Buddhism in Nepal started spreading since the reign of Ashoka through Indian and Tibetan missionaries. The Kiratas were the first people in Nepal who embraced Gautama Buddha's teachings, followed by the Licchavis and Newar people.
Buddha was born in Lumbini in the Shakya Kingdom. Lumbini is considered to lie in present-day Rupandehi District, Lumbini zone of Nepal.
Buddhism is the second-largest religion in Nepal. According to 2001 census, 10.74% of Nepal's population practiced Buddhism, consisting mainly of Tibeto-Burman-speaking ethnicities and the Newar. However, in the 2011 census, Buddhists made up just 9% of the country's population.

It has not been possible to assign with certainty the year in which Prince Siddhartha, the birth name of the Buddha, was born; it is usually placed at around 563 BCE.  In Nepal's hill and mountain regions Hinduism has absorbed Buddhist tenets to such an extent that in many cases they have shared deities as well as temples. For instance, the Muktinath Temple is sacred and a common house of worship for both Hindus and Buddhists.

Buddhism is currently experiencing a decline in Nepal with latest census showing 8.21% of Nepal's population professing Buddhism, a decline of 2.5% from 2001. A surge of Christianity among native population may be the cause of this decline.

Overview

In Nepal, the majority of people identify as Hindu. However, Buddhist influences are pervasive in most aspects of the culture of Nepal to an extent that Buddhist and Hindu temples are shared places of worship for peoples of both faiths so that, unlike in other countries, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in Nepal is not always clear. During the reign of King Amshuverma, the Nepalese princess Bhrikuti played a significant role in spreading and developing Buddhism in Tibet. Tibetan Buddhist architecture has long been influenced by Nepalese artists and sculptors like Araniko. The sacred Buddhist texts in Mahayana Buddhism are mainly written in the Ranjana alphabet, the script of the Newars, or scripts like Lantsa, which are derived from Ranjana.

In traditional Nepalese Buddhism, there are nine special texts which are called the "Nine Dharma Jewels" (Navagrantha), and these are considered the nine books of Buddhism par excellence:

 Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
 Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra
 Ten Stages Sutra
 Samādhirāja Sūtra
 Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra
 Lotus Sutra
 Tathāgataguhya Sūtra
 Lalitavistara Sūtra
 Golden Light Sutra

Among the Tibeto-Burman-speaking peoples, Tibetan Buddhism is the most widely practised form. Newar Buddhism is a form of Vajrayana influenced by Theravada Buddhism and is the oldest known form of the Vajrayana tradition and is significantly older than the Tibetan Buddhism. Many Buddhist groups are also influenced by Hinduism. Buddhism is the dominant religion of the thinly populated northern areas, which are inhabited by Tibetan-related peoples, namely the Sherpa, Lopa, Manangi, Thakali, Lhomi, Dolpa and Nyimba. They constitute a small minority of the country's population.

Ethnic groups that live in central Nepal such as the Gurungs, Lepcha, Tamang, Magar, Newars, Yakkha, Jirel, Thami, Chhantyal and Chepang are also Buddhist. These ethnic groups have larger populations compared to their northern neighbours. They came under the influence of Hinduism due to their close contacts with the Hindu castes. In turn, many of them eventually adopted Hinduism and have been largely integrated into the caste system.

The Kirati people, especially the Limbu and the Rai peoples, have also adopted Tibetan Buddhist practises from their Buddhist neighbours.

History

Buddha was born as Prince Siddhartha in Nepal. He attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya, in present-day Bihar, India. He there preached his teachings and thus Buddhism came into existence.

Pre-Lichchavi Buddhism
Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire put up a pillar at Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha, in the second century BCE. After the Third Buddhist council, Ashoka sent missionaries to Nepal.

Buddhism during the Licchavi period (400-750 CE)
The Licchavi period saw the flourishing of both Hinduism and Buddhism in Nepal. Excellent examples of Buddhist art of the period are the half-sunken Buddha in Pashupatinath, the sleeping Vishnu in Budhanilkantha, and the statue of Buddha and the various representations of Vishnu in Changu Narayan.

Another Buddhist text, the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa, mentioned Manadeva as the King of Nepal Mandala. Researchers believe the Mulasarvastivadavinaya was written in the 2nd century CE, and that the Manjushriulakalpa was written during Manadeva's reign. The Swayambhu Purana, the ancient Buddhist Purana text, and a Licchavi inscription all mentioned Nepal Mandala.

Buddhist inscriptions and chronicles and Tibetan sources also record a few tantric Buddhist deities, namely Akshobhya, Amitabha, Vajrayogini, Vajrabhairava, Usnisavijaya and Samantabhadra. Strong influence from pre-Buddhist beliefs resulted in belief in Buddhist deities such as the Pancaraksas.

Religious tolerance and syncretism were stressed during the Licchavi period. King Manadeva paid homage at both Hindu and Buddhist sites. His family subsequently found expression for their beliefs in various religions.

The worship of the Caitya and the Rath Jatra cart festival of Avalokitesvara were introduced around this period. Many ancient sites in the Kathmandu Valley were identified with major Buddhist Caityas, such as Swayambhunath, Boudhanath, Kathmandu and the four "Ashoka" stupas of Patan, and another two hundred stone Caityas dating from the Licchavi Period, were testified to the widespread antiquity of Caitya worship.

It is possible that this practice, in its earliest incarnation, was related to the worship of stones, which may have originated in the early, rival Kirata inhabitants of the Valley, prior to the Licchavis. According to one of the earliest Licchavi inscriptions, Caitya worship ordinarily consisted of ritual circumambulation of the caitya and offering standard items such as incense, colored powder, oil lamps and ablutions. At times, the inscriptions indicate, it could even involve resurfacing an existing Caitya and covering the new surface with many elaborate paintings.

Caitya worship was an important factor in bringing more of the proto-Newar tribal inhabitants into the Buddhist fold, as it was a devotional practice designed for the general public. Thus, the masses probably began practicing the cart festival of Avalokitesvara/Matsyendranath (Jana Baha Dyah Jatra and Bunga Dyah Jatra) during the latter half of the seventh century AD.

This festival was celebrated by hundreds or even thousands of people, who helped to construct and transport a huge, wheeled cart that bore the image of Avalokitesvara for several days or weeks along a specific route. The introduction of this festival must have been an instant success among the majority of the Kathmandu Valley population. This strengthened Buddhism's standing in relation to the other Hindu and Animist faiths of the Valley at the time.

Forty stone inscriptions made some mention of Buddhism throughout the Licchavi period. Most of the references are concerned with monasticism. However, almost nothing is known about the day-to-day life in the Vihara monasteries or how they functioned administratively.

The names of the fifteen Buddhist monasteries are known, and it is clear from the context in which some of these are named that they are among the most important religious sites of that time. It is not known for certain what schools of Buddhism were most prominent at the time. But the strongest early influences (aside from an even earlier probable substratum of Pali Buddhism) probably came from the Mahasanghika, Sammitiya and the Sarvastivada schools. The Makhyamaka and Yogacara schools were thought to be more influential in the later period with the emergence and growth of the Vajrayana school.

Inscriptional evidence also proves that there was a string of traditional methods of making religious gifts. These offerings were used for earning blessing and making merit, and women in the Buddhist community seem to have taken the lead in offering these gifts. Strikingly, parallel points within the Buddhist cave contain inscriptions of Maharashtra, which predated the Licchvi Nepal. The references in the Licchavi inscriptions to the Mahayana and Vajrayana will be mentioned below in connection with Buddhist art and notable Buddhist figures of the Licchavi period.

Buddhism during the Licchavi period (600-1200)

Buddhism during the Malla dynasty (1200–1769)

The Malla dynasty saw to the golden period of the syncretism of Hindu and Buddhist art forms by the Newar. The Paubha, the Newar counterpart of the Tibetan Buddhist Thangka, flourished in this period.

During the reign of Jayasthiti Malla, after implementation of Manawa dharmasastra, celibate monks were banned from practicing in Nepal. This gave way to the decelibate Newar Buddhism. Because of this, Theravada Buddhism was lost in Nepal only to be revitalized in the beginning of the 20th century.

Buddhism during the Rana dynasty (1846–1951)

There is an incorrect assumption that, due to perceived similarity to tantric Hinduism, that Modern Newar Buddhism in Nepal has largely been absorbed into mainstream Hinduism. However, Newar Buddhism has retained a distinct identity, and nearly all practices, art forms and castes remain. In the north, people of Tibetan origin continued to be the much-unchanged practises of Tibetan Buddhism, especially in the case of the Nyimba of Northwest Nepal. On the other hand, the Thakali, who had traditionally played an important role in the Nepali society but yet retained Tibetan Buddhism, have begun to embrace Hinduism as well in the recent years.

It is significant to note that during the autocratic Rana regime, several Theravada Buddhists were banished from Nepal for preaching Buddhism. The Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal in 1926 and 1944 was prompted by an attempt to suppress the revival of Theravada Buddhism which began in the 1920s. In 1946, a Sri Lankan goodwill mission visited Kathmandu and interceded on behalf of the monks. The delegation emphasized that Nepal was the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, and that his followers should be free to practice their faith in the country where he was born. Subsequently, the ban was lifted and the monks returned and devoted themselves to spreading the faith with greater energy. Also, the rediscovery of Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, occurred in this era with contributions from among others, General Khadga Sumsher Rana.

Shah Dynasty (1951–2006)

After the overthrow of the Rana dynasty in 1951, Buddhism gradually developed in the country. Theravada Buddhists played a greatly significant role for the Buddhist revival campaign in modern Nepal since the 1920s. This revival movement has changed Buddhism from a religion of some ethnic groups and castes to going beyond the caste and ethnic religion in Nepal. Presently, there are three main Buddhist schools; Tibetan Buddhism, Newar Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism.

Tourism is an important factor for promoting Nepali Buddhism to the world. Every year, Kathmandu receives more than 10,000 travellers from all over the world just to visit the Boudha Boudhanath and the Swyambhu Maha Chaitya Swayambhunath stupas. These are remarkable and significant architectural sites, which are only found in Nepal. Apart from these two main monuments there are hundreds of Buddhist monuments in Kathmandu and in other cities of Nepal.

Republic of Nepal (2006-present)
Nepal officially became a secular state in 2006. All religions in Nepal now have equal opportunities to propagate according to their belief.

Demographics
According to the 2011 Census of Nepal, the adherents of Buddhism are as follows: NEG denotes newly listed ethnic group, for which 2001 census figures are not available.

Between 2001 and 2011 census, the percentage of Buddhists have declined by 1.7%, from 10.74% to 9.04%. All major ethnic groups (except Sherpa, Bhote and Thakali) showed decline in percentage of Buddhists. It is interesting to note that in the 2011 census not a single Chhantyal, Jirel and Lepcha reported themselves as Buddhist. In the 2011 census, a total of 11,233 Chhantyal (95.1%) reported themselves as Hindu. Likewise, 4,604 Jirel (79.7%) and 2,907 Lepcha (84.4%)  reported themselves as Bon religion followers. Of the Ghale group, which was added in the 2011 Census, more than 50% of them reported themselves as Buddhist followers.

