more. For the salametti instead, it takes only 8-10 days.

Centuries ago, when peasants ate meat only a few times per year, salami was a luxurious product. It was not made for consumption but for sale, and it was a source of income. In the 18th century, wealthy families would hang cured meats from the bedroom ceiling, and among these, salami. In a text written in 1767, Descrizione del baliaggio di Locarno ("Description of the bailiwick of Locarno"), salami is described among other luxury foods: salsiccia affettata e cruda, detta salammi ("sliced and raw sausage, called salami").

Salami was homemade until the 1970s, especially in rural contexts. The traditional slaughtering of the pig in Ticino is called mazza. Today, salami is a very popular consumer product in both Ticino and Switzerland, and it is made in large meat factories. Rapelli is the largest manufacturer in the country. In addition to pork salami, horse, donkey, deer, and wild boar salami are also produced. Local specialties include salami matured in the medieval Bellinzona Castles.

See also
Swiss sausages and cured meats
Landjäger and Salsiz, other dried sausages from Switzerland

References

Swiss cuisine
Swiss sausages
Culinary Heritage of Switzerland
Salumi
Ticino

Salame ticinese


"For Now, For Always" was a sentimental ballad from the 1961 Disney film, The Parent Trap.  It was sung by Maureen O'Hara, and was written by the songwriting brother team of the Robert and Richard Sherman.

According to the Sherman Brothers, the song was meant to be in the style of a 1946 love ballad, perhaps written as World War II was ending or had just ended, so that it could be the song that the twins' parents would have fallen in love to.

Literary Sources
 Sherman, Robert B. Walt's Time: from before to beyond. Santa Clarita: Camphor Tree Publishers, 1998.

1961 songs
Disney songs
Songs written by the Sherman Brothers
The Parent Trap films

For Now, For Always


Royal Artillery Barracks, Woolwich, is a barracks of the British Army which forms part of Woolwich Garrison. The Royal Regiment of Artillery had its headquarters here from 1776 until 2007, when it was moved to Larkhill Garrison.

History
In 1716 two permanent field companies of Artillery (each of a hundred men) were formed by royal Warrant and placed under the command of the Master-General of the Ordnance. They were initially quartered in the Warren, about half a mile from the current barracks site. By 1771 the Royal Regiment of Artillery numbered over 2,400, over a third of whom were usually quartered in Woolwich. Having outgrown its barracks in the Warren, the regiment looked to establish itself in new quarters elsewhere in Woolwich.

18th-century establishment
Work on the new barracks began in 1774 on a site overlooking Woolwich Common. As originally built (1774-6) the barracks frontage was only half the present length, being the eastern half of the current south elevation, with the clock pediment and turret positioned centrally. Soldiers were accommodated in the central block, officers in the smaller blocks on either side; the blocks were linked by a pair of brick arcades with large rooms behind: a guard room to the west, an officers' mess to the east. Behind the three blocks was an open yard area and a row of kitchens, with a house for the barrack-master added beyond.

In 1793 the Royal Horse Artillery was formed, and a separate long barracks range was built for them to the north of (and parallel with) the original blocks; it was arranged (cavalry-style) with soldiers on the first floor and stables for the horses below.

19th-century enlargement

By the turn of the century the size of the Regiment had grown substantially and larger barracks were needed. To begin with, in 1801, the Horse Artillery barracks was expanded to form a quadrangle by the addition of a parallel range to the north, linked to it by officers' quarters at either end. Beyond this, in what became the north-east corner of the site, a riding school was built with a farriery attached. James Wyatt was the architect for these works.

Then in 1802-5, the entire barracks was more than doubled in size by erecting something close to a facsimile alongside to the west: in this way the south front was doubled in length by the building of three new blocks (very similar to the first three, but with a wind-dial in place of the clock); and behind these blocks a second Horse Artillery quadrangle was built. Then, to the north of the each quadrangle, a larger, three-storey block was built to provide barrack accommodation for the Corps of Royal Artillery Drivers (again with stables on the ground floor and soldiers' rooms above); these barracks ran along the full length of the northern edge of the site, up as far as the riding school. The south range of the barracks, facing on to the parade ground, was for the foot artillery. Between these and the quadrangles, a number of ancillary buildings and structures were provided, including a coal store, engineers' yard, canteen, stores and office buildings, as well as the barrack-master's house.

