Exergy, often referred to as "available energy" or "useful work potential," is a fundamental concept in the field of thermodynamics and engineering. It plays a crucial role in understanding and quantifying the quality of energy within a system and its potential to perform useful work. Exergy analysis has widespread applications in various fields, including energy engineering, environmental science, and industrial processes.

From a scientific and engineering perspective, second-law based exergy analysis is valuable because it provides a number of benefits over energy analysis alone. These benefits include the basis for determining energy quality (or exergy content), enhancing the understanding of fundamental physical phenomena, and improving design, performance evaluation and optimization efforts. In thermodynamics, the exergy of a system is the maximum useful work that can be produced as the system is brought into equilibrium with its environment by an ideal process. The specification of an 'ideal process' allows the determination of 'maximum work' production. From a conceptual perspective, exergy is the 'ideal' potential of a system to do work or cause a change as it achieves equilibrium with its environment. Exergy is also known as 'availability'. Exergy is non-zero when there is dis-equilibrium between the system and its environment, and exergy is zero when equilibrium is established (the state of maximum entropy for the system plus its environment).

Determining exergy was one of the original goals of thermodynamics. The term "exergy" was coined in 1956 by Zoran Rant (1904–1972) by using the Greek ex and ergon meaning "from work", but the concept had been earlier developed by J Willard Gibbs (the namesake of Gibbs free energy) in 1873.

Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but is simply converted from one form to another (see First Law of Thermodynamics). In contrast to energy, exergy is always destroyed when a process is non-ideal or irreversible (see Second Law of Thermodynamics). To illustrate, when someone states that "I used a lot of energy running up that hill", the statement contradicts the first law. Although the energy is not consumed, intuitively we perceive that something is. The key point is that energy has quality or measures of usefulness, and this energy quality (or exergy content) is what is consumed or destroyed. This occurs because everything, all real processes, produce entropy and the destruction of exergy or the rate of 'Irreversibility' is proportional to this entropy production (Gouy-Stodola theorem). Where entropy production may be calculated as the net increase in entropy of the system together with its surroundings. Entropy production is due to things such as friction, heat transfer across a finite temperature difference and mixing. Whereas, in distinction from 'exergy destruction', 'exergy loss' is the transfer of exergy across the boundaries of a system, such as with mass or heat loss, where the exergy flow or transfer is potentially recoverable. Although the energy quality or exergy content of these mass and energy losses are low in many situations or applications. Where exergy content is defined as the ratio of exergy-to-energy on a percentage basis. For example, while the exergy content of electrical work produced by a thermal power plant is 100%, the exergy content of low grade heat rejected by the power plant, at say, 41 degrees Celsius, relative to an environment temperature of 25 degrees Celsius, is only 5%.

Definitions

Exergy is a combination property of a system and its environment because it depends on the state of both, and is a consequence of dis-equilibrium between them. Exergy is neither a thermodynamic property of matter nor a thermodynamic potential of a system.  Exergy and energy always have the same units, and the joule (symbol: J) is the unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI). The internal energy of a system is always measured from a fixed reference state and is therefore always a state function.  Some authors define the exergy of the system to be changed when the environment changes, in which case it is not a state function.  Other writers prefer a slightly alternate definition of the available energy or exergy of a system where the environment is firmly defined, as an unchangeable absolute reference state, and in this alternate definition, exergy becomes a property of the state of the system alone.

However, from a theoretical point of view, exergy may be defined without reference to any environment. If the intensive properties of different finitely extended elements of a system differ, there is always the possibility to extract mechanical work from the system. Yet, with such an approach one has to abandon the requirement that the environment is large enough relative to the 'system' such that its intensive properties, such as temperature, are unchanged due to its interaction with the system. So that exergy is defined in an absolute sense, it will be assumed in this article that, unless otherwise stated, that the environment's intensive properties are unchanged by its interaction with the system.

For a heat engine, the exergy can be simply defined in an absolute sense, as the energy input times the Carnot efficiency, assuming the low temperature heat reservoir is at the temperature of the environment. Since many systems can be modeled as a heat engine, this definition can be useful for many applications.

Terminology
The term exergy is also used, by analogy with its physical definition, in information theory related to reversible computing.  Exergy is also synonymous with: available energy, exergic energy, essergy (considered archaic), utilizable energy, available useful work, maximum (or minimum) work, maximum (or minimum) work content, reversible work, ideal work, availability or available work.

Implications
The exergy destruction of a cycle is the sum of the exergy destruction of the processes that compose that cycle. The exergy destruction of a cycle can also be determined without tracing the individual processes by considering the entire cycle as a single process and using one of the exergy destruction equations.

Examples
For two thermal reservoirs at temperatures TH and TC<TH, as considered by Carnot, the exergy is the work W that can be done by a reversible engine.  Specifically, with QH the heat provided by the hot reservoir, Carnot's analysis gives W/QH=(TH-TC)/TH.  Although, exergy or maximum work is determined by conceptually utilizing an ideal process, it is the property of a system in a given environment. Exergy analysis is not merely for reversible cycles, but for all cycles (including non-cyclic or non-ideal), and indeed for all thermodynamic processes.

As an example, consider the non-cyclic process of expansion of an ideal gas.  For free expansion in an isolated system, the energy and temperature do not change, so by energy conservation no work is done.  On the other hand, for expansion done against a moveable wall that always matched the (varying) pressure of the expanding gas (so the wall develops negligible kinetic energy), with no heat transfer (adiabatic wall), then the maximum work would be done.  This corresponds to the exergy.  Thus, in terms of exergy, Carnot considered the exergy for a two thermal reservoir (fixed temperatures) cyclic process.  Just as the work done depends on the process, so the exergy depends on the process, reducing to Carnot's result for Carnot's case.

W. Thomson (from 1892, Lord Kelvin), as early as 1849 was exercised by what he called "lost energy", which appears to be the same as "destroyed energy" and what has been called "anergy".  In 1874 he wrote that "lost energy" is the same as the energy dissipated by, e.g., friction, electrical conduction (electric field-driven charge diffusion), heat conduction (temperature-driven thermal diffusion), viscous processes (transverse momentum diffusion) and particle diffusion (ink in water).  On the other hand, Kelvin did not indicate how to compute the "lost energy".  This awaited the 1931 and 1932 works of Onsager on irreversible processes.

Mathematical description

An application of the second law of thermodynamics

Exergy uses system boundaries in a way that is unfamiliar to many. We imagine the presence of a Carnot engine between the system and its reference environment even though this engine does not exist in the real world.  Its only purpose is to measure the results of a "what-if" scenario to represent the most efficient work interaction possible between the system and its surroundings.

If a real-world reference environment is chosen that behaves like an unlimited reservoir that remains unaltered by the system, then Carnot's speculation about the consequences of a system heading towards equilibrium with time is addressed by two equivalent mathematical statements. Let B, the exergy or available work, decrease with time, and Stotal, the entropy of the system and its reference environment enclosed together in a larger isolated system, increase with time:

For macroscopic systems (above the thermodynamic limit), these statements are both expressions of the second law of thermodynamics if the following expression is used for exergy:

where the extensive quantities for the system are: U = Internal energy, V = Volume, and Ni = Moles of component i

The intensive quantities for the surroundings are: PR = Pressure, TR = temperature, μi, R = Chemical potential of component i

Individual terms also often have names attached to them:  is called "available PV work",  is called "entropic loss" or "heat loss" and the final term is called "available chemical energy."

Other thermodynamic potentials may be used to replace internal energy so long as proper care is taken in recognizing which natural variables correspond to which potential. For the recommended nomenclature of these potentials, see (Alberty, 2001). Equation () is useful for processes where system volume, entropy, and the number of moles of various components change because internal energy is also a function of these variables and no others.

An alternative definition of internal energy does not separate available chemical potential from U. This expression is useful (when substituted into equation ()) for processes where system volume and entropy change, but no chemical reaction occurs:

In this case, a given set of chemicals at a given entropy and volume will have a single numerical value for this thermodynamic potential. A multi-state system may complicate or simplify the problem because the Gibbs phase rule predicts that intensive quantities will no longer be completely independent from each other.

A historical and cultural tangent
In 1848, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, asked (and immediately answered) the question

Is there any principle on which an absolute thermometric scale can be founded? It appears to me that Carnot's theory of the motive power of heat enables us to give an affirmative answer.

With the benefit of the hindsight contained in equation (), we are able to understand the historical impact of Kelvin's idea on physics.  Kelvin suggested that the best temperature scale would describe a constant ability for a unit of temperature in the surroundings to alter the available work from Carnot's engine. From equation ():

Rudolf Clausius recognized the presence of a proportionality constant in Kelvin's analysis and gave it the name entropy in 1865 from the Greek for "transformation" because it describes the quantity of energy lost during the transformation from heat to work.  The available work from a Carnot engine is at its maximum when the surroundings are at a temperature of absolute zero.

Physicists then, as now, often look at a property with the word "available" or "utilizable" in its name with a certain unease.  The idea of what is available raises the question of "available to what?" and raises a concern about whether such a property is anthropocentric. Laws derived using such a property may not describe the universe but instead, describe what people wish to see.

The field of statistical mechanics (beginning with the work of Ludwig Boltzmann in developing the Boltzmann equation) relieved many physicists of this concern.  From this discipline, we now know that macroscopic properties may all be determined from properties on a microscopic scale where entropy is more "real" than temperature itself (see Thermodynamic temperature). Microscopic kinetic fluctuations among particles cause entropic loss, and this energy is unavailable for work because these fluctuations occur randomly in all directions.  The anthropocentric act is taken, in the eyes of some physicists and engineers today, when someone draws a hypothetical boundary, in fact, he says: "This is my system. What occurs beyond it is surroundings." In this context, exergy is sometimes described as an anthropocentric property, both by some who use it and by some who don't. However, exergy is based on the dis-equilibrium between a system and its environment, so its very real and necessary to define the system distinctly from its environment. It can be agreed that entropy is generally viewed as a more fundamental property of matter than exergy.