Buddhism experiences further decline to 8.21% in its latest 2021 census, numbering around 2,394,549 followers (total 8.21%). This represents a decline of 0.79% from 2011's census and 2.5% from 2001's data.

See also
 Dhammalok Mahasthavir
 Pragyananda Mahasthavir
 Kumar Kashyap Mahasthavir
 Aniruddha Mahathera
 Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal
 Dharmodaya
 Buddha Dharma wa Nepal Bhasa (magazine)
 Dharmaditya Dharmacharya
 Kindo Baha
 Pranidhipurna Mahavihar
 Newar Buddhism
 Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Nepal
 List of monasteries in Nepal
 List of Mahaviharas of Newar Buddhism
 List of stupas in Nepal

References

Further reading

External links
 Holy Sites of Buddhism: Lumbini - Buddha's Birthplace
 Buddhism in Nepal
 Vajrayana Vipassyana - by Ācārya Mahayogi Dharma Vajra (Sridhar SJB Rana)
 Theravada Buddhism in Nepal -Bhikkhu Kondanya
 Nepal Vipassana Centers - S.N. Goenka
 Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Studies
 Buddhactivity Dharma Centres database

History of Buddhism in Asia
Nepal
Buddhism

Buddhism in Nepal


Christian liturgy is a pattern for worship used (whether recommended or prescribed) by a Christian congregation or denomination on a regular basis. The term liturgy comes from Greek and means "public work". Within Christianity, liturgies descending from the same region, denomination, or culture are described as ritual families.

The majority of Christian denominations hold church services on the Lord's Day (with many offering Sunday morning and Sunday evening services); a number of traditions have mid-week Wednesday evening services as well. In some Christian denominations, liturgies are held daily, with these including those in which the canonical hours are prayed, as well as the offering of the Eucharistic liturgies such as Mass, among other forms of worship. In addition to this, many Christians attend services of worship on holy days such as Christmas, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Ascension Thursday, among others depending on the Christian denomination.

In most Christian traditions, liturgies are presided over by clergy wherever possible.

History
The holding of church services pertains to the observance of the Lord's Day in Christianity. The Bible has a precedent for a pattern of morning and evening worship that has given rise to Sunday morning and Sunday evening services of worship held in the churches of many Christian denominations today, a "structure to help families sanctify the Lord's Day." In  and , "God commanded the daily offerings in the tabernacle to be made once in the morning and then again at twilight". In Psalm 92, which is a prayer concerning the observance of the Sabbath, the prophet David writes "It is good to give thanks to the Lord, to sing praises to your name, O Most High; to declare your steadfast love in the morning, and your faithfulness by night" (cf.  ). Church father Eusebius of Caesarea thus declared: "For it is surely no small sign of God's power that throughout the whole world in the churches of God at the morning rising of the sun and at the evening hours, hymns, praises, and truly divine delights are offered to God. God's delights are indeed the hymns sent up everywhere on earth in his Church at the times of morning and evening."

Types

Communion liturgies
The Catholic Mass is the service in which the Eucharist is celebrated. In Latin, the corresponding word is Missa, taken from the dismissal at the end of the liturgy - Ite, Missa est, literally "Go, it is the dismissal", translated idiomatically in the current English Roman Missal as "Go forth, the Mass is ended." Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches call this service the Divine Liturgy. The descendant Churches of the Church of the East and various other Syriac Churches call their Liturgy the Holy Qurbana - Holy Offering. Anglicans often use the Roman Catholic term mass, or simply Holy Eucharist. Mass is the common term used in the Lutheran Church in Europe but more often referred to as the Divine Service, Holy Communion, or the Holy Eucharist in North American Lutheranism. The Byzantine Rite uses the term "Divine Liturgy" to denote the Eucharistic service.

Lutherans retained and utilized much of the Roman Catholic mass since the early modifications by Martin Luther. The general order of the mass and many of the various aspects remain similar between the two traditions. Latin titles for the sections, psalms, and days has been widely retained, but more recent reforms have omitted this. Recently, Lutherans have adapted much of their revised mass to coincide with the reforms and language changes brought about by post-Vatican II changes.

Protestant traditions vary in their liturgies or "orders of worship" (as they are commonly called). Other traditions in the west often called "Mainline" have benefited from the Liturgical Movement which flowered in the mid/late 20th century. Over the course of the past several decades, these Protestant traditions have developed remarkably similar patterns of liturgy, drawing from ancient sources as the paradigm for developing proper liturgical expressions. Of great importance to these traditions has been a recovery of a unified pattern of Word and Sacrament in Lord's Day liturgy.

Many other Protestant Christian traditions (such as the Pentecostal/Charismatics, Assembly of God, and Non-denominational churches), while often following a fixed "order of worship", tend to have liturgical practices that vary from that of the broader Christian tradition.

Commonalities
There are common elements found in most Western liturgical churches which predate the Protestant Reformation. These include:
The Procession with the cross, followed by the other acolytes, the deacons and the priest
The Invocation (beginning with the Sign of the Cross)
Confession at the foot of the altar
Absolution
Introit, Psalms, Hymns, chants
Litany
Kyrie and Gloria
Salutation
Collect
Liturgical Readings (call and response)
Alleluia Verse and other responses

Scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the Gospels.
The Creed
The Prayers
The Lord's Prayer
Commemoration of the Saints and prayers for the faithful departed.
Intercessory prayers for the church and its leadership, and often, for earthly rulers.
Incense
Offering
A division between the first half of the liturgy, open to both Church members and those wanting to learn about the church, and the second half, the celebration of the Eucharist proper, open only to baptized believers in good standing with the church.
 The Consecration
 The Offertory Prayer
Communion
Sanctus prayer as part of the anaphora
A three-fold dialogue between priest and people at the beginning of the anaphora or eucharistic prayer
An anaphora, eucharistic canon, "great thanksgiving", canon or "hallowing", said by the priest in the name of all present, in order to consecrate the bread and wine as the Body and Blood of Christ.
A prayer to God the Father, usually invoking the Holy Spirit, asking that the bread and wine become, or be manifested as, the body and blood of Christ.
Expressions within the anaphora which indicate that sacrifice is being offered in remembrance of Christ's crucifixion.
A section of the anaphora which asks that those who receive communion may be blessed thereby, and often, that they may be preserved in the faith until the end of their lives
The Peace or "Passing of the Peace"
Agnus Dei
Benediction

Divine office
The term "Divine Office" describes the practice of "marking the hours of each day and sanctifying the day with prayer".

In the Western Catholic Church, there are multiple forms of the office. The Liturgy of the Hours is the official form of the office used throughout the Latin Church, but many other forms exist including the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the forms of the office specific to various religious orders, and the Roman Breviary which was Standard before the Second Vatican Council, to name a few. There were eight such hours, corresponding to certain times of the day: Matins (sometimes called Vigil), Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Compline. The Second Vatican Council ordered the suppression of Prime.

In monasteries, Matins was generally celebrated before dawn, or sometimes over the course of a night; Lauds at the end of Matins, generally at the break of day; Prime at 6 AM; Terce at 9AM; Sext at noon; None at 3PM; Vespers at the rising of the Vespers or Evening Star (usually about 6PM); and Compline was said at the end of the day, generally right before bed time.

In Anglican churches, the offices were combined into two offices: Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer, the latter sometimes known as Evensong. In more recent years, the Anglicans have added the offices of Noonday and Compline to Morning and Evening Prayer as part of the Book of Common Prayer. The Anglican Breviary, containing 8 full offices, is not the official liturgy of the Anglican Church.

In Lutheranism, like Anglicanism, the offices were also combined into the two offices of Matins and Vespers (both of which are still maintained in modern Lutheran prayer books and hymnals). A common practice among Lutherans in America is to pray these offices mid-week during Advent and Lent. The office of Compline is also found in some older Lutheran worship books and more typically used in monasteries and seminaries.

The Byzantine Rite maintains a daily cycle of seven non-sacramental services:
 Vespers (Gk. Hesperinos) at sunset commences the liturgical day
 Compline (Gk. Apodeipnou, "after supper")
 Midnight Office (Gk. mesonyktikon)
 Matins (Gk. Orthros), ending at dawn (in theory; in practice, the time varies greatly)
 The First Hour
 The Third and Sixth Hours
 The Ninth Hour
The sundry Canonical Hours are, in practice, grouped together into aggregates so that there are three major times of prayer a day: Evening, Morning and Midday; for details, see Canonical hours — Aggregates.

Great Vespers as it is termed in the Byzantine Rite, is an extended vespers service used on the eve of a major Feast day, or in conjunction with the divine liturgy, or certain other special occasions.

In the Maronite Rite, the office is arranged so that the liturgical day begins at sundown. The first office of the day is the evening office of Ramsho, followed by the night office of Sootoro, concluding with the morning office of Safro. In the Maronite Eparchies of the United States, the approved breviary set is titled the Prayer of the Faithful.

Partial list of Christian liturgical rites

Different Christian traditions have employed different rites:

Western Christian churches

Catholic Church (Western)

Roman Rite, in which the historical forms of the Mass are usually classified as follows:
Pre-Tridentine Mass (the various pre-1570 forms)
The Tridentine Mass (1570–1969), the 1962 version of which is still permitted as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite as confirmed by Summorum Pontificum
The Mass of Paul VI, since 1970 the ordinary form of the Roman Rite (1970–present)
Anglican Use, (in personal ordinariates and Anglican Use parishes)
Rite of Lyons (variant of the Roman rite in Lyons, France and neighbouring areas)
Ambrosian Rite (in Milan, Italy and neighbouring areas)
Aquileian Rite (defunct: northeastern Italy)
Rite of Braga (in Braga, Portugal)
Durham Rite (defunct: Durham, England)
Gallican Rite (defunct: 'Gaul' i.e. France)
Mozarabic Rite (in Toledo and Salamanca, Spain)
Celtic Rite (defunct: British Isles)
Sarum Rite (defunct: England)
Catholic Order Rites (generally defunct)
 Benedictine Rite
 Carmelite Rite
 Carthusian Rite
 Cistercian Rite
 Dominican Rite
 Norbertine Rite

Protestant churches
Historic Protestant Churches have set liturgies, which are referred to as "worship services" or "divine services".

Reformed churches

Protestant Reformation-era ministers of the Reformed tradition used set liturgies which emphasized preaching and the Bible. English Puritans and separatists moved away from set forms in the 17th-century, but many Reformed churches retained liturgies and continue to use them today.