For the south front, which faced on to the parade ground, James Wyatt designed a centrepiece triumphal arch to marry the two halves of the frontage together. A companion arch was provided to the north (plainer, but of comparable size), with a central avenue running between the two; and similar arches were placed at either end of each quadrangle (providing a through-route from east to west). On the south façade, Wyatt linked each set of three blocks with colonnades (stuccoed to match the central arch): behind the first he built offices for the regiment's senior officers, behind the next was a new officers' mess ('supposed to be the largest in England', and later expanded in the 1840s); behind the third was the guard room (with a library and reading room added above), and behind the last a regimental chapel. The chapel was a large galleried space, with seating for close to 1,500 (later increased to almost 1,800 with the addition of an upper gallery in 1847). When a new garrison church was built in the 1860s, the chapel within the barracks became redundant, so it was converted to become a theatre for the Royal Artillery Dramatic Society.

The barracks were for the most part completed by 1806; by then they already housed 3,210 officers and men, and 1,200 horses. In 1822 the Corps of Drivers was disbanded, with field artillerymen trained to serve as drivers instead; having thus acquired horses, the Field Artillery moved into the northern range of barracks and stables, leaving the still dismounted Garrison Artillery in the south range.  Numbers fluctuated somewhat in the first half of the century: the size of the garrison was reduced during the years of relative peace after Waterloo (until in 1833 the barracks contained just 1,875 men and 419 horses); but it then began growing again. In the census of 1841, a total of 2,862 people were recorded as living in the barracks, of whom 759 were women or children (there being no officially-provided housing for married soldiers at that time). In the wake of the Crimean War, with the army largely garrisoned at home, the barracks became notoriously overcrowded.

In 1851 work began (to a design by T. H. Wyatt) on a new building for the Royal Artillery Institution; it was opened three years later, standing immediately to the north of the easternmost block of the south range of the barracks. The RA Institution was a scientific association, offering officers the opportunity to hear lectures on physics, chemistry, geology, artillery, military tactics and history. The building included a horseshoe-shaped lecture theatre, a library, a laboratory, a museum, and facilities for drawing, sketching, printing, modelmaking and photography. An 'Advanced Course for Artillery Officers' was set up within the Institution in 1868: a two-year examined course of higher scientific study. From 1871 the Department of Artillery Studies made use of the Institution's facilities to provide instruction for all newly-commissioned Artillery officers (with accommodation being provided in the adjacent south-east block of the barracks). In 1885 the Department (together with the Advanced Course) moved to the nearby Red Barracks and was renamed Artillery College.

By the 1880s, the Field Artillery (together with their horses) had been provided with separate barracks accommodation nearby: one brigade in the Hut Barracks, another in the Grand Depot & Engineer Barracks. The Garrison Artillery remained in the south range of the Artillery Barracks (where the District Staff R.A. were also accommodated). The Horse Artillery continued to occupy the two quadrangles. One of the northernmost blocks now housed a cavalry regiment. In 1893-4 a Church of England Soldiers' Institute was built in the north-east corner of the site, providing a concert hall, library and reading room, music room, games rooms and other facilities.

20th-century reconstruction
The theatre (the former chapel) burned down in 1903 and was rebuilt to a design by W. G. R. Sprague; and in 1926 a new Regimental Institute was built to replace the canteen (it provided among other facilities a restaurant, a ballroom, a library and a billiards room). Otherwise there were relatively few structural changes during the first half of the century. In the early 1930s, the barracks still housed some 3,000 soldiers, 1,000 horses and between 80 and 200 officers; with mechanisation, the stables were converted into more rooms for soldiers. In 1939 troops were moved out of the barracks, which (along with other facilities in the Woolwich area) was vulnerable to air attack; but the following year it was filled again with evacuees from Dunkirk. Parts of the barracks were damaged during the Blitz, the easternmost block of the south front being destroyed along with the Royal Artillery Institution (which had been inserted behind it in 1851-4).