A potential for every thermodynamic situation

In addition to  and  the other thermodynamic potentials are frequently used to determine exergy.  For a given set of chemicals at a given entropy and pressure, enthalpy H is used in the expression:

For a given set of chemicals at a given temperature and volume, Helmholtz free energy A is used in the expression:

For a given set of chemicals at a given temperature and pressure, Gibbs free energy G is used in the expression:

where  is evaluated at the isothermal system temperature (), and  is defined with respect to the isothermal temperature of the system's environment (). The exergy  is the energy  reduced by the product of the entropy times the environment temperature , which is the slope or partial derivative of the internal energy with respect to entropy in the environment. That is, higher entropy reduces the exergy or free energy available relative to the energy level .

Work can be produced from this energy, such as in an isothermal process, but any entropy generation during the process will cause the destruction of exergy (irreversibility) and the reduction of these thermodynamic potentials. Further, exergy losses can occur if mass and energy is transferred out of the system at non-ambient or elevated temperature, pressure or chemical potential. Exergy losses are potentially recoverable though because the exergy has not been destroyed, such as what occurs in waste heat recovery systems (although the energy quality or exergy content is typically low). As a special case, an isothermal process operating at ambient temperature will have no thermally related exergy losses.

Exergy Analysis involving Radiative Heat Transfer

All matter emits radiation continuously as a result of its non-zero (absolute) temperature. This emitted energy flow is proportional to the material's temperature raised to the fourth power. As a result, any radiation conversion device that seeks to absorb and convert radiation (while reflecting a fraction of the incoming source radiation) inherently emits its own radiation. Also, given that reflected and emitted radiation can occupy the same direction or solid angle, the entropy flows, and as a result, the exergy flows, are generally not independent. The entropy and exergy balance equations for a control volume (CV), re-stated to correctly apply to situations involving radiative transfer, are expressed as,

where  or  denotes entropy production within the control volume, and,

This rate equation for the exergy within an open system X () takes into account the exergy transfer rates across the system boundary by heat transfer ( for conduction & convection, and  by radiative fluxes), by mechanical or electrical work transfer (), and by mass transfer (), as well as taking into account the exergy destruction () that occurs within the system due to irreversibility's or non-ideal processes. Note that chemical exergy, kinetic energy, and gravitational potential energy have been excluded for simplicity.

The exergy irradiance or flux M, and the exergy radiance N (where M = πN for isotropic radiation), depend on the spectral and directional distribution of the radiation (for example, see the next section on 'Exergy Flux of Radiation with an Arbitrary Spectrum'). Sunlight can be crudely approximated as blackbody, or more accurately, as graybody radiation. Noting that, although a graybody spectrum looks similar to a blackbody spectrum, the entropy and exergy are very different.
Petela determined that the exergy of isotropic blackbody radiation was given by the expression,

where the exergy within the enclosed system is X (), c is the speed of light, V is the volume occupied by the enclosed radiation system or void, T is the material emission temperature, To is the environmental temperature, and x is the dimensionless temperature ratio To/T.

However, for decades this result was contested in terms of its relevance to the conversion of radiation fluxes, and in particular, solar radiation. For example, Bejan stated that "Petela's efficiency is no more than a convenient, albeit artificial way, of non-dimensionalizing the calculated work output" and that Petela's efficiency "is not a 'conversion efficiency.' " However, it has been shown that Petela's result represents the exergy of blackbody radiation. This was done by resolving a number of issues, including that of inherent irreversibility, defining the environment in terms of radiation, the effect of inherent emission by the conversion device and the effect of concentrating source radiation.

Exergy Flux of Radiation with an Arbitrary Spectrum (including Sunlight)
In general, terrestrial solar radiation has an arbitrary non-blackbody spectrum. Ground level spectrums can vary greatly due to reflection, scattering and absorption in the atmosphere. While the emission spectrums of thermal radiation in engineering systems can vary widely as well.

In determining the exergy of radiation with an arbitrary spectrum, it must be considered whether reversible or ideal conversion (zero entropy production) is possible. It has been shown that reversible conversion of blackbody radiation fluxes across an infinitesimal temperature difference is theoretically possible ]. However, this reversible conversion can only be theoretically achieved because equilibrium can exist between blackbody radiation and matter. However, non-blackbody radiation cannot even exist in equilibrium with itself, nor with its own emitting material.

Unlike blackbody radiation, non-blackbody radiation cannot exist in equilibrium with matter, so it appears likely that the interaction of non-blackbody radiation with matter is always an inherently irreversible process. For example, an enclosed non-blackbody radiation system (such as a void inside a solid mass) is unstable and will spontaneously equilibriate to blackbody radiation unless the enclosure is perfectly reflecting (i.e., unless there is no thermal interaction of the radiation with its enclosure – which is not possible in actual, or real, non-ideal systems). Consequently, a cavity initially devoid of thermal radiation inside a non-blackbody material will spontaneously and rapidly (due to the high velocity of the radiation), through a series of absorption and emission interactions, become filled with blackbody radiation rather than non-blackbody radiation.

The approaches by Petela and Karlsson both assume that reversible conversion of non-blackbody radiation is theoretically possible, that is, without addressing or considering the issue. Exergy is not a property of the system alone, it's a property of both the system and its environment. Thus, it is of key importance non-blackbody radiation cannot exist in equilibrium with matter, indicating that the interaction of non-blackbody radiation with matter is an inherently irreversible process.

The flux (irradiance) of radiation with an arbitrary spectrum, based on the inherent irreversibility of non-blackbody radiation conversion, is given by the expression,

The exergy flux  is expressed as a function of only the energy flux or irradiance  and the environment temperature . For graybody radiation, the exergy flux is given by the expression,

As one would expect, the exergy flux of non-blackbody radiation reduces to the result for blackbody radiation when emissivity is equal to one.

Note that the exergy flux of graybody radiation can be a small fraction of the energy flux. For example, the ratio of exergy flux to energy flux  for graybody radiation  with emissivity  is equal to 40.0%, for  and . That is, a maximum of only 40% of the graybody energy flux can be converted to work in this case (already only 50% of that of the blackbody energy flux with the same emission temperature). Graybody radiation has a spectrum that looks similar to the blackbody spectrum, but the entropy and exergy flux cannot be accurately approximated as that of blackbody radiation with the same emission temperature. However, it can be reasonably approximated by the entropy flux of blackbody radiation with the same energy flux (lower emission temperature).

Blackbody radiation has the highest entropy-to-energy ratio of all radiation with the same energy flux, but the lowest entropy-to-energy ratio, and the highest exergy content, of all radiation with the same emission temperature. For example, the exergy content of graybody radiation is lower than that of blackbody radiation with the same emission temperature and decreases as emissivity decreases. For the example above with  the exergy flux of the blackbody radiation source flux is 52.5% of the energy flux compared to 40.0% for graybody radiation with , or compared to 15.5% for graybody radiation with .

The Exergy Flux of Sunlight
In addition to the production of power directly from sunlight, solar radiation provides most of the exergy for processes on Earth, including processes that sustain living systems directly, as well as all fuels and energy sources that are used for transportation and electric power production (directly or indirectly). This is primarily with the exception of nuclear fission power plants and geothermal energy (due to natural fission decay). Solar energy is, for the most part, thermal radiation from the Sun with an emission temperature near 5762 Kelvin, but it also includes small amounts of higher energy radiation from the fusion reaction or higher thermal emission temperatures within the Sun. The source of most energy on Earth is nuclear in origin.

The figure below depicts typical solar radiation spectrums under clear sky conditions for AM0 (extraterrestrial solar radiation), AM1 (terrestrial solar radiation with solar zenith angle of 0 degrees) and AM4 (terrestrial solar radiation with solar zenith angle of 75.5 degrees). The solar spectrum at sea level (terrestrial solar spectrum) depends on a number of factors including the position of the Sun in the sky, atmospheric turbidity, the level of local atmospheric pollution, and the amount and type of cloud cover. These spectrums are for relatively clear air (α = 1.3, β = 0.04) assuming a U.S. standard atmosphere with 20 mm of precipitable water vapor and 3.4 mm of ozone. The Figure shows the spectral energy irradiance (W/m2μm) which does not provide information regarding the directional distribution of the solar radiation. The exergy content of the solar radiation, assuming that it is subtended by the solid angle of the ball of the Sun (no circumsolar), is 93.1%, 92.3% and 90.8%, respectively, for the AM0, AM1 and the AM4 spectrums.

The exergy content of terrestrial solar radiation is also reduced because of the diffuse component caused by the complex interaction of solar radiation, originally in a very small solid angle beam, with material in the Earth's atmosphere. The characteristics and magnitude of diffuse terrestrial solar radiation depends on a number of factors, as mentioned, including the position of the Sun in the sky, atmospheric turbidity, the level of local atmospheric pollution, and the amount and type of cloud cover. Solar radiation under clear sky conditions exhibits a maximum intensity towards the Sun (circumsolar radiation) but also exhibits an increase in intensity towards the horizon (horizon brightening). In contrast for opaque overcast skies the solar radiation can be completely diffuse with a maximum intensity in the direction of the zenith and monotonically decreasing towards the horizon. The magnitude of the diffuse component generally varies with frequency, being highest in the ultraviolet region.

