Wells Fargo & Company is an American multinational financial services company with a significant global presence. The company operates in 35 countries and serves over 70 million customers worldwide. It is a systemically important financial institution according to the Financial Stability Board, and is considered one of the "Big Four Banks" in the United States, alongside JPMorgan Chase, Bank of America, and Citigroup.

The firm's primary subsidiary is Wells Fargo Bank, N.A., a national bank that designates its Sioux Falls, South Dakota, site as its main office (and therefore is treated by most U.S. federal courts as a citizen of South Dakota). It is the fourth-largest bank in the United States by total assets and is also one of the largest as ranked by bank deposits and market capitalization. It has 8,050 branches and 13,000 automated teller machines and 2,000 stand-alone mortgage branches. It is the second largest retail mortgage originator in the United States, originating one out of every four home loans and services $1.8 trillion in home mortgages, one of the largest servicing portfolios in the US. It is one of the most valuable bank brands. Wells Fargo is ranked 47th on the Fortune 500 list of the largest companies in the U.S.

In addition to banking, the company provides equipment financing via subsidiaries including Wells Fargo Rail and provides investment management and stockbrokerage services. A key part of Wells Fargo's business strategy is cross-selling, the practice of encouraging existing customers to buy additional banking services. This led to the Wells Fargo cross-selling scandal.

Wells Fargo has international offices in Hong Kong, London, Dubai, Singapore, Tokyo, and Toronto. Back-offices are in India and the Philippines with more than 20,000 staff.

Wells Fargo operates under Charter #1, the first national bank charter issued in the United States. This charter was issued to First National Bank of Philadelphia on June 20, 1863, by the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. Wells Fargo, in its present form, is a result of a merger between the original Wells Fargo & Company and Minneapolis-based Norwest Corporation in 1998. While Norwest was the nominal survivor, the merged company took the better-known Wells Fargo name and moved to Wells Fargo's hub in San Francisco. At the same time, its banking subsidiary merged with Wells Fargo's Sioux Falls-based banking subsidiary. Wells Fargo became a coast-to-coast bank with the 2008 acquisition of Charlotte-based Wachovia.

History

Henry Wells and William G. Fargo, who founded American Express along with John Butterfield, formed Wells Fargo & Company in 1852 to provide "express" and banking services to California, which was growing rapidly due to the California Gold Rush. Its earliest and most significant tasks included transporting gold from the Philadelphia Mint and "express" mail delivery that was faster and less expensive than U.S. Mail. American Express was not interested in serving California.

By the end of the California Gold Rush, Wells Fargo was a dominant express and banking organization in the West, making large shipments of gold and delivering mail and supplies. It was also the primary lender of Butterfield Overland Mail Company, which ran a 2,757-mile route through the Southwest to San Francisco and was nicknamed the "Butterfield Line" after the name of the company's president, John Butterfield. In 1860,  Congress failed to pass the annual Post Office appropriation bill, leaving the Post Office unable to pay Overland Mail Company. This caused Overland to default on its debts to Wells Fargo, allowing Wells Fargo to take control of the mail route. Wells Fargo then operated the western portion of the Pony Express.
Six years later, the "Grand Consolidation" united Wells Fargo, Holladay, and Overland Mail stage lines under the Wells Fargo name.

In 1872, Lloyd Tevis, a friend of the Central Pacific "Big Four" and holder of rights to operate an express service over the Transcontinental Railroad, became president of the company after acquiring a large stake, a position he held until 1892.

In 1905, Wells Fargo separated its banking and express operations, and Wells Fargo's bank merged with the Nevada National Bank to form the Wells Fargo Nevada National Bank.

During the First World War, the United States government nationalized Wells Fargo's express business into a federal agency known as the US Railway Express Agency (REA). After the war, the REA was privatized and continued service until 1975.

In 1923, Wells Fargo Nevada merged with the Union Trust Company to form the Wells Fargo Bank & Union Trust Company.

In 1954, Wells Fargo & Union Trust shortened its name to Wells Fargo Bank. Four years later, it merged with American Trust Company to form the Wells Fargo Bank American Trust Company. It changed its name back to Wells Fargo Bank in 1962.

In 1968, Wells Fargo was converted to a federal banking charter and became Wells Fargo Bank, N.A. In that same year, Wells Fargo merged with Henry Trione's Sonoma Mortgage in a $10.8 million stock transfer, making Trione the largest shareholder in Wells Fargo until Warren Buffett and Walter Annenberg surpassed him.

One year later, Wells Fargo & Company holding company was formed, with Wells Fargo Bank as its main subsidiary.

In September 1983, a Wells Fargo armored truck depot in West Hartford, Connecticut, was the victim of the White Eagle robbery. The robbery was organized by Los Macheteros (a guerrilla group seeking Puerto Rican independence from the United States) and involved an insider armored truck guard. It was the largest US bank theft to date with $7.1 million stolen.

Throughout the 1980s and '90s, Wells Fargo completed a series of acquisitions. In 1986, it acquired Crocker National Bank from Midland Bank. Then, in 1987 it acquired the personal trust business of Bank of America. In 1988, it acquired Barclays Bank of California from Barclays plc. In 1991, Wells Fargo spent $491 million to acquire 130 branches in California from Great American Bank. In 1996, Wells Fargo acquired First Interstate Bancorp for $11.6 billion. Integration went poorly as many executives left.

Wells Fargo became the first major US financial services firm to offer Internet banking, in May 1995.

After its string of acquisitions, in 1998, Wells Fargo Bank was acquired by Norwest Corporation of Minneapolis, with the combined company assuming the Wells Fargo name.

It then began on another set of acquisitions, starting in 2000, when Wells Fargo Bank acquired National Bank of Alaska and First Security Corporation. In late 2001, it acquired H.D. Vest Financial Services for $128 million, but sold it in 2015 for $580 million. In 2007, Wells Fargo acquired Greater Bay Bancorp, which had $7.4 billion in assets, in a $1.5 billion transaction. It also acquired Placer Sierra Bank and CIT Group's construction unit that same year. In 2008, Wells Fargo acquired United Bancorporation of Wyoming and Century Bancshares of Texas.

On October 3, 2008, after Wachovia turned down an inferior offer from Citigroup, Wachovia agreed to be bought by Wells Fargo for about $14.8 billion in stock. The next day, a New York state judge issued a temporary injunction blocking the transaction from going forward while the competing offer from Citigroup was sorted out. Citigroup alleged that it had an exclusivity agreement with Wachovia that barred Wachovia from negotiating with other potential buyers. The injunction was overturned late in the evening on October 5, 2008, by the New York state appeals court. Citigroup and Wells Fargo then entered into negotiations brokered by the FDIC to reach an amicable solution to the impasse. The negotiations failed. Citigroup was unwilling to take on more risk than the $42 billion that would have been the cap under the previous FDIC-backed deal (with the FDIC incurring all losses over $42 billion). Citigroup did not block the merger, but sought damages of $60 billion for breach of an alleged exclusivity agreement with Wachovia.

On October 28, 2008, Wells Fargo received $25 billion of funds via the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act in the form of a preferred stock purchase by the United States Department of the Treasury. As a result of requirements of the government stress tests, the company raised $8.6 billion in capital in May 2009. On December 23, 2009, Wells Fargo redeemed $25 billion of preferred stock issued to the United States Department of the Treasury. As part of the redemption of the preferred stock, Wells Fargo also paid accrued dividends of $131.9 million, bringing the total dividends paid to $1.441 billion since the preferred stock was issued in October 2008.

In April 2009, Wells Fargo acquired North Coast Surety Insurance Services.

In 2010, hedge fund administrator Citco purchased the trust company operation of Wells Fargo in the Cayman Islands.

In 2011, the company hired 25 investment bankers from Citadel LLC.

In April 2012, Wells Fargo acquired Merlin Securities. In December 2012, it was rebranded as Wells Fargo Prime Services. In December of that year, Wells Fargo acquired a 35% stake in The Rock Creek Group LP. The stake was increased to 65% in 2014 but sold back to management in July 2018.

In 2015, Wells Fargo Rail acquired GE Capital Rail Services and merged in with First Union Rail. In late 2015, Wells Fargo acquired three GE units focused on business loans equipment financing.

In March 2017, Wells Fargo announced a plan to offer smartphone-based transactions with mobile wallets including Wells Fargo Wallet, Android Pay and Samsung Pay.

In June 2018, Wells Fargo sold all 52 of its physical bank branch locations in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio to Flagstar Bank.

In September 2018, Wells Fargo announced it would cut 26,450 jobs by 2020 to reduce costs by $4 billion.

In March 2019, CEO Tim Sloan resigned amidst the Wells Fargo account fraud scandal and former general counsel C. Allen Parker became interim CEO.

In July 2019, Principal Financial Group acquired the company's Institutional Retirement & Trust business.

On September 27, 2019, Charles Scharf was announced as the firm's new CEO.

In 2020, the company sold its student loan portfolio.

In May 2021, the company sold its Canadian Direct Equipment Finance business to Toronto-Dominion Bank.

In 2021, the company sold its asset management division, Wells Fargo Asset Management (WFAM) to private equity firms GTCR and Reverence Capital Partners for $2.1 billion. WFAM had $603 billion in assets under management as of December 31, 2020, of which 33% was invested in money market funds. WFAM was rebranded as Allspring Global Investments.

Environmental record
The company has been criticized for being the largest lender to fossil fuel companies in the U.S. and one of the largest globally; however, in 2022, it announced a goal of reducing absolute emissions by companies it lends to in the oil and gas sector by 26% by 2030 from 2019 levels. The company has committed to net zero financed emissions by 2050; however, major environmental groups are skeptical if this goal will be achieved. The company has stated that it will not finance any hydrocarbon exploration projects in the Arctic. The company has also provided financing to renewable energy projects.

Wells Fargo History Museum

The company operates the Wells Fargo History Museum at 420 Montgomery Street, San Francisco. Displays include original stagecoaches, photographs, gold nuggets and mining artifacts, the Pony Express, telegraph equipment, and historic bank artifacts. The museum also has a gift shop. In January 2015, armed robbers in an SUV smashed through the museum's glass doors and stole gold nuggets. The company previously operated other museums but those have since closed.