After the war, the future of the barracks was kept under discussion. Finally, in 1956, the decision was taken that the Royal Artillery would retain it as their depot, but with everything behind the south front demolished and rebuilt (with the exception of Wyatt's officers' mess, which would remain in situ). Over the next ten years twelve new three-storey barrack blocks were erected on the site. Initially, the north, west and east triumphal arches (which were all listed buildings) were retained; those to the east and west were demolished in 1965, to make way for a gym and a computer centre, and three years later the north arch was lost to road widening (a plan that it would be dismantled and re-erected coming to nothing). The retained south range blocks were reconfigured internally, and a replica of the destroyed easternmost block was built. In 1973 the barracks were designated as a Grade II* listed building.

On 23 November 1981, the Provisional Irish Republican Army targeted Government House of the Royal Artillery on Woolwich New Road in a bomb attack which injured two people.  In 1983 the barracks itself was targeted, again by the IRA, in a bombing that injured five soldiers.

21st century rebuilding and rundown

Since the nineteenth century, the appropriateness of Woolwich as a base for the Artillery had been questioned. Suggestions of a move came to nothing until a Defence Estates Review in 2003 proposed a move to Larkhill on Salisbury Plain (where the Royal School of Artillery has been based since 1915). After very nearly 300 years in Woolwich, the last Artillery regiment (the 16th) left the barracks in July 2007. In 2008-11 the barracks were again largely rebuilt behind the south façade.

The place of the Artillery was taken by the public duties line infantry battalion and incremental companies of the Foot Guards (who moved in from Chelsea Barracks and Cavalry Barracks). Soon afterwards, the Second Battalion The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment was posted to Woolwich from Cyprus. In 2012, an artillery link was regained when the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery, moved from the St John's Wood Barracks to a new headquarters on the Woolwich site, bringing with them a complement of 120 or thereabouts horses, historic gun carriages and artillery pieces used in their displays. Following the departure of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, the First Battalion Royal Anglian Regiment moved in to the Barracks in 2014.

On 24 May 2013 drummer Lee Rigby, of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, was murdered by Islamists just outside the Barracks in a terrorist attack. Lee was staying at the barracks.

Planned closure
In November 2016 the Ministry of Defence announced that the site would close in 2028, with all army units currently stationed in Woolwich scheduled to be relocated. In 2020, it was announced that the adjacent Napier Lines were to be retained as the base of the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery. Nevertheless, in December 2020 Greenwich Borough Council unanimously passed a motion to oppose the sale of the historic barracks; by this time petitions to save the barracks had amassed over 9,000 signatures.

Curtilage

Parade ground

In 1784, the land in front of the south range of the barracks was levelled and laid with gravel to form a parade ground. In 1862 a war memorial was 'erected by their comrades to the memory of the Officers, Non Commissioned Officers and Men of the Royal Regiment of Artillery who fell during the Crimean War in the years 1854, 1855, 1856'. Designed by John Bell, the memorial is topped by a large bronze figure of Liberty distributing wreaths from a basket.

For many years the 17.75-ton Bhurtpore gun, captured by Lord Combermere after the 1826 siege of Bhurtpore, stood outside the barracks. A set of four Florentine guns dating from the mid-18th century were likewise a fixture on the southern edge of the parade ground for many years. They were all removed to Larkhill in 2007, along with other historic cannons which had stood in front of the barracks.

In 2008, for the benefit of the public duties units moving to the barracks, the central part of the parade ground was extended so as to assume the same dimensions as Horse Guards Parade.

Barrack Field

Barrack Field, to the south of the Parade Ground, originally formed part of the Bowater Estate (along with the plot on which the Barracks themselves were erected). Having acquired the land, the Board of Ordnance built a ha-ha in 1778 along its southern boundary, to prevent livestock from straying on to it from the Common. By 1806 the Board had acquired ownership of the common, and the line of the ha-ha was shifted further south as a way of straightening the boundary. Since then, the Barrack Field (together with the Common) has been used for various military purposes, including artillery exercises, physical training and large-scale military parades. The Royal Artillery Cricket Club played on a cricket ground here (dating from the 18th century); and to the east there were tennis courts and football pitches at various times. During the First World War the Barrack Field was used as a mobilization camp with over 200 tents. During the Second World War part of it was turned into allotments.