The dependence of the exergy content on directional distribution can be illustrated by considering, for example, the AM1 and AM4 terrestrial spectrums depicted in the figure, with the following simplified cases of directional distribution:

•	For AM1: 80% of the solar radiation is contained in the solid angle subtended by the Sun, 10% is contained and isotropic in a solid angle 0.008 sr (this field of view includes circumsolar radiation), while the remaining 10% of the solar radiation is diffuse and isotropic in the solid angle 2π sr.

•	For AM4: 65% of the solar radiation is contained in the solid angle subtended by the Sun, 20% of the solar radiation is contained and isotropic in a solid angle 0.008 sr, while the remaining 15% of the solar radiation is diffuse and isotropic in the solid angle 2π sr. Note that when the Sun is low in the sky the diffuse component can be the dominant part of the incident solar radiation.

For these cases of directional distribution, the exergy content of the terrestrial solar radiation for the AM1 and AM4 spectrum depicted are 80.8% and 74.0%, respectively. From these sample calculations it is evideνnt that the exergy content of terrestrial solar radiation is strongly dependent on the directional distribution of the radiation. This result is interesting because one might expect that the performance of a conversion device would depend on the incoming rate of photons and their spectral distribution but not on the directional distribution of the incoming photons. However, for a given incoming flux of photons with a certain spectral distribution, the entropy (level of disorder) is higher the more diffuse the directional distribution. From the second law of thermodynamics, the incoming entropy of the solar radiation cannot be destroyed and consequently reduces the maximum work output that can be obtained by a conversion device.

Chemical exergy
Similar to thermomechanical exergy, chemical exergy depends on the temperature and pressure of a system as well as on the composition. The key difference in evaluating chemical exergy versus thermomechanical exergy is that thermomechanical exergy does not take into account the difference in a system and the environment's chemical composition. If the temperature, pressure or composition of a system differs from the environment's state, then the overall system will have exergy.

The definition of chemical exergy resembles the standard definition of thermomechanical exergy, but with a few differences. Chemical exergy is defined as the maximum work that can be obtained when the considered system is brought into reaction with reference substances present in the environment. Defining the exergy reference environment is one of the most vital parts of analyzing chemical exergy. In general, the environment is defined as the composition of air at 25 °C and 1 atm of pressure. At these properties air consists of N2=75.67%, O2=20.35%, H2O(g)=3.12%, CO2=0.03% and other gases=0.83%. These molar fractions will become of use when applying Equation 8 below.

CaHbOc is the substance that is entering a system that one wants to find the maximum theoretical work of. By using the following equations, one can calculate the chemical exergy of the substance in a given system. Below, Equation 8 uses the Gibbs function of the applicable element or compound to calculate the chemical exergy. Equation 9 is similar but uses standard molar chemical exergy, which scientists have determined based on several criteria, including the ambient temperature and pressure that a system is being analyzed and the concentration of the most common components. These values can be found in thermodynamic books or in online tables.

Important equations

where:
 is the Gibbs function of the specific substance in the system at
. ( refers to the substance that is entering the system)
 is the Universal gas constant (8.314462 J/mol•K)
 is the temperature that the system is being evaluated at in absolute temperature
 is the molar fraction of the given substance in the environment, i.e. air

where  is the standard molar chemical exergy taken from a table for the specific conditions that the system is being evaluated.

Equation 9 is more commonly used due to the simplicity of only having to look up the standard chemical exergy for given substances. Using a standard table works well for most cases, even if the environmental conditions vary slightly, the difference is most likely negligible.

Total exergy
After finding the chemical exergy in a given system, one can find the total exergy by adding it to the thermomechanical exergy. Depending on the situation, the amount of chemical exergy added can be very small. If the system being evaluated involves combustion, the amount of chemical exergy is very large and necessary to find the total exergy of the system.

Irreversibility
Irreversibility accounts for the amount of exergy destroyed in a closed system, or in other words, the wasted work potential. This is also called dissipated energy. For highly efficient systems, the value of , is low, and vice versa. The equation to calculate the irreversibility of a closed system, as it relates to the exergy of that system, is as follows:

where , also denoted by , is the entropy generated by processes within the system. If  then there are irreversibilities present in the system. If  then there are no irreversibilities present in the system. The value of , the irreversibility, can not be negative, as this implies entropy destruction, a direct violation of the second law of thermodynamics.

Exergy analysis also relates the actual work of a work producing device to the maximal work, that could be obtained in the reversible or ideal process:

That is, the irreversibility is the ideal maximum work output minus the actual work production. Whereas, for a work consuming device such as refrigeration or heat pump, irreversibility is the actual work input minus the ideal minimum work input.

The first term at the right part is related to the difference in exergy at inlet and outlet of the system:

where  is also denoted by .

For an isolated system there are no heat or work interactions or transfers of exergy between the system and its surroundings. The exergy of an isolated system can therefore only decrease, by a magnitude equal to the irreversibility of that system or process,

Applications
Applying equation () to a subsystem yields:

This expression applies equally well for theoretical ideals in a wide variety of applications: electrolysis (decrease in G), galvanic cells and fuel cells (increase in G), explosives (increase in A), heating and refrigeration (exchange of H), motors (decrease in U) and generators (increase in U).

Utilization of the exergy concept often requires careful consideration of the choice of reference environment because, as Carnot knew, unlimited reservoirs do not exist in the real world.  A system may be maintained at a constant temperature to simulate an unlimited reservoir in the lab or in a factory, but those systems cannot then be isolated from a larger surrounding environment. However, with a proper choice of system boundaries, a reasonable constant reservoir can be imagined. A process sometimes must be compared to "the most realistic impossibility," and this invariably involves a certain amount of guesswork.

Engineering applications

One goal of energy and exergy methods in engineering is to compute what comes into and out of several possible designs before a design is built. Energy input and output will always balance according to the First Law of Thermodynamics or the energy conservation principle. Exergy output will not equal the exergy input for real processes since a part of the exergy input is always destroyed according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics for real processes. After the input and output are calculated, an engineer will often want to select the most efficient process. An energy efficiency or first law efficiency will determine the most efficient process based on wasting as little energy as possible relative to energy inputs.  An exergy efficiency or second-law efficiency will determine the most efficient process based on wasting and destroying as little available work as possible from a given input of available work, per unit of whatever the desired output is.

Exergy has been applied in a number of design applications in order to optimize systems or identify components or subsystems with the greatest potential for improvement. For instance, an exergy analysis of environmental control systems on the international space station revealed the oxygen generation assembly as the subsystem which destroyed the most exergy.

Exergy is particularly useful for broad engineering analyses with many systems of varied nature, since it can account for mechanical, electrical, nuclear, chemical, or thermal systems. For this reason, Exergy analysis has also been used to optimize the performance of rocket vehicles. Exergy analysis affords additional insight, relative to energy analysis alone, because it incorporates the second law, and considers both the system and its relationship with its environment. For example, exergy analysis has been used to compare possible power generation and storage systems on the moon, since exergy analysis is conducted in reference to the unique environmental operating conditions of a specific application, such as on the surface of the moon.

Application of exergy to unit operations in chemical plants was partially responsible for the huge growth of the chemical industry during the 20th century.

As a simple example of exergy, air at atmospheric conditions of temperature, pressure, and composition contains energy but no exergy when it is chosen as the thermodynamic reference state known as ambient. Individual processes on Earth such as combustion in a power plant often eventually result in products that are incorporated into the atmosphere, so defining this reference state for exergy is useful even though the atmosphere itself is not at equilibrium and is full of long and short term variations.

If standard ambient conditions are used for calculations during chemical plant operation when the actual weather is very cold or hot, then certain parts of a chemical plant might seem to have an exergy efficiency of greater than 100%. Without taking into account the non-standard atmospheric temperature variation, these calculations can give an impression of being a perpetual motion machine.  Using actual conditions will give actual values, but standard ambient conditions are useful for initial design calculations.

Applications in natural resource utilization
In recent decades, utilization of exergy has spread outside of physics and engineering to the fields of industrial ecology, ecological economics, systems ecology, and energetics.  Defining where one field ends and the next begins is a matter of semantics, but applications of exergy can be placed into rigid categories.
After the milestone work of Jan Szargut  who emphasized the relation between exergy and availability,
it is necessary to remember "Exergy Ecology and Democracy".
by Goran Wall, a short essay, which evidences the strict relation that relates exergy disruption with environmental and social disruption.
From this activity it has derived a fundamental research activity in ecological economics and environmental accounting perform exergy-cost analyses in order to evaluate the impact of human activity on the current and future natural environment.  As with ambient air, this often requires the unrealistic substitution of properties from a natural environment in place of the reference state environment of Carnot.  For example, ecologists and others have developed reference conditions for the ocean and for the Earth's crust.  Exergy values for human activity using this information can be useful for comparing policy alternatives based on the efficiency of utilizing natural resources to perform work. Typical questions that may be answered are:

Does the human production of one unit of an economic good by method A utilize more of a resource's exergy than by method B?

Does the human production of economic good A utilize more of a resource's exergy than the production of good B?

Does the human production of economic good A utilize a resource's exergy more efficiently than the production of good B?

There has been some progress in standardizing and applying these methods.

Measuring exergy requires the evaluation of a system's reference state environment. With respect to the applications of exergy on natural resource utilization, the process of quantifying a system requires the assignment of value (both utilized and potential) to resources that are not always easily dissected into typical cost-benefit terms. However, to fully realize the potential of a system to do work, it is becoming increasingly imperative to understand exergetic potential of natural resources, and how human interference alters this potential.