Lawsuits, fines, and controversies

Regulatory issues
The company has been the subject of several investigations by regulators. On February 2, 2018, the Wells Fargo account fraud scandal resulted in the Federal Reserve barring Wells Fargo from growing its nearly $2 trillion asset base any further until the company fixed its internal problems to the satisfaction of the Federal Reserve. In September 2021, Wells Fargo incurred further fines from the United States Justice Department charging fraudulent behavior by the bank against foreign-exchange currency trading customers. Bloomberg L.P. reported in March 2022 that Wells Fargo was the only major lender in 2020 to reject more home refinance applications from Black applicants than it approved.

In December 2022, the U.S. levied a $3.7 billion loan-management fine upon Wells Fargo. In March 2023, Wells Fargo blamed a technical glitch for misstating the balances of customers' accounts, in many cases incorrectly deeming the customers as having a negative bank balance. Subsequently, in 2023, prison sentencing took place for employee-directed money laundering and funneling cash illegally to Mexico through the creation of fictitious accounts.

1981 MAPS Wells Fargo embezzlement scandal
In 1981, it was discovered that a Wells Fargo assistant operations officer, Lloyd Benjamin "Ben" Lewis, had perpetrated one of the largest embezzlements in history through its Beverly Drive branch. During 1978 - 1981, Lewis had successfully written phony debit and credit receipts to benefit boxing promoters Harold J. Smith (né Ross Eugene Fields) and Sam "Sammie" Marshall, chairman and president, respectively, of Muhammed Ali Professional Sports, Inc. (MAPS), of which Lewis was also listed as a director; Marshall, too, was a former employee of the same Wells Fargo branch as Lewis. In excess of $300,000 was paid to Lewis, who pled guilty to embezzlement and conspiracy charges in 1981, and testified against his co-conspirators for a reduced five-year sentence. (Boxer Muhammed Ali had received a fee for the use of his name, and had no other involvement with the organization.)

Higher costs charged to African-American and Hispanic borrowers

Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan filed suit against Wells Fargo on July 31, 2009, alleging that the bank steered African Americans and Hispanics into high-cost subprime loans. A Wells Fargo spokesman responded that "The policies, systems, and controls we have in place – including in Illinois – ensure race is not a factor..." An affidavit filed in the case stated that loan officers had referred to black mortgage-seekers as "mud people," and the subprime loans as "ghetto loans." According to Beth Jacobson, a loan officer at Wells Fargo interviewed for a report in The New York Times, "We just went right after them. Wells Fargo mortgage had an emerging-markets unit that specifically targeted black churches because it figured church leaders had a lot of influence and could convince congregants to take out subprime loans." The report presented data from the city of Baltimore, where more than half the properties subject to foreclosure on a Wells Fargo loan from 2005 to 2008 now stand vacant, and 71 percent of those are in predominantly black neighborhoods. Wells Fargo agreed to pay $125 million to subprime borrowers and $50 million in direct down payment assistance in certain areas, for a total of $175 million.

Failure to monitor suspected money laundering
In a March 2010 agreement with US federal prosecutors, Wells Fargo acknowledged that between 2004 and 2007 Wachovia had failed to monitor and report suspected money laundering by narcotics traffickers, including the cash used to buy four planes that shipped a total of 22 tons of cocaine into Mexico.

Overdraft fees
In August 2010, Wells Fargo was fined by United States district court judge William Alsup for overdraft practices designed to "gouge" consumers and "profiteer" at their expense, and for misleading consumers about how the bank processed transactions and assessed overdraft fees. In May 2013, Wells Fargo paid $203 million to settle class-action litigation accusing the bank of imposing excessive overdraft fees on checking-account customers.

Settlement and fines regarding mortgage servicing practices
On February 9, 2012, it was announced that the five largest mortgage servicers (Ally Financial, Bank of America, Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo) agreed to a settlement with the US Federal Government and 49 states over improper foreclosure practices in the 2010 United States foreclosure crisis, including "robo-signing" (having someone fraudulently sign that they know the contents of a document they do not in fact know) and foreclosing without standing via MERS. The settlement, known as the National Mortgage Settlement (NMS), required the servicers to provide about $26 billion in relief to distressed homeowners and in direct payments to the federal and state governments; Wells Fargo's share was the second largest, at $5.4 billion. This settlement amount makes the NMS the second largest civil settlement in U.S. history, only trailing the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. The five banks were also required to comply with 305 new mortgage servicing standards. Oklahoma held out and agreed to settle with the banks separately.

On April 5, 2012, a federal judge ordered Wells Fargo to pay $3.1 million in punitive damages over a single loan, one of the largest fines for a bank ever for mortgaging service misconduct, after the bank improperly charged Michael Jones, a New Orleans homeowner, with $24,000 in mortgage fees, after the bank misallocated payments to interest instead of principal. Elizabeth Magner, a federal bankruptcy judge in the Eastern District of Louisiana, cited the bank's behavior as "highly reprehensible", stating that Wells Fargo has taken advantage of borrowers who rely on the bank's accurate calculations. The award was affirmed on appeal in 2013.

In May 2013, New York attorney-general Eric Schneiderman announced a lawsuit against Wells Fargo over alleged violations of the national mortgage settlement. Schneidermann claimed Wells Fargo had violated rules over giving fair and timely serving. In 2015, a judge sided with Wells Fargo.

SEC fine due to inadequate risk disclosures
On August 14, 2012, Wells Fargo agreed to pay around $6.5 million to settle U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) charges that in 2007 it sold risky mortgage-backed securities without fully realizing their dangers.

Lawsuit by FHA over loan underwriting
In 2016, Wells Fargo agreed to pay $1.2 billion to settle allegations that the company violated the False Claims Act by underwriting over 100,000 Federal Housing Administration (FHA) backed loans when over half of the applicants did not qualify for the program.

In October 2012, Wells Fargo was sued by United States Attorney Preet Bharara over questionable mortgage deals.

Lawsuit due to premium inflation on forced place insurance
In April 2013, Wells Fargo settled a suit with 24,000 Florida homeowners alongside insurer QBE Insurance, in which Wells Fargo was accused of inflating premiums on forced-place insurance.

Violation of New York credit card laws
In February 2015, Wells Fargo agreed to pay $4 million, including a $2 million penalty and $2 million in restitution for illegally taking an interest in the homes of borrowers in exchange for opening credit card accounts for the homeowners.

Tax liability and lobbying
In December 2011, Public Campaign criticized Wells Fargo for spending $11 million on lobbying during 2008–2010, while increasing executive pay and laying off workers, while having no federal tax liability due to losses from the Great Recession. However, in 2013, the company paid $9.1 billion in income taxes.

Prison industry investment

The company has invested its clients' funds in GEO Group, a multi-national provider of for-profit private prisons. By March 2012, its stake had grown to more than 4.4 million shares worth $86.7 million. As of November 2012, Wells Fargo divested 33% of its holdings of GEO's stock, reducing its stake to 4.98% of Geo Group's common stock, below the threshold of which it must disclose further transactions.

Discrimination against African Americans in hiring
In August 2020, the company agreed to pay $7.8 million in back wages for allegedly discriminating against 34,193 African Americans in hiring for tellers, personal bankers, customer sales and service representatives, and administrative support positions. The company agreed to provide jobs to 580 of the affected applicants.

SEC settlement for insider trading case
In May 2015, Gregory T. Bolan Jr., a stock analyst at Wells Fargo agreed to pay $75,000 to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission to settle allegations that he gave Joseph C. Ruggieri, a stock trader, insider information on probable ratings charges. Ruggieri was not convicted of any crime.

Wells Fargo cross-selling scandal

In September 2016, Wells Fargo was issued a combined total of $185 million in fines for opening over 1.5 million checking and savings accounts and 500,000 credit cards on behalf of customers without their consent. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) issued $100 million in fines, the largest in the agency's five-year history, along with $50 million in fines from the City and County of Los Angeles, and $35 million in fines from the Office of Comptroller of the Currency. The scandal was caused by an incentive-compensation program for employees to create new accounts. It led to the firing of nearly 5,300 employees and $5 million being set aside for customer refunds on fees for accounts the customers never wanted. Carrie Tolstedt, who headed the department, retired in July 2016 and received $124.6 million in stock, options, and restricted Wells Fargo shares as a retirement package.

On October 12, 2016, John Stumpf, the then chairman and CEO, announced that he would be retiring amidst the scandals. President and Chief Operating Officer Timothy J. Sloan succeeded Stumpf, effective immediately. Following the scandal, applications for credit cards and checking accounts at the bank plummeted. In response to the event, the Better Business Bureau dropped accreditation of the bank. Several states and cities ended business relations with the company.

An investigation by the Wells Fargo board of directors, the report of which was released in April 2017, primarily blamed Stumpf, who it said had not responded to evidence of wrongdoing in the consumer services division, and Tolstedt, who was said to have knowingly set impossible sales goals and refused to respond when subordinates disagreed with them. Wells Fargo coined the phrase, "Go for Gr-Eight" – or, in other words, aim to sell at least 8 products to every customer. The board chose to use a clawback clause in the retirement contracts of Stumpf and Tolstedt to recover $75 million worth of cash and stock from the former executives.

In February 2020, the company agreed to pay $3 billion to settle claims by the United States Department of Justice and the Securities and Exchange Commission. The settlement did not prevent individual employees from being targets of future litigation. The Federal Reserve put a limit to Wells Fargo's assets, as a result of the scandal. In 2020, Wells Fargo sold $100 million in assets to stay under the limit.

In December 2022, the bank agreed to a settlement with the CFPB of $3.7billion over abuses tied to the fake account scandal as well as mortgages and auto loans. The total was split between $1.7billion for a civil penalty and $2billion for customers. Separately, in May 2023, the bank agreed to pay $1billion to settle a shareholder class-action suit.

Racketeering lawsuit for mortgage appraisal overcharges
In November 2016, Wells Fargo agreed to pay $50 million to settle allegations of overcharging hundreds of thousands of homeowners for appraisals ordered after they defaulted on their mortgage loans. While banks are allowed to charge homeowners for such appraisals, Wells Fargo frequently charged homeowners fees of $95 to $125 on appraisals for which the bank had been charged $50 or less. The plaintiffs had sought triple damages under the U.S. Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act on grounds that sending invoices and statements with fraudulently concealed fees constituted mail and wire fraud sufficient to allege racketeering.

Financing of Dakota Access Pipeline
Wells Fargo is a lender on the Dakota Access Pipeline, a 1,172-mile-long (1,886 km) underground oil pipeline transport system in North Dakota. The pipeline has been controversial regarding its potential impact on the environment.

In February 2017, the city councils of Seattle, Washington and Davis, California voted to move $3 billion of deposits from the bank due to its financing of the Dakota Access Pipeline as well as the Wells Fargo account fraud scandal.