Gun Park

In 1803 the Board of Ordnance built a mortar battery for artillery training, immediately to the west of the parade ground. The battery was orientated to fire in a south-southeast direction, the target being a flagstaff positioned three-quarters of a mile away at the southern end of the common. A pedimented building, which still stands nearby, served as an ammunition store and shifting room. As described in 1846, live-fire mortar and howitzer practice took place at the battery 'every Monday, Wednesday and Friday [from] as early as half past nine in the morning'; live-fire gun practice, on the other hand, continued to take place in the Royal Arsenal (on a firing range near the proof butts). Use of the mortar battery ended in the 1870s, when live artillery firing was restricted to Plumstead Marshes and Shoeburyness.

Immediately north of the mortar battery the Gun Park was laid out (later known as the Upper Gun Park): it was a drill ground for field-battery exercises, around which gun-carriage sheds were built to the north and west. Firing positions for six guns were also provided, immediately to the south of the mortar battery. These were used as a saluting battery; guns were fired from here daily at 1 p.m. and at 9.30 p.m. to announce 'the time of day [...] to the garrison and neighbourhood of Woolwich'. It remained in use for gun salutes for much of the 20th century and, as reported in 1970, the 'firing of the 1 o'clock gun from the Greenhill Battery' continued to take place daily. Later the guns were removed and placed in front of the Royal Military Academy; but their footings remain, along with several surviving carriage sheds and other buildings, around the edge of the former drill ground (which is now used as a car park).

See also
 Woolwich Garrison
 Royal School of Artillery

References

External links
Location map - aerial photo also available
History of the Royal Artillery Theatre

Woolwich
Buildings and structures in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Grade II* listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Barracks in London
Royal Artillery
Installations of the British Army
National government buildings in London
James Wyatt buildings
Buildings and structures completed in 1802
19th-century architecture in the United Kingdom
Venues of the 2012 Summer Olympics
2012 Summer Paralympic venues
Olympic modern pentathlon venues
Olympic shooting venues
Grade II* listed government buildings

Royal Artillery Barracks, Woolwich


Bungeni is a large sprawling rural settlement situated on top of one of the foothills and tail end of the Soutpansberg mountain in Louis Trichardt, Limpopo Province, South Africa.  The Levubu agricultural plantation, where avocado, bananas, litchis, macadamia nuts, peaches and mangoes are grown in abundance is just 3km away north of Bungeni village. It lies 35 km east of Makhado, with the R578 road (South Africa) passing through it. With more than 30 000 people, Bungeni is the largest Tsonga village in Makhado local municipality. In 1994 and in 2016, administrative control of this western portion of Gazankulu has been sub-divided in half and allocated to two Municipalities, first in 1994 to Makhado Local Municipality and in 2016, to the New Malamulele Municipality in the Vhembe district. As of April 2016, the Western portion, known as 'Bungeni West' by the locals, has remained in Makhado local municipality, while the eastern portion, known as 'Bungeni east', has been allocated to the new Malamulele Municipality.

Sub-villages of Bungeni
Bungeni is a one Super village ruled by Hosi Bungeni, broken down into 22 sub-villages. Hosi Bungeni has jurisdiction over these 22 sub-villages, these sub-villages are run by or presided over by 21 headmen or '', who reports directly to Hosi Bungeni. In total, there are more than 22 sub-villages within Bungeni, each with its own 'Nduna' or headman according to their seniority , they are as follows;
(1) Sekhunyani
(2) Bungeni xikhulu
(3) Mabodhlongwa
(4)Makhome
(5) Xitaci
(6) Mtsetweni
(7)Xihambanyisi
(8) Nwa-Mhandzi
(9) Xivambu
(10)  A (e-Gembani)
(11)  B (eXavunyami)
(12) Wayeni (Bellevue)
(13) Mahatlani
(14) Nghonyama (New Village, established in 2010)
(15) WisaGalaza
(16) Dumani (Wayeni)
(17) Manyunyu
(18) Xingowa
(19) Tana na Pulani (New Village, established in 2005)
(20) Mandela (New Village, established in 2000)
(21) Mahatlani new Stands (New Village, established in 2009)
(22) Bungeni Big Tree Village (New Village, established in 2012).

All these sub-villages are collectively known as 'eka-Bungeni' and they fall under Bungeni Traditional Authority, headquartered at Bungeni Xikhulu village, known to the locals as e-Tribal. About half of Bungeni Village is still empty land or unoccupied land, at full capacity, Bungeni village will be a home to more than 80 000 people by 2050. According to the 2015 mid-year population statistics, Bungeni has a population of approximately 30,000 people. The authority to demarcate residential stands, business sites and for any other purposes rest with Chief Bungeni (Mabunda).

