Georg Treu (29 March 1843 (OS), Saint Petersburg – 5 October 1921, Dresden) was a Classical archaeologist and curator of the sculpture collection at the Albertinum.

Life
He began as a theology student at the University of Dorpat, then took up archaeology at the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1866, he became a research assistant in the antiquities collection at the Hermitage Museum and received his PhD in 1874 from the University of Göttingen. He returned to Berlin, where he became a lecturer at the University and Assistant Director for the Berlin State Museums.

During the excavations in Olympia from 1875 to 1881, he was appointed temporary manager. In 1882, he was appointed to replace Hermann Theodor Hettner as curator of the sculpture collection at the Albertinum and served in this position until 1915. He worked to expand the collection, acquiring vases and works in terracotta as well as sculptures.

When the Cabinet of Curiosities belonging to the former Electorate of Saxony was broken up, he took the opportunity to integrate Renaissance and Baroque sculptures into the collection. Several works were acquired through his contacts with contemporary artists such as Auguste Rodin, Constantin Meunier and Max Klinger, adding a modern perspective. In 1891, he opened a collection of casts, which served as a model when Ivan Vladimirovich Tsvetayev established the Pushkin Museum. Finally, in 1900, he opened the Sammlung Treus (Treu's Collection) to document the history of sculpture.

In addition to his duties at the Albertinum, he taught at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts and the Royal Saxon Polytechnic, where he also managed the art collection. He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Aberdeen in 1906 and one from the Polytechnic in 1913.

His grave in the Johannisfriedhof is decorated with a relief by the sculptor Robert Diez. The area between the Albertinum and the Art Academy was named the Georg-Treu-Platz in his honor.

Selected writings
 Griechische Tongefäße in Statuetten- und Büstenform (Greek Pottery in Statue and Bust Form), 1875. Available (print-on-demand) from the University of Michigan Library.
 Hermes mit dem Dionysosknaben (Hermes and the Infant Dionysus), 1878
 Die Bildwerke von Olympia in Stein und Ton (The Sculptures of Olympia in Stone and Clay), 1894
 Max Klinger als Bildhauer (Max Klinger as a sculptor). In: Pan 5. Issue 1, 1899/1900, S. 27–35. (Special Edition, Leipzig/Berlin, 1900.) Reissued in book form by the Nabu Press (2013)
 Hellenische Stimmungen in der Bildhauerei (Hellenic Moods in Sculpture), 1910

References

Further reading
 Erhard Hexelschneider, Alexander Baranov : "In Moskau ein kleines Albertinum bauen". Ivan Tsvetayev und Georg Treu im Briefwechsel. Cologne, Böhlau 2006.
 Dorit Petschel (Ed.): Die Professoren der TU Dresden 1828–2003. Böhlau Verlag, Cologne/ Weimar / Vienna 2003, .
 Heiner Protzmann: Salome: Zur Polychromie in der Skulptur: Aus der Korrespondenz Max Klingers mit Georg Treu. In: Jahrbuch der Staatlichen Kunstsammlungen Dresden, 14, 1982, S. 61–72.
 Heiner Protzmann: Dokumente zur Beziehung Treus zu Klinger. In: Das Albertinum vor 100 Jahren, Die Skulpturensammlung Georg Treus, Catalog. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden 1994.

External links

1843 births
1921 deaths
Burials at Johannisfriedhof, Dresden
German classical scholars
Archaeologists from Dresden
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to Germany
Directors of museums in Germany

Georg Treu


Jean-Louis Alléon-Dulac (1723–1788) was a French naturalist.

Jean-Louis Alléon-Dulac was born in Saint-Étienne, Loire, the son of an adviser of the king. He became a lawyer at the Parliament of Lyon between 1748 and 1765, Director of the post office, Warehouse keeper of tobacco and Receiver of the Lottery of Saint-Etienne, but is especially known as a naturalist. He wrote Mélange d'histoire naturelle (1754) and Mémoire pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des provinces de Lyonnais, Forez et Beaujolais, printed by Claude Cizeron at Lyon in 1765. In this last work, he gave a detailed description of the quarries and mines of these areas and one of the first figures of an ammonite. He was also the first to identify the belemnites as cephalopods.  He died at Saint-Etienne.