Failure to comply with document security requirements
In December 2016, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority fined Wells Fargo $5.5 million for failing to store electronic documents in a "write once, read many" format, which makes it impossible to alter or destroy records after they are written.

Doing business with the gun industry and NRA
From December 2012 through February 2018, Wells Fargo reportedly helped two of the biggest firearms and ammunition companies obtain $431.1 million in loans. It also handled banking for the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) and provided bank accounts and a $28-million line of credit. In 2020, the company said that it is winding down its business with the NRA.

Discrimination against female workers

In June 2018, about a dozen female Wells Fargo executives from the wealth management division met in Scottsdale, Arizona to discuss the minimal presence of women occupying senior roles within the company. The meeting, dubbed "the meeting of 12", represented the majority of the regional managing directors, of which 12 out of 45 were women. Wells Fargo had previously been investigating reports of gender bias in the division in the months leading up to the meeting. The women reported that they had been turned down for top jobs despite their qualifications, and instead the roles were occupied by men. There were also complaints against company president Jay Welker, who is also the head of the Wells Fargo wealth management division, due to his sexist statements regarding female employees. The female workers claimed that he called them "girls" and said that they "should be at home taking care of their children."

Overselling auto insurance
On June 10, 2019, Wells Fargo agreed to pay $385 million to settle a lawsuit accusing it of allegedly scamming millions of auto-loan customers into buying insurance they did not need from National General Insurance.

Failure to Supervise Registered Representatives
On August 28, 2020, Wells Fargo agreed to pay a fine of $350,000 as well as $10 million in restitution payments to certain customers after the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority accused the company of failing to reasonably supervise two of its registered representatives that recommended that customers invest a high percentage of their assets in high-risk energy securities in 2014 and 2015.

Steering customers to more expensive retirement accounts
In April 2018, the United States Department of Labor launched a probe into whether Wells Fargo was pushing its customers into more expensive retirement plans as well as into retirement funds managed by Wells Fargo itself.

Alteration of documents
In May 2018, the company discovered that its business banking group had improperly altered documents about business clients in 2017 and early 2018.

Executive compensation
With CEO John Stumpf paid 473 times more than the median employee, Wells Fargo ranked number 33 among the S&P 500 companies for CEO—employee pay inequality. In October 2014, a Wells Fargo employee earning $15 per hour emailed the CEO—copying 200,000 other employees—asking that all employees be given a $10,000 per year raise taken from a portion of annual corporate profits to address wage stagnation and income inequality. After being contacted by the media, Wells Fargo responded that all employees receive "market competitive" pay and benefits significantly above US federal minimums.

Pursuant to Section 953(b) of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, publicly traded companies are required to disclose (1) the median total annual compensation of all employees other than the CEO and (2) the ratio of the CEO's annual total compensation to that of the median employee.

Aggressive freezing and closing of bank accounts
The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau found that between 2011 and 2016, Wells Fargo had been freezing entire consumer deposit accounts based on automated fraud detection. This freeze extended to the entire account, not just the suspicious amount, and all access to funds was blocked. As a result, customers were unable to access their funds until the accounts were closed and the funds were returned. In 2022, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau mandated that Wells Fargo provide $160 million in compensation to more than a million individuals, addressing the significant harm caused by its aggressive tactic of freezing and closing bank accounts during the period from 2011 to 2016.

In popular culture
The company was a theme or the subject in a few films. In the 1939 John Ford-directed movie "Stagecoach," at the 5:22 mark two men can be seen hoisting a chest plainly marked "Wells Fargo." Seven Men from Now (a 1956 film), Cheyenne (the 1947 film), Wells Fargo (a 1937 film) and Unclaimed Goods (a 1918 silent) are examples. A long running television series, Tales of Wells Fargo ran from 1957 to 1962, focusing on a fictitious Wells Fargo special agent.

Wells Fargo stagecoaches are mentioned in the song "The Deadwood Stage (Whip-Crack-Away!)" in the 1953 film Calamity Jane performed by Doris Day: "With a fancy cargo, care of Wells and Fargo, Illinois - Boy!". Wells Fargo is also shown as the delivery service bringing the instruments for the town band in the 1962 film The Music Man. A Wells Fargo & Company stagecoach is seen passing through the town of Hill Valley as Marty is walking down the street in the 1990 film, Back to the Future Part III.

The song "The Wells Fargo Wagon" is part of the Broadway musical The Music Man, referring to Wells, Fargo & Company's stagecoach delivery in the early 20th century, the time in which The Music Man is set.

Charity
On March 2, 2022, Wells Fargo announced $1 million donation to the American Red Cross that will be used for Ukrainian refugees fleeing from the Russian invasion.

In April 2022, The Wells Fargo foundation announced its pledge of $210 million toward racial equity in homeownership. With $60 million of the donation awarded in Wealth Opportunities Restored through Homeownership (WORTH) grants which will run until 2025. Additionally, $150 million will be committed to lower mortgage rates and reducing the refinancing costs to aid minority homeowners.

See also

 List of Wells Fargo directors
 List of Wells Fargo presidents
 Wells Fargo Arena
 Wells Fargo Center
 Big Four banks

References

External links

1852 establishments in New York (state)
American companies established in 1852
Banks based in California
Banks established in 1852
Companies based in San Francisco
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Financial District, San Francisco
Mortgage lenders of the United States
Online brokerages
Systemically important financial institutions

Wells Fargo


James Joseph Brady Jr. (born March 2, 1936) is an American economist, retired university educator and administrator, and a former left-handed pitcher in professional baseball. A native of Jersey City, New Jersey, he attended and earned three degrees from the University of Notre Dame.

Brady was the eighth president of Jacksonville University (1989–96), after service as dean of both the university's College of Arts and Sciences and Davis College of Business. Prior to that, he held the department chair in economics at Old Dominion University and was a member of the economics faculty of his alma mater, Notre Dame.

As a baseball player, the ,  Brady was signed off his college campus as an undergraduate by the Detroit Tigers as a $37,500 "bonus baby" in 1955. Detroit's farm system director, John McHale, was a Notre Dame alumnus and Brady promised his father he would return to college to complete his education when he signed his contract. Under the terms of the bonus rule then in effect, however, Brady was forced to spend the first two years of his pro career on a Major League roster.

Nicknamed "Diamond Jim" because of his bonus status, Brady missed the 1955 season due to an injury, then made his MLB debut on May 12, 1956, hurling a perfect ninth inning against the Chicago White Sox in a 7–6 loss at Briggs Stadium.  A week later, he pitched another scoreless inning against the Baltimore Orioles, but was treated roughly in his next four appearances, surrendering 20 earned runs on 15 hits and ten bases on balls in only 4 innings of work.

He made only those six appearances, all in relief, during the season, then was sent to the minors for good in 1957. He retired as an active player after appearing in eight games for the 1961 Knoxville Smokies of the Class A Sally League.

According to Jacksonville University, as of 2011, Brady was an arbitrator in North Florida.

See also
 List of baseball players who went directly to Major League Baseball

References

External links

1936 births
Living people
Augusta Tigers players
Baseball players from Jersey City, New Jersey
Birmingham Barons players
Detroit Tigers players
Durham Bulls players
Knoxville Smokies players
Lancaster Red Roses players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Notre Dame Fighting Irish baseball players
Old Dominion Monarchs baseball coaches
Presidents of Jacksonville University
University of Notre Dame alumni
Victoria Rosebuds players

Jim Brady (baseball)


The Timor Sea is a relatively shallow sea.  It is bounded to the north by the island of Timor, to the east by the Arafura Sea, to the south by Australia and to the west by the Indian Ocean.

The sea has a number of reefs, islands where no one lives and significant hydrocarbon reserves. The Timor Sea was hit by the worst oil spill for 25 years in 2009.

Geography

The waters to the east are known as the Arafura Sea. The Timor Sea is next to three large inlets on the north Australian coast, the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf, Beagle Gulf and the Van Diemen Gulf. The Australian city of Darwin is the only large city by the sea. The small town of Wyndham is on the west arm of Cambridge Gulf, an inlet of Joseph Bonaparte Gulf.

Rivers that enter the Timor Sea from the Northern Territory include Fish River, King River, Dry River, Victoria River and the Alligator Rivers. Rivers in the Kimberley region that flow into the Timor Sea include the Ord River, Forrest River, Pentecost River and Durack River.

The sea is about 480 km (300 statute miles) wide, covering an area of about 610,000 km². (235,000 square miles). Its deepest point is the Timor Trough  in the northern part of the sea, which reaches a depth of 3,300 m (10,800 ft). The rest of the sea is much shallower, much of it averaging less than 200 m (650 ft) deep.

In May 2010, it was said that a crater about 50 km wide has been found on the seabed of the Timor Sea.

Reefs and islands

A number of important islands are in the sea.  Two of the islands are Melville Island, part of the Tiwi Islands, off Australia and the Australian-governed Ashmore and Cartier Islands. It is thought that early humans reached Australia by "island-hopping" across the Timor Sea.

Scott and Seringapatam Reefs formed in the area. To the west on the same underwater platform is the Rowley Shoals.

References

Other websites

Seas of the Indian Ocean
Bodies of water of Australia
Geography of Indonesia
Geography of East Timor

Timor Sea


Silvery Moon, also known by its alternative title Candy Town, is a 1933 American Pre-Code animated short film by the Van Beuren Studio and as part of the Aesop's Fables cartoon series. The story appears to be inspired by the story of Hansel and Gretel, published by the Brothers Grimm, albeit having a less dark scenario.

Summary
In the title sequence, a man can be heard singing the first verse of the song "Moonlight Bay". The cartoon then opens with a feline couple boating in a bay. The boy cat paddles the boat while the girl cat sings the chorus of the aforementioned song. The boy cat tells his partner that the moon is made of cheese. But the girl cat objects and says it is made of desserts and other sweet stuff. Appreciating their views, the moon becomes animated, and therefore conjures a stairway to it. The cats then walk up the steps.

The environment of the moon appears a lot like how the girl cat described it. Things like cakes, candy canes and ice cream are a common sight. After eating some of the scenery, the cats play some of the musical instruments which are also present. They then come to a table with fruits on top where they resume eating. Meanwhile, a hostile animated bottle of castor oil and spoon approach. Though they are stuffed with sweets, the cats are able to run. The bottle and spoon chase them across the lunar terrain until they decide to jump off an edge.

After leaping from the moon, the cats drop back into the bay but are unharmed. Near to them is their boat which they climb back on. Despite the frightening chase, the cats enjoyed the experience as they give thanks to the animated moon.