Referencing the inherent qualities of a system in place of a reference state environment is the most direct way that ecologists determine the exergy of a natural resource. Specifically, it is easiest to examine the thermodynamic properties of a system, and the reference substances that are acceptable within the reference environment. This determination allows for the assumption of qualities in a natural state: deviation from these levels may indicate a change in the environment caused by outside sources. There are three kinds of reference substances that are acceptable, due to their proliferation on the planet: gases within the atmosphere, solids within the Earth's crust, and molecules or ions in seawater. By understanding these basic models, it's possible to determine the exergy of multiple earth systems interacting, like the effects of solar radiation on plant life. These basic categories are utilized as the main components of a reference environment when examining how exergy can be defined through natural resources.

Other qualities within a reference state environment include temperature, pressure, and any number of combinations of substances within a defined area. Again, the exergy of a system is determined by the potential of that system to do work, so it is necessary to determine the baseline qualities of a system before it is possible to understand the potential of that system. The thermodynamic value of a resource can be found by multiplying the exergy of the resource by the cost of obtaining the resource and processing it.

Today, it is becoming increasingly popular to analyze the environmental impacts of natural resource utilization, especially for energy usage. To understand the ramifications of these practices, exergy is utilized as a tool for determining the impact potential of emissions, fuels, and other sources of energy. Combustion of fossil fuels, for example, is examined with respect to assessing the environmental impacts of burning coal, oil, and natural gas. The current methods for analyzing the emissions from these three products can be compared to the process of determining the exergy of the systems affected; specifically, it is useful to examine these with regard to the reference state environment of gases within the atmosphere. In this way, it is easier to determine how human action is affecting the natural environment.

Applications in sustainability

In systems ecology, researchers sometimes consider the exergy of the current formation of natural resources from a small number of exergy inputs (usually solar radiation, tidal forces, and geothermal heat).  This application not only requires assumptions about reference states, but it also requires assumptions about the real environments of the past that might have been close to those reference states.  Can we decide which is the most "realistic impossibility" over such a long period of time when we are only speculating about the reality?

For instance, comparing oil exergy to coal exergy using a common reference state would require geothermal exergy inputs to describe the transition from biological material to fossil fuels during millions of years in the Earth's crust, and solar radiation exergy inputs to describe the material's history before then when it was part of the biosphere.  This would need to be carried out mathematically backwards through time, to a presumed era when the oil and coal could be assumed to be receiving the same exergy inputs from these sources.  A speculation about a past environment is different from assigning a reference state with respect to known environments today. Reasonable guesses about real ancient environments may be made, but they are untestable guesses, and so some regard this application as pseudoscience or pseudo-engineering.

The field describes this accumulated exergy in a natural resource over time as embodied energy with units of the "embodied joule" or "emjoule".

The important application of this research is to address sustainability issues in a quantitative fashion through a sustainability measurement:

Does the human production of an economic good deplete the exergy of Earth's natural resources more quickly than those resources are able to receive exergy?

If so, how does this compare to the depletion caused by producing the same good (or a different one) using a different set of natural resources?

Exergy and environmental policy
Today environmental policies does not consider exergy as an instrument for a more equitable and effective environmental policy. Recently, exergy analysis allowed to obtain an important fault in today governmental GHGs emission balances, which often do not consider international transport related emissions, therefore the impacts of import/export are not accounted,

Therefore, some preliminary cases of the impacts of import export transportation and of technology had provided evidencing the opportunity of introducing an effective exergy based taxation which can reduce the fiscal impact on citizens.
In addition Exergy can be a precious instrument for an effective estimation of the path toward UN sustainable development goals (SDG).

Assigning one thermodynamically obtained value to an economic good

A technique proposed by systems ecologists is to consolidate the three exergy inputs described in the last section into the single exergy input of solar radiation, and to express the total input of exergy into an economic good as a solar embodied joule or sej. (See Emergy) Exergy inputs from solar, tidal, and geothermal forces all at one time had their origins at the beginning of the solar system under conditions which could be chosen as an initial reference state, and other speculative reference states could in theory be traced back to that time. With this tool we would be able to answer:

What fraction of the total human depletion of the Earth's exergy is caused by the production of a particular economic good?

What fraction of the total human and non-human depletion of the Earth's exergy is caused by the production of a particular economic good?

No additional thermodynamic laws are required for this idea, and the principles of energetics may confuse many issues for those outside the field.  The combination of untestable hypotheses, unfamiliar jargon that contradicts accepted jargon, intense advocacy among its supporters, and some degree of isolation from other disciplines have contributed to this protoscience being regarded by many as a pseudoscience.  However, its basic tenets are only a further utilization of the exergy concept.

Implications in the development of complex physical systems

A common hypothesis in systems ecology is that the design engineer's observation that a greater capital investment is needed to create a process with increased exergy efficiency is actually the economic result of a fundamental law of nature.  By this view, exergy is the analogue of economic currency in the natural world. The analogy to capital investment is the accumulation of exergy into a system over long periods of time resulting in embodied energy.  The analogy of capital investment resulting in a factory with high exergy efficiency is an increase in natural organizational structures with high exergy efficiency.  (See Maximum power).  Researchers in these fields describe biological evolution in terms of increases in organism complexity due to the requirement for increased exergy efficiency because of competition for limited sources of exergy.

Some biologists have a similar hypothesis.  A biological system (or a chemical plant) with a number of intermediate compartments and intermediate reactions is more efficient because the process is divided up into many small substeps, and this is closer to the reversible ideal of an infinite number of infinitesimal substeps.  Of course, an excessively large number of intermediate compartments comes at a capital cost that may be too high.

Testing this idea in living organisms or ecosystems is impossible for all practical purposes because of the large time scales and small exergy inputs involved for changes to take place. However, if this idea is correct, it would not be a new fundamental law of nature. It would simply be living systems and ecosystems maximizing their exergy efficiency by utilizing laws of thermodynamics developed in the 19th century.

Philosophical and cosmological implications

Some proponents of utilizing exergy concepts describe them as a biocentric or ecocentric alternative for terms like quality and value. The "deep ecology" movement views economic usage of these terms as an anthropocentric philosophy which should be discarded.  A possible universal thermodynamic concept of value or utility appeals to those with an interest in monism.

For some, the result of this line of thinking about tracking exergy into the deep past is a restatement of the cosmological argument that the universe was once at equilibrium and an input of exergy from some First Cause created a universe full of available work.  Current science is unable to describe the first 10−43 seconds of the universe (See Timeline of the Big Bang).  An external reference state is not able to be defined for such an event, and (regardless of its merits), such an argument may be better expressed in terms of entropy.

Quality of energy types
The ratio of exergy to energy in a substance can be considered a measure of energy quality.  Forms of energy such as macroscopic kinetic energy, electrical energy, and chemical Gibbs free energy are 100% recoverable as work, and therefore have exergy equal to their energy.  However, forms of energy such as radiation and thermal energy can not be converted completely to work, and have exergy content less than their energy content.  The exact proportion of exergy in a substance depends on the amount of entropy relative to the surrounding environment as determined by the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Exergy is useful when measuring the efficiency of an energy conversion process.  The exergetic, or 2nd Law, efficiency is a ratio of the exergy output divided by the exergy input.  This formulation takes into account the quality of the energy, often offering a more accurate and useful analysis than efficiency estimates only using the First Law of Thermodynamics.

Work can be extracted also from bodies colder than the surroundings. When the flow of energy is coming into the body, work is performed by this energy obtained from the large reservoir, the surrounding. A quantitative treatment of the notion of energy quality rests on the definition of energy. According to the standard definition, Energy is a measure of the ability to do work. Work can involve the movement of a mass by a force that results from a transformation of energy. If there is an energy transformation, the second principle of energy flow transformations says that this process must involve the dissipation of some energy as heat. Measuring the amount of heat released is one way of quantifying the energy, or ability to do work and apply a force over a distance.

Exergy of heat available at a temperature

Maximal possible conversion of heat to work, or exergy content of heat, depends on the temperature at which heat is available and the temperature level at which the reject heat can be disposed, that is the temperature of the surrounding. The upper limit for conversion is known as Carnot efficiency and was discovered by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. See also Carnot heat engine.

Carnot efficiency is

where TH is the higher temperature and TC is the lower temperature, both as absolute temperature. From Equation 15 it is clear that in order to maximize efficiency one should maximize TH and minimize TC.

Exergy exchanged is then:

where Tsource is the temperature of the heat source, and To is the temperature of the surrounding.

Connection with economic value

Exergy in a sense can be understood as a measure of the value of energy. Since high-exergy energy carriers can be used for more versatile purposes, due to their ability to do more work, they can be postulated to hold more economic value. This can be seen in the prices of energy carriers, i.e. high-exergy energy carriers such as electricity tend to be more valuable than low-exergy ones such as various fuels or heat. This has led to the substitution of more valuable high-exergy energy carriers with low-exergy energy carriers, when possible. An example is heating systems, where higher investment to heating systems allows using low-exergy energy sources. Thus high-exergy content is being substituted with capital investments.

Exergy based Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
Exergy of a system is the maximum useful work possible during a process that brings the system into equilibrium with a heat reservoir. Wall clearly states the relation between exergy analysis and resource accounting. This intuition confirmed by Dewulf Sciubba lead to exergo-economic accounting and to methods specifically dedicated to LCA such as exergetic material input per unit of service (EMIPS). The
concept of material input per unit of service (MIPS) is quantified in terms of the second law of thermodynamics, allowing the calculation of both resource input and service output in exergy terms. This exergetic material input per unit of service (EMIPS) has been elaborated for transport technology. The service not only takes into account the total mass to be transported
and the total distance, but also the mass per single transport and the delivery time. The applicability of the EMIPS methodology relates specifically to the transport system and allows an effective coupling with life cycle assessment. The exergy analysis according to EMIPS allowed the definition of a precise strategy for reducing environmental impacts of transport toward more sustainable transport. Such a strategy requires the reduction of the weight of vehicles, sustainable styles of driving, reducing the friction of tires, encouraging electric and hybrid vehicles, improving the walking and cycling environment in cities, and by enhancing the role of public transport, especially electric rail.