Nwaxinyamani village and the headman
In 1960, the South African Government refused to recognize  Hosi Chavani Mukhari as a traditional leader for the people of Chavani, Bokisi, Mbhokota and Riverplaats on the basis that the combined people of Chavani,  Mbhokota, Bokisi, Riverplaats and their land are too small and therefore they do not qualify for a Traditional Authority of their own. Hosi Chavani was a son of the great Hosinkulu Nhjakanhjaka of Elim/Shirley community whose land starts at Elim and share a border with Bungeni village at a western boundary of Nwaxinyamani village. Hosi Chavani was deployed by his father, Hosi Nhjakanhjaka,  with the main aim of expanding the Nhjakanhjaka's area of jurisdiction so that it covers the whole area up until it join Hosi Bungeni's land to the west at Nwaxinyamani village. Initially,  the land of Hosinkulu Nhjakanhjaka covers the whole town of Elim and spread beyond Shirley village and covers the whole area known today as Mbhokota,  Bokisi,
Chavani and Riverplaats. The colonial and later apartheid government feared and always discouraged the formation of large scale Tsonga kingdoms all over South Africa. Because the land of Hosinkulu Nhjakanhjaka was too large  the apartheid government divided his land, one at Elim to be ruled by Hosinkulu Nhjakanhjaka and one at Chavani village to be ruled by Hosi Chavani,  in that case, a large scale Tsonga kingdom was dealt a blow because the land was divided in order to avoid aggression by Tsongas because a large Tsonga kingdom could not easily be controlled by colonial authorities. The people of Chavani village and their leader, Hosi Chavani Mukhari, approached Hosi Russel Bungeni for assistance. They ask that Hosi Russel Bungeni give away some of his people and his land to the people of Chavani so that Hosi Chavani may be recognized by the South African Government as a Senior traditional leader. Hosi Russel Bungeni agreed to help Hosi Chavani, he gave away Nwaxinyamani village to Hosi Chavani, with strict conditions, that Nwaxinyamani village must be returned to Hosi Russel Bungeni after Hosi Chavani has been recognized by the Government as a Senior Chief. After the transfer of Nwaxinyamani village into Hosi Chavani's land, Nkhensani Tribal Authority became established, in around 1965/66 and the South African Government immediately recognized Hosi Chavani as a Senior Traditional leader for the newly established Nkhensani Tribal Authority, with Nwaxinyamani village as one of Hosi Chavani's land. Thereafter, Tribal Office and a Community Health Centre was built for the people of Chavani by the Government.
In around 1968, after Hosi Chavani has been recognized as a Senior Chief by the Government, Nwaxinyamani village has to be returned to Hosi Russel Bungeni but that agreement was not respected by Hosi Chavani, who continued to ignored the 1960 agreement between Hosi Russel Bungeni and himself, i.e. to hand over Nwaxinyamani village back to Hosi Russel Bungeni. It was not until recently, between 2015-2017 that the new Hosi Bungeni, started to engaged the new Hosi Chavani about the 1960 agreement that was entered into by both chief's grandparents. At the moment, both Hosi Chavani and Hosi Bungeni have finally agreed that Nwaxinyamani village must be returned to its old Tribal authority. Negotiations are currently under way between Hosi Bungeni and his former headman, Nwaxinyamani, to finally incorporate Nwaxinyamani village back to Bungeni Tribal Authority.

Education
Bungeni has 5 secondary schools, which are Russel Bungeni High School, Hluvuka High School, Marholeni Secondary School, Bellevue Secondary School and Mahatlani Secondary School. There are 12 primary schools at Bungeni. These are:  Primary, Muhluri Primary, Mkhono Higher Primary, Bungeni Primary, Xitaci Primary, Mtsetweni Primary, Xihambanyisi Primary, Ndlavheya Primary, Nwa-Mhandzi Primary, Wayeni Primary, Mahatlani Primary and Masungi Primary.

