McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission, 514 U.S. 334 (1995), is a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that an Ohio statute prohibiting anonymous campaign literature is unconstitutional because it violates the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which protects the freedom of speech. In a 7–2 decision authored by Justice John Paul Stevens, the Court found that the First Amendment protects the decision of an author to remain anonymous.

On April 27, 1988, Margaret McIntyre stood outside of a middle school in Westerville, Ohio, and passed out anonymous leaflets that opposed a proposed school district tax levy. The Ohio Elections Commission fined McIntyre $100 for violating a state law that prohibited the distribution of any kind of political or campaign literature that does not have the name and address of the person responsible for its contents. With the help of the American Civil Liberties Union, McIntyre appealed the fine in court. The county court reversed the fine, holding that because McIntyre did not attempt to mislead the public, the Ohio statute was unconstitutional as it applied to her actions. However, the state court of appeals reinstated the fine, referring to a 1922 decision by the Ohio Supreme Court as precedent, and the Ohio Supreme Court affirmed.

The U.S. Supreme Court reversed the Ohio Supreme Court on April 19, 1995. As precedent, the Court referred to its decision in Talley v. California (1960), in which the Court found a similar law prohibiting anonymous leafletting unconstitutional, as well as the role of anonymous political literature throughout history, one example being The Federalist Papers. The Court's majority opinion emphasized the importance of anonymous speech, describing it as "not a pernicious, fraudulent practice, but an honorable tradition of advocacy and of dissent". The effect of the Court's opinion on anonymous speech has been analyzed in the contexts of television and radio advertisements, campaign finance, and the Internet.

Background

Ohio statute and prior case law
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution prevents the federal government from abridging the freedom of speech, and the Fourteenth Amendment extends this prohibition to state governments under the incorporation doctrine. Section 3599.09(A) of the Ohio Revised Code forbade the creation and distribution of any kind of publication "... designed to promote the adoption or defeat of any issue, or to influence the voters in any election ..." unless the publication contains the name and address of the person responsible for the content of the publication." Previously, in a case called State v. Babst (1922), the Supreme Court of Ohio, the state's highest court, upheld the constitutionality of the "statutory predecessor" of section 3599.09(A). However, in Talley v. California (1960), the Supreme Court of the United States held that a similar Los Angeles city ordinance prohibiting all anonymous leafletting was unconstitutional because it violated the First Amendment.

The U.S. Supreme Court has also discussed whether disclosure of an anonymous individual's identity is permissible in certain situations. In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Court upheld, among other things, a part of the Federal Election Campaign Act that required the public disclosure of political campaign contributions above a certain dollar amount. Applying a standard of exacting scrutiny, the Court determined that the government's interest in providing the electorate with information about campaign contributions outweighed the First Amendment concerns in the case of Buckley. In First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978), the Court invalidated a Massachusetts law that made it a crime to use corporate funds to influence the voters of an election. As part of its analysis, the Court commented that "identification of the source of advertising may be required as a means of disclosure, so that the people will be able to evaluate the arguments to which they are being subjected".

Facts of the case

On the evening of April 27, 1988, the superintendent of Westerville City School District held a public meeting at Blendon Middle School in Westerville, Ohio, to discuss a new school district tax levy. On the same day, an Ohioan named Margaret McIntyre stood outside the school and distributed leaflets to meeting attendants, asking them to vote no on the tax levy issue. Some of the leaflets did not identify her as the author, instead identifying the message as coming from "concerned parents and tax payers".

While she was distributing the leaflets, a school official who supported the tax proposal warned McIntyre that her anonymous leaflets were unlawful. Despite the warning, McIntyre continued to distribute the leaflets at a meeting the next day. The tax levy issue failed to pass on its first try. In November 1988, in the third election on which the issue was presented, the tax levy was finally approved. Five months after the levy passed, the same school official who warned McIntyre about her anonymous leaflets filed a complaint with the Ohio Elections Commission, accusing McIntyre of violating section 3599.09(A) of the Ohio Revised Code. The commission found her guilty and fined her $100.

Lower court proceedings
McIntyre appealed the fine to the Franklin County Court of Common Pleas, which reversed the fine, holding that because McIntyre "did not 'mislead the public nor act in a surreptitious manner'", section 3599.09(A) was unconstitutional as it applied to her actions. McIntyre was represented by David Goldberger, an attorney for the American Civil Liberties Union. The Ohio Court of Appeals reversed that court, putting back the fine. In a divided vote, the majority of the judges felt bound by the precedent set in State v. Babst (1922) by the Supreme Court of Ohio, which upheld the "statutory predecessor" of section 3599.09(A). The judge who dissented from the opinion argued that the U.S. Supreme Court's intervening decision in Talley v. California (1960) "compelled the Ohio court to adopt a narrowing construction of the statute to save its constitutionality". The Ohio Supreme Court affirmed the Court of Appeals, also by a divided vote. The majority of the state supreme court justices felt that the Ohio statute was different from the city ordinance in Talley, finding that section 3599.09(A) "has as its purpose the identification of persons who distribute materials containing false statements". In a dissenting opinion, Justice J. Craig Wright wrote that section 3599.09(A) "'is not narrowly tailored to serve a compelling state interest and is, therefore, unconstitutional as applied to McIntyre.'"

Supreme Court

Margaret McIntyre died while the case was still being litigated in the state courts. On behalf of Joseph McIntyre, the executor of McIntyre's estate, the American Civil Liberties Union filed a petition for a writ of certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States, which the Court granted on February 22, 1994. Justice Stevens later wrote, "Even though the amount in controversy is only $100", the Court's grant of certiorari "reflects our agreement with [the executor's] appraisal of the importance of the question presented".

Opinion of the Court

Justice John Paul Stevens delivered the opinion of the Court on April 19, 1995, reversing the Ohio Supreme Court in a 7–2 decision. Stevens emphasized that the First Amendment protects a right to anonymity, referring to Talley as precedent, and stated that Ohio's interests in preventing fraud and informing the electorate were insufficient to justify the sweeping scope of its statute. Stevens also rejected the argument that the Court's prior decisions in Bellotti and Buckley compel the Court to uphold the Ohio statute.

Freedom to publish anonymously

Stevens began his First Amendment analysis by quoting Talley v. California, where the Court wrote: "Anonymous pamphlets, leaflets, brochures and even books have played an important role in the progress of mankind." Stevens noted various well-known authors throughout literary history who had opted to publish either anonymously or under a pseudonym, including Mark Twain, O. Henry, Benjamin Franklin, and Voltaire. He then stated that the "freedom to publish anonymously extends beyond the literary realm", referring to the decision in Talley, as well as The Federalist Papers, a collection of anonymous essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay to promote the ratification of what is now the U.S. Constitution.

In justifying a First Amendment right to anonymity, Stevens wrote that while curiosity might cause a reader to inquire about an author's identity, an author's "decision in favor of anonymity may be motivated by fear of economic or official retaliation, by concern about social ostracism, or merely by a desire to preserve as much of one's privacy as possible". Stevens added that anonymity "provides a way for a writer who may be personally unpopular to ensure that readers will not prejudge her message simply because they do not like its proponent". Stevens concluded that Talleys reasoning "embraced a respected tradition of anonymity in the advocacy of political causes", stating that "this tradition is perhaps best exemplified by the secret ballot, the hard-won right to vote one's conscience without fear of retaliation".

 Exacting scrutiny standard

Because Ohio's law was "a regulation of pure speech" as opposed to a regulation of merely "the mechanics of the electoral process", Stevens applied a standard of "exacting scrutiny", a more rigorous standard of scrutiny than the Ohio Supreme Court had applied. Under this standard, the Court may uphold Ohio's law "only if it is narrowly tailored to serve an overriding state interest". Specifically, Ohio must demonstrate that its stated interests "in preventing fraudulent and libelous statements" and "in providing the electorate with relevant information" are sufficient to justify its law against anonymous campaign literature.

Stevens stated that the interest of "informing the electorate" is "plainly insufficient to support the constitutionality of its disclosure requirement", writing that "the identity of the speaker is no different from other components of the document's content that the author is free to include or exclude". On the other hand, Stevens acknowledged that the fraud and libel prevention interest "carries special weight during election campaigns when false statements, if credited, may have serious adverse consequences for the public at large". However, Stevens also commented that Ohio's election laws include "detailed and specific prohibitions against making or disseminating false statements during political campaigns" and that "Ohio's prohibition of anonymous leaflets plainly is not its principal weapon against fraud". Stevens concluded that while Ohio's prohibition may "serve as an aid to enforcement of the specific prohibitions and as a deterrent to the making of false statements by unscrupulous prevaricators", these "ancillary benefits" do not justify the Ohio statute's "extremely broad prohibition", particularly because it "encompasses documents that are not even arguably false or misleading".

 Bellotti and Buckley

Stevens concluded that neither of the Court's prior decisions in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti and Buckley v. Valeo is "controlling" in McIntyre. With respect to Bellotti, Stevens clarified that "although we commented in dicta on the prophylactic effect of requiring identification of the source of corporate advertising, that footnote did not necessarily apply to independent communications by an individual like Mrs. McIntyre". Additionally, while Buckley "concerned contributions to [a political] candidate or expenditures by the candidate or his responsible agent", Stevens wrote that the case "had no reference to the kind of independent activity pursued by Mrs. McIntyre".

 Dissent and concurrence

Justice Clarence Thomas filed an opinion concurring in the judgment only. Thomas agreed with the majority opinion that the Ohio law prohibiting anonymous campaign literature was unconstitutional because it violated the First Amendment, but would have applied "a different methodology to this case". Rather than analyze the "tradition" and "value" of anonymous speech in American history, Thomas stated that the Court should instead "determine whether the phrase 'freedom of speech, or of the press,' as originally understood, protected anonymous political leafletting". After analyzing historical evidence, Thomas concluded that the original intent of the First Amendment included a protection of anonymous speech and criticized the majority for adopting "an analysis that is largely unconnected to the Constitution's text and history".

Justice Antonin Scalia filed a dissenting opinion, in which Chief Justice William Rehnquist joined. Scalia rejected the Court's opinion that the First Amendment protects a "right-to-be-unknown while engaging in politics". Responding to the majority and to Justice Thomas, Scalia stated that "to prove that anonymous electioneering was used frequently is not to establish that it is a constitutional right", concluding that there was a scarcity of historical evidence that "anonymous electioneering" was regarded as such by the Framers of the Constitution. In the absence of such evidence, Scalia looked towards "the widespread and longstanding traditions of our people", commenting that laws similar to Ohio's exist in every U.S. state except California and that the history of these laws extends to the nineteenth century. Scalia also concluded that prior case law would also justify upholding Ohio's statute. Specifically, previous cases support that "protection of the election process justifies limitations upon speech that cannot constitutionally be imposed generally" and reject that "a 'right to anonymity' is such a prominent value in our constitutional system that even protection of the electoral process cannot be purchased at its expense". Scalia further stated that "the prohibition of anonymous campaigning is effective in protecting and enhancing democratic elections".

Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg filed a concurring opinion, in which she responded to Scalia's dissent, emphasizing the narrow scope of the majority's decision: "We do not thereby hold that the State may not in other, larger circumstances, require the speaker to disclose its interest by disclosing its identity."

 Analysis and impact

McIntyre has been referred to in analyses of the relationship between anonymous speech and the First Amendment. In an article published in the North Carolina Law Review, Richard K. Norton wrote that the majority opinion in McIntyre "left the jurisprudential door slightly cracked, suggesting the possibility that some kind of acceptable proscription on anonymous speech exists, but gave no indication what such a proscription might look like". Norton argued that McIntyre'''s "legal analysis does not provide a satisfying exposition of the concerns truly driving the debate, nor does it offer a satisfactory guide for predicting how the Court will rule on future anonymous political speech questions". Responding to Norton's claim, Amy Constantine wrote in a Connecticut Law Review article that "McIntyre nonetheless is an important decision that recognizes a de minimis exception to campaign literature disclosure statutes". Constantine added that "in a broader context, the decision affirms this country's historical commitment to protecting core political speech and protection of the marketplace of ideas metaphor" and "has tremendous ramifications for the forty-eight states, including Connecticut, that have similar disclosure statutes for political campaign literature".

 Political campaign advertisements

At the beginning of 1995, the year the Supreme Court decided McIntyre, all U.S. states (plus the District of Columbia) except California had laws similar to the Ohio law prohibiting anonymous campaign literature. In an analysis published in the Catholic University Law Review, Rachel J. Grabow concluded that "because some of the Court's language in McIntyre is unclear, and the decision leaves unanswered questions, McIntyres future is difficult to predict". Grabow cited Scalia's dissenting opinion, stating that Scalia had "posited that it was impossible to know whether McIntyre invalidated other existing identification statutes" and that "it would take decades to flesh out the scope of the right to distribute anonymous campaign literature".

Grabow criticized the Court's decision, arguing that "the majority opinion fails to fully consider Ohio's strong interests in preventing fraudulent campaign-related statements and providing information to its electorate". Grabow disagreed with the Court's use of the exacting scrutiny standard in striking down Ohio's law, arguing that other state regulations on the electoral process are reviewed at a lower standard and that "subjecting all election regulations to exacting scrutiny would substantially hinder the states' ability to ensure fair elections". Grabow also argued that even under the exacting scrutiny standard, "the Court underestimated the strength of Ohio's interest in an informed electorate".

 Television and radio advertisements

At the time the Supreme Court decided McIntyre, thirty-one states had laws that required sponsors of political television and radio advertisements to identify themselves in the advertisement. In an analysis published in 1996 by the University of Chicago Law Review, Thomas Dupree Jr. wrote that because of the McIntyre decision "the constitutionality of these statutes has been cast into doubt". However, Dupree qualified that statement by saying that the "precise scope of McIntyre is far from clear" and that "the Court offered little guidance as to the decision's applicability to statutes that regulate a narrower class of speakers—such as candidates for political office—or a communications medium other than print". Dupree stated that he "advocates a narrow interpretation of McIntyre", arguing that "state disclosure laws, narrowly tailored to include only candidates or their agents communicating via broadcast media, remain constitutional after McIntyre". According to Dupree, "Historically, the Court has applied lighter First Amendment scrutiny to restrictions on broadcast communication than to restrictions on print communication". Additionally, Dupree argued that while the Ohio law in question in McIntyre was "overly broad" because it regulated political speech "by all citizens", a narrower statute limited only to political candidates would leave "untouched anonymous speech by private individuals like Mrs. McIntyre, without clearing the way for candidates to engage in anonymous warfare over the airwaves".

 Campaign finance

In an article published in the William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal, legal scholar Richard Briffault commented that even though McIntyre invalidated a disclosure law on constitutional grounds, the decision did not undermine "the Court's general support for the public dissemination of campaign finance information". Briffault commented that in McConnell v. FEC (2003), "the Court easily upheld the extension of disclosure requirements to electioneering communications". According to Briffault, "Justice Thomas's contention in his McConnell dissent that McIntyre changed the constitutional analysis of disclosure and required that disclosure requirements be subject to strict judicial scrutiny was given short shrift by the rest of the Court".

The Court would further distinguish disclosure laws from the Ohio law in McIntyre in subsequent cases such as Citizens United v. FEC (2010) and Doe v. Reed (2010). According to Briffault, "Citizens United also dealt with—and strongly upheld—some of the disclosure provisions of federal campaign finance law, thus, confirming once again that even campaign spending that cannot be limited may be subject to disclosure". In Doe, the Court held that requiring disclosure of signatures on a referendum does not violate the First Amendment.

 Internet anonymity McIntyre has been cited in cases involving defamation by anonymous Internet users (sometimes described as "cybersmears"). In an analysis published in the Washington and Lee Law Review, Caroline Strickland wrote that although the Court's decision in McIntyre "emphasized a general respect for the anonymous advocacy of political causes, it did not contemplate anonymous unlawful speech such as the Internet postings challenged in cybersmear lawsuits". Strickland stated that "public interest groups, court documents, and legal practitioners often cite McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission as an authority for the protection of anonymous Internet speech", but also wrote that "many citations to McIntyre presuppose that its rationale applies in the cybersmear context and fail to address the distinctions between Mrs. McIntyre's speech and alleged cybersmear". Specifically, Strickland stated that the "most blatant misapplications of McIntyre fail to address the fact that McIntyre did not directly contemplate fraudulent, libelous, or otherwise unlawful, anonymous speech". Strickland ultimately concluded that because of these and other distinctions, "neither the First Amendment nor McIntyre protects the intentionally false speech challenged in some cybersmear lawsuits".

Strickland compared McIntyre to two subsequent cases, both concerning requests for a process called "expedited discovery", by which a court can attempt to "facilitate efforts to identify and to serve an unknown defendant". The first was a 2000 case in which a Virginia Circuit Court "used McIntyre in its First Amendment analysis to extend the protection of anonymous speech to the Internet context", but "maintained, however, that the right was not absolute and did not extend to unlawful Internet statements". The second was Dendrite International, Inc. v. Doe No. 3 (2001), a case in which a New Jersey court denied expedited discovery of the identities of two anonymous individuals. According to Strickland, "The court noted the factual distinctions of McIntyre, yet stated that its general principle – that the First Amendment protects anonymous speech – nevertheless applied".

Jasmine McNealy, an assistant professor at the S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University, responded to Strickland's article in a paper published in the First Amendment Law Review, stating that Strickland's conclusion "does not recognize, however, that plaintiffs are asking for the discovery of the defendant's identity before there is an actual adjudication of whether the comments at issue are truly defamatory". McNealy stated that "McIntyre can be viewed as supporting anonymous online speech". However, in an analysis of various anonymous online speech cases that cite McIntyre, McNealy found that "most of the courts citing McIntyre used it as a reference citation, and not as a decision that must be followed or explained". McNealy concluded, "In sum, the influence of the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in McIntyre has not been as significant as thought possible with respect to online anonymous speech."

 See also
 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama Citizens for Tax Reform v. Deters Anderson v. Celebrezze Apple v. Does Hard Drive Productions, Inc. v. Does 1-1,495''

Footnotes

References

 Citations

 Sources

 .

External links

United States Free Speech Clause case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
1995 in United States case law
American Civil Liberties Union litigation
Ohio elections

McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission


Detelinara (, from Serbian detelina - clover, hence Detelinara = Field of Clovers) is an urban neighborhood of the city of Novi Sad, Serbia.

Borders

The south-eastern borders of Detelinara are Ulica Branka Bajića (Branko Bajić Street) and Ulica Braće Popović (Braće Popović Street), the north-eastern border is Rumenačka ulica (Rumenačka Street), the northern border is Ulica Oblačića Rada (Oblačića Rada Street), and the western border is Bulevar Evrope (Boulevard of Europe), built in the last quarter of 2009.

Neighbouring city quarters
The neighbouring city quarters are: Novo Naselje and Jugovićevo in the west, Avijatičarsko Naselje in the north, Sajmište in the south-east, and Banatić and Industrijska Zona Jug in the north-east.

Parts of Detelinara
Detelinara is divided into Stara Detelinara (Old Detelinara) and Nova Detelinara (New Detelinara). The border between these two parts of the settlement is Ulica Kornelija Stankovića (Kornelije Stanković Street). Old Detelinara is located on the southern side of this Street, while New Detelinara is located on the northern side. But due to rapid construction of new apartment buildings on the southern side in practice, the southern side is called New and the northern Old.

Sports
The FK Novi Sad stadium holds 6.000 people.

History
Between 1980 and 1989, Detelinara was one of the seven municipalities of Novi Sad City. The municipality included the city quarters of Detelinara, Sajmište, Banatić, Avijatičarsko Naselje, Jugovićevo, Industrijska Zona Jug, Industrijska Zona Sever, Gornje Livade and Rimski Šančevi, and the villages of Rumenka, Kisač, and Stepanovićevo.

During bombing of Novi Sad in 1999, NATO bombs devastated civilian residential buildings and a school in Detelinara.

Gallery

See also
 Neighborhoods of Novi Sad

References

 Jovan Mirosavljević, Brevijar ulica Novog Sada 1745-2001, Novi Sad, 2002.
 Milorad Grujić, Vodič kroz Novi Sad i okolinu, Novi Sad, 2004.

External links

 Nova Detelinara (in Serbian)
 U šetnji Detelinarom (in Serbian)
 Images of NATO bombing in 1999 in Detelinara
 Graffiti in Detelinara
 Detailed map of Novi Sad and Detelinara

Novi Sad neighborhoods

Detelinara


Wesley Bailey (1808 – February 26, 1889) was an American newspaper editor and politician from New York.

Life
He learned the printer's trade, and was a Minister of the Reformed Methodist Church. He also taught school in DeWitt, New York. In 1833, he married Eunice Kinne (1807–1860), and they had six children. They lived in High Bridge, a hamlet in the Town of Manlius.