History

Carnot
In 1824, Sadi Carnot studied the improvements developed for steam engines by James Watt and others. Carnot utilized a purely theoretical perspective for these engines and developed new ideas. He wrote:
The question has often been raised whether the motive power of heat is unbounded, whether the possible improvements in steam engines have an assignable limit—a limit by which the nature of things will not allow to be passed by any means whatever... In order to consider in the most general way the principle of the production of motion by heat, it must be considered independently of any mechanism or any particular agent. It is necessary to establish principles applicable not only to steam-engines but to all imaginable heat-engines... The production of motion in steam-engines is always accompanied by a circumstance on which we should fix our attention.  This circumstance is the re-establishing of equilibrium... Imagine two bodies A and B, kept each at a constant temperature, that of A being higher than that of B. These two bodies, to which we can give or from which we can remove the heat without causing their temperatures to vary, exercise the functions of two unlimited reservoirs...

Carnot next described what is now called the Carnot engine, and proved by a thought experiment that any heat engine performing better than this engine would be a perpetual motion machine. Even in the 1820s, there was a long history of science forbidding such devices.  According to Carnot, "Such a creation is entirely contrary to ideas now accepted, to the laws of mechanics and of sound physics. It is inadmissible."

This description of an upper bound to the work that may be done by an engine was the earliest modern formulation of the second law of thermodynamics.  Because it involves no mathematics, it still often serves as the entry point for a modern understanding of both the second law and entropy.  Carnot's focus on heat engines, equilibrium, and heat reservoirs is also the best entry point for understanding the closely related concept of exergy.

Carnot believed in the incorrect caloric theory of heat that was popular during his time, but his thought experiment nevertheless described a fundamental limit of nature. As kinetic theory replaced caloric theory through the early and mid-19th century (see Timeline of thermodynamics), several scientists added mathematical precision to the first and second laws of thermodynamics and developed the concept of entropy.  Carnot's focus on processes at the human scale (above the thermodynamic limit) led to the most universally applicable concepts in physics.  Entropy and the second-law are applied today in fields ranging from quantum mechanics to physical cosmology.

Gibbs
In the 1870s, Josiah Willard Gibbs unified a large quantity of 19th century thermochemistry into one compact theory.  Gibbs's theory incorporated the new concept of a chemical potential to cause change when distant from a chemical equilibrium into the older work begun by Carnot in describing thermal and mechanical equilibrium and their potentials for change.  Gibbs's unifying theory resulted in the thermodynamic potential state functions describing differences from thermodynamic equilibrium.

In 1873, Gibbs derived the mathematics of "available energy of the body and medium" into the form it has today. (See the equations above).  The physics describing exergy has changed little since that time.

Helmholtz
In the 1880s, German scientist Herman Von Helmholtz derived the equation for the maximum work which can be reversibly obtained from a closed system.

Rant
In 1956, Yugoslav scholar Zoran Rant proposed the concept of Exergy, extending Gibbs and Helmholtz' work. Since then, continuous development in exergy analysis has seen many applications in thermodynamics, and exergy has been accepted as the maximum theoretical useful work which can be obtained from a system with respect to its environment.

See also

 Thermodynamic free energy
 Entropy production
 Energy: world resources and consumption
 Emergy

Notes

References

Further reading

Stephen Jay Kline (1999). The Low-Down on Entropy and Interpretive Thermodynamics, La Cañada, CA: DCW Industries. .

External links
Energy, Incorporating Exergy, An International Journal
An Annotated Bibliography of Exergy/Availability
Exergy – a useful concept by Göran Wall
Exergetics textbook for self-study by Göran Wall
Exergy by Isidoro Martinez
Exergy calculator by The Exergoecology Portal
Global Exergy Resource Chart
Guidebook to IEA ECBCS Annex 37, Low Exergy Systems for Heating and Cooling of Buildings
Introduction to the Concept of Exergy

Thermodynamic free energy
State functions
Ecological economics

Exergy


3D GameStudio or 3DGS is a pan 3D computer game development system which allows the users to create 3D games and other virtual reality applications, and publish them royalty-free. It includes a model/terrain editor, a level editor, a script editor/debugger and comes with a big collection of textures, models and artwork, as well as a game template system that allows the creation of basic shooter games or RPGs without programming. For complex games or other applications, either the integrated programming language named Lite-C or an external development language such as Visual C++ or Borland Delphi can be used.

Gamestudio is marketed at users of various skill levels, providing three different levels of usage ("beginner", "advanced", and "professional") for hobbyists, artists, as well as programmers. Additionally, Conitec also markets the system for uses such as advergame development and the creation of real-time presentations, simulations, and virtual exhibitions. Most published titles made from Gamestudio are created by development teams of only 2 to 3 developers. There is also a large online community of users in support of the development system.

History
 1993: ACK 3D (Animation Construction Kit) by Lary Myers (Wolfenstein-like open source engine)
 1994: ACK NEXT GENERATION by Johann Christian Lotter / oP Group (improved version of ACK 3D, open source)
 1995: ACKNEX-2 written for the German TV show X-BASE (engine comparable to Doom)
 1995: ACKNEX-2 becomes Conitec property and is released as '3D GameStudio'
 1997: ACKNEX-3 released
 1999: A4 released (Windows Based Quake-like Engine)
 2000: A5 released (Terrain Engine)
 2003: A6 released (Physics and Shaders)
 2007: A7 released (new ABT renderer and Lite-C)
 2010: A8 released (Enet Network Library, Nvidia PhysX, PSSM)

Free updates are normally available once every 4 to 8 weeks. Gamestudio / A8 has 2 different meanings. The Gamestudio part refers to the editors and game template system, but the A8 part refers to the game engine.

Game engine
The A8 engine uses panes for physics simulation. The engine automatically updates the game state on all machines when playing over a network, but also provides functions for more low-level multiplayer programming. It uses an ABT (Adaptive Binary Tree) renderer for indoor and outdoor levels, and an additional BSP renderer for indoor levels. The BSP renderer is only available in the Pro edition. The free edition and Extra edition don't support shaders.

The engine supports high resolutions, terrain rendering, pre-rendered shadow maps and dynamic stencil shadows (single dynamic shadows for models). The 2D system (GUI system) of the A8 Engine is not very powerful (see scripting section), but replaceable using the 3D system if needed. Using Lite-C, most things can be customized. Shader model 3.0 support and post-processing using stages may assist shader programmers in chaining together effects to produce any number of custom-made shader effects.

The editors
Gamestudio supplies users with an editing suite. However, software like Blender, 3ds Max, Maya and Adobe Photoshop or GIMP can also be used to create professional imagery and models for Gamestudio.

The editors allow users to put together games by creating a terrain or building environment, inserting models, and adding behaviors to them from template scripts or own scripts. If desired, users can create their own models and designs, textures, and scripts. Textures are created in external paint programs like GIMP, Photoshop, Paintshop Pro or Microsoft Paint.

The world editor (WED)
The World Editor (or WED for short), is the main editor. With it, the user may position the various objects, assign actions to models (also known as entities) which are defined through scripts, assign textures to level geometry, and build levels using the Binary space partitioning tree (or BSP for short) technique.

WED is the main program of Gamestudio, the user can startup their game from here, attach the scripts to it, etc. WED is the location where the user can merge all the parts of their game (programming, 3d graphics, levels).

The layout for WED is fairly simple. The main part, the central right section, is where most of the editing is done. There are three graphs and a 3D view. Through re-arrangeable, the top left window is the top view, which has the X and Y coordinates. The bottom left is the side view, or the X and Z coordinates. The bottom right is the back view, or the Y and Z coordinates. The top right is the 3D view, which gives a quick preview of the level without building (compiling) it.

The graphs are split into multiples of 128 and further split into multiples of 16 to help with snapping and spacing. The graphs will automatically resize when zoomed out a bit and in steps of multiples of 8 (1024 and 128 then 8192 and 1024).

The left central section lists objects in the level, textures, and some other things. Textures must be of a power of 2 (such as 256×128, 1024×256, or 64×64) for best effects. Odd ones (like 394×213 or 723×1280) look worse and are slower at rendering.

The top is the tool bar which allows the user to manipulate objects, add new objects (such as entities, sounds, and lights), build a level, run it, and several other options.

When right-clicking on something and choosing properties, the user can manually enter a position, assign an action to an entity, or adjust textures on the individual sides of a block.

A disadvantage of WED is its incapability to do anything without blocks or terrain. E.g. it is really hard to build a street (that is not just a plane), because it is nearly impossible to move the blocks in the perfect position, so no "steps" or gaps are in the street (it is just not possible to get the edges of the blocks perfectly together, the snap-to-grid-feature helps only when using nearly non-rotated blocks). Triangles or a snap-block-edge-to-block-edge feature would fix that and would make it possible to make a more complex floor out of more than one single block without gaps or steps.

The model editor (MED)
Though many users prefer to use external modeling programs, the model editor (or MED for short), gives you the capabilities to design models, and is sometimes used to make levels. Models can be made of anything ranging from simple boxes, to human models or complex environments like an entire city. Models are made of meshes, a group of vertices and triangles (often called "polygons") put together to form a shape; a skeleton of bones for animation; one or several textures for the skin; and effect files (.fx) for shaders.