References

Populated places in the Makhado Local Municipality

Bungeni


The  is a freight railway company in Ōfunato, Iwate, Japan. This is one of the oldest third sector (half public, half private) railway operator in the country, founded in 1932. Its group also operates bus lines. It also had a passenger service until 1992. The line mainly transports limestones from the mine to Taiheiyō Cement Ōfunato Factory.

History
The Iwate Development Railway started construction of a 6km line to Hikoroichi (日頃市線) in 1941, but work was suspended as a result of the Pacific War. Work recommenced after the war and the line opened in 1950, and was extended 4km to Iwate-Ishibashi in 1960. A 2km freight-only line to Akasaki (赤崎線) opened in 1957. The passenger service ceased in 1992, and the lines are now freight-only.

See also
List of railway companies in Japan

External links
 Official website

Railway companies of Japan
Rail transport in Iwate Prefecture

Iwate Development Railway


The curvatures of  the stomach refer to the long, convex, lateral suface and the shorter, concave, medial surface of the organ, which are referred to as the greater and lesser curvatures, respectively. The greater curvature, which begins at the cardiac notch, and arches backwards, passing inferiorly to the left, is four or five times as long as the lesser curvature, which attaches to the hepatogastric ligament and is supplied by the left gastric artery and right gastric branch of the hepatic artery.

Greater curvature
The greater curvature of the stomach forms the lower left or lateral border of the stomach.

Surface
Starting from the cardiac orifice at the incisura cardiaca, it forms an arch backward, upward, and to the left; the highest point of the convexity is on a level with the sixth left costal cartilage.

From this level it may be followed downward and forward, with a slight convexity to the left as low as the cartilage of the ninth rib; it then turns to the right, to the end of the pylorus.

Directly opposite the incisura angularis of the lesser curvature the greater curvature presents a dilatation, which is the left extremity of the pyloric part; this dilatation is limited on the right by a slight groove, the sulcus intermedius, which is about 2.5 cm, from the duodenopyloric constriction.

The portion between the sulcus intermedius and the duodenopyloric constriction is termed the pyloric antrum.

At its commencement the greater curvature is covered by peritoneum continuous with that covering the front of the organ.

The left part of the curvature gives attachment to the gastrolienal ligament, while to its anterior portion are attached the two layers of the greater omentum, separated from each other by the gastroepiploic vessels.

Blood supply
There are three arteries which primarily supply the greater curvature:

 short gastric arteries — upper part
and the gastroepiploic vessels:
 gastric branches of left gastro-omental artery — middle part
 gastric branches of right gastro-omental artery — lower part

Lesser curvature
The lesser curvature of the stomach forms the upper right or medial border of the stomach.

Structure
The lesser curvature of the stomach travels between the cardiac and pyloric orifices. It descends as a continuation of the right margin of the esophagus in front of the fibers of the right crus of the diaphragm, and then, turning to the right, it crosses the first lumbar vertebra and ends at the pylorus.

Nearer its pyloric than its cardiac end is a well-marked notch, the incisura angularis, which varies somewhat in position with the state of distension of the viscus; it serves to separate the stomach into a right and a left portion.

The lesser curvature gives attachment to the two layers of the hepatogastric ligament – part of the lesser omentum, and between these two layers are the left gastric artery and the right gastric branch of the hepatic artery.

Additional images

See also

External links

References

Stomach

Curvatures of the stomach


San Tommaso Apostolo is a Romanesque and Gothic-style, Roman Catholic church located in the town of Ascoli Piceno in the region of Marche, Italy.

History
Construction of the church was spurred circa 1064 by Bishop Bernardo II. The simple façade built with travertine blocks has three naves, with a tympanum with a rose window. To the right, rises a bell-tower (1283) with a square base. The church has a basilica layout with the naves and aisles separated by sturdy pilasters, and includes spolia from the former Roman amphitheater of the first century BC, which had been located in the piazza in front of the church.

Many of the nave pilasters are frescoed. Frescoes depict a Madonna del Latte (14th century) by the Maestro di Offida and an Enthroned Madonna and Child (1298). A number of the lateral altars were erected in the 18th century using travertine marble. The main altar has a gilded wood tabernacle from the 16th century shaped like an octagonal ciborium.  The church houses a marble sculptural group (17th-century) depicting a Madonna and Child with St Thomas the Apostle and St John the Evangelist sculpted by Lazzaro and Giuseppe Giosafatti.