References
Larousse, P. 1865-1876 (Biography) Grand Dict. du XIX. Siècle 1 221
Rose, H. J. 1850, New General Biographical Dictionary 1

1723 births
1788 deaths
Scientists from Saint-Étienne
French naturalists
French entomologists

Jean-Louis Alléon-Dulac


Major League Baseball 2K11 or, in short, MLB 2K11, is an MLB licensed baseball simulation video game published by 2K. MLB 2K11 is available for Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS, and Wii.

Commentators
The commentary is delivered by the trio of Steve Phillips, Gary Thorne, and John Kruk. Kruk is absent in the Wii version.

Cover athlete

Roy Halladay of the Philadelphia Phillies is the cover athlete of the game replacing Gold Glove Award winner Evan Longoria from MLB 2K10.

New features

PC, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3
The "main" version of MLB 2K11 retains the features of Major League Baseball 2K10 but adds new content. Some of the new features include the Dynamic Player Rating System (DPRS), which updates a players ability with the last four weeks of a real player's activity, which will include slumps and hot streaks. The DPRS will only affect hitting and pitching; it will not affect a player's fielding ability. There will be no option to play without the DRPS turned on, however, the DPRS does not affect trades, due to the DPRS being a short term value. Franchise modes will reflect player values based on franchise stats, not real life. The My Player career mode has similarly been improved and tweaked.

The umpires will now have a more random strike zone, while pitch ratings affect ability to locate pitches. The game will feature more AI gameplay sliders than any MLB 2K game before, and for the first time, tweaking sliders will not affect achievements. Poor fielders will be "locked out" of good animations, and the fielding rating will affect how close to the ball the fielder must be to reach it. Base stealing has been revamped, and will take into account many variables such as the speed of the runner, type of pitch, lead, and the catcher's arm.

Wii
The Wii version has its own unique features, including the Mini-Diamond, a new multiplayer mode set in fantasy venues, such as a low gravity Space ballpark to a Circus environment, while the Total Control Pitching and Hitting feature utilizes the Wii Remote and Nunchuk. The Wii version also retains the Franchise, Tournament and Home Run Derby modes of the main version. There is no "My Player" or "MLB Today" career mode for the Wii.

PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable
The PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable versions are less feature-rich than the main version as they are reskins of Major League Baseball 2K6, but they still feature Franchise and Season play, the Home Run Derby and a unique Manager Showdown feature in which a player sets up a lineup and a starting pitcher and plays the game strictly from the manager's role as strategist. The PSP version adds The Farm, which allows the player to engage in Minor League Baseball games.

Nintendo DS
The Nintendo DS version features both a Season Mode and a Postseason Mode, as well as utilizing the touch screen for the Total Control Pitching and Hitting Feature. The game also features 250 collectible virtual trading cards.

Promotion
In January, game publisher 2K Sports announced that they would continue a contest from the previous year. Players had a chance to win $1,000,000 for pitching a perfect game on the Xbox 360 or PS3 versions of the game. The contest began on April 1, 2011. This caused controversy as former WWE wrestler, Stevie Richards had done this before and tried to claim the Million dollars for the Perfect Game he had pitched but had done it before the contest officially began. Brian Kingrey, a music teacher from Hammond, Louisiana, claimed the prize by throwing a perfect game with Roy Halladay within two hours of the start of the contest.