External links
Silvery Moon, bcdb.com

1933 films
1933 animated films
American animated short films
American black-and-white films
1933 comedy films
Aesop's Fables (film series)
1930s American animated films
American comedy films
Animated films about cats
RKO Pictures short films
RKO Pictures animated short films
1930s English-language films

Silvery Moon


Joos de Momper the Younger or Joost de Momper the Younger (1564February5, 1635) was a Flemish landscape painter active in Antwerp between the late 16th century and the early 17th century. Brueghel's influence is clearly evident in many of de Momper's paintings.  His work is situated at the transition from late 16th-century Mannerism to the greater realism in landscape painting that developed in the early 17th century. He achieved considerable success during his lifetime.

Life

Joos de Momper was born in an artistic family of Antwerp and was named after his grandfather who was a landscape painter.  His father was Bartholomeus de Momper the Elder and his mother Suzanna Halfroose.  He learned to paint from his father who was a painter, art dealer, printer and publisher.

In 1581 he became a master in the Antwerp Guild of St. Luke at only 17 years old. It was assumed that in the 1580s he travelled to Italy to study.  Evidence for this trip was provided when landscape frescoes in the church of San Vitale in Rome, formerly attributed to Paul Bril, were given to Joos de Momper the Younger.

On 4 September 1590 he married Elisabeth Gobijn.  The couple had 10 children of whom Philippe de Momper became a painter.  The painter Gaspard de Momper was either his son or a nephew. His pupils were Louis de Caullery and his son Philippe de Momper. His followers included his nephew Frans de Momper and Hercules Seghers.

De Momper enjoyed high-level patronage as is shown by the fact that Archduchess Isabella Clara Eugenia, the governess of the Southern Netherlands, sent in 1616 a letter to the Antwerp magistrate asking him to excuse de Momper from the payment of taxes and fees. The artist could use the tax exemption as in his later years he was not able to paint as diligently as before and he was spending too much money at the inn.

De Momper died in Antwerp on 5 February 1635.  He left large debts, and his possessions were sold off by his creditors.

He was mentioned by Karel van Mander in his Schilder-boeck, and his likeness was engraved by Anthony van Dyck.

Work
De Momper primarily painted landscapes, the genre for which he was highly regarded during his lifetime.  Only a small number of the 500 paintings attributed to de Momper are signed and just one is dated. The large output points to substantial workshop participation. He often collaborated with figure painters such as Frans Francken II, Peter Snayers, Jan Brueghel the Elder and Jan Brueghel the Younger, usually on large, mountainous landscapes, whereby the other painters painted the staffage and de Momper the landscape. His works were often featured in the prestigious gallery paintings of collections (real and imagined) from the early seventeenth century.

He painted both fantasy landscapes, viewed from a high vantage point and employing a conventional Mannerist color transition of brown in the foreground to green and finally blue in the background, and more realistic landscapes with a lower viewpoint and more natural colors. His wide panoramas also feature groups of small figures.

De Momper's works are chiefly inspired by the steep craggy Alpine slopes and high rock masses depicted in Pieter Brueghel the Elder's work. His closeness to Jan Brueghel the Elder would have played a role in his exposure to the Bruegel idiom. This is also seen in some of the motifs of De Momper's work which go back to Pieter Bruegel's inventions, such as winter landscapes and grain harvests. One of his works representing a Storm at Sea was previously attributed to Pieter Brueghel but is now generally ascribed to de Momper.

Another influence on De Momper was that of landscape specialist Lodewijk Toeput, who went on to make a career in Italy. De Momper emphasized stylization over naturalistic effects and used depth and atmosphere to achieve his goal of spatial construction.

De Momper's work, like that of the contemporary landscape painter Abel Grimmer, has often been dismissed for its formulaic repetition of stock motifs and presentation while his large works have been interpreted as merely a "broad-brush" version of Joachim Patinir's world landscape a century after its first formulation. He is regarded as representing the end of a tradition rather than a revitalization or an innovation of landscape painting as was happening in the Dutch Republic in the 17th century.   On the other hand, the large size of his works and his collaboration with other leading artists suggest costliness and esteem for pictorial refinement.

Notable works
Minerva's Visit to the Muses (with Hendrik van Balen for the figures and Jan Breughel the Elder for the flowers) - Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp
Flemish Market and Washing Place - Museo del Prado, Madrid
Landscape with the Temptation of Christ - National Gallery Prague
Large Mountain Landscape - Liechtenstein Museum, Vienna
Dune Landscape with Travelers and Cattle - National Museum, Warsaw
Mountain Landscape with Campers and a Broken Tree - National Museum, Warsaw

Gallery

See also
Flemish painting

References

External links

1564 births
1635 deaths
Flemish Baroque painters
Flemish landscape painters
Painters from Antwerp
Flemish Mannerist painters

Joos de Momper


Hellboy: Blood and Iron is the second in the Hellboy Animated series (the first being Hellboy: Sword of Storms), written by Tad Stones and Mike Mignola. It first aired on March 10, 2007 on Cartoon Network, and aired again on July 19, 2008 to promote the release of Hellboy II: The Golden Army, and was released on DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment on June 12, 2007. The film's storyline is based in part upon the Hellboy: Wake the Devil storyline from the original comics.

The title is a reference to Otto von Bismarck's famous "Blood and Iron speech."

Also included on the DVD is the short film Iron Shoes, which is based on the Hellboy story of the same name. The Iron Shoes demon is voiced by Dan Castellaneta.

Plot
In 1939, shown in a series of flashbacks played in reverse chronological order, Professor Trevor Bruttenholm investigates a series of murders in Eastern Europe. Erzebet Ondrushko, a vampire who bathed in the blood of innocents to stay young, was responsible. She had sold her soul to the Queen of Witches, the goddess Hecate, and most recently kidnapped the fiancée of one of the townsmen. When the search party, including the local priest, Father Lupescu, confronts Erzebet in her castle, all members of the party are horribly killed, and Bruttenholm must face the vampire alone. He tricks her into the sunlight, effectively destroying her, but her ashes swirl back into the castle to find sanctuary in her iron maiden.

In the present day, an elderly Bruttenholm, overcome with memories of his encounter with Erzebet, takes a particular interest in a publicity stunt case in the Hamptons on Long Island. A haunting has been reported in a mansion recently purchased by developer Oliver Trumbolt, a friend of a U.S. Senator with hands deep in the BPRD's budget, and considered a low priority. Bruttenhom insists that their most advanced team should go: Liz Sherman, Abe Sapien, Hellboy, and junior agent Sydney Leach as well as himself (to everyone's surprise). Bruttenholm does not explain his motives at first.

The BPRD team arrives at Trumbolt's site and sets up to investigate the haunting. Despite a few open windows, a creepy lifelike replica of Erzabet, artifacts from her castle, and an old, suspiciously familiar-looking groundskeeper, everything seems normal until night falls and they each encounter strange ghostly apparitions, culminating in dozens of spirits of Erzabet's former victims. Excited that he may have found a goldmine, Trumbolt ignores the professor's warnings and is attacked.

Using his abilities to detect metal, Leach finds a secret passageway through the house's cellar, inadvertently coming across Trumbolt's body, drained of blood. The blood has been placed in a bathtub, apparently for Erzabet's revival. Bruttenholm and Liz head for the gardens to stop Hecate and Erzabet's Harpy-Hags from summoning her back from the dead. The aged groundskeeper, actually Father Lupescu who is in thrall to the vampire, is transformed into a werewolf by the harpies and sent to attack the team. Abe is knocked out and taken by the harpies for experimentation while Hellboy fights the werewolf, ultimately killing it.

Liz and Bruttenholm are attacked, first by demonic wolves to delay them from stopping the ritual, then by Erzabet in a restored but withered body, who knocks Liz out, beats Hellboy through a hole in the courtyard, and takes Bruttenholm back to the mansion. Erzabet bathes in Trumbolt's blood and rejuvenates herself, but she begins to wither and decay again – Bruttenholm poisoned the blood with Holy Water. He stakes the vampire through the heart, and she turns back to dust. Freed from their torment, the spirits of the house depart in peace, including Father Lupescu.

Meanwhile, under the mansion, Hellboy meets Hecate, who is perplexed as to why he helps the mortals, and tries to lure him to the dark side. He bluntly refuses again and again, battling Hecate's snakes as he tries to re-enter the mansion. Erzabet's death further enrages Hecate, who possesses the iron maiden, reshapes it into a semblance of her true form, and brutally attacks Hellboy. Abe escapes the harpies, after which they find Hecate fighting Hellboy;  one is killed by Hecate's thrashing tail and the other flies away. Leach, Liz, and Abe attempt to help Hellboy stop the goddess, but are unsuccessful. A badly-wounded Hellboy realizes Hecate's weakness is the sun; he lures her outside, forcing her back into the darkness of her own realm, defeated. The film ends with Broom, watching over Hellboy's recovery, sitting next to him.

Cast
 Ron Perlman – Hellboy
 Doug Jones – Abe Sapien
 Selma Blair – Liz Sherman
 John Hurt – Trevor Bruttenholm
 Rob Paulsen – Sydney Leach; Anna's Fiancé
 Peri Gilpin – Kate Corrigan
 Jim Cummings – Tom Manning
 James Arnold Taylor – Father Lupescu; Young Trevor Bruttenholm
 J. Grant Albrecht – Oliver Trumbolt
 Cree Summer – Hecate
 Kath Soucie – Erzebet Ondrushko
 Dee Dee Rescher – Harpy-Hag #1
 Grey DeLisle – Harpy-Hag #2; Anna

Crew
 Ginny McSwain – Voice Director

References

External links

 Hellboy Animated Series Production Diary
 The Hellboy Archive

2007 television films
2007 films
Blood and Iron
2007 action films
2007 fantasy films
2000s animated superhero films
American animated fantasy films
American animated science fiction films
Animated films about demons
Films produced by Guillermo del Toro
2000s American animated films
Toonami
Film Roman films
Revolution Studios films
Publicity stunts in fiction
Films directed by Victor Cook
Superhero horror films
Animated films set in the 1930s
Animated films set in the 2000s
Animated films set in Europe
Animated films set in New York (state)

Hellboy: Blood and Iron


Strangers in the Night is a 1944 American film noir mystery film directed by Anthony Mann and starring William Terry, Virginia Grey and Helene Thimig.