Like WED, MED's general layout is almost the same. It has the three graphs and the 3D view. They are arranged in the same way as WED.

MED is somewhat like WED in the general layout, but MED also has a skin editor, which allows the model to be textured. The skin editor has a completely different layout. The texture is shown on the left side and the model is shown on the right with tool bars surrounding these. Textures are frequently created in external graphics editors and imported from a BMP, TGA, or PCX image file. MED uses UV mapping which has vertices from the model's mesh placed on the texture to texture the model.

Model shapes are created either through primitives (like cubes and pyramids) or by creating vertices and building faces. Models don't have to follow the restrictions that BSP has which, along with faster rendering, makes them a better choice for level design in most cases.

The script editor (SED)

The script editor, SED, is a plain text editor with a compiler and debugger. However, key words like "function", "alpha", variable types, or numbers are highlighted in different colors for ease of identification, line numbers help to find syntax errors given by the engine faster, a code jumper allows jumping to different functions, actions and objects, and other functions further assist in programming and organizing projects. The script editor is used to program in Lite-c or C-Script (a scripting language somewhat similar to C used in previous generations but supported for compatibility's sake).

The game editor (GED)
GED is just like WED, but creating levels in realview (realtime). It doesn't support creating blocks or lights, yet.

Scripting and Programming
Gamestudio uses two different types of script, C-Script and Lite-C.

C-Script was the old scripting language of Gamestudio. It is still supported, but was replaced by Lite-C in A7 and is not recommended anymore for new projects. C-Script is a simplified version of C programming. It only includes one type of variable, a var, and does not support classes.

Lite-C was introduced in 2007. It is similar to the real C language, but includes many aspects that make it easier than C. Unlike C-Script, Lite-C supports the full C/C++ variable set, structs, and external classes, and is compiled instead of interpreted. It offers access to the DirectX command set as well as to the Windows API. Lite-C supports classes from external libraries, but a user cannot define their own classes in Lite-C.
There is also a free standalone version of Lite-C, which can be used separately from Gamestudio.

Intense X
The Intense X plug-in is designed to assist in creation within Gamestudio without programming, integrating into the level editor. Intense X uses artificial intelligence and pathfinding engines that attempt to remove the "cookie cutter" look that often accompanies other game design packages. Intense X is open source and can be expanded and customized for users with programming experience.

The editions
Gamestudio has four different editions. All editions come with free updates within an engine version (Free within A8, but not from A7.x to A8.x). They also all come with the model editor, level editor, and script editor. Games created in all editions may be published with the exception of Team editions.

The Free edition has WED level editor, the shadow mapping compiler and the game template system that allows 'clicking together' games from prefabricated scripts and components. Scripts are compiled at runtime and there is a watermark on the game screen.
The Extra edition adds the ability to create precompiled scripts. It costs $99.
The Commercial edition adds multiplayer networking and shaders. It costs $199.
The Professional Edition is for commercial game companies and includes security mechanisms and a file packer. It costs $899.

There are three main online magazines which provide new tips, tricks and tutorials. Two of them (3AM and 3PM) are paid for, while the third, Acknex User Magazine (AUM for short) is free, created and published monthly by George Dan Pirvu.

In addition to the manual, there are several tutorials available ranging from basic things such as how to use WED, MED, and/or SED to more advanced things such as how to design multiplayer levels, editing shades, or creating interactive environments.

A special license term restricts the use of Gamestudio to applications that do not "propagate genocide against a certain group, race, nation or religion existing in today's real world".

Games
Games that have used GameStudio include

 Skaphander: Der Auftrag (1995, NAVIGO Multimedia GmbH & Co. Produktions KG) - Germany
 H.U.R.L. (1995, Millennium Media Group) - USA
 Angst: Rahz's Revenge (1996, ManMachineGames) - USA
 Incidente em Varginha (1998, Perceptum) - Brazil
 Mr. Pibb: The 3D Interactive Game (1998, BrandGames, Mr. Pibb) - USA
 Saints of Virtue (1999, Shine Studios, Cactus Game Design) - USA
 Hades 2 (1999, Espaço Informática) - Brazil
 Taco Bell: Tasty Temple Challenge (2000, BrandGames, Taco Bell) - USA
 Under Ash (2002, Afkar Media) - Syria
 Bhagat Singh (2002, Mitashi Edutainment Pvt. Ltd.) - India
 W.A.R Soldiers (2002, MissionFailed de, IncaGold, AsylumGames) - Germany
 Airborne Hero: D-Day Frontline 1944 (2004, MissionFailed de, AsylumGames) - Germany
 Ardennes Offensive - Operation "Rhine Watch" - Winter 1944 (2004, MissionFailed de, AsylumGames) - Germany
 War Train Normandie 1944 (2004, MissionFailed de, AsylumGames) - Germany
 Terminal Machine (2006, ColdShock Studios, AsylumGames) - Germany
 Daemonica (2005, Cinemax) - Czech Republic
 Kabus 22 (2006, Son Isik LTD, Merscom LLC) - Turkey
 Kabus 22: Demolition Day (2006, Son Isik LTD) - Turkey
 Star Assault (2007, Kalypso - GamesArk Entertainment) - Germany
 Citroën C4 Robot (2008, 2GEN Studio, Citroën Turkey) - Turkey
 Dejobaan's Windows Games - USA
 Razor2: Hidden Skies (2010, Invent4 Entertainment, Strategy First) - Brazil
 Süpercan (2010, Sobee Studios, TTÇocuk) - Turkey
 Zula: BattleRoyale (2016, MadByte Games) - Turkey
 Rigid Force Alpha (2018, com8com1 Software) - Germany
 Pogostuck: Rage With Your Friends'' (2019, Hendrik Felix Pohl) - Germany

External links
 Gamestudio's main site
 Gamestudio Community
 Future of the engine
 The new features

References

Video game development software
Freeware game engines
Video game IDE

3D GameStudio


Gun dogs or gundogs, also called bird dogs, are types of dogs used to help hunters find and retrieve game (the animals the hunters are hunting), usually birds.

Gundogs are divided into three primary types: retrievers, flushing dogs, and pointing breeds. Flushing dogs flush game from hiding. Pointer dogs point their muzzle towards game to allow the hunter to locate the animal. Retrievers retrieve game once it is killed. Some kennel clubs define a Gundog Group for gundogs, while other kennel clubs include them in the Sporting Group. The three most popular types are: Spaniel, Golden Retriever and Labrador.

Other websites
Gun dog magazine

Working dogs

Gun dog


Abigail is a female given name. The name comes from the Biblical Hebrew name  ʾĂvî-Ghayil, meaning "my father's joy" (alternatively "my father is exulted" or "my father is joyful", among others). It is also a surname.

The name can be shortened to "Abbey", "Abby", "Abbi", "Abbie", "Abi", "Abs", or "Aby", as well as "Gail", "Gayle", among others.

Biblical name

Abigail was the wife of King David in the Hebrew Bible's Book of Samuel, and is described as an intelligent, beautiful, loyal woman.
Abigail was the mother of Amasa, the commander-in-chief of Absalom's army (2 Samuel 17:25).

Translations
 Arabic: ابيجايل "Abigail" (Egypt) ابيغيل "Abighail"  (other Arab countries).
 Bengali: এবিগেল (Ēbigēla)
 Biblical Greek: Abigaia
 Biblical Hebrew: אביגיל
 Bulgarian: Абигейл
 Catalan: Abigail
 Cantonese: 阿比基爾 (aa3 bei5 gei1 ji5)
 Chinese Simplified: 阿比盖尔 (Ā bǐ gài ěr)
 Chinese Traditional: 艾比蓋兒
 Danish: Abigail, Abigael
 Dutch: Abigail, Abigaïl
 Fijian: Apikali
 French: Abigaïl, Abigaël
 German: Abigail
 Gujarati: એબીગેઇલ (Ēbīgē'ila)
 Haitian Creole: Abigayèl
 Hawaiian: Apikalia, ʻApikaʻila
 Hebrew: אביגיל, Avigail / Abigail, אֲבִיגָיִל (ʾĂḇîḡáyil)
 Hindi: सेविका (Sēvikā)
 Hungarian: Abigél
 Irish: Abigeál
 Italian: Abigaille
 Japanese: アビゲイル (Abigeiru)
 Korean: 애비게일 (Aebigeil)
 Macedonian: Авигеја (Avigeja)
 Maori: Apikaira
 Mongolian: Ивээл (ᠢᠪᠡᠭᠡᠯ)
 Nepali: अबीगेलले (Abīgēlalē)
 Persian: آبیگل - ابیگیل -  ابیگل
 Portuguese: Abigail
 Punjabi: ਅਬੀਗੈਲ (Abīgaila)
 Russian:  (Avigeya); used predominantly in biblical contexts
 Serbian: Абигејл (Abigejl) but in biblical context Ависага (Avisaga) is used
 Somali: Abiigayil
 Spanish: Abigaíl
 Swahili: Abigaeli
 Swedish: Abigail
 Turkish: Abigail, Avigayil
 Ukrainian: Абіґейл
 Urdu: ابیگیل
 Yiddish: אַביגאַיל
 Yoruba: Ábígẹlì