Lutheran churches
Church of Denmark
Church of Norway
Church of Sweden
Church of Finland
Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Slovakia
Slovak Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Serbia
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada
Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod
Divine Service

Anglican Communion

At the time of English Reformation, The Sarum Rite was in use along with the Roman Rite. Reformers in England wanted the Latin mass translated into the English language. Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer authored the Exhortation and Litany in 1544. This was the earliest English-language service book of the Church of England, and the only English-language service to be finished within the lifetime of King Henry VIII. In 1549, Cranmer produced a complete English-language liturgy. Cranmer was largely responsible for the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer. The first edition was predominantly pre-Reformation in its outlook. The Communion Service, Lectionary, and collects in the liturgy were translations based on the Sarum Rite as practised in Salisbury Cathedral.

The revised edition in 1552 sought to assert a more clearly Protestant liturgy after problems arose from conservative interpretation of the mass on the one hand, and a critique by Martin Bucer (Butzer) on the other. Successive revisions are based on this edition, though important alterations appeared in 1604 and 1662. The 1662 edition is still authoritative in the Church of England and has served as the basis for many of Books of Common Prayer of national Anglican churches around the world. Those deriving from Scottish Episcopal descent, like the Prayer Books of the American Episcopal Church, have a slightly different liturgical pedigree.

Methodist churches
The Methodist liturgical tradition is based on the Anglican heritage and was passed along to Methodists by John Wesley (an Anglican priest who led the early Methodist movement) who wrote that
When the Methodists in America were separated from the Church of England, John Wesley himself provided a revised version of the Book of Common Prayer called The Sunday Service of the Methodists. Wesley's Sunday Service has shaped the official liturgies of the Methodists ever since.

The United Methodist Church has official liturgies for services of Holy Communion, baptism, weddings, funerals, ordination, anointing of the sick for healing, and daily office "praise and prayer" services. Along with these, there are also special services for holy days such as All Saints Day, Ash Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Easter Vigil. All of these liturgies and services are contained in The United Methodist Hymnal and The United Methodist Book of Worship (1992). Many of these liturgies are derived from the Anglican tradition's Book of Common Prayer. In most cases, congregations also use other elements of liturgical worship, such as candles, vestments, paraments, banners, and liturgical art.

Because John Wesley advocated outdoor evangelism, revival services are a traditional worship practice of Methodism that are often held in local churches, as well as at outdoor camp meetings, brush arbour revivals, and at tent revivals.

United and Uniting churches

Church of South India
The liturgy of the Church of South India combines many traditions, including that of the Methodists and such smaller churches as the Church of the Brethren and the Disciples of Christ. After the formation of the Church of South India the first synod met at Madurai in March 1948 and appointed a liturgical committee. The first Synod in 1948 (where the Holy Communion service was that of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland) appointed a liturgy committee, composed mainly of Western theologians. The liturgy so prepared was first used at the Synod Session in 1950 and approved for use throughout the church "wherever it is desired" in 1954. The first version of the Confirmation Service for the new church was also released in 1950, translated into regional languages and was quickly adopted by the various dioceses.

By 1962 the Liturgy Committee was able to prepare a number of Orders. They were Eucharist, Morning and Evening Prayer, Marriage Service, Burial Service, Ordination Service and Covenant Service (1954), Holy Baptism (1955) and Almanac (1955–56). The Book of Common Worship of the CSI was published in 1963 with all the above orders of service. The orders of service consist of: Order for Morning and Evening Worship, Order of Service for the Baptized Persons, Order for Holy Baptism, Order for the Churching of Women, Order for Holy Matrimony, Order for the Burial Service, Order for the Covenant Service, Order for Ordination Services.

The CSI liturgy was again revised in the year 2004 and published as a hardback book in 2006.

The CSI Synod Liturgical Committee has developed several new orders for worship for different occasions. The order for the Communion Service, known as the CSI Liturgy, has been internationally acclaimed as an important model for new liturgies. The Committee has also produced three different cycles of lectionaries for daily Bible readings and "propers", and collects for Communion services. In addition, the Committee has also brought out a Supplement to the Book of Common Worship.

Eastern Christian churches

Eastern Orthodox Church
Liturgy of St. James (Byzantine Rite)
Liturgy of St Basil (Byzantine Rite)
Liturgy of St John Chrysostom (Byzantine Rite)
Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts (Byzantine Rite)
Western Rites
 Numerous; see Western Rites in Orthodox

Oriental Orthodox Churches
Liturgy of St. James (West Syriac Rite)
Liturgy of St. Cyril, also known as Liturgy of St. Mark (Alexandrian Rite)
Liturgy of St. Basil the Great (Alexandrian & Armenian Rites)
Liturgy of St. Gregory the Theologian (Alexandrian Rite)
Liturgy of St. Gregory the Illuminator (Armenian Rite)

Assyrian Church of the East
Liturgy of Addai and Mari (East Syriac Rite)
The Hallowing of Nestorius (East Syriac Rite)
The Hallowing of Theodore of Mopsuestia (East Syriac Rite)

The Eastern Catholic Churches

Alexandrian liturgical tradition; 2 rites
Coptic Rite
Ethiopic Rite
Antiochian (Antiochene or West-Syriac) liturgical tradition; 3 rites
(West) Syriac Rite
Maronite Rite
Syro-Malankara Rite
Armenian Rite; 1 rite
East Syriac or Chaldean liturgical tradition; 2 rites
Chaldean Rite
Syro-Malabar Rite
Byzantine (Constantinopolitan) liturgical tradition (very uniform except in language); 14 rites
Albanian, Belarusian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Greek, Hungarian, Italo-Albanian, Macedonian, Melkite, Romanian, Russian, Ruthenian, Slovak, Ukrainian Rite

See also

 Anglican devotions
 Apostolic Tradition
 List of Catholic rites and churches

Notes

References

Further reading
 Reed, Luther D. (1947) The Lutheran Liturgy: a Study [especially] of the Common Service of the Lutheran Church in America. Philadelphia, Penn.: Muhlenberg Press. N.B.: This study also includes some coverage of other Lutheran liturgical services, especially of Matins and Vespers

External links

Religious language
Christian genres

Christian liturgy


The hymen is a thin piece of mucosal tissue that surrounds or partially covers the vaginal opening. A small percentage are born with hymens that are imperforate and completely obstruct the vaginal canal. It forms part of the vulva, or external genitalia, and is similar in structure to the vagina. The term comes straight from the Greek, for 'membrane'.

In children, a common appearance of the hymen is crescent-shaped, although many shapes are possible. Each shape in the natural range has a Latinate name. During puberty, estrogen causes the hymen to change in appearance and become very elastic. Normal variations of the post-pubertal hymen range from thin and stretchy to thick and somewhat rigid. Very rarely, it may be completely absent.

The hymen can rip or tear during first penetrative intercourse, which usually results in pain and, sometimes, mild temporary bleeding or spotting. Minor injuries to the hymen may heal on their own, and not require surgical intervention. Historically it was believed that first penetration was necessarily traumatic, but now sources differ on how common tearing or bleeding are as a result of first intercourse. Therefore, the state of the hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity, though "virginity testing" remains a common practice in some cultures, sometimes accompanied by hymen reconstruction surgery to give the appearance of virginity.

Development and histology
The genital tract develops during embryogenesis, from the third week of gestation to the second trimester, and the hymen is formed following the vagina. At week seven, the urorectal septum forms and separates the rectum from the urogenital sinus. At week nine, the Müllerian ducts move downwards to reach the urogenital sinus, forming the uterovaginal canal and inserting into the urogenital sinus. At week twelve, the Müllerian ducts fuse to create a primitive uterovaginal canal called unaleria. At month five, the vaginal canalization is complete and the fetal hymen is formed from the proliferation of the sinovaginal bulbs (where Müllerian ducts meet the urogenital sinus), and normally becomes perforate before or shortly after birth.

The hymen has dense innervation. In newborn babies, still under the influence of the mother's hormones, the hymen is thick, pale pink, and redundant (folds in on itself and may protrude). For the first two to four years of life, the infant produces hormones that continue this effect. Their hymenal opening tends to be annular (circumferential).

Post neonatal stage, the diameter of the hymenal opening (measured within the hymenal ring) widens by approximately 1 mm for each year of age. During puberty, estrogen causes the hymen to become very elastic and fimbriated.The hymen can stretch or tear as a result of various behaviors, by the use of tampons or menstrual cups, pelvic examinations with a speculum, sexual intercourse, insertion of multiple fingers or items into the vagina, and activities such as gymnastics (doing 'the splits'), horseback riding or trauma caused by a "straddle injury". Remnants of the hymen are called carunculae myrtiformes.

A glass or plastic rod of 6 mm diameter having a globe on one end with varying diameter from 10 to 25 mm, called a Glaister Keen rod, is used for close examination of the hymen or the degree of its rupture. In forensic medicine, it is recommended by health authorities that a physician who must swab near this area of a prepubescent girl avoid the hymen and swab the outer vulval vestibule instead. In cases of suspected rape or child sexual abuse, a detailed examination of the hymen may be performed, but the condition of the hymen alone is often inconclusive.

Anatomic variations

Normal variations of the hymen range from thin and stretchy to thick and somewhat rigid.  An imperforate hymen occurs in 1-2 out of 1,000 infants. The only variation that may require medical intervention is the imperforate hymen, which either completely prevents the passage of menstrual fluid or slows it significantly. In either case, surgical intervention may be needed to allow menstrual fluid to pass or intercourse to take place at all.

Prepubescent hymenal openings come in many shapes, depending on hormonal and activity level, the most common being crescentic (posterior rim): no tissue at the 12 o'clock position; crescent-shaped band of tissue from 1–2 to 10–11 o'clock, at its widest around 6 o'clock. From puberty onwards, depending on estrogen and activity levels, the hymenal tissue may be thicker, and the opening is often fimbriated or erratically shaped. In younger children, a torn hymen will typically heal very quickly. In adolescents, the hymenal opening can naturally extend and variation in shape and appearance increases.

Variations of the female reproductive tract can result from agenesis or hypoplasia, canalization defects, lateral fusion and failure of resorption, resulting in various complications.
 Imperforate: hymenal opening nonexistent; will require minor surgery if it has not corrected itself by puberty to allow menstrual fluids to escape.
 Cribriform, or microperforate: sometimes confused for imperforate, the hymenal opening appears to be nonexistent, but has, under close examination, small perforations.
 Septate: the hymenal opening has one or more bands of tissue extending across the opening.

Trauma

Historically, it was believed that first sexual intercourse was necessarily traumatic to the hymen and always resulted in the hymen being "broken" or torn, causing bleeding. However, research on women in Western populations has found that bleeding during first intercourse does not invariably occur. In one cross-cultural study, slightly more than half of all women self-reported bleeding during first intercourse, with significantly different levels of pain and bleeding reported depending on their region of origin. Not all women experience pain, and one study found a correlation between the experience of strong emotions – such as excitement, nervousness, or fear – with experiencing pain during first intercourse.