Reception

Reception for the game has been mixed. IGN rated both the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions with a 7.0 while the readers favored the 360 version of the game over the PS3 ranging from a 7.3 out of 10 for the 360 to a 6.5 out of 10 for the PS3. The 360 version of the game ran at a smoother frame rate according to most reviews. GameZone gave the game a 7/10, stating "Overall, it is still a unique baseball experience, but unfortunately, after playing it for a little while, you will want an improved product. Let's hope for something even better in 2012." GameSpot gave the game a 7.5/10, praising its online mode improvements, but criticizing its lack of significant changes from last year's version of the game.  There were also complaints of several bugs, such as the player fatigue in Franchise mode (player energy would decrease if a game was simulated, but not if the game was actually played) and injury recovery (pitchers who were on "rehab assignments" after injuries would not appear in management screens for setting pitching rotations, yet a player would have to clear a roster spot for him and could only access him from the bullpen; players affected by this bug also could not be demoted or promoted to different levels of the organization). One of the more frustrating aspects of the game is the extraordinarily poor managerial decisions made by computer-controlled teams. Intentional walks are often issued with only one out and under other conditions where such decisions would be unlikely in a real baseball game. Pitchers are removed from games too early, sometimes when pitching shutouts and showing no obvious signs of fatigue. The computer-controlled team will often attempt steals under unfavorable conditions, particularly attempts to steal third base when the computer-controlled team is down by multiple runs and the base runner is already in scoring position with strong batters coming to the plate. The computer-controlled team also tends to bring in a left-handed relief pitcher to face right-handed batters (and vice versa) when the bullpen has good right-handed relief pitchers available and the right-handed batter is more likely to make an out under such a match-up. Finally, the relief pitcher is often allowed to bat, even though they are going to be replaced in the next inning and the bench is full of potential batters.

Soundtrack
Pearl Jam - "Rearviewmirror"
Shout Out Louds - "Please Please Please"
Joan Jett - "Bad Reputation"
The Willowz - "Repetition"
TAB the Band - "Bought and Sold"
Trenchtown - "Pourin' Rain"
Trenchtown - "Unpaid Holiday"
Corroded - "Come On In"
Five Finger Death Punch - "Hard to See"
The Wolfmen - "Better Days"
double0zero - "The Hi Hi's"
We Are Scientists - "You Should Learn"
USS - "Anti-Venom"

There is a different menu screen for the Wii versions "2K BEATS" screen.

See also
MLB 11: The Show
Gary Thorne
John Kruk
Steve Phillips
2K Sports

References

2011 video games
2K Sports games
Major League Baseball video games
Sports video games with career mode
Xbox 360 games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation Portable games
Wii games
Nintendo DS games
Sports video games set in the United States
Windows games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Take-Two Interactive games
MLB 2K
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in Maryland
Visual Concepts games

Major League Baseball 2K11


The 20th Century Limited was an express passenger train on the New York Central Railroad (NYC) from 1902 to 1967. The train traveled between Grand Central Terminal in New York City and LaSalle Street Station in Chicago, Illinois, along the railroad's "Water Level Route".

NYC inaugurated the 20th Century Limited as competition to the Pennsylvania Railroad, aimed at upper-class and business travellers. It made few station stops along the way and used track pans to take water at speed. On June15, 1938, streamlined train sets designed by Henry Dreyfuss were added to the route.

The 20th Century Limited was the flagship train of the New York Central and was advertised as "The Most Famous Train in the World". It was described in The New York Times as having been "[...] known to railroad buffs for 65 years as the world's greatest train", and its style was described as "spectacularly understated". The phrase "red-carpet treatment" is derived from passengers' walking to the train on a specially-designed crimson carpet.

History

Early history

The 20th Century Limited first ran on June17, 1902. It completed its run from New York to Chicago in 20hours, four hours less than previous trains, and arrived three minutes ahead of schedule. It offered a barbershop and secretarial services. The New York Times report  stressed the routine nature of the trip, with no special procedures being followed and no extra efforts being made to break records. It said that there "was no excitement along the way," and quoted a railroad official's claim: "it is a perfectly practical run and will be continued." Engineer William Gates said, "This schedule can be made without any difficulty. I can do it every time, barring accidents."

The schedule cut two more hours off the run in June 1905, and, on the 21st of that month, the train was intentionally derailed on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway line at Mentor, Ohio, killing 21 passengers. It reverted to 20 hours in 1912 and was unchanged until 1932. In 1935, it dropped to 16hours, 30minutes; then to 16hours on June15, 1938, when lightweight cars were implemented.

The engine change point was moved to Croton–Harmon station in 1913, when the NYC line was electrified south of that point.