People with the given name
 Abigail Adams née Smith (1744–1818), First Lady of the United States to President John Adams
 Abigail Abbot Bailey (1746–1815), American memoirist
 Abigail Binay (born 1975), Filipina politician
 Abigail Breslin (born 1996), American actress
 Abigail Camilleri, Maltese politician
 Abbey Clancy (born 1986), English model
 Abigail Conceição de Souza (1921–2007), Brazilian footballer
 Abbie Cornish (born 1982), Australian actress
 Abigail Cowen (born 1998), American actress
 Abigail Cruttenden (born 1969), English television actress
 Abby Dahlkemper (born 1993), American soccer player
 Abigail Fillmore née Powers (1798–1853), First Lady of the United States to President Millard Fillmore
 Abigail Folger (1943–1969), American heiress and murder victim
 Abigail Glen (born 2001), English cricketer
 Annette Abigael Hamilton (1806–1879), Norwegian author and fairy-tale collector
 Abigail and Brittany Hensel (born 1990), American conjoined twins
 Abigail Franks (c. 1696–1756), Colonial-era New York City Jewish woman and letter writer
 Abigael González Valencia (born 1972), Mexican suspected drug lord
 Abigail Campbell Kawānanakoa (1882–1945), Hawaiian princess
 Abigail Kapiolani Kawānanakoa (1903–1961), Hawaiian princess
 Abigail Kinoiki Kekaulike Kawānanakoa (1926–2022), Hawaiian princess
 Abigail Maheha (1832–1861), Hawaiian princess
 Abigail Masham, Baroness Masham (c.1670–1734), British baroness
 Abigail Paduch (born 2000), Australian judoka
 Abigail (actress), aka Abigail Rogan (born 1946), Australian actress
 Abigail Rogers, (1818–1869) American advocate for women's rights and women's education
 Abigail Seldin (born 1988), American edtech entrepreneur
 Abigail Adams Smith (1765–1813), first-born child of John Adams, the former President of the United States
 Abigail Spanberger (born 1979), American politician
 Abigail Spears (born 1981), American tennis player
 Abigail Spencer (born 1981), American actress
 Abigail Swann, American atmospheric scientist and ecologist
 Abigael Tarus (born 1981), Kenyan volleyball player
 Abigail Thorn (born 1993), British actress and YouTuber who runs the channel "Philosophy Tube"
 Abi Titmuss (born 1976), British actress
 Abigail Goodrich Whittelsey (1788–1858), American educator, publisher, editor
 Abigail Williams (Salem witch trials) (1680–c.1697), a primary accuser in the Salem witch trials; portrayed in the Arthur Miller play The Crucible

Used as a pseudonym:
 Abigail Van Buren, pen name of Pauline Philips, pseudonymous author of the Dear Abby column

Fictional characters
 Abigaëlle, a character from the 2014 film Abigaëlle
 Abigail, a character in the South Korean action-comedy webtoon series Denma
 Abigail, a character in the Acts of Faith trilogy by T. Davis Bunn and Janette Oke, wife of Stephen (St. Stephen)
 Abigail, a boss villain character in the Final Fight series, and most recently a playable character in Street Fighter V.
 Abigail, an anthropomorphic ambulance in the children's TV show Finley the Fire Engine
 Abby, a 12-year-old vampire character in the 2010 film Let Me In
 Abigaille, a character in Giuseppe Verdi's opera Nabucco
 Abigail, one of the characters available for marriage in farming simulation role-playing video game Stardew Valley
 Dark Priest Abigail, in the Bastard!! Japanese manga/anime series
 Mother Abagail, the personification of good in Stephen King's novel The Stand
 Princess Abigail, the haughty daughter of King Midas on the ABC television series, Once Upon A Time
 Abigail the Breeze Fairy, a character from the Rainbow Magic book franchise
 Abigail Anderson (aka Abby or Abs), playable character in Naughty Dog's videogame The Last of Us Part II
 Abigail "Abby" Archer, the main protagonist in the Canadian animated television series Grossology
 Abbey Bartlet, the First Lady of the United States in the television drama The West Wing
 Abigail Bellweather, a character from the TV series Motherland: Fort Salem
 Abigail Bird, a supporting character in the 1976–2000 American comic strip Motley's Crew
 Abigail Brand, Special Agent, commanding officer of S.W.O.R.D., that deals with defending the Earth from extraterrestrial threats
 Abi Branning, in the BBC soap opera EastEnders
 Abigail Callaghan, a minor character from the 2014 Disney 3D computer-animated film Big Hero 6
 Abigail Chase in National Treasure film franchise
 Abigail Deveraux, student in the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives
 Abigail Dixon, a student in the Australian mockumentary Summer Heights High
 Abby Hammond, daughter character in the television series Santa Clarita Diet
 Abby Hatcher, the eponymous protagonist in the Nick Jr. animated television series Abby Hatcher
 Abby Holland, DC Comics character
 Abigail Lincoln (aka Numbuh 5), a female black character from the Cartoon Network animated television series Codename: Kids Next Door
 Abby Lockhart, medical doctor in the television drama ER
 Abby Maitland, zoologist in the British television series Primeval
 Abigail Mills, character in Sleepy Hollow (TV series)
 Abigail Pershing, formerly known as Abagail Merriwick, is a main character in the Hallmark Channel original series The Good Witch
 Abigail Roberts, the name of John Marston's wife in Red Dead Redemption and RDR 2
 Abby Sciuto, forensic scientist in the television drama NCIS
 Abigail Stevenson, in The Baby-sitters Club children's book series by Ann Martin
 Abigail Stone, a supporting Jewish character from the 2021 animated film Spirit Untamed
 Abigail Jane Stewart in Kristiana Gregory's The Winter of Red Snow: The Revolutionary War Diary of Abigail Jane Stewart
 Abigail Stock, a supporting character in the British television series Skins
 Abigail Trant, a character from the 1991 film The Man in the Moon
 Abigail Williams, character in the CBS soap opera As the World Turns
 Abigail Zenobia, a daughter of Valentine Michael Smith and Anne in the 1961 science fiction novel Stranger in a Strange Land

People with the surname
 Francis Abigail (1840–1921), Australian politician
 Peter Abigail (born 1948), Australian army officer
 Robert Abigail (born 1980), Dutch DJ

See also

 Gilla (disambiguation)
 Avigayil, an Israeli settlement

References

Notes

Sources
 А. В. Суперанская (A. V. Superanskaya). "Современный словарь личных имён: Сравнение. Происхождение. Написание" (Modern Dictionary of First Names: Comparison. Origins. Spelling). Айрис-пресс. Москва, 2005.

Feminine given names
English feminine given names
German feminine given names
Dutch feminine given names
Norwegian feminine given names
Swedish feminine given names
Danish feminine given names
Hebrew feminine given names
Jewish given names

Abigail (name)


Indianola Historic District is a historic district in Indianola, Mississippi. The district is roughly bounded by Percy Street on the north, Front to Adair on the west to Roosevelt, Roosevelt on the east to Front Extended and north.

The district features Queen Anne style and Tudor Revival architecture. The area was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.

References

Queen Anne architecture in Mississippi
Tudor Revival architecture in Mississippi
Geography of Sunflower County, Mississippi
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Mississippi
National Register of Historic Places in Sunflower County, Mississippi

Indianola Historic District


Bullseye might mean:

 Bullseye (sports), the centre of a target and the name given to any shot that hits the bullseye
 Any design or pattern featuring concentric circles, like an archery target, may be referred to as a "bullseye"
 Bullseye (American game show)
 Bullseye (CNBC), U.S. TV program
 Bullseye (UK game show)
 Bullseye (comics), a fictional character in the Marvel Comics universe (comics and film), primarily an enemy of Daredevil.
 Bullseye!, a 1990 comedy motion picture starring Michael Caine and Roger Moore
 Bullseye (shooting competition), also known as Conventional Pistol
 Bullseye (mascot), mascot of Target Corporation

Bullseye


Sanford Victor Levinson (born June 17, 1941) is an American legal scholar known for his writings on constitutional law. A professor at the University of Texas Law School, Levinson is notable for his criticism of the United States Constitution as well as excessive presidential power and has been widely quoted on such topics as the Second Amendment, gay marriage, nominations to the Supreme Court, and other legal issues. He has called for a Second Constitutional Convention of the United States.

Early life and education
Levinson was born in 1941 in Hendersonville, North Carolina. He is Jewish. Levinson graduated from Duke University with an A.B. in 1962, then earned a Ph.D. in government from Harvard University in 1969. He then attended the Stanford Law School, graduating with a J.D. in 1973.

Academic career
Levinson was a member of the department of Politics at Princeton. Levinson taught law at Georgetown, Yale, Harvard, New York University, Boston University, Central European University in Budapest, Panthéon-Assas University, the Hebrew University in Jerusalem., Shalom Hartman Institute in Jerusalem London, Auckland and Melbourne.
In 2001, Levinson was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.  In 2010, he was given the Lifetime Achievement Award by the Law and Courts Section of the American Political Science Association. In 1980, he joined the University of Texas School of Law at Austin, Texas, where he is also a professor of government.  He holds the W. St. John Garwood and W. St. John Garwood, Jr. Centennial Chair in Law.

Books, scholarship, activism
Levinson is quoted often in publications about numerous topics involving law. Levinson has described himself as "a card-carrying A.C.L.U. member who doesn't own a gun" and has argued that the Second Amendment of the United States Constitution limits the government's authority to regulate private gun ownership. Levinson's opinions on Constitutional Law have been reported in the media including his opinions about Second Amendment cases. Levinson has been a panelist on programs sponsored by the Association of American Law Schools and has spoken on topics alongside prominent lawyers such as Kenneth W. Starr. Levinson has been identified as a "prominent liberal law professor" and been grouped with other professors including Laurence H. Tribe of Harvard and Akhil Reed Amar of Yale. Levinson's opinion has been cited during the nominating process for Supreme Court nominees.