He edited from 1840 to 1842 the Fayetteville Luminary and Reformed Methodist Iintelligencer (Methodist Reformer after September 23, 1841), from 1842 to 1849 the Liberty Press, the paper of the Liberty Party, and from 1849 to 1852 the Utica Teetotaller.

In September 1854, he was a delegate to the Temperance state convention which nominated Myron H. Clark for Governor. In 1855, he was nominated by the Republicans for Inspector of State Prisons but was defeated by the American Party candidate William A. Russell. In 1856, he ran again and this time was elected, being in office from 1857 to 1859.

In 1860, he removed to Decorah, Iowa, and published there the Decorah Republic, from 1866 on the Decorah Republican, until 1869, when he transferred the paper to his sons Ansel K. Bailey (d. 1909) and Alvan Stewart Bailey.

His oldest son, Elijah Prentice Bailey (b. 1834), worked for the Utica Daily Observer from 1853 on, later became its sole editor and owner, and was twice Postmaster of Utica.

Sources
The New York Civil List compiled by Franklin Benjamin Hough (page 46; Weed, Parsons and Co., 1858)
New York State Temperance Convention in NYT on September 28, 1854
Temperance Ratification Meeting at Auburn in NYT on September 29, 1854
THE REPUBLICANS in NYT on October 10, 1855, with Bailey's letter of acceptance
He Pasa Ekklesia: An Original History of the Religious Denominations at Present Existing in the United States by Israel Daniel Rupp (J.Y. Humphreys, 1844; pages 466ff: "REFORMED METHODIST CHURCH" by Rev. Wesley Bailey, Utica)
 Newspaper history - "Teetotaller"
 Oneida County newspaper history - "Liberty Press"
Past and Present of Winneshiek County, Iowa  (1913)
 Kinne-Bailey genealogy, at RootsWeb [gives Vermont as birthplace]
History and Genealogy of a Branch of the Family of Kinne by Emerson Kinne (Higginson Book Co., 1881) [gives Vermont as birthplace]
Lamb's Biographical Dictionary of the United States by John Howard Brown (James H. Lamb Co., 1900) [gives Fayetteville, New York as birthplace]

1808 births
1889 deaths
Politicians from Utica, New York
People from Manlius, New York
People from West Branch, Iowa
New York State Prison Inspectors
19th-century American newspaper editors
New York (state) Republicans
American male journalists
American temperance activists
19th-century male writers
Journalists from New York (state)
Activists from New York (state)
Writers from Utica, New York
Iowa Republicans
New York (state) Libertyites

Wesley Bailey


Juncal Island is an island belonging to Uruguay, located where the Uruguay River empties into the Río de la Plata, a bit above the Uruguayan town of Carmelo. It is separated from Uruguay by the Canal de Camacho.

The much smaller Juncalito Island lies a kilometer north; to the west, separated by the principal channel, lies Portuguese Island (Isla del Portugues), which belongs to the Argentine province of Entre Rios.

History
The chief historical event associated with Juncal Island is the Battle of Juncal, one of the most important naval battles of the Cisplatine War.  Occurring on 8 and 9 February, 1827 between squadrons of the Brazilian Empire and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, the result was a complete victory for the United Provinces.

Description
From a geological point of view, the island is a mass of riverine affluvient founded on a precambrian granite core.  The coasts are sandy and feature gentle inclines near the channels.  The island is low and flat, and can be completely submerged during high water.  It has a total length of 4.91 km and a maximum width of 1.95 km.

The western coast of the island is washed with waters from the river Guazú in addition to those of the Uruguay River from the north, while the east receives the cleaner and more oxygenated waters of the Camacho River; in this area a type of fish called a pejerrey (Odontesthes bonariensis) can be found in abundance.  As a result, it is a habitual destination for fishing boats.

The vegetation of the island is primarily scrubland, although some trees can be found towards the center.

References
Carlos María Domínguez, Tres muescas para mi carabina, Alfaguara Argentina, 2002,
José María Reyes, Descripción geográfica del territorio de la República Oriental, Establecimiento Tipográfico y Litográfico de Luciano Mége, 1859

River islands of Uruguay
Birdwatching sites in Uruguay
Islands of the Río de la Plata
Islands of the Uruguay River
Geography of Colonia Department

Juncal Island


Arthur Henry Lefebvre (14 March 1923 – 24 November 2003) was a British scientist and an innovative leader in the science and engineering of fuel sprays and combustion in gas turbines.

Career
During his career he developed several innovative atomizers, including prefilming (in the 1960s) and effervescent (in the 1990s) designs for aircraft engines.  Improvements in atomization greatly reduced the emissions of soot (particulate combustion product) and were instrumental in increasing the reliability of the combustor that was critical to improve the engine robustness. Lefebvre was a pioneer in the development of the jet engine, and arguably one who contributed more as a researcher, designer and educator than any other, except the original inventors – Sir Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain.  He shared his expertise with an annual week-long gas turbine combustion short course from 1962 to 2003.

His memory is honored at each International Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems (ICLASS) with a Lecture named in his honor.

Biography

Education
Long Eaton Grammar School, Nottingham, University of London BSc in Engineering in 1946 from University College. He received PhD from Imperial College in 1952 and a Doctor of Science (DSc) from Imperial College in 1975.

Cranfield University (Britain) : Professor and Head of the Department of Aircraft Propulsion and Chief Research Engineer at Rolls-Royce Limited, Derby. 1961–1976.

Purdue University (USA) 1976–1993 Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University and Reilly Professor of Combustion Engineering in 1980

After retiring, Lefebvre was concurrently made Emeritus Professor by Purdue and Cranfield Universities.

He co-authored over 160 archival publications, 13 patents and 3 books (Gas Turbine Combustion, Gas Turbine Combustor Design Problems, and Atomization and Sprays). His book Atomization and Sprays is a guide to a generation of researchers and engineers on the development and use of spray science and technology.

Lefebvre invented and introduced the concept of air-blast atomization, which transformed fuel injection in combustors.  He initiated some of the earliest research on atomization and spray structure.  As a founding member and regular participant at conferences of the Institute of Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems Americas (ILASS) he taught a generation of scientists.

Quotes
Tools are not a substitute for innovation, 2000

Recognition
ASME Gas Turbine Award (1984)

ASME R. Tom Sawyer Award (1984)

AIAA Propellants and Combustion Award (inaugural recipient in 1990)

Marshal Award from the Institute of Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, ILASS, (1993)

IGTI Scholar Award (1995)

IGTI Aircraft Engine Technology Award (1996)

ASME George Westinghouse Gold Medal (2002)

Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering in the U.K.

Personal life
He married Elizabeth Marcella Betts in 1952. They had two sons and one daughter.

References
 Gas Turbine Combustion 2nd edition 1998
 Atomization and Sprays 1988

External links
 Atomization and Sprays Journal
 Atomization and Sprays

1923 births
2003 deaths
Academics of Cranfield University
Alumni of the University of Nottingham
English mechanical engineers
Jet engine pioneers
People from Long Eaton
Purdue University faculty
British expatriates in the United States

Arthur H. Lefebvre


Alduin (Langobardic: Aldwin or Hildwin, ; also called Auduin or Audoin) was king of the Lombards from 547 to 560.

Life
Audoin was of the Gausi, a prominent Lombard ruling clan, and according to the Historia Langobardorum, the son of Menia, the Lombard wife of Basinus, king of the Thuringii. Audoin was half-brother to Hermanafrid (king of the Thuringii peoples) and Raicunda, the wife of the Lombard king Wacho.

According to the Decem Libri of Gregory of Tours, in 531, Hermanafrid was defeated at the Battle of Unstrut, and so Thuringia was annexed to the Frankish empire. Hermanafrid traveled under safe conduct to meet with Theuderic at Zülpich. While walking along the city walls with Theuderic, Hermanafrid was thrown from the ramparts to his death.

According to Procopius (History of the Wars V, 13), after Hermanafrid's death, his widow Amalaberga fled with her children, Amalafrid and Rodelinda, to her brother Theodahad who was at that time (534–536) King of the Ostrogoths. Around 539, during the Gothic War, they were captured by the Byzantine general Belisarius and sent to Constantinople. Justinian made Amalafrid a general and married off his sister Rodelinda to Audoin.

Around 540, Audoin was elected regent for Walthari, the minor son of King Wacho and his third wife Silinga. He led the Lombards to Pannonia, where they were settled by Justinian I and in 541 signed a treaty becoming fœderati of the Byzantines, entrusted with the task of securing the Danube border against the Franks. Audoin probably killed Waltari before he reached manhood, in order to gain the throne for himself around 546, and led the Lombards into Pannonia. After Walthari's death around 547, Audoin became king of the Lombards.

Beginning in 551, Audoin was obliged to send troops to serve Narses in Italy in the Gothic War against the Ostrogoths. The next year, he sent over 5,000 men to defeat the Goths on the slopes of Vesuvius. That same year Audoin had been able to inflict a heavy defeat on the Gepids with the help of his brother-in-law Amalafrid. The Gepid king Thurisind lost his eldest son, Turismod, in the Battle of Asfeld. Turismod was killed by Alboin, son of Audoin.

He died in 563 or 565 and was succeeded by his son, Alboin, who brought the Lombards into the Italian peninsula.

Notes

6th-century Lombard monarchs
Lombard warriors
Gausian dynasty
560s deaths

Year of birth unknown

Year of death uncertain

Audoin


Rivers State na one of di 36 state for Naija. Di governor of di state na Nyesom Wike.

River State
River state, also Rivers na one state for di Niger Delta region of Southern Nigeria. Na for 1967 dem form River State wen dem divide am from di eastern region, River state dey share border wit Imo and Abia States from dia north side, Akwa Ibom State from east, and Bayelsa and Delta states from di west. Port Harcourt na di state capital and na also di commercial center of  Nigeria oil industry.

With population of 5,198,716 according to di 2006 censors, River state na the 6th most populous state for Naija.

Territory
River state na home for many ethnic groups with igbo or igboid as the people wey many pass but dem also get other ethnic groups like ogoin and Ijaw.

River State as dem call am becos of di plenty river wey dey di area bin dey part of oil Rivers protectorates from 1885 to 1893 wey e come later be part of Niger Coast Protectorate. For 1900, dem join di region with chartered territories of Royal Niger Company wey form di colony of Southern Nigeria. For 1996 River State loose one territory wey come present day Bayelsa.