In several studies of adolescent female rape victims, where patients were examined at a hospital following sexual assault, half or fewer of virgin victims had any injury to the hymen. Tears of the hymen occurred in less than a quarter of cases. However, virgins were significantly more likely to have injuries to the hymen than non-virgins.

In a study of adolescents who had previously had consensual sex, approximately half showed evidence of trauma to the hymen. Trauma to the hymen may also occur in adult non-virgins following consensual sex, although it is rare. Trauma to the hymen may heal without any visible sign of injury. An observational study of adolescent sexual assault victims found that majority of wounds to the hymen healed without any visible sign of injury having occurred.

Trauma to the hymen is hypothesized to occur as a result of various other behaviors, such as tampon or menstrual cup use, pelvic examinations with a speculum, masturbation, gymnastics, or horseback riding, although the true prevalence of trauma as a result of these activities is unclear.

Cultural significance

The hymen is often attributed important cultural significance in certain communities because of its association with a woman's virginity. In those cultures, an intact hymen is highly valued at marriage in the belief that this is a proof of virginity. Some women undergo hymenorrhaphy to restore their hymen for this reason.

In October 2018, the UN Human Rights Council, UN Women and the World Health Organization (WHO) stated that virginity testing must end as "it is a painful, humiliating and traumatic practice, constituting violence against women".

Womb fury
In the 16th and 17th centuries, medical researchers mistakenly saw the presence or absence of the hymen as founding evidence of physical diseases such as "womb-fury", i.e., (female) hysteria. If not cured, womb-fury would, according to doctors practicing at the time, result in death.

Other animals
Due to similar reproductive system development, many mammals have hymens, including chimpanzees, elephants, manatees, whales, horses and llamas.

See also

Artificial hymen

References

External links

Magical Cups and Bloody Brides—the historical context of virginity
20 Questions About Virginity—Interview with Hanne Blank, author of Virgin: The Untouched History. Discusses relationship between hymen and concept of virginity.
Putting tampon in painlessly Radiology (US – ultrasound) of Hydrocolpos
Evaluating the Child for Sexual Abuse at the American Family Physician
My Corona: The Anatomy Formerly Known as the Hymen & the Myths That Surround It, Scarleteen, Sex education for the real world
The Hymen Myth
Vaginal Corona. .

Sexual abstinence
Vagina

Hymen


Lynn Austin is the American author of many Christian fiction novels and holds the record for most Christy Awards won: eight. One of her books, Hidden Places was turned into a Hallmark Channel movie. She and her husband have three children and live in Holland, Michigan.

Background
Austin began her writing career as a reader. She did not like the feeling of hopelessness she was often left with and sought to write what she would want to read. "I agree that life is hard--but God is good!" With only a minor in English she sat down to write, and continued to write, while juggling in between raising her children and working part-time. Her family moved from Canada to Chicago, where she taught at Chicago Christian High School one year before beginning to write full-time and actively pursued getting published. It took eleven years from when she started writing to getting published.

Writing philosophy
Austin is known for writing books about strong women that don't need to be rescued by a hero. She responded to readers about this by stating, "Although I don't consciously set out to create strong women, I'd like to think that the women in my stories find strength by trusting in God."

She says she never starts a story with a particular theme in mind, but rather starts by trying to tell a story and let the Christian message fall into place. The theme of the books may be different, but the central message she tries to get across in all her novels is "that God loves us and He'll never forsake us no matter how difficult life becomes."

"I love to draw my inspiration from the lives of real people," she says. She does this by peppering her research of historic events with diaries, letters, and first-hand accounts of people who lived through these events and times. She also gets inspiration from listening to stories about and from modern people.

Published works

Series

Chronicles of the Kings
Gods and Kings (originally published The Lord Is My Strength) (1995)
Song of Redemption (originally published The Lord Is My Song) (1996)
The Strength of His Hand (originally published The Lord Is My Salvation) (1996)
Faith of My Fathers (originally published My Father's God) (1997)
Among the Gods (1998)

Refiner's Fire

Candle in the Darkness (2002) Christy Award winner
Fire By Night (2003) Christy Award winner
A Light to My Path (2004)

The Restoration Chronicles
Return to Me (2013)
Keepers of the covenant (2014)
On This Foundation (due out October 2015)

Stand alone novels

Fly Away (2017)
Eve's Daughters (1999)
Wings of Refuge (2000)
Hidden Places (2001) Christy Award winner
All She Ever Wanted (2005)
A Woman's Place (2006)
A Proper Pursuit (2007) Christy Award winner
Until We Reach Home (2008) Christy Award winner
Though Waters Roar (2009) Christy Award winner
While We're Far Apart (2010) Christy Award winner
Wonderland Creek (2011) Christy Award winner
All Things New (2012)
Waves of Mercy (2016)

Where We Belong (2017)

Legacy of Mercy (2018)

Nonfiction
Pilgrimage: My Journey to a Deeper Faith in the Land Where Jesus Walked (2013)

References

External links
Author's website
Publisher's website
Fantastic Fiction
Library Thing

Living people
American women novelists
American romantic fiction writers
Christian novelists
Southern Connecticut State University alumni
1949 births
American historical novelists
Writers of historical romances
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
Women romantic fiction writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
Women historical novelists

Lynn Austin


"You Made Me Love You (I Didn't Want to Do It)" is a popular song from 1913 composed by James V. Monaco with lyrics by Joseph McCarthy. It was introduced by Al Jolson in the Broadway revue The Honeymoon Express (1913), and used in the 1973 revival of the musical Irene.

One of the earliest singers to record the song was Al Jolson. His rendition was recorded on June 4, 1913. It was released as Columbia A-1374 and was an international hit. In Britain, Columbia had to order 25,000 copies from the U.S. to satisfy unprecedented demand for a gramophone record. Another successful recording in 1913 was by William J. Halley. Al Jolson recorded the song again on March 20, 1946, released as Decca 23613. Jolson also performed the song for the soundtrack of the 1946 film The Jolson Story.

In 1937, Roger Edens wrote additional lyrics to the song for Judy Garland. The new lyrics cast Garland in the role of a teenage fan of Clark Gable. Garland sang the song to Gable at a birthday party thrown for him by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). MGM executives were so charmed by her rendition that she and the song were added to the film Broadway Melody of 1938. Garland recorded the "Gable" version on September 24, 1937.  It was released as Decca 1463. MGM released the song as a b-side in 1939, opposite Garland's recording of "Over the Rainbow" from The Wizard of Oz.

Recordings and other renditions
 Grace La Rue recorded the song with an unnamed orchestra conducted by Kennedy Russell for His Master's Voice on August 22, 1913 and issued on record number 03343.
 Bing Crosby recorded the song with The Merry Macs on July 23, 1940 for Decca Records and it charted briefly, reaching the No. 25 spot in the charts.
 Harry James and His Orchestra hit big in late 1941 and early 1942 with a million-selling instrumental version of the song as a trumpet solo featuring James. It was released as the B-side of "A Sinner Kissed an Angel" but proved the much bigger hit, peaking at no. 5 on Billboard's National and Regional Best Selling Retail Records chart in late November 1941 during an 18-week run (including ten non-consecutive weeks in the Top Ten). In 2010 the recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. "You Made Me Love You" remains one of Harry James's signature recordings.
 The Four Freshmen included it on their 1955 4 Freshmen and 5 Trombones album.
 Screamin' Jay Hawkins recorded the song for a single in 1957 "You Made Me Love You" / "Darling, Please Forgive Me" [OKeh 7084]. It later appeared on his 1957 debut album At Home with Screamin' Jay Hawkins.
 Nat "King" Cole (1959) Capitol Records F4184 US
 Country Music singer Patsy Cline recorded the song for her 1962 album Sentimentally Yours.
 Aretha Franklin recorded the song for her album "The Electrifying Aretha Franklin" (1962).
 Ronnie Dove recorded the song in 1967 for his album The Best of Ronnie Dove Volume 2 for Diamond Records.
 Harry Nilsson sings the song on his 1973 covers album A Little Touch of Schmilsson in the Night.
  British comedian Bernard Manning performed the song on side one of his 1975 album 'My Kind of Music'.
 Canadian Brass recorded an instrumental version of the song for their CD High Society (2004).
 Rufus Wainwright sings the song on his 2007 album, Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall.
 Barry Manilow covered the song on his 2010 collection, The Greatest Love Songs of All Time.
 Gloria Estefan covered the song on her 2013 album, The Standards.
 Taylor Walling of the band The Wallings Jr. covered the song on the soundtrack for the 2014 romantic drama The Song.
 Louis Davids translated the song into Dutch; this version was recorded by Dutch band The Animal Crackers on their album Tante To heeft Radio .

In film and television
 The melody was featured prominently in the score for the 1943 Edward Dmytryk movie Tender Comrade starring Ginger Rogers and Robert Ryan.
 Jeanette MacDonald sings one stanza of this song in the 1948 musical Three Daring Daughters.
 Doris Day performed the song in the 1955 Ruth Etting biographical film Love Me or Leave Me.
 An outtake of The Beatles Anthology showed that it was originally to be included in their movie Magical Mystery Tour
 George Burns and some of the Muppets performed a humorous version of this song, where Gonzo especially gets a kick out of the line "didn't want to do it".
 On The Carol Burnett Show (Season 10, Episode 15, aired January 15, 1977), audience member Terry McCann sang the song with Carol Burnett during her show's question and answers segment,
 Olivia Newton-John sings the song in the 1980 film Xanadu, as a vocal on a record presented as a Glenn Miller band performance. The song is largely background to Danny and Sonny talking, and does not appear on the film's soundtrack album, but it does appear as the B-side of her single "Suddenly".
 In the 1980 film Somewhere in Time, when Christopher Reeve's character time travels back to the year 1912, he arrives in a hotel room where a woman occupant is (anachronistically) humming the song.
 The 1941 recording by Harry James and His Orchestra features prominently in Woody Allen's 1986 film Hannah and Her Sisters.
 The song is sung in the 1990 Robin Williams / Robert De Niro film Awakenings
 Bette Midler, Marc Shaiman, and Bruce Vilanch wrote new lyrics to Judy Garland's version of the song for Midler's appearance on the penultimate episode of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on May 21, 1992.  Midler performed the song as "You Made Me Watch You," a tribute to Carson's 30 years as host.
 Mayim Bialik performed the song on Blossom in the episode "Ruby" (Season 3, Episode 14, aired December 21, 1992).
 Billy Crystal sang an altered version of this song on the first episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno.
 Cookie Monster (Voiced by Frank Oz) performed a slightly re-written version of the song in a Sesame Street insert, writing a love letter to his favorite cookie.
 This song is being played by a band during a dance scene in Disney's 2005 film The Greatest Game Ever Played.
 Kim Poirier sings the song in the 2010 movie Foodland as her character Lucy Eklund.
 An instrumental version of the song plays as source music from a radio in the first scene of the 2009 movie Coco Chanel and Igor Stravinsky
 This song is sung by Jack Halford and Gerry Standing in the TV series New Tricks.
 This song is sung by Matt Doyle at the conclusion of the film Private Romeo (2011).
 This song is sung by senior citizens in a commercial for Hoveround in 2011.
 In an episode of the Nickelodeon animated series Rugrats ("Pedal Pusher/Music"; Season 6, Episode 13, aired March 6, 1999), Tommy Pickles (voiced by E.G. Daily) sang a slightly altered version of the song to his brother, Dil.
In the season 1 Family Guy episode "Mind Over Murder", Lois Griffin sings this song in Peter's basement bar.
 This song is sung by a street busker played by Taylor Walling in the 2014 romantic drama The Song.
 This song is sung by Abigail Spencer in the 3rd episode of the 2nd season of Timeless.
 This song is featured in the 5th episode of the 4th season of The Mary Tyler Moore Show (episode "Lou and That Woman").
 In the season 1 Boy Meets World episode "The Fugitive", Amy Matthews (Betsy Randle) briefly sings this song while vacuuming her sons' room.