References

Romanesque architecture in le Marche
Gothic architecture in le Marche
Roman Catholic churches in Ascoli Piceno
11th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Churches completed in 1064

San Tommaso, Ascoli Piceno


Stilson Hutchins (November 14, 1838 – April 23, 1912) was an American newspaper reporter and publisher, best known as founder of the broadsheet newspaper The Washington Post.  Hutchins was also a Southern sympathizer and an outspoken racist against African Americans, Native Americans, and immigrants.

Life and career
Hutchins was born in Whitefield, Coos County, New Hampshire, on November 14, 1838, the son of Stilson Eastman Hutchins and Clara Eaton Hutchins.  He moved to Saint Louis, establishing the Saint Louis Times newspaper in 1866, and became a Missouri state representative for the Democratic Party.  However, before Saint Louis, Stilson lived in Iowa and was employed by the Dubuque Herald.  In 1863 Hutchins became acting editor when Dennis Mahoney was absent.  On April 5, 1863, Stilson Hutchins as acting editor decided to print the following in an editorial in his own words which would deepen the paper's anti-black stance even further:  "Who wants to vote the (xxx)-emancipation ticket? Who wants Iowa covered with indolent blacks? Answer at the polls."

He subsequently moved to Washington, D.C., where he founded The Washington Post to advance Democratic Party views. It was first published on December 6, 1877; within a year, circulation topped 6,000 copies per day. In 1880, Hungarian-born immigrant Joseph Pulitzer joined the staff. He was a lifelong Democrat and his racism and Confederate sympathy never changed before he eventually started to lose mental stability, and bought out the paper's only competitor, The Republican National. He sold The Post in 1889 and the new owners kept the same theme the paper had been delivering until around 1933 when new owners realized that if the paper was to survive it would need to be a serious paper.  In 1919 however, The Washington Post probably hit the wall with its reporting of a black male who raped a white woman, taking the lead in causing what would be known as the 1919 Washington Race Riots, where African Americans were targeted themselves, their homes and businesses.  African Americans would fight back and when it was all over there were several White and Black deaths.

In 1889, Hutchins commissioned a statue of Benjamin Franklin to stand at the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and 10th street, overlooking what were then the offices of The Washington Post. In 1890, he commissioned a sculpture of Charles Dickens from Francis Edwin Elwell, but backed out of the deal. In 1900, Hutchins also funded Gaetano Trentanove's Daniel Webster Memorial in Scott Circle, Washington, D.C.

In August 1883, Hutchins had leased Governor's Island, on Lake Winnipesaukee in Gilford, New Hampshire, from Isaiah Morrill of Gilford, for $1,000 per year for 99 years, "with the privilege of purchasing the island within twenty years for the sum of $20,000". The arrangement took effect January 1, 1884. Hutchins built a mansion on the island in 1885.  In 1903, he leased the mansion to the Ambassador from Germany, Baron Speck von Sternburg, who established a summer embassy there with a retinue of at least 20 persons. The Baron later wrote that the view from the mansion was as magnificent as anything in Switzerland or Bavaria, and that the advertising which he gave the region caused the sale of other summer property. The mansion was sold by the Hutchins family in the late 1920s and burned down on August 1, 1935. While the mansion was once the only one on the island, now there are scores of large private homes.

In 1897, Hutchins bought Oatlands Plantation in Leesburg, Virginia, but never lived on the property, eventually selling it to William Corcoran Eustis in 1903.

Hutchins was later the publisher of the first Washington Times (founded 1894 by Rep. Charles G. Conn, and later sold to Frank A. Munsey, who sold it to William Randolph Hearst, who sold it to Eleanor Josephine Medill Patterson ("Cissy" Patterson), who merged it with "Washington Herald" to form the Washington Times-Herald. She was bought out by the Meyer family in 1954, who merged it with the Washington Post.)

Hutchins, died at his home aged 73 in Washington, D.C., on April 23, 1912, and interred at Rock Creek Cemetery.

References

Edward J. Gallagher, Founder of the Washington Post: A Biography of Stilson Hutchins, 1838-1912, Laconia: Citizen Publishing Company, 1965.
Washington Post history
Dex Nilsson, The Names of Washington, D.C., Lafayette: Twinbrook Communications, 1999.