Geography
River State dey for di southern part of Nigeria, and also for di eastern part Niger Delta and e expand reach di oceanward extension of Benue Trough. Wetin oyinbo call tropical rainforest plenty inside di state and for di area. River State get 11,077km² (4,277sq mi) as e total area and day one make am di 26th largest state for Nigeria. States like Imo, Abia and Anambra surround am from di north side, Bayelsa and Delta follow from di west side why Akwa Ibom sef join from east side. Atlantic Ocean na im take the southern part.

limateEdit
Ogoni Climate activists and others in Port Harcourt protesting environmental degradation in 2015.

Rainfall is generally seasonal, variable, as well as heavy, and occurs between the months of March and October through November. The wet season peaks in July, lasting more than 290 days. The only dry months are January and February having little to no effect.

The inland part of the state consists of tropical rainforest, and towards the coast, the typical Niger Delta environment features many mangrove swamps. Rivers State has a total area of 11,077 km2 (4,277 sq mi), making it the 26th largest state in Nigeria. Surrounding states are Imo, Abia and Anambra to the north, Akwa Ibom to the east and Bayelsa, Delta to the west. On the south, it is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean. Its topography]ranges from flat plains, with a network of rivers to tributaries.

Rivers State


Allolactose is a disaccharide similar to lactose.  It consists of the monosaccharides D-galactose and D-glucose linked through a β1-6 glycosidic linkage instead of the β1-4 linkage of lactose.  It may arise from the occasional transglycosylation of lactose by β-galactosidase.

It is an inducer of the lac operon in Escherichia coli and many other enteric bacteria.  It binds to a subunit of the tetrameric lac repressor, which results in conformational changes and reduces the binding affinity of the lac repressor to the lac operator, thereby dissociating it from the  lac operator.  The absence of the repressor allows the transcription of the lac operon to proceed.  A non-hydrolyzable analog of allolactose, isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG), is normally used in molecular biology to induce the lac operon.

See also
 Inducer

 Lac repressor

External links

 Illustration of function

Disaccharides

Allolactose


FC Minyor () is a football club in Pernik, Bulgaria, that competes in the Southwest Third League, the third tier of Bulgarian football. Founded in 1919 as SC Krakra, the club's home ground since 1954 has been Stadion Minyor. The club's name comes from the fact that the area around the city of Pernik has had long traditions with mining and the mining industry.

The club's highest league finish in the top division is fourth, which was achieved in the 1955 and 1960–61 seasons. Minyor played in the Bulgarian Cup Final in 1958, finishing runners-up to Spartak Plovdiv.

Minyor have spent a total of 38 seasons in the top tier of Bulgarian football, most recently during the 2012–13 season.

History
The origins of the club date back to 1919. Minyor came into existence with the merger of several football clubs from Pernik. In 1944, SC Krakra (founded in 1919), SC Svetkavitsa (founded in 1932), SC Benkovski (founded in 1936), and ZHSK (founded in 1941) merged to form SC Rudnichar. Since SC Krakra is the oldest of the clubs, the year 1919 is generally considered to be founding date of Minyor. After World War II, as Bulgaria became a People's Republic, closely following the model for sports in the Soviet Union, the club was renamed to Republikanets '46. The club finally came to be known as Minyor in 1952, which reflected the mining history of the city of Pernik.

The club joined the Bulgarian top division in 1951. That same year, they laid the foundations of a strong team, which, until the 1961–62 season, was among the top teams in Bulgaria. The first match in the division was on March 2, 1951, against Cherveno Zname Sofia. Minyor's best seasons in the top division were in 1955 and 1961, finishing both times at fourth place.

In 1956, Minyor's forward and captain Pavel Vladimirov became the top scorer of the division with 16 goals. Vladimirov holds Minyor's overall appearance record - 305 matches. The former forward is also the all-time leading scorer for the club with 98 goals.

In 1958, the club qualified for the final of the Bulgarian Cup, where the team lost to Spartak Plovdiv. In 1962, Minyor was relegated to the second division. Between 1951 and 1994, the club participated in either the top or second divisions, regularly being promoted and relegated, but never falling below the second level. Until the 2008–09 season, Minyor has played a total of 32 seasons in the first division. Minyor's biggest victory in A PFG to date is the 6-0 win against Torpedo Pleven in 1951. Minyor's largest defeat, 0–8, was against Beroe Stara Zagora in 1973.

Minyor Pernik's latest spell in the top flight began in 2008. They managed to return to the elite rank by winning the 2007-08 promotion play-off, beating Kaliakra Kavarna after a penalty shootout. Their first season since returning to the elite was quite successful as they finished 11th, with 35 points, including an away draw to Levski Sofia, the eventual champions.

The next season, 2009-10, was better for the hammers, as they managed to finish in eight place, under the management of Anton Velkov. Minyor collected 45 points, and managed to beat CSKA 0-3 in Sofia, which was the latter's only defeat at home for the season.

For the 2010-11 season, Minyor hired Stoycho Stoev, who replaced Anton Velkov due to poor results in the beginning of the season. Minyor eventually finished the season in 9th place, with 36 points.

Minyor decided to extend Stoev's contract for the 2011-12 season. They had another relatively successful season, finishing in 9th place again, with 36 points. Highlights from the season included a home 2-0 win over CSKA Sofia and an away win against Levski Sofia, the two most decorated Bulgarian teams. Minyor also reached the quarterfinals of the Bulgarian cup for the 2011-12 season. They were, however, eliminated by Litex by a score of 2-0.

Stoycho Stoev left the club at the end of the season and was replaced by Nikolay Todorov. However, Minyor dropped their form and eventually finished 14th, meaning they were relegated after a 5-year stay in the top level.

The team was supposed to play in the 2013-14 B Group, however due to very big financial problems, the owners of the club decided to abolish the current club and, and restart from V AFG. The reformed team, which carried the identity and traditions of the old one, started playing in the third tier from the 2013-14 season. Minyor played there in the following six seasons.

Minyor finished first in the Southwest Third League for the 2019-20 season and promoted to the Second League for the first time in 12 years.

In November 2022, Minyor was left without a major financial backing, when the mayor of Pernik decided to stop his backing for the club. This was a result of a violent situation that occurred during a Bulgarian cup match between Minyor and Beroe Stara Zagora, when Minyor and Beroe fans clashed with each other on the stands of Stadion Minyor, resulting in property damage for Beroe fans after the match. Minyor lost that game 0-2.

On March 10, 2023, Minyor announced a complete overhaul of the board of directors, with the new goal of the club being promotion to the First League. Despite the change in ownership and new hopes that were set, Minyor had a turbulent 2022–23 season, culminating in relegation from the Second League. This ended the club's three year stay in the second level.

In October 2023, Minyor announced that Velizar Dimitrov, a former Minyor player, would become the new chairman of the club.

Honours

Bulgarian First League:
 Fourth place (2): 1955, 1960–61

Bulgarian Cup:
 Runner-up: 1958
 Semi-finalist: 2008–09

Players

For recent transfers, see Transfers summer 2022.

Notable players

League positions

Previous names
 Pernik - 1970–73
 Krakra - 1969–70
 Torpedo - 1948–52
 Republicanets '46 - 1946–48

League positions

Statistics and Records

Notes:
Bold signals active players
Correct as of 15 May 2008

Managers
 Anton Velkov (Jul 2009–Sep 2010)
 Stoycho Stoev (Sep 2010–Sep 2012)
 Nikolay Todorov (Sep 2012–Jul 2014)
 Valeri Damyanov (Jul 2014–Dec 2014)
 Hristo Yanev (Jan 2015–Jul 2015)
 Danail Bachkov (Jun 2017–Nov 2017)
 Nikolay Todorov (Dec 2017–Sep 2018)
 Georgi Stankov (Sep 2018–Nov 2018)
 Anton Evtimov (Nov 2018–Dec 2018)
 Yuriy Vasev (Dec 2018–Oct 2020)
 Hristo Yanev (Oct 2020–Sep 2022)
 Petar Anestiev (Sep 2022)
 Emil Serafimov (Sep 2022–Mar 2023)
 Krasimir Petrov (Mar 2023–present)

Supporters

Minyor's fans are known as the hammers or  the yellow-blacks. They are famous for their passion and for the violence they cause before, during and after the matches. They have a legendary hatred for Levski Sofia and the fans of both teams have had some big fights over the years, some of which have even involved rifles. Minyor's fans are also infamous for their general hatred for Sofia. Their only friends are considered to be Botev Plovdiv, also yellow-black. The Minyor's rivals call them "orcs" due to the mining heritage of the town.

References

External links

Minyor
Pernik
1919 establishments in Bulgaria
FC Minyor Pernik
Minyor Pernik
Association football clubs established in 1919

FC Minyor Pernik


Terrance Christopher, OMM, LVO, CD is a retired Canadian Naval Officer and former Usher of the Black Rod for the Senate of Canada, the most senior protocol office in Parliament.

Born in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Christopher graduated from St. Francis Xavier University and the Maritime School of Social Work before joining the Royal Canadian Navy rising to the rank of Lieutenant-Commander.  He served on , , CFB Borden and at NATO. His naval service is most notable for his work on expanding education and training services in the navy.  Retiring in 1994, he briefly entered the private sector before becoming head of the Canadian government's VIP reception services.

He became Usher of the Black Rod on December 9, 2002, and his term expired on March 8, 2008, after having been extended for three months to allow the government to find a new Usher.  Christopher had asked to be reappointed for a full term, but his request was denied by the government.

He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Military Merit in 1982. In 1994, he was made a Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order.

References

External links
Parliament of Canada

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Canadian civil servants
Lieutenants of the Royal Victorian Order
St. Francis Xavier University alumni
Royal Canadian Navy officers
Officers of the Order of Military Merit (Canada)

Terrance Christopher


Evan Reese Jager (born March 8, 1989) is an American distance runner. He won the silver medal in the 3000 metres steeplechase at the 2016 Rio Olympics and a bronze at the 2017 World Championships in Athletics. Jager is the current NACAC area record holder in the event with a time of 8:00.45, which makes him the 16th fastest performer in its history. He is sponsored by Nike and is coached by Jerry Schumacher in the Bowerman Track Club.

Running career

High school
Jager attended Harry D. Jacobs High School in Algonquin, Illinois, a suburb northwest of Chicago. His high school coach was named Kevin Christian, and was a D1 runner at Eastern Illinois University. In 2005, as a junior, he placed 9th at the Foot Locker Cross Country Championships in San Diego. In the same year, he lowered his personal best in the mile run to 4:08.15, winning the Midwest Distance Gala. In 2007, as a senior, he ran 8:47.59 in the 2 mile, placing 4th at the Nike Outdoor Nationals. At the same meet, he ran 4:05.68 in the mile, placing 3rd although he competed in the "B" heat.