In theatre
 Sherie Rene Scott sings the song in her one-woman show Everyday Rapture.

References

1913 songs
Songs with music by James V. Monaco
Songs with lyrics by Joseph McCarthy (lyricist)
Al Jolson songs
Judy Garland songs
Patsy Cline songs
Aretha Franklin songs
Shirley Bassey songs
Nat King Cole songs
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
Cultural depictions of Clark Gable
Songs about actors


Petko Jordanov Christov, O.F.M.Conv. (; 9 October 1950 – 14 September 2020) was a Bulgarian Roman Catholic prelate. He was a Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Nicopoli from 1994 until his death. Christov was born in Velcevo, Veliko Tarnovo.

Christov was president of the Catholic charity Caritas in Bulgaria and member of the Episcopal Conference of Bulgaria.

Christov died on 14 September 2020 at the age of 69.

References

1950 births
2020 deaths
Roman Catholic bishops
Bulgarian people

Petko Christov


Excommunication is a religious act used to take off or suspend membership in a religious community.

The word literally means out of communion, or no longer in communion.  In some churches, excommunication includes the belief that the person who was exocommunicated is going to Hell. Sometimes punishment  follow excommunication; these include being banned, shunning, and shaming, depending on the group's religion or religious community.

Related pages
 Takfiri

References
Encyclopedia of American Religions, by J. Gordon Melton
 Ludlow, Daniel H. ed, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, Macmillan Publishing, 1992.

Other websites
 De Fide, a non-profit association, uses Canon Law to defend the Roman Catholic Church from Heresy by filing lawsuits in Ecclesiastical Court, seeking the excommunication of impenitent offenders.
 Excommunication, the Ban, Church Discipline and Avoidance (from Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online)
 Catholic Encyclopaedia on excommunication
 The two sides of excommunication
 Episcopal Church of America excommunication

Christian terminology

Excommunication


USS PC-1136 was a  built for the United States Navy during World War II. Shortly after the end of the war, she was renamed USS PCC-1136 when she was reclassified as a combat communications control ship. In 1956, she was renamed Galena (PC-1136), becoming the third U.S. Navy vessel so named, but never saw active service under that name.

Career
PC-1136 was laid down at the Defoe Shipbuilding Company, in Bay City, Michigan on 17 December 1942, launched on 5 March 1943, and commissioned at New Orleans, Louisiana on 16 November 1943.

After shakedown, PC-1136 operated out of Miami, and Key West, Florida, while receiving anti-submarine warfare training.  Departing from Key West on 1 January 1944, she steamed via the Panama Canal and the Society and Tonga Islands to arrive at Nouméa, New Caledonia, on 12 March for duty as patrol and escort ship.  From 27 March to 1 April, she escorted merchant ships to Guadalcanal and then sailed the following day to Efate as escort for the ammunition ship .  Arriving on 4 April, she steamed next day to Espiritu Santo to escort a merchant tanker to Guadalcanal.

PC-1136 reached Guadalcanal on 8 April, and for almost two months she continued intermittent convoy escort and ASW patrol duties out of the Solomons to New Caledonia and the New Hebrides. Departing in convoy on 31 May, she arrived at Kwajalein, Marshall Islands on 6 June to prepare for the invasion of Guam. Assigned to Task Group 58.1, she sailed on the 9 June, arriving east of the Marianas on 22 June.  After patrolling east of Saipan, she returned to Kwajalein on 5 July.  Between 15 and 21 July she steamed to Guam, where she served as amphibious control ship during the landings.  After screening offshore transports during the next week, she departed for the Marshalls on 28 July and arrived at Eniwetok on 3 August.  Between 5 and 13 August, she sailed to Saipan as a convoy escort.  For almost seven months she operated between the Marshals and the Marianas, escorting merchant ships and searching for enemy submarines.  She departed Guam on 3 March 1945, touched at Eniwetok and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 18 March.

After overhaul and conversion to a control ship, PC-1136 sailed for the Western Pacific on 21 May.  Escorting a convoy of LSTs, she reached Guam on 9 June and resumed convoy escort duties in the Marianas.  She departed Guam on 6 August, touched at Ulithi and arrived at Subic Bay, Philippines on 15 August.

She was reclassified to PCC-1136 (Control submarine chaser) five days later. After steaming to Lingayen Gulf on 10 September, she escorted a convoy of LSTs to Japan, arriving at Wakayama on 19 September.  Between 24 and 30 September she returned to Lingayen Gulf and during the first two days of October, she sailed to Manila.

PCC-1136 departed Manila for the Marianas on 17 October and arrived at Guam on the 22nd.  On 1 November, executive officer Lt. Elden L. Beebe was reassigned as captain. For more than six months, she operated out of Guam, steaming to Saipan, Rota, Marianas, and Ulithi. She sailed for the United States on 1 May 1946 via Eniwetok and Pearl Harbor, arriving at Astoria, Oregon, on 29 May.

PCC-1136 decommissioned on 28 July 1946 and entered the Pacific Reserve Fleet. While berthed in the Columbia River, she was reclassified back to PC-1136 (Submarine chaser) on 27 October 1955. The ship was named Galena (PC-1136) on 15 February 1956, after cities in Alaska, Kansas, Illinois, Maryland, Missouri, and Ohio; all of those which were named for a native lead sulfide, the chief ore of lead. She was sold by the Navy on 11 March 1960 to Miami Ports Company and subsequently scrapped.

Awards
PC-1136 received one battle star for World War II service.

References

External links

PC-461-class submarine chasers
Ships built in Bay City, Michigan
1943 ships
World War II patrol vessels of the United States

USS PC-1136


Arturo "Chico" O'Farrill (October 28, 1921 – June 27, 2001) was a Cuban composer, arranger, and conductor, best known for his work in the Latin idiom, specifically Afro-Cuban jazz or "Cubop", although he also composed traditional jazz pieces and even symphonic works.

Born to an aristocratic Cuban family, he played the trumpet early in his career. He composed works for Machito (Afro-Cuban suite with Charlie Parker, 1950) and Benny Goodman's Bebop Orchestra ("Undercurrent Blues"), and arranged for Dizzy Gillespie and Stan Kenton, among others.

In the 1990s, O'Farrill led a big band that took up residence at New York's Birdland nightclub. Chico's son, pianist Arturo O'Farrill, eventually took over the band.

Biography
O'Farrill was born in Havana, Cuba. He was raised to follow family tradition and enter into law practice, though before he could, he became enamored with jazz music and pursued that instead. He discovered big band jazz when he attended military boarding school in Florida, where he first learned to play the trumpet, and after returning to Havana began studying classical music under Felix Guerrero at the Havana Conservatory and playing in local nightclubs alongside figures like Isidro Perez and Armando Romeu. In 1948, he relocated to New York City, where he continued his classical music studies under Stefan Wolpe, Bernard Wagenaar, and others at the Juilliard School, and began to pursue the jazz scene in his free time.

Soon after moving to New York City, he began working as an arranger for Benny Goodman, and wrote "Undercurrent Blues". It was at this point his nickname was born: Goodman had trouble pronouncing his name, and began referring to him as "Chico" instead. During this period, he also worked as an arranger with Stan Kenton (Cuban Episode), Count Basie, Art Farmer, and Machito (the Afro-Cuban Jazz Suite feat. Charlie Parker, recorded on December 21, 1950), and contributed to several Afro-Cuban jazz works by Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie (Manteca Theme, recorded on May 24, 1954). He also started his own band, the Afro-Cuban Jazz Orchestra, during this time, which toured the country, recorded, and played weekly gigs at the Birdland jazz club. In 1957, he moved to Mexico and lived with his wife, singer Lupe Valero, until 1965; while there he wrote a suite for Art Farmer in 1959 and performed concerts in Mexico City.

In 1965, he returned to New York City, where he worked as an arranger and music director for CBS on their TV program "The CBS Festival of Lively Arts for Young People." He also wrote arrangements of pop songs for Count Basie in 1965 and 1966, and recorded Spanish Rice, an album of his Afro-Cuban jazz compositions, with Clark Terry in 1966.

From the 1970s through the mid-1990s, O'Farrill was largely absent from the jazz scene: he was technically active during this period, but the work he released diminished further and further. He wrote scores for Stan Kenton and Art Barbieri during the early part of this inactive period, as well as some for Machito and Dizzy Gillespie's jazz orchestra.

O'Farrill did, however, make a comeback as a band leader in the jazz world with the 1995 release of the Grammy-nominated album Pure Emotion, which marked the first time he'd recorded as a leader in nearly 30 years—though he did lead a 17-piece Afro-Cuban orchestra at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York City a year before, and arranged several songs for David Bowie's jazz-inspired 1993 album Black Tie White Noise, predicting his return. He was also commissioned to write a trumpet concerto for Wynton Marsalis at this time. From 1995 though his retirement in March 2001, shortly before his death from complications from pneumonia, his band, which included his son Arturo O'Farrill as pianist and, later, de facto leader, recorded two more albums (The Heart of a Legend in 1999 and Carambola in 2000) for Milestone Records, and returned to playing weekly at Birdland. After his retirement, his son continued to lead the band, releasing albums such as Noche Involvidable in 2005 and Song for Chico in 2008.