Plot
Sgt. Johnny Meadows is seriously wounded in battle in the South Pacific during World War Two. While recuperating, he takes comfort reading a book donated to the Red Cross by Rosemary Blake, who has written her name and address inside. He corresponds with her, and as pen pals they fall in love. Back in the States after being discharged, Johnny is aboard a train headed to the town in which Rosemary lives when he meets a pretty woman who happens to be reading the same book. For a moment, Johnny thinks perhaps she is Rosemary, but she is Dr. Leslie Ross. She is on her way to the same town where she is taking over another doctor's practice. Unbeknownst to Johnny, she has already met Rosemary's mother.

Johnny and Leslie have a pleasant time together and, just as he begins asking her if she happens to know Rosemary Blake, several train cars ahead of them derail.  Johnny assists the doctor as she cares for the injured.  Afterwards, they share a cab into town.

The next day, as the doctor settles into her practice, Johnny drives up the high hill to the house where Rosemary lives. He meets the homeowner, Rosemary's mother, who is an older disabled woman, and her live-in assistant, Ivy Miller. Mrs. Blake and Miller tell Johnny that Rosemary is away, but will be back soon, and Mrs. Blake invites him to stay. The next day Mrs. Blake shows Johnny a large portrait of Rosemary, so he can see how beautiful she is. Johnny agrees that she is lovely and, from the style in which the painting is done, he believes he knows the artist although he cannot remember his name.

After a few days of Rosemary not showing up, and no satisfactory answers forthcoming from either Mrs. Blake or Miller, who seems very nervous about the situation, Johnny leaves for San Francisco. He has recalled the artist's name and that he had for a short time worked with him in the city before the war. Meanwhile, Miller attempts to divulge to Dr. Ross just what is going on, but her nervousness and insecurities stop her. Dr. Ross and her nurse suspect something strange is going on in the Blake house, but because Mrs. Blake had been dismissive of the doctor during an initial consultation on her first day in town, they take no specific action.

After discovering what Miller has tried to do, Mrs. Blake gives her an overdose of medicine to kill her. A few moments later, Dr. Ross shows up at the home to see how Miller is doing, and then Johnny shows up too. He has found out that the painting is a 'fantasy' of what Mrs. Blake pictured as a perfect daughter. She admits to the ruse, explaining that she could not have children but always wanted a daughter so she could be loved. It was she who wrote the letters to Johnny. She asks for forgiveness and the couple announce that they are going to be married. Mrs. Blake suggests they share a celebratory drink. Johnny insists Miller should join them and runs upstairs to get her. He finds her unconscious; Dr. Ross can do nothing to revive her.

Mrs. Blake accuses the doctor of malpractice, but the doctor tells her the medicine she had prescribed for Miller wasn't sufficient to kill her. Then Dr. Ross suggests Miller was murdered, but Mrs. Blake says it was suicide, that Miller has left a note. Johnny and the doctor ask to see it, and Mrs. Blake leaves them to fetch it. She instead goes out to their car to set a booby-trap. She returns without the note, and sends them away. They leave, and Johnny is almost killed tripping over the rope that Mrs. Blake has tied to their car as part of her trap. Dr. Ross realizes what has happened, and they feign their deaths by screaming aloud. Hearing this, Mrs. Blake telephones for an ambulance, but then Johnny and the doctor walk into the room, and the game is up. Mrs. Blake turns to the portrait of the imaginary Rosemary and cries out to it for help, and the portrait in its heavy frame falls off the wall and kills her.

Cast
 William Terry as Sgt. Johnny Meadows
 Virginia Grey as Dr. Leslie Ross
 Helene Thimig as Mrs. Hilda Blake
 Edith Barrett as Ivy Miller
 Anne O'Neal as Nurse Thompson
 Audley Anderson as Train Conductor
 Charles Sullivan as Police Driver
 Frances Morris as Nurse
 George Sherwood as Navy Doctor

Reception

Critical response
Film historian Spencer Selby called the film an "Eerie low-budget melodrama evincing several early noir elements of plot and style.

When the Blu-ray edition was released, film historian and critic Glenn Erickson discussed the background of the team that produced the film, "It's [Anthony Mann's] fifth film feature and his first that can be classified as at least partially noir. Compared to Joseph H. Lewis's My Name Is Julia Ross (a mini-masterpiece) or William Castle's When Strangers Marry (strained but quirky), 1944's Strangers in the Night is nobody's idea of great filmmaking. But in Olive Films' flawless Blu-ray edition, it's an excellent candidate for study ... Strangers in the Night's story credit points to Philip MacDonald, a screenwriter on the classic mysteries Rebecca, The Dark Past and Val Lewton's The Body Snatcher. The co-screenwriter Paul Gangelin has impressive credits as well, and contributes some natural-sounding dialogue."

References

External links

 Strangers in the Night information site and DVD review at DVD Beaver (includes images)

1944 films
1940s mystery thriller films
American mystery thriller films
American black-and-white films
1940s English-language films
Film noir
Films directed by Anthony Mann
Films set in California
Republic Pictures films
1940s American films

Strangers in the Night (film)


Hannu Olavi Mikkola (24 May 1942 − 26 February 2021) was a Finnish world champion rally driver. He was a seven-time winner of the 1000 Lakes Rally in Finland and won the RAC Rally in Great Britain four times. Mikkola was born in Joensuu, Finland.

Mikkola died on 26 February 2021 in Helsinki, aged 78.

References

1942 births
2021 deaths
Finnish racecar drivers

Hannu Mikkola


The Battle of Skoczów took place in late January 1919, during the Polish–Czechoslovak War. Czechoslovak units were halted only under pressure from the Entente. The result of the war was to set a new demarcation line, which extended the territory controlled by Czechoslovakia. Battle were stopped by the Czechoslovak Minister of Defense near the town of Skoczów, Poland and a ceasefire was signed.

The Czechoslovak offensive in the Duchy of Teschen began on January 23. Due to the ongoing Polish–Ukrainian War and Greater Poland Uprising, and the budding Polish–Soviet War (which erupted in February 1919), the bulk of the Polish Armed Forces was located in other provinces of the country. As a result of the Czechoslovak offensive, weak Polish forces near Cieszyn were forced to retreat east- and northwards. To avoid encirclement, on 26 January, the Polish forces evacuated Cieszyn. Colonel Franciszek Latinik, who commanded Polish forces in the area, created a defensive line along the Vistula, from Strumień in the north to Ustroń in the south. Above all, Latinik wanted to prevent the enemy from breaking through to Bielsko-Biała and Żywiec.

On 23 January 1919 at 11:00 in Cieszyn Silesia, at the request of the Czechoslovak party, Latinik and Czechoslovak officer Josef Šnejdárek met with a group of officers, consisting of English, French, Italian and U.S. representatives. The Polish side was given an ultimatum to evacuate the area to the Biała River in less than two hours. After the expiry of this period the Czechoslovak army started its operations at 13:00 following its operational guidelines to seize Bohumín and Karviná. The Czechoslovak army moved forward, and took Bohumín (at 16:00), Orlová and Karviná. Polish troops retreated to the river Vistula. On the next day, first clashes took place near Skoczów. After a fierce defense, the Poles withdrew to Ustroń and Drogomyśl. On January 30, the Czechoslovaks broke through Polish lines near Strumień. Czechoslovak officer Josef Šnejdárek received the order to cross the Vistula and secure the railway line between Bohumín and Jablunkov. They crossed the river and the Polish troops retreated to Skoczów, where the front line was stalled. Further Czechoslovak reinforcements arrived, which gave Šnejdárek an advantage over the Polish units. The Czechoslovak army prepared for an attack on Skoczów on the assumption that there had been a collapse of the Polish defenses.

On 31 January 1919, because of pressure from the Triple Entente representatives, the attack on Skoczów was cancelled, and the Czechoslovak army ceased fighting. The Czechoslovak army withdrew to the new Green Line, established by the International Commission Agreement on the basis of the Czechoslovak–Polish Treaty, concluded on 3 February 1919 in Paris.

The Battle of Skoczów is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription "CIESZYN - SKOCZÓW 23 - 26 I 1919".

References

Skoczów
Cieszyn Silesia
Skoczów
Skoczów
Skoczów
1919 in Poland
1919 in Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia–Poland relations
January 1919 events
Battles in 1919

Battle of Skoczów


Gnephoek is a polder and a hamlet in the Dutch province of South Holland. It is a part of the municipality of Alphen aan den Rijn, and lies about 2 km west of Alphen aan den Rijn.

The statistical area "Gnephoek", which also can include the surrounding countryside, has a population of around 250.

References

Populated places in South Holland
Alphen aan den Rijn

Gnephoek


Szentgyörgymező (German: Georgenfeld, meaning: "St. George's field") is the northern part of the city of Esztergom in Hungary, on the right bank of the river Danube. It was a separate village until 1895, when it was merged with the "Royal Esztergom" as 4th district, along with neighboring Víziváros and Szenttamás. In the northern part of Szentgyörgymező lies a military cemetery, where 604 Hungarian and 175 Austrian soldiers of the 1848 revolution are buried. This is the biggest cemetery of the 1848 revolution.

History

The "St. George's provostry" was founded by Saint Stephen. The village was first mentioned in 1230. The baroque Roman Catholic church was built in 1785 on the site of the previous church, and the neoclassical Miklósffy-chapel - the cemetery chapel - was built in 1835. The village itself was a property of the archbishop of Esztergom. The Reading circle was founded in the 19th century, and still functions as the cultural centre of the district. In 1854 Szentgyörgymező was merged with Esztergom for the first time, but in 1868 they were separated by the wishes of Esztergom county. In 1891 the village had 325 households and had 2698 Hungarian inhabitants. In 1895 it was merged with Esztergom for the second - and final - time as the 4th district of Esztergom. Most of the people were wine-growers, 80% of them were living from agriculture, and Szentgyörgymező has kept its rural appearance. In the 1980s ruins of 10-12th century houses were discovered and excavated. László Paskai, cardinal of Hungary, former Archbishop of Esztergom lives here.

Gallery

Sources
 Borovszy Samu: Esztergom Vármegye
 Esztergom-Budapesti Főegyházmegye
 Szent István városa – Esztergom története (szerk Meggyes Miklósné)

External links

Neighbourhoods of Esztergom
Former municipalities of Hungary

Szentgyörgymező


Campbell Ogilvie (born 1950 or 1951) is a Scottish football executive. He was the President of the Scottish Football Association, a director of Rangers and managing director of Heart of Midlothian (Hearts).