1838 births
1912 deaths
Journalists from Washington, D.C.
American newspaper founders
19th-century American newspaper publishers (people)
The Washington Post publishers
People from Gilford, New Hampshire
People from Whitefield, New Hampshire

Stilson Hutchins


The Ponce de Leon Inlet Light is a lighthouse and museum located at Ponce de León Inlet in Central Florida. At  in height, it is the tallest lighthouse in the state and one of the tallest in the United States (the Cape Hatteras Light in North Carolina is taller at ). It is located between St. Augustine Light and Cape Canaveral Light. Restored by the Ponce de Leon Inlet Lighthouse Preservation Association, the lighthouse became a National Historic Landmark in 1998.

History

The first lighthouse for what is now the Ponce de León Inlet was erected on the south side of Mosquito Inlet in 1835. Unfortunately, the oil for the lamp was never delivered, and soon after the tower was completed a strong storm washed much of the sand from around the base of the tower, weakening it. The Second Seminole War began soon after, and in December 1835 Seminole Indians attacked the lighthouse, smashing the glass in the lantern room and setting fire to its wooden stairs. The area was abandoned. The war prevented repairs from being made to the tower, and it collapsed the next year.

There were many shipwrecks along the coast near the Mosquito Inlet, but it was not until 1883 that another effort was begun to place a light there. Completed in 1887 and located on the north side of the inlet, the new lighthouse was based on Light-House Board standard plans with modifications made for the specific site. Construction was supervised by Chief Engineer Orville E. Babcock until his death by drowning in the Mosquito Inlet in 1884. The tower was completed and the lamp, which could be seen  away, lit in 1887.

In 1897, author and journalist Stephen Crane was en route to cover a brewing revolt against Spanish rule in Cuba, when the ship he was on, the SS Commodore, sank off the coast of Florida. Crane escaped in a small dinghy with several crewmen, and they eventually sighted and steered for the Mosquito Inlet Light. Crane used this experience in his short story "The Open Boat".

The original lamp burned kerosene; in 1909 it was replaced with an incandescent oil vapor lamp. In 1924 a generator was installed to provide electricity in the keepers' dwellings and to pump water, replacing an old windmill pump. The lighthouse beacon was electrified in 1933 with a 500-watt lamp. The first order Fresnel lens was replaced with a third order rotating Fresnel lens at the same time.

In 1927 the name of Mosquito Inlet was changed to Ponce de Leon Inlet. The lighthouse was transferred from the abolished Lighthouse Service to the United States Coast Guard in 1939, which would oversee it for the next three decades. In 1970, the Coast Guard abandoned the old light station and established a new beacon at New Smyrna Beach. The abandoned property was then deeded to the Town of Ponce Inlet. At the urging of concerned citizens, the Town of Ponce Inlet accepted the Light Station property from the Coast Guard in 1972, and the Lighthouse Preservation Association was formed to manage the museum.  That same year, the lighthouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Present day museum
In 1982 the light was restored to active service, primarily because highrise buildings blocked the Coast Guard's beacon on the other side of the inlet.  The Ponce De Leon Inlet Light Station was designated a National Historic Landmark on August 5, 1998, one of only eleven lighthouses to earn this designation.

The lighthouse and three keepers' dwellings have been restored, and are open to the public seven days a week. The lighthouse tower is open for climbing. The original 1867 Barbier et Fenestre first order fixed lens (installed 1887), and 1860 "Henry Lepaute" rotating first order Fresnel lens used at Cape Canaveral Light Station are all on display at the museum.  The 1904 Barbier, Benard, et Turenne rotating third order Fresnel lens has been restored to service in the tower, which operates today as a private aid to navigation and is maintained by the museum staff. It is just south of Daytona Beach.

References

External links
Ponce Inlet Lighthouse and Museum

Lighthouses completed in 1835
Lighthouses completed in 1887
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Florida
National Historic Landmarks in Florida
National Register of Historic Places in Volusia County, Florida
Museums in Volusia County, Florida
Maritime museums in Florida
Seminole Wars
Lighthouse museums in Florida
National Historic Landmark lighthouses
1835 establishments in Florida Territory
Transportation buildings and structures in Volusia County, Florida

Ponce de Leon Inlet Light