During his high school career, he won three individual state championship titles and one relay title. In 2006, as a junior, he won the 1600 m with a time of 4:11.22 and was a part of the winning 4 × 800 m relay with a time of 7:40.02. In 2006, as a senior, he won the cross country state championships with a time of 14:07. In 2007, as a senior, he won the 3200 m with a time of 8:52:33. Jager used to run up a hill now known as "Jager Hill" in Algonquin. This infamous hill has been used for running by the Jacobs High School Cross Country team.

Collegiate
Jager attended the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he competed for the Wisconsin Badgers and was coached by Schumacher. He did not compete as a freshman at the 2007 NCAA Championships for Cross Country, and was NCAA Division 1 All-American in the DMR at 2008 Indoor Track, but in 2008, Jager placed 8th in the 1500 metres at the 2008 NCAA Outdoor Track Championships.

In the summer after his freshman year, Jager qualified to represent the United States in the 2008 IAAF World Junior Track and Field Championships by winning the 1500 m in 3:47.43 at 2008 USA Junior Outdoor Track & Field Championships June 20–22, 2008 in Jesse Owens Memorial Stadium at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. He made the finals of the 1500 metres and placed 8th with 3:49.59.

That fall, Jager signed a professional contract with Nike, forfeiting his remaining NCAA eligibility. He left the University of Wisconsin and moved to Portland to continue training with Schumacher, who had been hired by Nike to be a full-time coach to professional Nike-sponsored runners. Jager enrolled in Portland State University to continue his studies.

Professional

Early career
Jager competed at his first USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships in the 5000 m, where he took the lead with 200 m to go before placing third behind his teammates Matt Tegenkamp and Chris Solinsky. By placing third, Jager earned the opportunity to represent the United States at the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Berlin. At the World Championships, Jager placed 11th in his heat of the 5000 m and did not advance to the final.

Much of Jager's first professional season was documented in the Runner's World web series "Wisconsin to Worlds," which followed the teammates' historic sweep at the USATF Championships and their European season as they prepared for the 2009 IAAF World Championships.

In early 2010, Jager experienced pain in his foot during training runs.  After taking some time off, he returned to competition, but the pain persisted and culminated in a stress fracture that he received in the 1500 m final at the USATF Championships on June 25.  On July 28, 2010 he had surgery to repair a fracture in the Navicular bone of his foot.

Recuperation from his surgery took time, with pool and bike workouts substituting for running.  He did not do any serious running workouts until March 2011, with the remainder of that track season being an essential, gradual return to high level training rather than a season of competitive racing.

2012
In the spring of 2012, guided by coach Jerry Schumacher and former U.S. steeplechase champion Pascal Dobert, Jager switched to the 3000 m steeplechase.  He made his debut at the Mt. SAC Relays in April 2012.  He won that race in 8:26.14, a stunning time for a neophyte and close to the 8:23.1 Olympic A standard necessary for participation in the London Games. During this race, he also beat America's best steeplechaser at the time, Daniel Huling, now one of his training partners. Jager followed through on this auspicious performance by comfortably winning the 2012 U.S. Olympic Team Trials 3000 m steeplechase in 8:17.40.

On July 20, 2012, Jager broke the American record in the 3000 m steeplechase, running 8:06.81. On August 5, Jager competed in the Olympics, finishing 6th in the final. After the Olympics, on August 17, Jager ran a new personal best of 7:35 in the 3000 m at the Stockholm Diamond League meet, finishing 5th.

2013
Jager kicked off the 2013 indoor season at the Millrose Games two-mile, where he finished fourth in 8:14.95 to winner Bernard Lagat, who set the American record in that race. This made Jager the fourth fastest American indoor two-miler of all time. He was fifth in the New York Columbia Qualifier 5000 m, where he finished in a time of 13:33.37. Later on in the season he finished 2nd in the indoor mile at the Seattle Husky Classic in 3:56.14, where he got nipped at the line by his teammate, Andrew Bumbalough.

Jager raced sparingly during the outdoor season before the U.S. Championships. He ran 13:14.60 which was good for 2nd to Saucony's Ben True at the Payton Jordan Cardinal Invitational. He also placed second in the Oxy HP 1500 m in 3:36.34. At the Prefontaine Classic he placed 4th in a time of 8:08.6, only two seconds off his American record. He followed up these personal record performances with an easy win at the USATF Outdoor Championships 3000 m steeplechase, where he finished in 8:20.67, giving him the opportunity to represent the USA at the IAAF World Championships in Moscow for the second time, and also winning him his second consecutive 3000 m steeplechase national title. During his European outdoor season, he ran a 3k in Luzern which was his only race between USAs and Worlds. Jager went into Worlds wanting to improve on his 6th place in the London Olympics. He won his qualifying round of the Steeplechase in Moscow in what seemed to be an easy effort. He went on to place fifth in the final, getting out-leaned by Kenya's Paul Koech. Although he only improved one place from the 2012 Olympics, he put himself in the race and was there with 400 meters to go, with the gap to 6th place being about 3 to 4 seconds. To round out his 2013 season, he raced the 5000 m at the Brussels Diamond League Meet, lowering his personal best by 12 seconds, to 13:02.40.

2014
To kick off the 2014 outdoor season at the Prefontaine Classic, Jager ran a personal best of 3:53.33 to place him 3rd in the Men's International Mile. Only a few weeks later in Oslo, Jager was less than 2 tenths of a second off of breaking his own American 3000 m steeplechase record of 8:06.8 by running an 8:06.97. On June 29, 2014 Evan Jager won the USA 3,000 Meters Steeplechase Title by running 8:19.83.

2015
On June 27, Jager won the steeplechase at the 2015 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships in 95 degree temperature in Eugene, Oregon. On July 4, Evan lowered the American Record in the steeplechase to 8:00.45 in 2015 Paris Meeting Areva Diamond League, despite falling over the final barrier.

Jager placed 6th in 2015 World Championships in Athletics – Men's 3000 metres steeplechase.

2016
Jager won steeplechase in a time of 8:22.48 at the 2016 United States Olympic Trials ahead of teammates Hillary Bor and Donn Cabral to qualify for the 2016 Summer Olympics.

On August 17 Jager won the silver medal at the 2016 Olympics behind Conseslus Kipruto of Kenya with a time of 8:04.28.

2017
At the 2017 World Championships in London on August 8, 2017, Evan placed 3rd in the 3000 m Steeplechase in a time of 8:15.53. The race started out slow for the first kilometer in 2:51.81, then soon after Jager took the lead and held on to it, until 300 m remaining where he was passed, first by Conseslus Kipruto (1st) and then Soufiane El Bakkali (2nd). Jager managed to hold on for third with Mahiedine Mekhissi-Benabbad close behind

2022
Jager suffered a stress fracture in 2018, and was unsure whether he would ever return to elite competition. But after several years, Jager returned to international competition, and placed 6th in steeplechase at the 2022 World Athletics Championships held in Eugene, Oregon.

Competition record

International competitions

USA National Championships

References

External links

1989 births
Living people
American male middle-distance runners
American male steeplechase runners
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Track and field athletes from Portland, Oregon
People from Algonquin, Illinois
Portland State University alumni
Wisconsin Badgers men's track and field athletes
World Athletics Championships athletes for the United States
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in track and field
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
World Athletics Championships medalists
Track and field athletes from Illinois
Olympic male steeplechase runners
USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships winners
21st-century American people

Evan Jager


Vincent Martin Battle (born 1940) was the United States ambassador to Lebanon from August 13, 2001 to August 16, 2004. The Teaneck, New Jersey, native received his bachelor's degree from Georgetown University and his master's degree (1967) and Ph.D. from Columbia University (1974).

Battle joined the Foreign Service in 1977. Prior to entering the Foreign Service, Battle worked in Uganda for 10 years, as well as in Pakistan and Libya. After completing entry training, he began his career as a consular officer in Manama, Bahrain, serving there from 1977 to 1979. He continued with the Bureau of Near East Affairs, serving as a consular officer in Damascus, Syria from 1980 to 1983 and as a political officer in Muscat, Oman from 1983 to 1985. He speaks Arabic.

From 1985 to 1988, Battle was head of the Immigrant Visa section in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. From 1987 to 1989, he had his first stint as a career development assignments (CDA) officer for consular officers.

In 1989, he returned to the Middle East as head of the Consular Section in Cairo from 1989 to 1991 and as deputy chief of mission in Beirut, from 1991 to 1994. Returning to Washington, D.C., in 1994, he became the chief of the Senior Level Division in CDA.

Well-versed in Middle Eastern Affairs, he was asked to rejoin the embassy in Cairo as deputy chief of mission, where he served from 1996 to 1999. In September 1999, he became the director of the Office for Career Development and Assignments, in the newly named Bureau of Human Resources.

References

External links
US Department of State Biography
U.S. Embassy in Beirut

Living people
Ambassadors of the United States to Lebanon
Columbia University alumni
Georgetown University alumni
People from Teaneck, New Jersey
1940 births
United States Foreign Service personnel
American expatriates in Uganda
American expatriates in Libya
American expatriates in Pakistan
American expatriates in Syria
American expatriates in Oman
American expatriates in Haiti
American expatriates in Bahrain
20th-century American diplomats
21st-century American diplomats
Xavier High School (New York City) alumni

Vincent M. Battle


Erica Garner-Snipes (May 29, 1990 – December 30, 2017) was an American activist who advocated for police reform, particularly in the use of force during arrests. Garner became involved in activism following the 2014 murder of her father, Eric Garner, after a New York City police officer placed him in a lethal chokehold during an arrest.

Early life
Erica Garner, born on May 29, 1990, at Woodhull Hospital, was the daughter of Esaw Garner Snipes and Eric Garner, and grew up in Brooklyn, New York. She was the oldest of four children born to Eric and Esaw. Esaw had two older children from a previous relationship. As Eric's asthma and other health problems made it difficult for him to work, he played a large role at home in raising the children. When Garner was fourteen, her turbulent relationship with her mother deteriorated to the point that Esaw voluntarily placed her into foster care. Garner was placed with the Goode family in Far Rockaway, Queens. The family offered to adopt Garner; the adoption fell through, but Garner stayed with the family and they maintained a close relationship even after she became an adult.

Activism
Garner became involved in activism in 2014 after her father died during the NYPD's attempt to arrest him for allegedly selling untaxed cigarettes, and she remained a critic of the NYPD up to her death. Beginning a month after his death and for the following year, Garner led twice-weekly marches visiting the scene of her father's death, visits which the media labeled a "die-in". She also marched in Black Lives Matter demonstrations and other protest events, and set up a foundation in her father's name. The aim of the foundation, named the Garner Way Foundation, is to "engage communities all over the world in social justice issues through political awareness, music, arts and activism." In addition, Garner campaigned to have the transcripts of the grand jury into her father's death made public.