Career
Ogilvie was appointed assistant secretary of the Scottish Football League. in May 1970. In 1978, he was hired as general secretary at Rangers F.C. and in 1989 he became a director of that club. Ogilvie relinquished his executive duties at Ibrox Stadium in September 2005, following a boardroom re-shuffle.

Ogilvie joined Heart of Midlothian in November 2005 to undertake similar duties under the title  "Operations Director". Ogilvie was later promoted to managing director on 14 March 2008. Oglivie held 3505 shares in Rangers FC while a senior manager at Hearts.

In June 2003, Ogilvie became the treasurer, now second vice-president, of the Scottish Football Association (SFA). On 1 June 2007, Ogilvie became first vice-president of the SFA, with Alan McRae taking his place as second vice-president. On 8 June 2011 it was confirmed that Ogilvie would take up the presidency of the Scottish Football Association, succeeding George Peat. He relinquished the post in June 2015, when he was succeeded by Alan McRae.

In March 2012 Ogilvie stated that he was a member of the Employee Benefit Trust scheme at Rangers when he was both a Director of Rangers as well as the treasurer of the Scottish Football Association.

References

1950s births
Living people
Directors of football clubs in Scotland
Heart of Midlothian F.C. non-playing staff
Rangers F.C. non-playing staff
Scottish Football Association
Scottish Football League

Campbell Ogilvie


The Virginia strawberry (Fragaria virginiana) is a species of strawberry that grows in the wild. It occurs in much of the United States and Canada, mostly in wooded, or partly wooded areas. It is a perennial plant. Together with the  Chilean strawberry it was used to create the common strawberry cultivar, grown in gardens.

Strawberries

Virginia strawberry


Từ Đàm Temple () is a Buddhist temple located on a street of the same name in the Trường An District of Huế.

History
The temple was built and opened under the direction of Thiền master Thích Minh Hoằng, who was the 34th in the lineage of the Lâm Tế Zen lineage. The temple was built in the late 17th century under the rule of Emperor Lê Hy Tông, on Long Sơn hill. However, the area was then under the rule of the Nguyễn lords, who nominally declared their allegiance to the Lê dynasty but in reality ran their own independent state, under Nguyễn Phúc Chu. At the time, the temple was also known as the Ấn Tôn Temple. In 1703, the ruling Nguyễn Lord, Nguyễn Phúc Chu gave the title "Sắc Tứ Ấn Tôn Tự". In 1841, Vietnam had been unified in its modern state by the Nguyễn dynasty and Emperor Thiệu Trị ordered that the temple be renamed so that it did not conflict with his name. The temple was one of the three national temples in Huế during the Nguyễn dynasty era.

Over the last 150 years, the temple has been one of the main spiritual facilities of Huế and the surrounding central region of Vietnam. Over the years, the temple has been renovated and expanded many times, under the direction of Thích Thiệt Vinh, Thích Minh Hoằng and Thích Đạo Trung. Under Thích Từ Vân, two major bells were cast and installed. In 1932, a nun, Thích Diệu Không, created a monastery for nuns. For a period the Association of Buddhist Studies of central Vietnam was based at the temple, during which time the main ceremonial hall was rebuilt. In 1939, Suzanne Karpelès, Secretary General of the Buddhist Studies Association of Phnom Penh in Cambodia, arranged for a bodhi tree offshoot to be taken from the original bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya under which Gautama Buddha achieved enlightenment, to be brought to the Từ Đàm pagoda. It was planted in the front yard of the temple, where it was grown up and become a permanent fixture.

In 1951, the temple was the venue for a meeting of 51 notable Buddhist monks from across Vietnam, representing six different groups, to create a unified nationwide Buddhist organisation for all of Vietnam. At this meeting Thích Tịnh Khiết was chosen to be the head of Buddhism in Vietnam. It was during this meeting that the internationally designed Buddhist flag was first flown on the grounds of the temple. As Decree No. 10 by Bảo Đại prohibited the use of the name "church" by any other religion aside from the Catholic Church, the body called itself the General Association of Buddhists. In 1961, the administration of the temple along with the Association for Buddhist Studies organised for the construction of the a variety of buildings to increase the amount of activities that were able to be hosted by the temple.

Buddhist crisis and temple raids

South Vietnam's Buddhist majority had long been discontented with the rule of President Ngô Đình Diệm since his rise to power in 1955. Diệm had shown strong favouritism towards Catholics and discrimination against Buddhists in the army, public service and distribution of government aid. In the countryside, Catholics were de facto exempt from performing corvée labour and in some rural areas, Catholic priests led private armies against Buddhist villages. Discontent with Diệm exploded into mass protest in Huế during the summer of 1963 when nine Buddhists died at the hand of Diệm's army and police on Vesak, the birthday of Gautama Buddha.

In May 1963, a law against the flying of religious flags was selectively invoked; the Buddhist flag was banned from display on Vesak while the Vatican flag was displayed to celebrate the anniversary of the consecration of Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục, Diệm's elder brother.

Buddhists defied the ban and a protest that began with a march starting from Từ Đàm to the government broadcasting station was ended when government forces opened fire. As a result, Buddhist protests were held across the country and steadily grew in size, asking for the signing of a Joint Communique to end religious inequality. Từ Đàm Temple was a major organising point for the Buddhist movement and was often the location of hunger strikes, barricades and protests. This was because Thích Trí Quang, the abbot of Từ Đàm, was the main figure in the Buddhist movement, and at the time he was the head of the GAB in central Vietnam.

Self-immolations were used as a form of protest, an on 16 August, one such occurrence occurred at Từ Đàm when an elderly nun set herself alight. As the tension increased and opposition to Diệm increased, the key turning point came shortly after midnight on 21 August, when Ngô Đình Nhu's Special Forces raided and vandalised Buddhist temples across the country, rounding up thousands of monks and leaving hundreds dead.

Across the town of Huế, the approach of government forces were met by the beating of Buddhist drums and cymbals to alert the populace. The townsfolk left their homes in the middle of the night in an attempt to defend the city's temples. At Từ Đàm, monks attempted to burn the coffin of a monk who had self-immolated during previous protests. Government soldiers, firing M1 rifles, overran the pagoda and confiscated the coffin. They also demolished a statue of Gautama Buddha and looted and vandalized the pagoda. An explosion was set off by the troops, which leveled much of the pagoda. Many Buddhists were shot or clubbed to death.

Later years
During 1968, the temple was heavily damaged during the Tet Offensive of the Vietnam War, some of which still remains unrepaired. In 1966, a bronze statue of the Gautama Buddha was cast to replace the one destroyed during the temple attacks of Diệm's regime. The temple is still inhabited by monks, and is the provincial headquarters of the Buddhist Association.

References

Sources

17th-century Buddhist temples
Buddhist temples in Huế

Từ Đàm Temple


Summit Township is a township in Steele County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 515 at the 2000 census.

Summit Township was organized in 1858, and named for a relatively high point of elevation atop a drainage divide.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 36.0 square miles (93.1 km), of which 35.9 square miles (93.0 km)  is land and 0.04 square mile (0.1 km)  (0.08%) is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 515 people, 175 households, and 145 families residing in the township.  The population density was 14.3 people per square mile (5.5/km).  There were 180 housing units at an average density of 5.0/sq mi (1.9/km).  The racial makeup of the township was 99.61% White, 0.19% Asian, and 0.19% from two or more races.

There were 175 households, out of which 40.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 74.3% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16.6% were non-families. 14.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.94 and the average family size was 3.25.

In the township the population was spread out, with 30.5% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.1 males.

The median income for a household in the township was $38,958, and the median income for a family was $39,896. Males had a median income of $29,063 versus $23,375 for females. The per capita income for the township was $14,977.  About 8.8% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.3% of those under age 18 and 18.6% of those age 65 or over.

References

Townships in Steele County, Minnesota
Townships in Minnesota

Summit Township, Steele County, Minnesota


The Döbling Parish Church (Döblinger Pfarrkirche) is a Roman Catholic parish church in the suburb of Oberdöbling in the 19th district of Vienna, Döbling.

History
The first reference to a church in Döbling dates from 1267, when a Ecclesia in Tobelico (church in Döbling) was mentioned in an official document, but it is not known where this church stood. The continuous existence of a church can be proven from the 15th century, as the names of the Döbling parish priests have been recorded since that time.

The Döbling Parish Church was destroyed by Matthias Corvinus of Hungary in the 15th century, but it was quickly rebuilt. In 1640, the parish of Döbling was dissolved and the area was allocated to the parish of Währing. The church was destroyed for a second time during the second siege of Vienna in 1683; the remains were shored up but not rebuilt. The Johann-von-Nepomuk-Kapelle in the Döblinger Hauptstraße was used as a replacement until the parish church was restored following emperor Joseph II's reform of the parishes and the restoration of Döbling to the status of an independent parish.

The church however quickly proved to be too small. It was rebuilt between 1826 and 1828 in line with designs drawn up by Josef Reininger and dedicated to Saint Paul. The church features a Baroque main room; its temple-like appearance is typical for the period. The church's three most prominent artistic features are the picture on the altar Bekehrung des heiligen Paulus (The conversion of Saint Paul) by Josef Schönmann (1829), the pictures on the side altars, which these are the work of J. Kreßler, the pulpit, which dates from the early 19th century, and a wooden statue of Mary dating from the 18th century.

References

 Christine Klusacek, Kurt Stimmer: Döbling. Vom Gürtel zu den Weinbergen. Wien 1988, , S. 161 f.

External links
 Pfarre Döbling – St. Paul
 planet-vienna.com | Kirche St. Paul - Döblinger Pfarrkirche

Roman Catholic churches in Vienna
Buildings and structures in Döbling

Döbling Parish Church


Pearl Moore (born March 16, 1957) is a retired American professional basketball player who played for the Women's Professional Basketball League. During her collegiate career at Francis Marion University, Moore established herself as one of the most prolific scorers in college history, male or female, and is the all-time career-scoring leader in women's college basketball. In 1979, she began her WBL career, playing with the New York Stars, then, the following season, Moore joined the St. Louis Streak. Moore was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2021.

Biography

Born in Florence, South Carolina, Moore began playing basketball while attending Wilson High School where she was in the starting line-up for all four years, and achieved early success, earning the MVP award at the 1975 and 1976 AAU Junior Olympic Games. Moore, who commenced her collegiate career with Anderson Junior College for one semester (where she amassed 177 points in eight games), transferred to Francis Marion University, and, because of AIAW rules, she was immediately eligible to play the remainder of the 1975–76 season for the campus's team, the Patriots. Patriots head coach Sylvia Hatchell reflected on Moore's unique ability to score: "She was outside, inside, she could handle the ball, draw fouls. I saw her wait for the defense to catch up with her so she could draw the foul and make a 3-point play. She was ahead of her time".