In the 1920s, the New York-Chicago fare was $32.70 plus the extra fare of $9.60, plus the Pullman charge (e.g. $9 for a lower berth), for a total of $51.30, equal to $ today. This fare entitled a passenger to a bed closed off from the aisle by curtains; a compartment to oneself cost more. In 1928, the peak year, the train earned revenue of $10million and was believed to be the most profitable train in the world.

The cars of the 20th Century Limited were lit with fluorescent lamps soon after their introduction, which coincided with the introduction of the new Art Deco train sets on June15, 1938.

New train sets

In 1938, industrial designer Henry Dreyfuss was commissioned by the New York Central to design streamlined train sets in Art Deco style, with the locomotive and passenger cars rendered in blues and grays (the colors of NYC). The streamlined sets were inaugurated on June 15, 1938. His design was probably the most famous American passenger train. The first new 20th Century Limited train left New York City at 18:00 Eastern Time and arrived at Chicago's La Salle Street Station the following morning at 09:00 Central Time, traveling the  at an average . The eastbound train left La Salle Street Station in Chicago at 15:00 and arrived at Grand Central Terminal the following morning at 08:00. For a few years after World War II, the eastward schedule was shortened to 15½ hours.

In 1945, EMD diesel-electrics replaced steam, and two new diesel-electric-powered trainsets were commissioned. The replacement was inaugurated by General Dwight D. Eisenhower in September, 1948. This set was featured in postwar films such as North by Northwest and The Band Wagon.

Like many express passenger trains through the mid-1960s, the 20th Century Limited carried an East Division (E.D.) Railway Post Office (R.P.O.) car operated by the Railway Mail Service (RMS) of the United States Post Office Department which was staffed by USPOD clerks as a "fast mail" on each of its daily runs. The mails received by, postmarked, processed, sorted and dispatched from the 20th Century Limited RPOs were either canceled or backstamped (as appropriate) during the trip by hand-applied circular date stamps (CDS) reading "N.Y. & CHI. R.P.O. E.D. 20TH CEN.LTD." and the train's number: "25" (NY–CHI) or "26" (CHI–NY).

For much of its history before 1957, the all-Pullman train made station stops only at Grand Central Terminal and Harmon for New York–area passengers and LaSalle Street Station and Englewood for Chicago-area passengers. These traveled in as many as seven sections (each was a separate, complete train), of which the first was named the Advance 20th Century Limited. In 1957, the 20th Century Limited schedule added more station stops to the original four (two terminals and two suburban stops). In the 1960s, the NYC added slumbercoaches to the roster of sleeping cars.

Demise
By the late 1960s, the train was in decline. On December2, 1967 at 18:00, the half-full train left Grand Central Terminal's Track34 for the last time. As always, carnations were given to men and perfume and flowers to women boarding the train. The next day, it arrived at LaSalle Street Station in Chicago 9hours 50minutes late due to a freight derailment near Conneaut, Ohio, which forced a slow rerouting over the parallel Nickel Plate railroad freight line.

Present day
Amtrak now operates the Lake Shore Limited between New York Penn Station and Chicago Union Station. It follows a route similar to the 20th Century's, except west of Whiting, Indiana (near Chicago), where it switches to the former Pennsylvania Railroad's Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway.

On August26, 1999, the United States Postal Service issued 33-cent All Aboard! 20th Century American Trains commemorative stamps featuring five celebrated American passenger trains from the 1930s and 1940s. One of the five stamps features an image of a streamlined J-3a steam locomotive leading the 20th Century Limited out of the Chicago railyards on its way to New York, with the Board of Trade Building in the background.

Several 20th Century Limited traincars and its red carpet were included in the Grand Central Centennial Parade of Trains, part of the terminal centennial celebration in 2013.

For 2023, two of the restored traincars, Hickory Creek and Tavern-Lounge No. 43, are being offered for Spring and Fall day trip excursions between New York City and Albany, New York while attached to the rear of an Amtrak Empire Service train. In September, a special trip from New York to Chicago and back will be offered. All 2023 tickets were sold, but there is a waiting list.