Levinson has been critical of Supreme Court justices who have stayed in office despite medical deterioration stemming from longevity; for example, Levinson criticized Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist for a "degree of egoistic narcissism" by declaring six weeks before his death of his intention to stay on. Levinson has called for term limits for Supreme Court justices, as has a growing list of "scholars across the ideological spectrum." He has published comments critical of life tenure for Supreme Court justices.

Levinson is particularly noted for his "seminal article" in the Yale Law Journal entitled The Embarrassing Second Amendment. He argued that the Second Amendment doesn't offer either gun rights or gun control advocates a refuge. He argued "society must decide the issue of gun control on practical as well as on constitutional grounds ... the issue is to what extent does the Second Amendment permit the Government to do what it wants in controlling firearms, just as we have to establish the extent to which it can limit speech or break into your house without a warrant. Levinson has criticized liberal lawyers as treating "the Second Amendment as the equivalent of an embarrassing relative whose mention brings a quick change of subject." He has argued that the Constitution protects some personal ownership of firearms but admits that "courts are likely to rule that Congress can do almost anything short of an outright prohibition of owning guns." Levinson's article was cited in Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas' concurring opinion in Printz v. United States.

Levinson taught a course called Torture, Law and Lawyers at Harvard Law School in 2005. Levinson has written essays in The New York Times. Levinson edited Torture: A Collection (2005). A reviewer commented: "What's most striking about these essays is that despite their abstract and theoretical content, they generally do not contradict the depiction of actual interrogators described by Mackey and Miller. The wall between the liberal campus and a conservative, utilitarian-minded military breaks down because the questions are so serious that few of this book's contributors want to engage in polemics, and few – to their credit – ever seem completely comfortable with their own conclusions."

Levinson has been a critic of the unitary executive and excessive presidential power. In the magazine Dissent, he argued that "constitutional dictators have become the American norm." Presidents "have an incentive to declare emergencies" and assume "quasi-dictatorial powers," wrote Levinson. Levinson was highly critical of president George W. Bush who he regarded as possibly the "absolutely worst president." Levinson notes that President Obama seems likely to repeat the pattern of expansive presidential power. He wrote an essay titled "The Decider Can Become a Dictator" in which he criticized a system which allows presidents to make dictatorial decisions of great consequence without providing ways to discipline those who display bad judgment.
Levinson commented about a ban on gay marriage proposed by former President George W. Bush in legal terms as a Constitutional issue.

Levinson has criticized the Constitution (invoking comparisons to Thomas Jefferson) for what he considers to be its numerous failings, including an inability to remove the President despite lack of confidence by lawmakers and the public, the President's veto power as being "extraordinarily undemocratic", the difficulty of enacting Constitutional amendments through Article 5 and a lack of more representation in the Senate for highly populated states such as California. He also criticizes the primary process in which important states which aren't considered "battleground states" are ignored by presidential candidates. He's often called for a Second Constitutional Convention: "We ought to think about it almost literally every day, and then ask, 'Well, to what extent is government organized to realize the noble visions of the preamble?' That the preamble begins, 'We the people.' It's a notion of a people that can engage in self-determination." Levinson's book Our Undemocratic Constitution: Where the Constitution Goes Wrong (and How We the People Can Correct It) calls for "wholesale revision of our nation's founding document."

Levinson appeared on the Bill Moyers television program in 2007. Levinson's research interests include American Constitutional development, Constitutional design, law, religion, multiculturalism, society, and theories of Constitutional Interpretation. Levinson participates in a blog called Balkinization which focuses on constitutional, First Amendment, and other civil liberties issues as well as a blog called Our Undemocratic Constitution. With Jeffrey K. Tulis, he is co-editor of the Johns Hopkins Series in Constitutional Thought and also of a new series, Constitutional Thinking at University Press of Kansas.

Publications

  Pdf.

See also
 Second Constitutional Convention of the United States

References

External links
 Levinson's page at the University of Texas School of Law
 Bloggingheads dialogue between Levinson and Professor Randy Barnett of the Georgetown University Law Center, Bloggingheads.tv

Living people
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
Legal educators
Harvard University alumni
Stanford Law School alumni
Scholars of constitutional law
Duke University alumni
1941 births
Writers from Austin, Texas
Place of birth missing (living people)
University of Texas faculty
American scholars of constitutional law

Sanford Levinson


{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Albert Kalonji
| image               = Albert Kalonji.jpg
| office1             = Head of State of South Kasai<small>(first as President, later as Mulopwe/God-king/Emperor)</small>
| term_start1         = 9 August 1960
| term_end1           = 5 October 1962
| predecessor1        = Edmond Mukanya Mulenda
| successor1          = position disestablished| birth_date          =
| birth_place         = Hemptinne (near Luluabourg), Belgian Congo
| birth_name          =
| death_date          =
| death_place         = Mbuji-Mayi, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| party               = Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji (MNC-K)
}}

Albert Kalonji Ditunga (6 June 1929 – 20 April 2015)Décès de M. Albert Kalonji Ditunga Mulopwe  Agence Congolaise de Presse. 30 May 2015  was a Congolese politician best known as the leader of the short-lived secessionist state of South Kasai (Sud-Kasaï) during the Congo Crisis.

 Early life
Little is known about Albert Kalonji's early life. He was born in 1927 or 1929 in Hemptinne, Kasai Province, Belgian Congo. He attended Scheut Missionaries-run Catholic schools in Lusambo before studying at an agricultural school in Kisantu for five years.

Early career

Kalonji, a chief from the Luba ethnic group, began his political career under Belgian colonial rule as a member of the nationalist Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) party led by Patrice Lumumba. Kalonji, however, split with Lumumba to form a federalist faction of the party, known as the Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji (MNC-K), which failed to achieve significant success while Lumumba was made Prime Minister of the independent Congo in 1960.

South Kasai

Within days of being independent from Belgium, the new Republic of the Congo found itself torn between competing political factions, as well as by foreign interference. As the situation deteriorated, Moise Tshombe declared the independence of Katanga Province as the State of Katanga on 11 July 1960.

Kalonji, claiming that the Baluba were being persecuted in the Congo and needed their own state in their traditional Kasai homeland, followed suit shortly afterwards and declared the autonomy of the diamond-rich South Kasai on 8 August, with himself as head. Unlike Tshombe, Kalonji shrank from declaring full independence from the Congo and rather declared its "autonomy" with a hypothetical, federalised Congo. He, as representatives of his party, continued to sit in the Congolese parliaments in Léopoldville.

In emulation of Winston Churchill, he adopted the V sign for victory to express his confidence in South Kasai's ability to achieve its goals.

On 12 April 1961, Kalonji's father was granted the title Mulopwe (which roughly translates to "emperor" or "god-king"), but he immediately "abdicated" in favor of his son. On 16 July, In April 1961, Kalonji took the royal title Mulopwe ("King of the Baluba") to tie the state more closely to the pre-colonial Luba Empire. The act divided the South Kasaian authorities and Kalonji was disavowed by the majority of South Kasai's parliamentary representatives in Léopoldville.[d] The move was controversial with members of Kalonji's own party and cost him much support.

Kalonji's reign, however, proved to be short-lived. As preparation for the invasion of Katanga, Congolese government troops invaded and occupied South Kasai, becoming involved in ethnic-based violence and displacing thousands of Baluba. On 30 December, Kalonji was arrested. He managed to escape shortly afterwards. The administrative apparatus of South Kasai survived, under Congolese occupation, until a coup d'état was led against Kalonjists by the state's Prime Minister, Joseph Ngalula, in October 1962 when the state returned to the Congo.

Legacy and subsequent activities

Escaping from arrest, Kalonji fled to Francoist Spain. He returned to the Congo between 1964-65 to hold a ministerial portfolio in the central government led by Tshombe but returned to exile following Joseph-Désiré Mobutu's 1965 coup d'état, which ended his political career. Under Mobutu, the territory of South Kasai was divided into two regions to discourage future secessionist tendencies.

In exile in Europe, Kalonji still claimed the title Souverain Possesseur des Terres occupées par les Balubas (Sovereign Owner of the Lands occupied by the Baluba). He wrote about his experiences in Memorandum: Ma lutte, au Kasai, pour la Verité au service de la Justice ("Memorandum: My fight in Kasai in the Service of Truth and Justice", published 1964) and Congo 1960. La Sécession du Sud-Kasaï. La vérité du Mulopwe'' ("Congo 1960. The South Kasai Secession. Truth from the Mulopwe", published 2005). He died in April 2015 and was buried in Katende.

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links
RDC: décès d'Albert Kalonji Mulopwe at Radio Okapi

1929 births
2015 deaths
Monarchs in Africa
People from Kasaï-Central
Luba people
Mouvement National Congolais politicians
Heads of state of former countries
Heads of state of states with limited recognition
Democratic Republic of the Congo anti-communists
People of the Congo Crisis
Governors of provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Pretenders
Self-proclaimed monarchy
21st-century Democratic Republic of the Congo people

Albert Kalonji


The 1978 Lamar Cardinals football team represented Lamar University in the 1978 NCAA Division I-A football season as a member of the Southland Conference.  NCAA Division I split into Division I-A, the current Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), and Division I-AA, the current Football Championship Subdivision (FCS), for football in 1978.  Lamar and the Southland Conference opted to compete at the Division I-A level.  The Cardinals played their home games at Cardinal Stadium now named Provost Umphrey Stadium in Beaumont, Texas.  Lamar finished the 1978 season with a 2–8–1 overall record and a 0–5 conference record.  The 1978 season marked Bob Frederick's final season as Lamar's head football coach.

Schedule

References

Lamar
Lamar Cardinals football seasons
Lamar Cardinals football

1978 Lamar Cardinals football team