Garner stated that she believed her father's death had more to do with police misconduct than race, and in 2017, she rejected a meeting with the United States Justice Department to discuss the circumstances surrounding her father's death. During the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries, Garner supported Bernie Sanders, and appeared in an advertisement for him as well as on the campaign trail.

Personal life and death
Garner had two children. Shortly after the birth of her son Eric, named after her father, in August 2017, she suffered a heart attack. Doctors subsequently found that her heart was enlarged. On December 23, 2017, she suffered a second heart attack, after which she fell into a coma. She was left with "major brain damage", leading to her death on December 30, 2017. She died at Woodhull Hospital in Brooklyn surrounded by her family and foster family.

On the news of her death, New York Mayor Bill de Blasio said the city would "miss her unshakable sense of justice and passion for humanity", despite the fact that Garner had been a frequent critic of de Blasio during her lifetime. The New York Civil Liberties Union issued a statement saying that Garner "showed incredible courage and remarkable resolve" and "bravely transformed her unspeakable personal pain in[to] political power as she became a leader in the fight for police reform". The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) also issued a statement acknowledging her leadership and strength. Fellow activist DeRay Mckesson said, "Erica took the truth with her everywhere she went, even if that truth made people uncomfortable". Tweets were subsequently posted from Garner's official Twitter account demanding that de Blasio "explain how she died with no justice" and requesting that "out of respect to Erica please do not request comment if the journalist is not Black". These tweets were later found to have been posted by Garner's publicist.

References

External links

1990 births
2017 deaths
African-American activists
21st-century American women
Bernie Sanders 2016 presidential campaign
Black Lives Matter people
Criticism of police brutality
Activists from Brooklyn
People from Far Rockaway, Queens
Shorty Award winners
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American people
21st-century American people

Erica Garner


TV 100 is the first non-state TV station in Greece. It belongs to the Municipality of Thessaloniki, founded in 1988 by the then mayor of the city Sotiris Kouvelas, who served as mayor until 1989 and a year later, he founded TV station with national coverage in Athens, the New Channel and later Tempo TV. These two channels have worked together for some time exchanging programs and news bulletins.

Simultaneously with the launch of the TV 100, the Municipality of Thessaloniki, aired for the first time in northern Greece several foreign satellite channels to alternative in the way we watched public television at the time, activity later followed the state broadcasting organization across the country. H range in the terrestrial transmission is limited only in the region of Macedonia but transmits digitally in Central Macedonia, but spread nationwide through the platform of Cosmote TV either through satellite or cable or IPTV with Conn-X.

External links

 Greek-language television stations
 Television channels and stations established in 1988
 Television channels in Greece
 Radio in Greece
Mass media in Thessaloniki

TV 100


Fürth Hardhöhe station is a Nuremberg U-Bahn station located on line U1 in Fürth, and was opened on 8 December 2007. This station is the western terminus of line U1. Counting Stadtgrenze station which straddles the municipal boundary and is indeed named after it, it is the seventh station in Fürth to open. As of 2022 U1 is the only line to reach beyond the boundaries of Nuremberg, but 20 of its 27 stations are entirely inside Nuremberg. The remaining 22 stations served by U2 and/or U3 are all in Nuremberg, too.

History
The site of the current station was used as an airfield by a local aviation related company during World War II when settlement for the most part hadn't yet reached the area. As the former airport at Nuremberg-Marienberg (opened 1933) had been destroyed in the war and the old Fürth airfield had been taken over by the American military, this so-called "Industrieflughafen" ("industrial airport") served as the primary civilian airport of the Nuremberg area from 1950 until the current airport could be opened in 1955. A small plaque in the U-Bahn station access tunnels commemorates this history. The area first saw major residential construction in the period 1935-1938 which also explains some of the roads named after places in East Prussia or Silesia by the Nazi regime. After the war, the airport was an impediment to further development in the area and as soon as the new airport opened, longstanding plans to alleviate the housing shortage were put into practice in the latter 1950s to build housing in the new "Hardhöhe" neighborhood (while the name dates to medieval times, previously the housing in the area was sometimes referred to with terms harkening to the airfield). There were plans to extend the Nürnberg Fürther Straßenbahn to the area via Hardstraße and Soldnerstraße (the street layout even includes space for a - never built - balloon loop to this day) but those never came to fruition before the construction of the new subway necessitated the end of all tram service in and through Fürth in 1981. As the subway kept expanding further westward, it was instead decided to connect the neighborhood to the subway instead and the new station opened in December 2007.

Future plans
There were at various times plans for an extension to a newly built stop tentatively called "Kieselbühl", which however were called "shelved" by local media as early as 2008 and appear unlikely to come to fruition in the foreseeable future as of 2021. If the terminus does indeed prove to be permanent, U-Bahn construction in and through Fürth would've come to an end some 25 years after the opening of the first line to cross the municipal boundary opened in 1982.

References

Nuremberg U-Bahn stations
Railway stations in Germany opened in 2007
2007 establishments in Germany

Fürth Hardhöhe station


Ronnie Stringwell is a former amateur cyclist who won the British National Hill Climb Championships at the age of 22 in 1950, and retained the title in 1951. A member of Bramley Wheelers Cycling Club in Leeds, his career was short-lived. He damaged an ankle in an accident when leading in a race on Winnats Pass in November 1951 which ultimately resulted in his early retirement.

Ronnie Stringwell was 22 when he won the National Hill Climb Championship in 1950 on Barbers Hill, Llangollen, North Wales, beating the previous years champion Bob Maitland into second place.

 1st - R. Stringwell Bramley Wheelers CC - 4 mins 33 2/5secs
 2nd - B. Maitland Concorde RCC - 4 mins 35 1/5secs
 3rd - B. Robinson Huddersfield RC - 4 mins 39 secs

In 1951 he repeated his success by winning again at Saintbury Hill in Gloucestershire; he was the only rider other than Ken Joy to retain a championship title won in 1950.

There can be no doubt that he proved himself worthy of this honour with a performance that not only dwarfed his competitors but once again demonstrated the qualities of a true champion. The first climb of note on the day was Peter Proctor whose time stood as fastest for a long while until Brian Robinson rode up in a record time 13 seconds faster than Proctor. No one thought this could be bettered, particularly when the times of riders the calibre of Maitland, Pentecost and Haskell were considered, but the measure of Stringwell's victory lies in the 4 and 1/5th seconds by which he beat Robinson with Proctor relegated to third place.

 1st - R. Stringwell Bramley Wheelers CC - 6 mins 26 secs
 2nd - B. Robinson Huddersfield RC - 6 mins 30 1/5 secs
 3rd - P. Proctor Western Command CC - 6 mins 43 2/5 secs

Ronnie was member of the winning Bramley Wheelers team in 1953 and the club went on to win the event every year from 1953 to 1959.

 1953 - 1st: R Stringwell, 2nd: R Franklin, 3rd: F E Buckley
 1954 - 1st: R Franklin, 2nd: E Harrison, 3rd: F E Buckley
 1955 - 1st: V Caswell, 2nd: F E Buckley, 3rd: R Franklin
 1956 - 1st: V Caswell, 2nd: F E Buckley, 3rd: R Franklin
 1957 - 1st: N A Smith, 2nd: F E Buckley, 3rd: E Harrison
 1958 - 1st: N A Smith, 2nd: F E Buckley, 3rd: R Franklin
 1959 - 1st: N A Smith, 2nd: V F Caswell, 3rd: R Franklin

References

Sportspeople from Leeds
Living people
People from Bramley, Leeds
English male cyclists
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ronnie Stringwell


The Florida SpringFest is a three-day annual showcase in popular music acts, both local and national, in downtown Pensacola, Florida. The Florida SpringFest is traditionally held anywhere from mid-May until early June.

The event has been running nearly every year since 1990 (except 2020), when Pensacola businessman Bill Dollarhide funded much of the expense out of his own pocket so up-and-coming local acts could reach a wider audience. In turn, part of the revenues were given to the Alzheimer's Foundation, to which Dollarhide donated regularly.

In the years since, Dollarhide turned the management over to a board of directors and full-time staff. Under the direction of Michelle Sarra and Geoff Fairchild, the event grew to sell-out crowds as they decided to incorporate bigger names to bring more crowds. Popular national and international acts, such as ( Rock and Roll Legends American Suicide ) Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry, Los Lobos, Widespread Panic, Gov't Mule, North Mississippi Allstars, Galactic, George Clinton & Parliament Funk, Drive-By Truckers, The Black Crowes, Chingy, Brother Cane, Foreigner, Kansas, Better Than Ezra, Jethro Tull, BBMak, Willie Nelson, O-Town, The B-52's,Chevelle , John Michael Montgomery, Creed, Collective Soul, Three Doors Down, The Doobie Brothers, Bruce Hornsby, Lonestar, Smashmouth, Patti LaBelle, Little Feat, Hank Williams, Jr., Train, Hootie & the Blowfish, Live, Blues Traveler, Papa Roach, Sugar Ray, Lit, Morris Day and the Time, Run D.M.C., Eddie Money, Neville Brothers, The Allman Brothers Band and Everclear have played for fans at SpringFest.

The novelty of SpringFest is its setting right in the heart of downtown. For all three days, multiple blocks are cordoned off to cars, and large stages are set up on street corners. Multiple acts play at any given time throughout the day, with the best-known acts saved for evening performances. The anticipation for SpringFest is large in the community, with the Pensacola News Journal dedicating an entire issue of their Weekender lifestyles magazine to the event.

Although the event has more or less stayed true to its roots, the sponsors of Florida SpringFest have incorporated new ideas and locales, which were not successful. In 2004, Michelle Sarra and Geoff Fairchild left to pursue other entertainment opportunities, management of SpringFest was turned over to a management company and the event was held inside the Pensacola Civic Center as opposed to the normal outside setting. The number of bands playing at the same time in an enclosed area proved to be hard for listeners to decipher, and the experiment was regarded as a failure. In 2005, SpringFest returned to the streets of downtown. However, the sponsors could not recoup their losses from 2004 and make new profits for that year, and canceled the scheduled SpringFest for 2006. The 2007 SpringFest was also cancelled for many of the same reasons, including sponsorship issues.

SpringFest announced they would not be coming back in 2008, but would try for 2009. Unfortunately it they have yet to return to the streets of Pensacola. Instead in 2010 DeLuna Fest came to the beaches of Pensacola and has run 2 very successful years and is planning on returning in 2012.