During her junior year, Moore posted a then single-game record 60 points in a victory over Eastern Washington State College in the 1978 AIAW Small College National Tournament. On March 10, 1979, in her final collegiate game, Moore scored 42 points against the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga to break the previous all-time record of 4,045 career points, previously set by Travis Grant of Kentucky State University. Overall, Moore averaged 30.6 points per game during her stint at Francis Marion, scored a total of 4,061 points in an era where the three-point arc was not incorporated into women's basketball, and helped lead the Patriots to three national championship appearances. Throughout her career with Francis Marion, Moore always scored in double-figures, and posted less than 20 points in only 18 of her total 128 games, which both testify to her dominance offensively.

Moore graduated from Francis Marion in 1979 with a Bachelor of Science degree in sociology. She was subsequently selected in the first round by the New York Stars in the Women's Professional Basketball League draft. In her first professional season, the Stars concluded their regular schedule with the highest winning-percentage in the league. Despite a 36-point game from "Machine Gun" Molly Bolin of the Iowa Cornets, the Stars won the championship series behind a 27-point effort by Moore.  She played another season, joining the St. Louis Streak, and participated in the 1981 WBL All-Star Game. When the WBL folded, Moore played the final season of her professional career in Venezuela.

Following her pro career, Moore coached high-school teams. She has received recognition for her accomplishments in women's basketball with her induction into the FMU Athletic Hall of Fame in 1992 and the Women's Hall of Fame in 2011. Michael Hawkins, who nominated Moore for the latter honor, called her one of college basketball's most prolific scorers and the best player Francis Marion ever produced. Moore currently hosts her own girls' basketball camp.

In May 2021, Moore was selected to be inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in its 2021 class.

References

1957 births
Living people
American expatriate basketball people in Venezuela
American women's basketball players
Basketball players from South Carolina
College women's basketball players in the United States
Francis Marion University alumni
Junior college women's basketball players in the United States
Sportspeople from Florence, South Carolina
Women's Professional Basketball League players

Pearl Moore


Lady Jane Grey ( – 12 February 1554), also known as Lady Jane Dudley after her marriage and as the "Nine Days' Queen", was an English noblewoman who claimed the throne of England and Ireland from 10 to 19 July 1553.

Jane was the great-granddaughter of Henry VII through his daughter, Mary Tudor, and was therefore a grandniece of Henry VIII, and a first cousin once removed of Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. She had an excellent humanist education, and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day. In May 1553, she married Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward's chief minister John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In June 1553, the dying Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England, whose foundation Edward laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their claims under the Third Succession Act.

After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July 1553, and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew quickly, and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. The Privy Council of England suddenly changed sides, and proclaimed Mary as queen on 19 July 1553, deposing Jane. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law, the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason, and executed less than a month later. Jane was held prisoner in the Tower, and was convicted of high treason in November 1553, which carried a sentence of death.

Mary initially spared her life; however, Jane soon became viewed as a threat to the Crown when her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, became involved with Wyatt's rebellion against Queen Mary's intention to marry Philip of Spain. Jane and her husband were executed on 12 February 1554. At the time of her death, Jane was either 16 or 17 years old.

Early life and education

Lady Jane Grey was the eldest daughter of Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and his wife, Frances Brandon. The traditional view is that she was born at Bradgate Park in Leicestershire in October 1537, while more recent research indicates that she was born somewhat earlier, possibly in London, sometime before May 1537 or between May 1536 and February 1537. This would coincide with the fact that she was noted as being in her seventeenth year at the time of her execution. Frances was the eldest daughter of Henry VIII's younger sister, Mary. Jane had two younger sisters: Lady Katherine and Lady Mary. Through their mother, the three sisters were great-granddaughters of Henry VII; great-nieces of Henry VIII; and first cousins once removed of the future Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I.

Jane received a humanist education from John Aylmer, speaking Latin and Greek from an early age, also studying Hebrew with Aylmer, and Italian with Michelangelo Florio. She was particularly fond, throughout her life, of writing letters in Latin and Greek. Through the influence of her father and her tutors, she became a committed Protestant and also corresponded with the Zürich reformer Heinrich Bullinger.

She preferred academic studies rather than activities such as hunting parties and allegedly regarded her strict upbringing, which was typical of the time, as harsh. To the visiting scholar Roger Ascham, who found her reading Plato, she is said to have complained: For when I am in the presence either of father or mother, whether I speak, keep silence, sit, stand or go, eat, drink, be merry or sad, be sewing, playing, dancing, or doing anything else, I must do it as it were in such weight, measure and number, even so perfectly as God made the world; or else I am so sharply taunted, so cruelly threatened, yea presently sometimes with pinches, nips and bobs and other ways (which I will not name for the honour I bear them) ... that I think myself in hell.

Around February 1547, Jane was sent to live in the household of Edward VI's uncle, Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, who soon married Henry VIII's widow, Katherine Parr. After moving there, Jane was able to receive educational opportunities available in court circles. Jane lived with the couple at Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire as an attendant to Katherine, until Katherine died in childbirth in September 1548. About eleven years old at the time, Jane was chief mourner at Katherine's funeral. After Thomas Seymour's arrest for treason, Jane returned to Bradgate and continued her studies.

Contracts for marriage

Lady Jane acted as chief mourner at Katherine Parr's funeral; Thomas Seymour showed continued interest to keep her in his household, and she returned there for about two months before he was arrested at the end of 1548. Seymour's brother, the Lord Protector, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, felt threatened by Thomas' popularity with the young King Edward. Among other things, Thomas Seymour was charged with proposing Jane as a bride for the king.

In the course of Thomas Seymour's following attainder and execution, Jane's father was lucky to stay largely out of trouble. After his fourth interrogation by the King's Council, he proposed his daughter Jane as a bride for the Protector's eldest son, Lord Hertford. Nothing came of this, however, and Jane was not engaged until 25 May 1553, her bridegroom being Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland. The Duke, Lord President of the King's Council from late 1549, was then the most powerful man in the country. On 25 May 1553, the couple were married at Durham House in a triple wedding, in which Jane's sister Katherine was matched with the heir of the Earl of Pembroke, Lord Herbert, and another Katherine, Lord Guildford's sister, with Henry Hastings, the Earl of Huntingdon's heir.

Claim to the throne and accession

The Third Succession Act of 1544 restored Henry VIII's daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession, although they were still regarded as illegitimate. Furthermore, this Act authorised Henry VIII to alter the succession by his will. Henry's will reinforced the succession of his three children, and then declared that, should none of them leave descendants, the throne would pass to heirs of his younger sister, Mary, which included Jane. For reasons unknown, Henry excluded Jane's mother, Frances Grey, from the succession, and also bypassed the claims of the descendants of his elder sister, Margaret, who had married into the Scottish royal house and nobility.

Both Mary and Elizabeth had been named illegitimate by statute during the reign of Henry VIII after his marriages to Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn had been declared void. When the 15-year-old Edward VI lay dying in early summer 1553, his Catholic half-sister Mary was still his heir presumptive. Edward, in a draft will ("My devise for the Succession") composed earlier in 1553, had first restricted the succession to (non-existent) male descendants of Frances Brandon and her daughters, before he named his Protestant cousin "Lady Jane and her heirs male" as his successors, probably in June 1553; the intent was to ensure his Protestant legacy, thereby bypassing Mary, a Roman Catholic. Edward's decision to name Jane Grey herself was possibly instigated by Northumberland.

Edward VI personally supervised the copying of his will which was finally issued as letters patent on 21 June and signed by 102 notables, among them the whole Privy Council, peers, bishops, judges, and London aldermen. Edward also announced to have his "declaration" passed in parliament in September, and the necessary writs were prepared.
The King died on 6 July 1553, but his death was not announced until four days later. On 9 July, Jane was informed that she was now queen, and according to her own later claims, accepted the crown only with reluctance. On 10 July, she was officially proclaimed Queen of England, France and Ireland after she had taken up secure residence in the Tower of London, where English monarchs customarily resided from the time of accession until coronation. Jane refused to name her husband Dudley as king, because that would require an Act of Parliament.

Northumberland faced a number of key tasks to consolidate his power after Edward's death. Most importantly, he had to isolate and, ideally, capture Mary Tudor to prevent her from gathering support. As soon as Mary was sure of King Edward's demise, she left her residence at Hunsdon and set out to East Anglia, where she began to rally her supporters. Northumberland set out from London with troops on 14 July to capture Mary. The Privy Council switched their allegiance and proclaimed Mary queen in London, on 19 July. The historical consensus assumes that this was in recognition of overwhelming support of the population for Mary. However, there is no clear evidence for that outside Norfolk and Suffolk, where Northumberland had put down Kett's Rebellion, hence where princess Mary sought refuge. Rather, it seems that Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel—whom Northumberland had arrested and detained twice as an ally of Somerset, before rehabilitating him—engineered a coup d'état in the Privy Council in Northumberland's absence.

Jane is often called the Nine-Day Queen, although if her reign is dated from the moment of Edward's death on 6 July 1553, her reign could have been a few days longer. On 19 July 1553, Jane was imprisoned in the Tower's Gentleman Gaoler's apartments, her husband in the Beauchamp Tower. The Duke of Northumberland was executed on 22 August 1553. In September, Parliament declared Mary the rightful successor and denounced and revoked Jane's proclamation as that of a usurper.

Trial and execution
Referred to by the court as Jane Dudley, wife of Guildford, Jane was charged with high treason, as were her husband, two of his brothers, and the former archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Their trial, by a special commission, took place on 13 November 1553, at Guildhall in the City of London. The commission was chaired by Sir Thomas White, Lord Mayor of London, and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. Other members included Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby, and John Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Bath. As was to be expected, all defendants were found guilty and sentenced to death. Jane's guilt, of having treacherously assumed the title and the power of the monarch, was evidenced by a number of documents she had signed as "Jane the Quene". Her sentence was to "be burned alive on Tower Hill or beheaded as the Queen pleases" (burning was the traditional English punishment for treason committed by women). The imperial ambassador reported to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, that her life was to be spared.