Musical style
While O'Farrill is primarily known as a prominent figure in the creation and propagation of Afro-Cuban jazz, he was much more preoccupied with jazz than the actual melodic content of Cuban music. As quoted by Bob Blumenthal in the liner notes to Pure Emotion: "It was never my primary interest to preserve the authenticity of Cuban melody and harmonies just for the sake of preservation. When I started my career in the Forties, a lot of Cuban music was very simplistic. I was always more interested in jazz; and when I got to New York, I naturally gravitated to Dizzy and other bebop artists, that fusion of Cuban music with the jazz techniques of harmonic richness and orchestration. Of course, I have been determined to preserve Cuban rhythms, and I always have the rhythm section in mind when I write. You have to write horn parts that don't collide with the rhythmic concept." This is indicative of O'Farrill's general compositional style: he is heavily associated with the Latin idiom in jazz, but his works are typically closer to more mainstream American big band jazz in melody and harmony, and mostly incorporate Cuban music in the rhythms. In fact, it is Chico O'Farrill who is credited with first introducing the clave to jazz band rhythm sections.

Owing to his strict conservatory education, first at the Havana Conservatory and then the Juilliard School, O'Farrill composed in a highly strict, tightly-organized fashion. His pieces are constructed down to minute details, and while improvisation is a hallmark of many jazz styles, his works use a minimum of it; Ben Ratliff, writing for The New York Times, describes his work as "cinematic", saying that the music is "complicated and leaves little to chance."

O'Farrill's style is best described as a fusion of the Cuban music he heard growing up, the jazz music that he became enamored with in school, and the European classical music he studied in conservatories, and it is best summarized in his Afro-Cuban Jazz Suite. Even just the title alludes to the inclusion of these three elements, and several movements are inspired by music of a Latin idiom (Canción, Mambo, Rhumba Abierta), while others are more jazz-inspired (6/8, Jazz), and all are brought together under the orderly form of a European suite. O'Farrill states about this piece, "I was never an expert on Cuban music. What I did, for example, in that suite was purely instinctive [...] They asked me, 'write a suite, Chico,' [so] I just wrote according to my best understanding, letting my jazz sensibility to [sic] guide me most of the time."

Critical reception
Todd Barkan, O'Farrill's manager and record producer from his 90s comeback on, notes in his obituary that O'Farrill "felt a good measure of appreciation for his contributions. The interest that surrounded his work when he returned to recording in the '90s exceeded everything that he had experienced up until that point." Two of the three albums released after his 1990s return were nominated for Grammy awards, and he was featured in the Latin jazz film Calle 54. In a review of Pure Emotion, Paul Verna writes for Billboard, "The return of veteran composer/arranger Chico O'Farrill should earn an enthusiastic welcome for devotees of swinging, straight-ahead Latin jazz."

Few glowing records exist of O'Farrill's works from before the 1990s, but Peter Watrous, writing a review of a 1998 Afro-Cuban jazz concert featuring O'Farrill's older work (specifically, the Manteca Suite composed for Dizzy Gillespie and the Afro-Cuban Jazz Suite) for The New York Times, calls O'Farrill "a gifted musician who stands as one of jazz's great cultural translators", lauding the concert as "[making] the case for [his] brilliance." While he was an important behind-the-scenes figure in earlier life in composing and arranging for more notable names, his band did not achieve significant fame until this period.

Discography
 Jazz (Clef, 1953)
 Afro-Cuban (Clef, 1953)
 2nd Afro Cuban Suite (Norgran, 1954)
 Mambo Dance Session (Norgran, 1954)
 Latino Dance Session (Norgran, 1954)
 Chico's Cha Cha Cha (Panart, 1956)
 Music from South America (Verve, 1956)
 Mambo Latino Dances (Verve, 1958)
 Nine Flags (Impulse!, 1966)
 Spanish Rice with Clark Terry (Impulse!, 1966)
 Married Well (Verve, 1967)
 Cuban Jazz King (Eco 1973)
 Latin Roots (Philips, 1976)
 Super Chops (Versatile, 1977)
 Guaguasi (Kim, 1984)
 Pure Emotion (Milestone, 1995)
 Heart of a Legend (Milestone, 1999)
 Carambola (Milestone, 2000)
 The Complete Norman Granz Recordings (Malanga Music, 2016)
 Chico O'Farrill (Calle Mayor, 2017)

References

External links
 Official site
 Article about Chico O'Farrill
Chico O'Farrill at the Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University

1921 births
2001 deaths
American jazz bandleaders
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
American music arrangers
Cuban people of Irish descent
Cuban people of German descent
Bebop composers
Bebop arrangers
Musicians from Havana
Musicians from New York City
Latin jazz trumpeters
Latin jazz composers
Milestone Records artists
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20th-century trumpeters
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Chico O'Farrill


Alfred Joseph Benza is an American gossip columnist and television host.

Early life
Benza was born in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, New York City, though he moved with his family to West Islip, New York on Long Island shortly after his birth. He has two sisters, Rosalie and Lorraine. After graduating from West Islip High School in 1980, Benza majored in journalism at C.W. Post College on Long Island.

Career
During college Benza began writing for Newsday and was soon hired full-time as a gossip columnist for that paper and eventually for the New York Daily News. It was as a gossip columnist that he began appearing on E! Entertainment Television's The Gossip Show in the mid-1990s. This led to appearances on talk shows such as Geraldo, Hard Copy, The Montel Williams Show, The Maury Povich Show, and various other television talk shows. He was later fired from the New York Daily News by editor Pete Hamill.

Relationship with E!
Soon after leaving the paper, Benza was offered a job hosting Mysteries and Scandals, a program detailing true crimes and scandals involving celebrities, which necessitated a move to Los Angeles. It was on this show that Benza popularized the catchphrase "Fame, ain't it a bitch," which later became the title of his autobiography. The show ran for three seasons between 1998 and 2000.

In 2001, Benza had a short-lived late-night E! talk show known as A. J. After Hours; it was cancelled after low viewership and critical disdain.

In the same year during an appearance on The Howard Stern Show, Benza punched Stern staffer "Stuttering John" Melendez in the face, alleging Melendez was screening out positive listener calls about him. Melendez then made a prank call making fun of the failure of After Hours, provoking Benza further. The incident resulted in a temporary ban for Benza from Stern's show direct from WXRK general manager Tom Chiusano. He appeared again in October 2004.

In 2002, he starred in P.S. Your Cat is Dead!, a comedy film, starring and directed by Steve Guttenberg.

Recent appearances
In 2006, Benza hosted the reality show Cold Turkey II on ION Television.

He appeared as a co-host on the first five seasons of High Stakes Poker (along with Gabe Kaplan) on the GSN.  He was replaced by poker pro Kara Scott for the show's sixth season. He wrote an open letter expressing his discontent with network executives at GSN in a post on his blog titled "Flop, A Turn, and a River of Shit".

In 2020, PokerGO relaunched High Stakes Poker and paired Kaplan and Benza in the commentary booth for the first time since Season 5.

Benza also had an acting role as L.C. Luco in the 2006 film Rocky Balboa. Benza appeared on the sixth season of Celebrity Fit Club on VH1, where he lost 12 lbs.

In 2008, Benza appeared in Gimme My Reality Show, a reality competition series on Fox Reality that followed a group of D-list celebrities with previous reality credentials as they battle for their chance to shine with their own show. But, midway through the show, he walked away from production. He cited not wanting to have his young children subjected to cameras inside their home.

In 2015, Benza's second book, 74 and Sunny—a memoir about his childhood on Long Island—was published by Simon & Schuster. George Gallo is attached to direct the picture, with Benza credited as screenwriter.

The following year Benza turned his energies to film and executive produced So B. It, a film based on the award-winning YA book by Sarah Weeks. The movie premiered at the Los Angeles Film Festival in the summer. That same year he struck a deal with ReelzChannel to host Demons in the City of Angels and Case Closed with A.J. Benza.

In 2020, Benza guest starred in the Amazon Prime series "Gravesend".

Benza writes columns for Star Magazine and RadarOnline. His daily podcast, Fame Is A Bitch—a mix of Hollywood gossip and personal stories, airs on PodcastOne.

He is currently married and living in Los Angeles, CA, with his wife and two kids, Roxy and Rocco.

Controversy

Harvey Weinstein allegations
In 2003, Benza became aware of Harvey Weinstein's affair with Georgina Chapman while he was married to his first wife. Upon discovering this information, Benza offered to provide Weinstein with gossip that would draw attention away from his affair. This was the beginning of a partnership between the two to preserve Weinstein's name.

When sexual harassment allegations against Weinstein began reaching the press in 2017, Weinstein reached out to Benza asking for his help. He discussed paying Benza "up to $20,000 a month" to investigate the claims made against him. Weinstein did not follow up on this offer.

Bibliography
 Fame, Ain't it a Bitch, Miramax Books: May 2, 2001.
 '74 and Sunny, Gallery Books: July 2015.

References

External links

 Online interview at The Black Table
 Q&A with fans from E!

American infotainers
American autobiographers
LIU Post alumni
Living people
Writers from Brooklyn
Poker commentators
Participants in American reality television series
People from West Islip, New York
People from Bensonhurst, Brooklyn
Year of birth missing (living people)

A. J. Benza


Vital Alsar Ramírez (August 7, 1933 – September 15, 2020) was a Spanish-born Mexican sailor and scientist. He made several extremely long sailing expeditions. He was born in Santander, Cantabria. He was known for having sailed .

Between 1966 and 1973, Alsar led three expeditions by raft across the Pacific Ocean, from Ecuador and Australia. The first expedition failed, but the second and third succeeded, both setting the record for the longest known raft voyages in history— and .

Vital later replaced the rafts with galleons to carry out the project "Mar, hombre y paz", which was begun in 1980. This expedition took the trapo blanco (white rag), around the world on board the La Marigalante.

Alsar died on September 15, 2020 in Mexico City at the age of 87.

References

1933 births
2020 deaths
Sailors
Scientists from Mexico City

Vital Alsar


Xandee is a stage name of Sandy Boets (born  18 December 1978 in Tienen), Flemish singer who represented Belgium at the Eurovision Song Contest 2004.

At the age of 16 she founded the pop duo Touch of Joy with Serge (Sergio) Quisquater. Sergio  and his band Sergio & The Ladies represented Belgium in ESC 2002 with the song "Sister". At the Eurovision Song Contest 2004 in Istanbul Xandee sang the dance uptempo song "1 Life" in the contest. The song was one of the major favourites before the contest, but only got 7 points, 5 of which from neighbouring country the Netherlands, on the final evening.  It eventually got only 22nd place out of 24 participants.

Xandee's fate was repeated two years later, at the Eurovision Song Contest 2006 in Athens, where fellow Belgian entry Kate Ryan, despite being a hugely hyped favourite, failed to qualify from the semi-final.

References

External links

1978 births
Living people
People from Tienen
Flemish musicians
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Belgium
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2004
21st-century Belgian women singers
21st-century Belgian singers

Xandee


In Indian religions, a rishi () is an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mentions in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis" or "sages" who after intense meditation (tapas) realized the supreme truth and eternal knowledge, which they composed into hymns. The term appears in Pali literature as Ishi and in Buddhism, they can be either Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas, Arahats or a monk of high rank.