No SpringFest was held in 2020.

External links

References

Rock festivals in the United States
Festivals in Florida
Tourist attractions in Pensacola, Florida
Blues festivals in the United States
Country music festivals in the United States
1990 establishments in Florida
Recurring events established in 1990

The Florida SpringFest


Magdalenenberg is the name of a tumulus grave which dates from the Iron Age. It lies at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, in Germany. The nobleman who is buried there was part of the Hallstatt culture. With a volume of 33.000 cubic metres it is the biggest grave from that time in Central Europe.

In his first-hand account of the Gallic Wars (Commentarii de Bello Gallico), Julius Caesar observes that the Gallic people have a moon- based calendar, and that the big event for them was what astronomers now call the Lunar Standstill, which occurs every 18.6 years. Lunar Standstills are marked in several ancient cultures (including sites in Colorado and Ohio), usually by standing stones that indicate the point where the moon seems to rise and set in the same place, instead of rising in one place and appearing to move across the sky to set in another. Now a German scholar, Dr Allard Mees, a researcher at the Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum in Mainz, has discovered evidence to back Caesar's observation: a huge royal tomb that functions as a lunar calendar and that preserves a map of the sky at Midsummer 618 BC, the presumed date of the burial.

Dr Mees said that Magdalenenberg was 'the earliest and most complete example of a Celtic calendar focused on the moon', and that following Caesar's conquest of Gaul, 'Gallic culture was destroyed and these types of calendar were completely forgotten in Europe, to be replaced by the Roman sun-based calendar'.
Buildings and structures in Baden-Württemberg
7th-century BC works
1st millennium BC buildings and structures

Magdalenenberg


Lucky Boys Confusion is an American rock band from the western suburbs of Chicago, Illinois, United States. Hailing from DuPage County, the band's music is a mix of rock, punk, ska and hip hop. The band consists of vocalist Kaustubh "Stubhy" Pandav, guitarist/vocalist Adam Krier, bassist Jason Schultejann, and drummer Ryan Fergus. Guitarist and founding member Joe Sell (October 16, 1978 – May 15, 2012) was a member of the band until his death. Pandav and Krier write the majority of the band's songs.

History

Beginnings as an independent band
Lucky Boys Confusion formed in 1997 shortly after the breakups of Pandav and Fergus's band, Farmboy, and Krier and Sell's band, Spinning Jenny. After recruiting Schultejann on bass, the group quickly released an EP, What Gets Me High. In late 1998 they released their name first full-length album, Growing Out of It, under their own label, Townstyle Records. The album contained the song "Dumb Pop Song", which had gained airplay on Chicago alternative rock station Q101. In 2000, the band released The Soapbox Spectacle, featuring a new version of "Fred Astaire", and five new songs. During this time, the band recorded a video for "Dumb Pop Song".

Elektra Records, mainstream success
In 2000, the band signed a major-label deal with Elektra Records. They headed to California in the fall of that year to begin recording the album Throwing the Game, which was released on May 8, 2001. It featured new versions of songs from their first two releases and several new songs, including a cover of Jocelyn Enriquez's "Do You Miss Me?". The band also released a video for the song "Bossman" featuring Beenie Man. In 2008, "Bossman" was featured in a commercial for the gum Extra.

Their second effort for Elektra Records, Commitment, proved to be their most popular record. Michael Miguel Happoldt produced the album, which contained fifteen new songs that shifted from ska or hip hop influences to pop rock influences. The band recorded a video for "Hey Driver", and the song was featured in the movies Looney Tunes: Back in Action, Without a Paddle, and New York Minute, and the video game MVP Baseball 2004.

Hiatus
In 2004, the band was dropped by Elektra Records. After mockingly referring to the company as "Neglektra", the band members were happy to have a fresh start. In August 2005, the band independently released The Red Tape Outtakes (Demos And Heartbreaks), a 12-song collection of unreleased tracks and outtakes.

The band released How to Get Out Alive on June 13, 2006. It contained four new songs and a cover of Dramarama's "Anything, Anything".

On September 20, 2006, the band announced via its Myspace page that they were going on hiatus and quelled rumors of a breakup in a message the following day that it was only a "short break" and that fans shouldn't worry. At their final show before the hiatus in Iowa City, Iowa, the band assured concertgoers that their annual 'Songs from a Scene' concerts would go on in December at the Metro in Chicago after they returned to a sense of "normality" over the next few months.

On December 29, 2006, at Songs from a Scene, the band released Live and Acoustic (Recorded at the Beat Kitchen). It is the band's first live album.

Side projects
In late 2006, Pandav, along with Chicago DJ's JJ Flores and Steve Smooth, recorded an EP under the name Shock Stars. The album was released on March 6, 2007, in CD and digital formats. Shock Stars played their first live show at Double Door. Shock Stars broke up in 2009.

In May 2007, Krier, Schultejann, and drummer Chris Smith of 15 Minutes Late and Logan Square, formed a side project, American Taxi. Their first single, "The Mistake", was released on Memorial Day 2007 on their Myspace page. American Taxi has since released an EP entitled Runaway Songs, containing "The Mistake" and five other tracks.

In April 2009, American Taxi was signed to Virgin Records and changed its name to AM Taxi to differentiate from bluegrass group Great American Taxi.

In June 2009, Pandav recorded vocals for local Chicago rappers Saurus and Bones on the song "What's It Gonna Take?" from their debut album Mind Like Mine.

In the summer of 2010, Pandav formed a band, The Super Happy Fun Club, with Pat Gilroy, Jeremy Galanes, and Chris Mason of Close Enough, Onelife, and The Waiting Game, Brad Chagdes of 15 Minutes Late and Logan Square, and Phil Kosch of Treaty of Paris. Their first EP, Go Fun Yourself, was released June 2011.

Closing Arguments
In December 2008 at Songs from a Scene, Lucky Boys Confusion announced that they would be releasing a new album in 2009. The new album, Closing Arguments, contains old demos and rare songs as well as a new song, "This Town Ain't Big Enough for Both of Us". It was released without advance promotion to digital retailers. Closing Arguments was released physically on June 23, 2009.

End of Songs from a Scene
On December 26, 2009, Pandav announced that the Songs from a Scene would end with the 2010 performances.

Death of Joe Sell
Sell was found dead in Chicago on May 15, 2012, at 33.

Current work
The band plays shows in and around Chicago. In April 2016, Pandav, Krier, and Schultejann confirmed that a new album was in the works. The band's Twitter confirmed in early December that the album would be released in the Spring of 2017, and on January 1, 2017, announced that the album would be named STORMCHASERS.  On January 23, the band announced that Stormchasers would be released on April 11, 2017.  Pandav sang backup vocals on a cover by Chicago rock band OUTDrejas of Dayman from It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, which was released on February 1, 2019.

Discography
 What Gets Me High EP (1997?)
 Growing Out of It (1998, Townstyle Records)
 The Soapbox Spectacle EP (2000, Townstyle Records)
 Throwing the Game (2001, Elektra Records)
 LBC Geeks (2002, Townstyle Records)
 Commitment (2003, Elektra Records)
 The Red Tape Outtakes (Demos And Heartbreaks) (2005, Townstyle Records)
 How to Get Out Alive EP (2006, Townstyle Records)
 Live and Acoustic (Recorded at the Beat Kitchen) (2007, Townstyle Records)
 Closing Arguments (2009, Townstyle Records)
 STORMCHASERS (2017, Townstyle Records)

References

External links
 Lucky Boys Confusion on Facebook
 The Super Happy Fun Club site

Musical groups from Chicago
Pop punk groups from Illinois
Musical groups established in 1997

Lucky Boys Confusion


The Church of St Aldhelm and St Eadburgha in Broadway, Somerset, England dates from the 13th century, and has been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building.

The dedication is unusual. St Aldhelm (c. 639-25 May 709), was Abbot of Malmesbury Abbey, Bishop of Sherborne, Latin poet and Anglo-Saxon literature scholar, was born before the middle of the 7th century.

According to the Historic England website, the other dedication is to St. Eadburh of Winchester, granddaughter of King Alfred. Most other churches dedicated to her are in the vicinity of Pershore Abbey, Worcestershire, where some of her remains were transferred after her death: a cult grew up around her veneration. The second dedication to St Eadburgha may be relatively modern: A Topographical Dictionary of England (1848) lists it as being dedicated to St. Aldelme (sic) only.

Old English and Medieval spellings are found in various forms, and St. Eadburgha is probably not to be confused with Edburga of Bicester, an English saint from the 7th century and a daughter of King Penda of Mercia. There are thought to be only two churches dedicated to her, in Bicester and Stratton Audley, both in Oxfordshire.

The church's isolated position away from the village is thought to be because of an outbreak of the plague.

The churchyard cross is also from the 13th century.

The church also still houses the original wooden bier used at funerals over a century ago.

See also
 List of Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset
 List of towers in Somerset
 List of ecclesiastical parishes in the Diocese of Bath and Wells

References

External links

13th-century church buildings in England
Church of England church buildings in South Somerset
Grade I listed churches in Somerset
Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset

Church of St Aldhelm and St Eadburgha, Broadway


Ole Jørgensen (13 November 1897 – 5 July 1966) was a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party.  He was born in Vennesla in Vest-Agder county, Norway.

Career
His first position in local politics was as a member of the Øvrebø municipal council in 1924–1925. He gradually became mayor of Vennesla municipality during the terms 1945–1947, 1947–1951 and 1951–1955, and his last term came as a regular member in 1955–1959.

He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Vest-Agder in 1954, and was re-elected on two occasions as well as in the 1962 revote. He had previously served in the position of deputy representative in the period 1950–1953.

References

1897 births
1966 deaths
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Members of the Storting
20th-century Norwegian politicians
Place of death missing
People from Vennesla

Ole Jørgensen


Amy Gaston Charles Auguste Bonet-Maury (2 January 1842, Paris – 20 June 1919, Paris) was a French Protestant historian.

He studied at the University of Strasbourg, graduating 1867, then was a Protestant pastor at Dordrecht, 1869–1872; followed by Beauvais, 1872–1876, and Saint-Denis, 1877. He then became lecturer, then professor of church history at the newly opened Protestant Faculty of Theology in Paris in the buildings of the Collège Rollin.

He was fluent in English and maintained cordial links with the British & Foreign Unitarian Association, who on publication of his Des origines du christianisme unitaire chez les Anglais in 1881 commissioned an English translation. In 1893, Bonet-Maury spoke at the World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago delivering the lecture, The Leading Powers Shaping Religious Thought in France. In June 1901, he received an honorary doctorate of Divinity from the University of Glasgow.