Wyatt's rebellion in January 1554 against Queen Mary's marriage plans with Philip of Spain sealed Jane's fate. Her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and his two brothers joined the rebellion, and so the government decided to go through with the verdict against Jane and Guildford. Their execution was first scheduled for 9 February 1554, but was then postponed for three days to give Jane a chance to convert to the Catholic faith. Mary sent her chaplain John Feckenham to Jane, who was initially not pleased about this. Though she would not give in to his efforts "to save her soul", she became friends with him and allowed him to accompany her to the scaffold.

On the morning of 12 February 1554, the authorities took Guildford from his rooms at the Tower of London to the public execution place at Tower Hill, where he was beheaded. A horse and cart brought his remains back to the Tower, past the rooms where Jane was staying. Seeing her husband's corpse return, Jane is reported to have exclaimed: "Oh, Guildford, Guildford." She was then taken out to Tower Green, inside the Tower, to be beheaded. According to the account of her execution given in the anonymous Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary, which formed the basis for Raphael Holinshed's depiction, Jane gave a speech upon ascending the scaffold:

While admitting to action considered unlawful, she declared that "I do wash my hands thereof in innocence". Jane then recited Psalm 51 (Have mercy upon me, O God) in English, and handed her gloves and handkerchief to her maid. The executioner asked her forgiveness, which she granted him, pleading: "I pray you dispatch me quickly." Referring to her head, she asked, "Will you take it off before I lay me down?", and the axeman answered, "No, madam." She then blindfolded herself. Jane then failed to find the block with her hands, and cried, "What shall I do? Where is it?" Probably Sir Thomas Brydges, the Deputy Lieutenant of the Tower, helped her find her way. With her head on the block, Jane spoke the last words of Jesus as recounted in the Gospel of Luke: "Lord, into thy hands I commend my spirit!" The axe then fell and Jane was beheaded in one clean stroke.

Jane and Guildford are buried in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula on the north side of Tower Green. No memorial stone was erected at their grave. Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk, was executed 11 days after Jane, on 23 February 1554. Her mother, the Duchess of Suffolk, married her Master of the Horse and chamberlain, Adrian Stokes, in March 1555. She was fully pardoned by Mary and allowed to live at Court with her two surviving daughters. She died in 1559.

Legacy

In 1911, the British historian Albert Pollard called Jane "the traitor-heroine of the Reformation". During the Marian persecutions and its aftermath, Jane became viewed as a Protestant martyr, featuring prominently in the several editions of Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Dayes) by John Foxe. The story of Jane's life grew to legendary proportions in popular culture, producing romantic biographies, novels, plays, operas, paintings, and films, such as Lady Jane in 1986.

Family tree

Italics indicate people who predeceased Edward VI;Arabic numerals (1–5) indicate Edward VI's line of succession at his death according to Henry VIII's will; andRoman numerals (I–III) indicate Edward VI's line of succession at his death according to Edward's will.

References

Bibliography

 Bindoff, Stanley T. (1953) "A Kingdom at Stake, 1553." History Today 3.9 (1953): 642–28.

 Hoak, Dale. (2015) "The Succession Crisis of 1553 and Mary's Rise to Power", in Catholic Renewal and Protestant Resistance in Marian England ed. by E. Evenden and V. Westbrook (Aldershot, 2015), pp. 17–42.

 Kewes, Paulina. (2017) "The 1553 Succession Crisis Reconsidered." Historical Research (2017).

External links

 Lady Jane Grey at the official website of the British monarchy

Jane
1530s births
1554 deaths
16th-century women rulers
16th-century English women
16th-century English monarchs
16th-century Irish monarchs
Burials at the Church of St Peter ad Vincula
Daughters of English dukes
Jane
English Anglicans
Executed English people
English people of Welsh descent
English pretenders to the French throne
Executed English women
Executed monarchs
Executions at the Tower of London
Jane Grey
People executed by Tudor England by decapitation
People executed under Mary I of England
People executed under the Tudors for treason against England
People from Leicester
Prisoners in the Tower of London
Protestant monarchs
Queens regnant of England
Heads of government who were later imprisoned
Dethroned monarchs
Executed children

Lady Jane Grey


David Samuel D'Arcy Young (born 17 July 1946 Oakville, Ontario) is a Canadian playwright, novelist, and screenwriter.

Born in Oakville, Ontario, Young studied at the University of Western Ontario. He is the author of seven plays, two novels and several screenplays and teleplays.
Two of his plays, Inexpressible Island and Glenn, have been nominated for multiple Canadian drama awards. The play, Fire, received four Dora Mavor Moore Awards as well as the Chalmers/Toronto Drama Bench Award.

Young is also a founder of the Writers' Trust of Canada, a non-profit literary organization that seeks to encourage Canada's writing community, and a trustee of the Griffin Prize for Excellence in Poetry.

Plays
 Love Is Strange (1985), a theatrical study of the life and times of Robert Kieling, the star-struck farmer from Saskatchewan who has spent his adult life in mental institutions because he believes he and singer Anne Murray are in love.
 Fire (1986), a political musical inspired by cousins Jimmy Swaggart and Jerry Lee Lewis, co-written with Paul Ledoux. The play received four Dora Mavor Moore Awards as well as the Chalmers/Toronto Drama Bench Award.
 Glenn (1992), a theatrical portrait of pianist Glenn Gould.
 Inexpressible Island (1997), a play about six men marooned in an ice cave in Antarctica.
 An Enemy of the People (2001), an adaptation of Henrik Ibsen's play.
 Clout (2001), a comedy about men, sex and power.
 No Great Mischief (2004), an adaptation of the award-winning Alistair MacLeod novel.

Teleplays
 Fraggle Rock, eleven episodes (1983–1987)

External links

 Still Desire You: Revisiting Canada's Most Famous Case of Celebrity Infatuation

References

1946 births
Living people
Canadian male novelists
20th-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights
21st-century Canadian dramatists and playwrights
University of Western Ontario alumni
People from Oakville, Ontario
Canadian male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Canadian male writers
21st-century Canadian male writers

David Young (Canadian playwright)


Danvikens hospital was a historical Swedish hospital, insane asylum and retirement home in Stockholm, active in 1558–1861. The area belonged to Stockholms kommun until 1984, when it was transferred to Nacka kommun.

The Danvikens hospital was founded by the initiative of King Gustav Vasa in 1558. The current building is designed by Göran Josuæ Adelcrantz (1668–1739) and dates back to 1718–1725. From the 1740s, the hospital also functioned as an Insane asylum. The hospital is frequently mentioned within literature and during the 18th and 19th centuries; the name Danviken was used in common language as a synonym for a "Mad House". A famous description of the Danviken Asylum was Fältskärns berättelser (The tales of a Feldsher) by Zacharias Topelius from the 1780s. The facilities were emptied in 1861 and the asylum closed in 1863 because of the decaying buildings. It is now used as an Art Gallery.

References

1558 establishments in Sweden
1861 disestablishments in Sweden
19th-century disestablishments in Sweden
Psychiatric hospitals in Sweden
Infrastructure completed in 1725
Hospital buildings completed in the 18th century
Defunct hospitals in Sweden
Hospitals in Stockholm
History of Stockholm
Hospitals established in the 16th century
16th century in Stockholm

Danviken Hospital


The Deutsche Film- und Medienbewertung (FBW; formerly the Filmbewertungsstelle Wiesbaden) is a German federal authority for evaluating and rating film and media, located at Biebrich Palace in Wiesbaden. It was founded by resolution on August 20, 1951 by a regular assembly of all German state ministers of education (Kultusministerkonferenz). The FBW, overseen by the Hessian Ministry for Science and the Arts, renders an expert opinion on films. Its two certification marks for outstanding quality are "worthwhile" (Wertvoll) and "especially worthwhile" (Besonders wertvoll).

In case of winning a mark, screenwriters, directors and other film artists receive so-called reference points; these make it easier for filmmakers to receive subsidies for future projects. Likewise, films rated as "worthwhile" or "especially worthwhile" are subject to lower entertainment taxes, depending on the specific state laws. Films are rated separately by genre. For example, the same jury rated two films – Hellboy II: The Golden Army and Das weiße Band – in the same meeting, and awarded them both an especially worthwhile.

The first film to be reviewed and decorated by this institution was Peter Lorre's directorial debut, Der Verlorene. In 1988, the FBW was heavily criticized for awarding a worthwhile rating to Rambo III.

The FBW and the Freiwillige Selbstkontrolle der Filmwirtschaft (Voluntary Self Regulation of the Movie Industry, also known as FSK), also based in Wiesbaden, work independently from each other. The FSK (similar to the British Board of Film Classification) manages a motion picture rating system with regard to the eligibility of films for children, and concentrates on how old viewers must be before they might be allowed to consume the examined media without the company of an adult. While the FSK has a remit to examine all media before they can be sold in Germany, the FBW audits all films that can be legally distributed in Germany. Films are audited on request, for a fee of about 20 Euros per minute. The 85 judges who adjudicate films in teams of five are paid on a nominal basis at 20 Euros per day, plus expenses.

Because the FBW's ratings are valuable in marketing films and DVDs, most commercial productions are audited by the FBW – even though any student filmmaker can have his or her short film rated by the FBW, too.

References

External links
 Deutsche Film- und Medienbewertung official website

Film organisations in Germany
Entertainment rating organizations
Culture in Wiesbaden
Mass media in Wiesbaden
1951 establishments in Germany
Organizations established in 1951

Deutsche Film- und Medienbewertung (FBW)


Georges Hugon (23 July 1904 – 19 June 1980) was a French composer. He is the father of actress Sophie Daumier. His compositional output includes several chamber works, the ballet La Reine de Saba (1933, dedicated to Gustave Flaubert), two completed symphonies (1941 and 1949), and the unfinished symphony Prometheus.

Born in Paris, he studied with Georges Caussade, Paul Dukas, Jean Gallon, and Isidore Philipp at the Conservatoire de Paris. He won premier prix awards from the conservatoire in piano (1921), harmony (1921), and composition (1930). He was awarded a medal for composition by the Blumenthal Foundation in 1930. From 1934 to 1940 he served as director of the Conservatoire de Boulogne-sur-Mer. He was appointed professor of solfège at the Conservatoire de Paris in 1941, and in 1948 also began teaching courses in harmony. In 1967 the director of the conservatoire awarded him the Grand prix Musical for his distinguished teaching career. One of his notable pupils was Paul Kuentz.

He died in Blauvac.

References

1904 births
1980 deaths
20th-century French composers
20th-century French male musicians
French composers
French male composers
French music educators
Academic staff of the Conservatoire de Paris
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
Composers from Paris
Pupils of Isidor Philipp

Georges Hugon