Etymology

According to Indian tradition, the word may be derived from two different meanings of the root 'rsh' (). Sanskrit grammarians derive this word from the second meaning: "to go, to move". V. S. Apte gives this particular meaning and derivation, and Monier-Williams also gives the same, with some qualification.

Another form of this root means "to flow, to move near by flowing". (All the meanings and derivations cited above are based upon Sanskrit English Dictionary of Monier-Williams). Monier-Williams also quotes Tārānātha who compiled the great (Sanskrit-to-Sanskrit) dictionary named "ṛṣati jñānena saṃsāra-pāram" (i.e., "one who reaches beyond this mundane world by means of spiritual knowledge").

Before Monier-Williams' work was published, Yāska  suggested it came from "drish" and quotes Aupamanyava to support his opinion.

However, the root has a close Avestan cognate ərəšiš "an ecstatic" (see also Yurodivy, Vates). Yet the Indo-European dictionary of Julius Pokorny connects the word to a PIE root  meaning "rise, protrude", in the sense of "excellent" and thus cognate with Ṛta and right and Asha. In Sanskrit, forms of the root rish become arsh- in many words, (e.g., arsh)

Modern etymological explanations such as by Manfred Mayrhofer in his Etymological Dictionary leave the case open, and do not prefer a connection to  "pour, flow" (PIE ), rather one with German rasen "to be ecstatic, be in a different state of mind" (and perhaps Lithuanian aršus).

In Hindu texts

In the Vedas, the word denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. In particular, Ṛṣi refers to the authors of the hymns of the Rigveda. Some of the earliest lists of Rishi are found in Jaiminiya Brahmana verse 2.218 and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad verse 2.2.4.

Post-Vedic tradition regards the Rishis as "sages" or saints, constituting a peculiar class of divine human beings in the early mythical system, as distinct from Asuras, Devas and mortal men. Swami Vivekananda described "Rishi"s as Mantra-drashtas or "the seers of thought". He told— "The truth came to the Rishis of India — the Mantra-drashtâs, the seers of thought — and will come to all Rishis in the future, not to talkers, not to book-swallowers, not to scholars, not to philologists, but to seers of thought."

The notable female rishikas who contributed to the composition of the Vedic scriptures are:
The Rig Veda mentions Romasha, Lopamudra, Apala, Kadru, Visvavara, Ghosha, Juhu, Vagambhrini, Paulomi, Yami, Indrani, Savitri and Devayani.
The Sama Veda adds Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and Gaupayana.

In Mahabharata 12, on the other hand, there is the post-Vedic list of Marīci, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya and Vashista. The Mahābhārata list explicitly refers to the saptarshis of the first manvantara and not to those of the present manvantara. Each manvantara had a unique set of saptarshi. In Harivamsha 417ff, the names of the Rishis of each manvantara are enumerated.

In addition to the Sapta, there are other classifications of sages. In descending order of precedence, they are Brahmarshi, Maharshi, Rajarshi. Deva, Param, Shruta and Kānda are added in Manusmriti iv-94 and xi-236 and in two dramas of Kālidasa.

The Chaturvarga-Chintāmani of Hemādri puts '' at the seventh place in the eightfold division of Brāhmanas. Amarakosha (the famous Sanskrit synonym lexicon compiled by Amarasimha) mentions seven types of s : Shrutarshi, Kāndarshi, Paramarshi, Maharshi, Rājarshi, Brahmarshi and Devarshi. Amarakosha strictly distinguishes Rishi from other types of sages, such as sanyāsi, , parivrājaka, tapasvi, muni, brahmachāri, yati, etc.

In Buddhist texts
The term Rishi found mentions throughout the Buddhist texts. In Pali, they are known as "Isi"s. A Rishi can also be called a Buddha, Paccekabuddha, Arhat or monk of high rank. In Buddhist Pali literature, Buddha is called many times as "Mahesi"(Pali; Sanskrit: Maharṣi; meaning the greatest sage).  The Isigili Sutta in Pali Canon, mentions the name of Five hundred Rishis (Paccekabuddhas). The Buddhist text, Mahamayuri Tantra, written during 1–3rd centuries CE, mentions Rishis throughout Jambudvipa (modern day India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal) and invokes them for the protection of the Buddhadharma.

Many Jatakas also mentions various Rishis. The Naḷinikā Jātaka (Jā 526) introduces a past life of the Buddha, a Rishi(Isi), living alone in the Himālayas. His son, who was also a Rishi, was named Isisiṅga (Pali; Sanskrit:Ṛṣyaśṛṅga). The Agastya Jataka (Sanskrit; Pali: Akitta Jataka) story, mentions Bodhisattva, named Agastya(Sanskrit; Pali: Akkhata) as Rishi.

Rishi in Indonesia
Most medieval era Hindu temples of Java, Indonesia show Rishi Agastya statues or reliefs, usually guarding the southern side of Shaivite temples. Some examples include Candi Sambisari and the Prambanan temple near Yogyakarta.

Ruesi in Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar and Laos

Ruesi (Sanskrit: ṛṣi, , , ) is a hermit sage, the equivalent of Rishi in India. In Myanmar, there are some known as ရေသ့ Rase. Rishi Akkhata(Pali; Sanskrit: Agastya), known as Phra Reusi Akkhot in Thailand, is an important Ruesi in Southeast Asia, as in the Buddhist Jataka scriptures, this Ruesi is mentioned as the bodhisatta and practiced his ascetism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Veneration of Ruesis is a notable practice in Southeast Asian Buddhism. The name "Rishi" (pronounced "ruesi") is also the basis of one of the letters of the Thai alphabet, so reu-si ().

Other uses
Rishi is also a male given name, and less commonly a Brahmin last name.

In Carnatic music, "Rishi" is the seventh chakra (group) of Melakarta ragas. The names of chakras are based on the numbers associated with each name. In this case, there are seven rishis and hence the 7th chakra is "Rishi".

The descendant families of these Rishis, refer to their ancestral lineage through their family "gotra". This is a common practice among the Brahmin sects of the current Hindu society.

See also

Devarishi
Saptarishi
Rishi Panchami
Rishikas
Sadhu
Rishabha (Hinduism)
Rishabhanatha
Pravaras
Sramana
Apaurusheyatva
Yogi / Yogini
Kavi
Vidyadhara
Weizza
Xian

Notes

References

Further reading
Rishikas of the Rigveda

External links

Titles and occupations in Hinduism
Thai folklore

Rishi


George Carlin: Again! (sometimes listed as On Location: George Carlin at Phoenix) is American comedian George Carlin's second HBO stand-up television special. It was filmed in the round at The Celebrity Theatre in Phoenix, Arizona on July 23, 1978.

Synopsis
The opening segment of the show contains pictures from Carlin's childhood which he narrates over: "I thought we might take a look at some of the pictures from the days when my show business career was just starting". The narration segues into Carlin waiting backstage to go on. He begins his routine by acknowledging the audience before diving into his "Goofy Shit" list which includes some new routines: Sandman on a rainy night, large craft warnings, Marine land fish sticks, centipedes, waiters in waiting rooms, evening gowns at night clubs, fluorescent lights, Kleenex targets, the hats that are not there, frogs legs, emptying the wishing wells, dream credits, why there is no blue food (first performed at the very first episode of Saturday Night Live), skilled and unskilled workers, why we buy flowers, and cleaning the church.

Carlin then performs a new long routine about time, who has the time, and words we use to describe time ("Sooner than you think... sounds spooky doesn't it?")

He then sits down to perform an uproarious version of the "New News" routine combining new material with the material from An Evening With Wally Londo Featuring Bill Slaszo and On the Road. This routine is received very well by the audience, including when someone throws him a joint onto the stage. He then does his famous imitation of Al Sleet the "Hippie-Dippie Weather Man". ("Tonight's forecast... dark!")

Carlin performs a new version of "Death and Dying" than the one from On the Road and the final part of the routine is a rendition of the "Seven Words You Can Never Say on Television" sketch (first performed on Class Clown). The routine is expanded from the Occupation: Foole performance. He adds a physical comedy portion in the beginning with "Trial and Error", and presents the idea that "we have more ways to describe the dirty words that we have actual dirty words":

"Someone was quite interested in these words. They kept referring to them: they called them bad, dirty, filthy, foul, vile, vulgar, coarse, in poor taste, unseemly, street talk, gutter talk, locker room language, barracks talk, bawdy, naughty, saucy, raunchy, rude, crude, lewd, lascivious, indecent, profane, obscene, blue, off-color, risqué, suggestive, cursing, cussing, swearing... and all I could think of was: shit, piss, fuck, cunt, cocksucker, motherfucker, and tits!"

Carlin admits that the original list was not complete, even by adding fart, turd and twat. He assures the audience that "some of [their] favorites might make the list this year". Adding more words to the list: asshole, ballbag, hardon, pisshard, blueballs, taint, nooky, snatch, box, pussy, pecker, peckerhead, peckertracks, jism, joint, donniker, dork, poontang, cornhole, and dingleberry.

Another new section is added to the routine referring to the word "motherfucker" coming off the list due to a phone argument with an English purist calling "motherfucker" a duplication of the root word "fuck". Carlin's reaction to the purist is "Hey motherfucker, how did you get my phone number anyway?" The purist convinces him to drop it, but Carlin is now unhappy with the current rhythm of the list (now with cocksucker standing alone as the only multi-syllabic word on the list) happily repeating the old list in a lyrical manner.

Carlin continues with an extended version of the familiar "tits" portion of the routine and incorporating the "Cute Little Farts" routine into the mix. After briefly going through familiar jokes referring to turd, twat ("Twat's twat and that's that"), prick, and ball. The famous section about the word "fuck" is longwinded as Carlin reminds people what happened to the word, "We fucked it up". The routine incorporates more physical comedy. He refers to the famous phrase "Make love not war" wishing he had thought of that so he could retire and go to the beach. Coming up with his own phrase "Make fuck, not kill", Carlin explains "I'm not looking to retire anytime soon" which is followed by thunderous applause. Replacing "kill" for "fuck", Carlin incorporates new references including "Shamu the fucker whale" with Carlin swimming away in a panicking manner. His final message is one of love before he introduces his wife, Brenda, onstage. Carlin says goodbye to the audience or "Fuck You!" before he dances a Sicilian tarantella over the rolling credits.

Track listing
 Open (0:35)
 Beginnings (2:45)
 Live In Phoenix (2:17)
 I Wonder (8:48)
 What Time Is It? (11:28)
 The Long Newscast (11:05)
 Al Sleet (2:40)
 Death Is Imminent (13:36)
 Filthy Words (25:41)
 Mrs. Carlin (0:43)
 Program Credits (1:41)

References

External links

George Carlin
HBO network specials
1970s American television specials
Stand-up comedy concert films
1978 television specials
Television shows directed by Marty Callner
1970s in comedy

George Carlin: Again!