Works

Histoire de la liberté de conscience en France, depuis l'Édit de Nantes jusqu'à Juillet, 1870.
Des origines du christianisme unitaire chez les Anglais, 1881.
Early sources of English Unitarian Christianity, by Gaston Bonet-Maury. Revised by the author and translated by Edward Potter Hall. With a preface by James Martineau. London, British & Foreign Unitarian Association, 1884.
De l'unité morale des grands religions de la terre, 1894.
Le Congrès des religions à Chicago en 1893, 1895.

References

External links

1842 births
1919 deaths
French Protestants
19th-century French historians
French male non-fiction writers
Academic staff of the Protestant Faculty of Theology in Paris

Gaston Bonet-Maury


In marketing and microeconomics, customer switching or consumer switching describes "customers/consumers abandoning a product or service in favor of a competitor". Assuming constant price, product or service quality, counteracting this behaviour in order to achieve maximal customer retention is the business of marketing, public relations and advertising. Brand switching—as opposed to brand loyalty is the outcome of customer switching behaviour.

Reasons
Variability in quality or market price fluctuations—especially a rise in prices—may lead customers to consult price comparison services, where alternative suppliers may be offered. Declining customer satisfaction may be due to poor service quality but also—to a lesser degree—be a symptom of boredom with the brand of choice. Brand loyalty can be very strong, however, and the longer a commitment to a brand lasts, the stronger the ties will usually be.

According to 2013 Nielsen study on customer loyalty, brand switching can happen for 5 main reasons, but mainly based on price considerations. The overall global averages are:
 Better Price (41%)
 Better Quality (26%)
 Better Service Agreement (15%)
 Better Selection (10%)
 Better Features (8%)

Because of the dominant role of pricing, market tactics like penetration pricing have evolved to offer a convincing incentive for switching. Along with these are the factors like service inconvenience, poor location, ethical issues like hard selling or unsafe products and also change in customers' income levels.  Another approach is the advertisement for vaporware that seemingly will offer newer or better features than established products without actually possessing any innovation.

Affected sectors
Switching is a significant business factor affecting revenues for companies providing continuously delivered services, as is the case for the energy market as opposed to sectors providing products that stimulate non- or sparsely recurring purchase because of the durability of the product or a general orientation towards casual customers. Energy customer switching is a significant risk or success factor for energy suppliers.

Serial switching
The term serial switcher was first coined by Charles Turner and David Alexander in their Customer relationship management course and then their CRM Pocketbook. It describes a person, who continually moves his/her patronage from one company to another and highlights the ignorance of many organizations, including credit card companies, who strive for customer acquisition regardless of retention rates.

By offering a range of financial incentives, such as free balance transfers or interest free periods, a company may hope to attract new customers. This is superficially attractive to companies if it meets acquisition and competitive switching targets.  In practice, however, a serial switcher will not contribute any profit if he/she does not stay long enough to provide a return on investments.  The lesson is that lack of integration and analysis across the business allows bad decisions to be made.

See also
 Boycott
 Consumerism
 Customer experience
 Energy customer switching
 Push–pull strategy
Vendor lock-in

References

Brand management
Brands
Branding terminology
Business terms
Switching
Product management

Customer switching


Richard Wilson Riley (born January 2, 1933) is an American politician, the United States Secretary of Education under President Bill Clinton and the 111th governor of South Carolina. He is a member of the Democratic Party. Riley is the only Democrat to serve two consecutive terms as governor in the time since the state constitution was amended to allow governors to serve consecutive terms.

Early life and career
Richard Riley was born on January 2, 1933, in Greenville, South Carolina, to Edward P. "Ted" Riley and the former Martha (née Dixon) Riley. He graduated cum laude from Furman University, where he was a member of the South Carolina Phi Chapter of Sigma Alpha Epsilon, in 1954 and received his law degree from the University of South Carolina.

Riley served in the South Carolina House of Representatives from 1963 to 1966. He served in the South Carolina Senate from 1967 to 1977.

Governor of South Carolina, 1979–1987

Riley was elected governor of South Carolina in 1978. During his first term, the state constitution was amended to allow governors to serve two terms. Riley was re-elected in 1982, 69-31 percent, over the Republican former journalist W. D. Workman, Jr., of Greenville, and served until 1987.

As governor, Riley presided over the resumption of executions, despite his personal opposition to the death penalty.

As Governor of South Carolina, he initiated the Education Improvement Act, which a Rand Corp. study at the time called "the most comprehensive educational reform measure in the U.S." He also initiated landmark legislation such as the Medically Indigent Assistance Act, the first statewide program of its kind in the nation; the Employment Revitalization Act aimed at coordinating occupational training statewide; and the Omnibus Crime Bill.

Post-gubernatorial career

In 1993, President Bill Clinton approached Riley about an appointment to the United States Supreme Court, which Riley turned down. Clinton ultimately appointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg. That same year, President Clinton appointed Riley to his Cabinet as Secretary of Education. From 1997 to 2000, Riley worked with senior adviser Carol Rasco, the director of Clinton's childhood literacy initiative, the America Reads Challenge, to design and implement the program. Riley served as Secretary of Education until Clinton left office in 2001. Since then, he has served as a partner in the law firm of Nelson Mullins Riley & Scarborough, LLP, and served as a board member of the Albert Shanker Institute. On June 27, 2007, he endorsed Hillary Clinton for president and served as a campaign co-chair.

World Justice Project
Riley serves as an Honorary Co-Chair for the World Justice Project. The World Justice Project works to lead a global, multidisciplinary effort to strengthen the Rule of Law for the development of communities of opportunity and equity.

Recognitions
In 1999, Furman University, Riley's alma mater, created the Richard W. Riley Institute of Government, Politics and Public Leadership in his honor. In 2000, Riley received the Foreign Language Advocacy Award from the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages in recognition of his support for education and especially for his repeated recommendations that all students learn a second language. In 2008, Walden University renamed its college of education the Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership, in honor of Riley's "commitment to students, his legacy of improving access to higher education, and his focus on diversity in education." Winthrop University also renamed its college of education after Riley in 2000.

TIME magazine in 2008 named him among the Top Ten Best Cabinet Members in USA history. The Christian Science Monitor once said that many Americans regard Dick Riley as "one of the great statesmen of education in this (20th) century." The late David Broder, columnist for The Washington Post, called him one of the "most decent and honorable people in public life."

In 2018, his hometown of Greenville announced plans to memorialize him with a sculpture representing his extraordinary public leadership and commitment to quality education for all children.

The Richard W. Riley Collection opened in 2018 at the University of South Carolina's South Carolina Political Collections and contains more than 3,000 photographs; thousands of speeches with Riley's handwritten edits; extensive research notes on policy development; considerable correspondence and news clippings; interviews with Riley and his late wife, Tunky, their son, Ted, and Dick Riley's father, Edward P. "Ted" Riley. The collection also includes printed campaign materials from Riley's political campaigns and his efforts for others, including Clinton, Jimmy Carter, and Al Gore.

Personal life
Riley and his wife, the late Ann O. Yarborough, have three sons and one daughter.

See also
Bill Clinton Supreme Court candidates

References
Specific

General
 U.S. Department of Education Bio
 The Political Graveyard
 CNN AllPolitics – Players – Richard Riley
 Nelson, Mullins, Riley, and Scarborough Biography
 Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership
 The Riley Institute
 Furman University

External links
 SCIway Biography of Richard Wilson Riley
 NGA Biography of Richard Wilson Riley
 Past Winners of Harold W. McGraw, Jr. Prize in Education
 Richard Riley Interview NAMM Oral History Program (2013)

Richard W. Riley Papers at South Carolina Political Collections, University of South Carolina
Governor Richard Riley Papers at the South Carolina Department of Archives & History
1979 Richard Riley Swearing in ceremony and Inaugural Ball on South Carolina Educational Television
1983 Richard Riley Swearing in ceremony and Inaugural Ball on South Carolina Educational Television

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1933 births
20th-century American politicians
Methodists from South Carolina
Clinton administration cabinet members
Democratic Party governors of South Carolina
Furman University alumni
Living people
Democratic Party members of the South Carolina House of Representatives
Politicians from Greenville, South Carolina
Democratic Party South Carolina state senators
United States Secretaries of Education
University of South Carolina alumni
University of South Carolina trustees
Sigma Alpha Epsilon members

Richard Riley


Amylase is an enzyme which breaks down starch into sugars which the body can use.

More accurately, it is a family of similar enzymes which work in a wide range of animals, plants and fungi. There are two variants in humans: alpha-amylase, and gamma-amylase.

Alpha-amylase is a major digestive enzyme. Its optimum pH is 6.7–7.0. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice. It takes starch chains and breaks them into smaller pieces with two or three glucose units. It can break down starch into maltose. It works in the mouth and stomach during digestion.

The gamma-amylase has most acidic optimum pH of all amylases because it is most active around pH 3. Therefore, it works best in the stomach, which does have an acidic pH.

Human evolution
Apparently, early humans did not possess salivary amylase. The closest evolutionary relatives of humans, chimpanzees and bonobos, have either one or no copies of the gene for producing salivary amylase.  A duplication event of the AMY1 gene led to the production of amylase in the saliva. The same event occurred independently in rodents. This shows the importance of salivary amylase in organisms that eat relatively large amounts of starch.

Carbohydrates are a food source rich in energy. After the agricultural revolution, human diet began to rely more on plant and animal domestication in place of hunting and gathering. This shift marked the beginning of a diet composed of 49% carbohydrates as opposed to the previous 35% observed in Paleolithic humans. As such, starch became a staple of human diet. Humans that contained amylase in the saliva would benefit from increased ability to digest starch more efficiently and in higher quantities.

Not all humans have the same number of copies of the AMY1 gene. Populations which rely on carbohydrates have a higher number of AMY1 copies than populations that eat little starch. The number of AMY1 gene copies in humans can range from six copies in agricultural groups such as European-American and Japanese (two high starch populations) to only 2-3 copies in hunter-gatherer societies such as the Biaka, Datog, and Yakuts.

The correlation between starch consumption and number of AMY1 copies suggests that more AMY1 copies in high starch populations is caused by natural selection. It is a favorable phenotype for those individuals. Therefore, it is likely that having more copies of AMY1 in a high starch population increases fitness and produces healthier, fitter offspring. Geographically close populations with different eating habits possess a different number of copies of the AMY1 gene. This offers strong evidence that natural selection has acted on this gene.

References

Enzymes
Evolution

Amylase