An acropolis was the settlement of an upper part of an ancient Greek city, especially a citadel, and frequently a hill with precipitous sides, mainly chosen for purposes of defense. The term is typically used to refer to the Acropolis of Athens, yet every Greek city had an acropolis of its own. Acropolises were used as religious centers and places of worship, forts, and places in which the royal and high-status resided. Acropolises became the nuclei of large cities of classical ancient times, and served as important centers of a community. Some well-known acropolises have become the centers of tourism in present-day, and, especially, the Acropolis of Athens has been a revolutionary center for the studies of ancient Greece since the Mycenaean period. Many of them have become a source of revenue for Greece, and represent some great technology during the period.

Origin

An acropolis is defined by the Greek definition of , ; from  () or  () meaning "highest; edge; extremity", and  () meaning "city." The plural of  () is , also commonly as  and , and  in Greek. This word was first used in the 14th century BCE, in the context of Mycenaean kings and community. The term acropolis is also used to describe the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many Maya cities, including Tikal and Copán. Acropolis is also the term used by archaeologists and historians for the urban Castro culture settlements located in Northwestern Iberian hilltops.

It is primarily associated with the Greek cities of Athens, Argos (with Larisa), Thebes (with Cadmea), Corinth (with its Acrocorinth), and Rhodes (with its Acropolis of Lindos). It may also be applied generically to all such citadels including Rome, Carthage, Jerusalem, Celtic Bratislava, Asia Minor, or Castle Rock in Edinburgh. An example in Ireland is the Rock of Cashel. In Central Italy, many small rural communes still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as  of the commune. Other parts of the world have developed other names for the high citadel, or , which often have reinforced a naturally strong site. Because of this, many cultures have included acropolises in their societies, however, do not use the same name for them.

Differing acropoleis
The acropolis of a city was used in many ways, with regards to ancient time and through references. Because an acropolis was built at the highest part of a city, it served as a highly functional form of protection, a fortress, and was as well as a home to the royal of a city and a centre for religion through the worshipping of different gods. There have been many classical and ancient acropolises, including the most commonly-known, Acropolis of Athens, as well as the Tepecik Acropolis at Patara, Ankara Acropolis, Acropolis of La Blanca, Acropolis at the Maya Site in Guatemala, and the Acropolis at Halieis.

The most famous example is the Athenian Acropolis, which is a collection of structures featuring a citadel on the highest part of land in ancient (and modern-day) Athens, Greece. Many notable structures at the site were constructed in the 5th century BCE, including the Propylaea, Erechtheion, and the Temple of Athena. The Temple is also commonly known as the Parthenon, which is derived from the divine Athena Parthenos. There were often dances, music and plays held at the acropolis, which it served as a community centre for the city of Athens. It became a prime tourist destination by the 2nd century AD during the Roman Empire and was known as "the Greece of Greece," as coined by an unknown poet. Although originating in the mainland of Greece, use of the acropolis model quickly spread to Greek colonies such as the Dorian Lato on Crete during the Archaic Period.

The Tepecik Acropolis at Patara served as a harbor to nearby communities and naval forces, such as Antigonos I Monopthalmos and Demetrios Poliorketes, and combined land and sea. Its fortification wall and Bastion date back to the Classical period. The acropolis was constructed in the fourth century BCE by the Hekatomnids that ultimately led to its seizure in 334 BCE by Alexander the Great. The acropolis contributed significantly to the overall development that took place during the Hellenistic empires. This acropolis was the earliest place of settlement, probably dating back to the third millennium BCE. During excavations that took place in 1989, ceramic items, terracotta figurines, coins, bone and stone objects were found that date to the fourth century BCE. The fortification wall and bastion that are built at this acropolis uses a style of masonry, commonly known as the Greek word  (meaning "woven"). This style of masonry was likely used for weight-bearing purposes.

The Acropolis at Halieis dates back to the Neolithic and Classical periods. It included a fortified wall, sanctuary of Apollo (two temples, an altar, a race course), and necropolis (cemetery). This acropolis was the highest point of fortification on the south edge at Halieis. There was a small open-air cult space, including an altar and monuments.

The Ankara Acropolis, which was set in modern-day Turkey, is a historically prominent space that has changed over time through the urban development of the country from the Phrygian period. This acropolis was well known as a spot for holy worshipping, and was symbolic of the time. It has also been a place that has historically recognized the legislative changes that Turkey has faced.

The Acropolis of La Blanca was created in Guatemala as a small ancient Maya settlement and archaeological site that is located adjacent to the Salsipuedes River. This acropolis developed as a place of residence for the city of La Blanca's rulers. Its main period of usage was during the Classical period of 600 AD to 850 AD, as the city developed as a commercial place of trade among a number of nearby settlements.

The Mayan Acropolis site in Guatemala included a burial site and vaulted tombs of the highest status royal. This funerary structure was integrated into this sacred landscape, and illustrated the prosperity of power between the royal figures of Pedras Negras in Guatemala.

Modern-day uses

Tourism
Acropolises today have become the epicenters of tourism and attraction sites in many modern-day Greek cities. The Athenian Acropolis, in particular, is the most famous, and has the best vantage point in Athens, Greece. Today, tourists can purchase tickets to visit the Athenian Acropolis, including walking, sightseeing, and bus tours, as well as a classic Greek dinner.

Cultural ties

Because of its classical Hellenistic and Greco-Roman style, the ruins of Mission San Juan Capistrano's Great Stone Church in California, United States has been called an American Acropolis. The civilization developed its religious, educational, and cultural aspects of the acropolis, and is used today as a location that holds events, such as operas.

The neighborhood of Morningside Heights in New York City is commonly referred to as the "Academic Acropolis" due to its high elevation and the concentration of educational institutions in the area, including Columbia University and its affiliates, Barnard College, Teachers College, Union Theological Seminary and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America; Manhattan School of Music; Bank Street College of Education; and New York Theological Seminary. The analogy is also aided by the neoclassical architecture of the Columbia University campus, which was designed by McKim, Mead & White in the early 20th century.

Excavations
Much of the modern-day uses of acropolises have been discovered through excavations that have developed over the course of many years. For example, the Athenian Acropolis includes a Great Temple that holds the Parthenon, a specific space for ancient worship. Through today's findings and research, the Parthenon treasury is able to be recognized as the west part of the structure (the Erechtheion), as well as the Parthenon itself. Most excavations have been able to provide archaeologists with samples of pottery, ceramics, and vessels. The excavation of the Acropolis of Halieis produced remains that provided context that dated the Acropolis at Halieis from the Final Neolithic period through the first Early Helladic period.

See also
 Acropolis of Rhodes
 Acropolis Palaiokastro
 Idjang
 Tell (archaeology)
 Hillfort

References

External links
 Acropolis Museum
 Acropolis: description, photo album

 The Acropolis of Athens  (Greek Government website)
 The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website)
 The Acropolis: A Walk Through History
 The Parthenon Frieze (Hellenic Ministry of Culture web site)
 UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens

Ancient Greek architecture
Culture of Greece
Archaeological terminology
Ancient Greek fortifications

Acropolis


Carl Saunders (born 26 November 1964) is a former professional footballer, who spent most of his career at Stoke City and Bristol Rovers.

Career
Saunders was born in Birmingham and began his career with Stoke City making his debut as a substitute in a 3–1 defeat in 1982–83. He played 27 times in 1984–85 scoring his first senior goal against Manchester United to earn Stoke a 2–1. However that was a rare highlight that season as Stoke were relegated with a record low points tally. He scored three goals in 44 matches in 1985–86 before finding good goalscoring form in 1986–87. Saunders formed a fine partnership with Nicky Morgan and he top-scored with 19 goals. However, he lost his form and in his next three seasons at the Victoria Ground he scored just six goals before being sold to Bristol Rovers by Alan Ball in February 1990.

He rediscovered he goalscoring form at Bristol Rovers scoring 50 goals in 163 matches helping the Pirates win the Football League Third Division in 1989–90. After leaving Bristol Rovers in December 1993, he had brief spells as a non-contract player with Oxford United and Walsall, before moving to Malta to join Sliema Wanderers and then Hibernians.

Career statistics
Source:

Honours
 Bristol Rovers
 Football League Third Division champions: 1989–90
 Football League Trophy runner-up: 1990

References

External links

1964 births
Living people
Footballers from Birmingham, West Midlands
English men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Stoke City F.C. players
Bristol Rovers F.C. players
Oxford United F.C. players
Walsall F.C. players
Sliema Wanderers F.C. players
Hibernians F.C. players
English Football League players
Expatriate men's footballers in Malta
English expatriate men's footballers

Carl Saunders (footballer)


George Ramogi (1945–1997) was a Kenyan musician, who empowered the traditional luo benga and rumba genre of music. Ramogi was known for his spur of the good life and his notable appearances at bars and clubs in western Kenya-Nyanza region. During the beginning of his career. Ramogi is believed to have been the real force behind "benga" as a genre.

Biography

It was in 1965 that Ramogi and colleagues started the Luo Sweet Band, later changed to Continental Kilo Jazz Band (or C.K. Jazz). The nucleus of this group had been performing together, on and off, right up to Ramogi's death at the age of 52 in 1997. Ramogi married Rosalia Kiayi, and later on a second wife, Bellah Ajode.

In 1994, a small group of Kenyans in the United States pooled their resources to bring Ramogi and band to the US to perform. The "Safari" CD, recorded in the US, is an outgrowth of that tour and, in fact, contains praise songs (as is common) for several of the individuals who organised the tour. Although not a very polished production, it's certainly authentic benga and it has its moments of greatness. The cassette contains more songs from the same recording session and somewhat better audio quality.

Ramogi was a vivid story teller. In 'Ajali ya Sondu', he recounts a road accident in which a lorry killed many. In 1969, Argwings-Kodhek died in a road accident and Ramogi immortalized him in 'Argwings-Kodhek Onindo'. When a group of fishermen perished in Lake Victoria, he immortalized them in 'Rapar Jonam'.

Ramogi has also been recognised through his recordings with other Kenyan musicians such as Were Carey, Ochieng Kabaselleh, Daniel Owino Misiani and Tom Kodiyo. He created C.K Dumbe Dumbe Jazz band in response to the popular Zairean group Orchestre Lipua Lipua. Dumbe Dumbe is a Luo word for the children playing in the rain (nyithindo go dumbe dumbe).

On December 8, 1997, Ramogi succumbed to a short illness and was buried in his home, Weta Kamwala. Tom Kodiyo and Jimmy Likembe immortalized him in the song 'Rapar George Ramogi' with Orchestre Dumbe Dumbe

George Ramogi Widows
George Ramogi
Local styles, past and present

1945 births
1997 deaths
Kenyan musicians

George Ramogi