Sample consists
Eastbound train #38—Advance 20th Century Limited, on February 7, 1930; Sampled at Chicago.
Locomotive: J-1 Class (4-6-4 Hudson) steam locomotive; NYC #5270;
Class CS Baggage-club car: NYC EAGLE HEIGHTS;
Class PS Sleeper (14-section): STAR VIEW;
Class PS Sleeper (8-section 1-drawing room 2-compartment): SPRING GAP;
Class PS Sleeper (6-compartment 3-drawing room): GLEN ALICE;
Class DA Dining car: NYC 387;
Class PS Sleeper (14-section): STAR SPUR;
Class PS Sleeper (10-section 2-double drawing rooms): GANNETT PEAK;
Class PS Sleeper (8-section 1-drawing room 2-compartments): GLOVER GAP;
Class PSO Sleeper-Buffet-Lounge-Observation (1-drawing room 1-single bedroom): MOHAWK VALLEY.

Westbound train #25—20th Century Limited, on March 17, 1938; Sampled at New York City
Locomotive: Class T3A Electric Locomotive;
Class MP Postal car: NYC #4857;
Class CS Baggage-club car: NYC VAN TWILLER;
Class PS Sleeper (8-section 1-drawing room 2-compartment): CENTACORRA;
Class PS Sleepers (6-section 6-double bedroom): POPLAR PARK;
Class PS Sleepers (6-section 6-double bedroom): POPLAR HIGHLANDS;
Class PS Sleeper (6-compartment 3-drawing room): GLEN ANNA;
Class DA Dining cars: NYC 654;
Class DA Dining cars: NYC 655;
Class PS Sleeper (6-section 6-double bedroom): POPLAR GROVE;
Class PS Sleepers (13-double bedroom): MACOMB HOUSE;
Class PS Sleepers (13-double bedroom): PRINGLE HOUSE;
Class PSO Sleeper-Buffet-Lounge-Observation (1-drawing room 1-single bedroom): ELKHART VALLEY.

Eastbound train #26—20th Century Limited, on September 6, 1943; departing Chicago.
Class J-3a (4-6-4 Hudson) steam locomotive: NYC 5450;
Class MB Baggage-mail car: NYC #5017;
Class DDL Dormitory-buffet-lounge car: CENTURY CLUB;
Class PS Sleeper (10-roomettes 5-double bedroom): CASCADE WONDER;
Class PS Sleeper (17-roomette): CITY OF CLEVELAND;
Class PS Sleeper (17-roomette): CITY OF DAYTON;
Class PS Sleeper (10-roomette 5-double bedroom): CASCADE GLORY;
Class PS Sleeper (10-roomette 5-double bedroom): CASCADE WHIRL;
Class PS Sleeper (4-Double Bedroom 4-compartment 2-drawing room): IMPERIAL FOUNTAIN;
Class DA Dining car: NYC 680;
Class DA Dining car: NYC 684;
Class PS Sleeper (4-double bedroom 4 compartment 2-drawing room); IMPERIAL CITY;
Class PS Sleeper (4-double bedroom 4 compartment 2-drawing room); IMPERIAL DOME;
Class PS Sleeper (13-double bedroom): ONONDAGA COUNTY;
Class PS Sleeper (13-double bedroom): HAMPDEN COUNTY;
Class PS Sleeper (13-double bedroom): MONTGOMERY COUNTY;
Class PS Sleeper (13-double bedroom): ASHTABULA COUNTY;
Class PSO Sleeper-Buffet-Lounge-Observation (2-double bedrooms; 1-compartment; 1-drawing room): MAUMEE RIVER.

Westbound train #25—20th Century Limited, on March 30, 1965, sampled at Cleveland, Ohio
E7A diesel locomotive: NYC 4025;
E8A diesel locomotive: NYC 4080;
E7A diesel locomotive: NYC 4007;
Class MB Baggage-mail car: NYC 5018;
Class CSB Baggage-dormitory car: NYC 8979;
Class PB Coach: NYC 2942;
Class DG Grill-diner: NYC 450;
Class PAS Sleepercoach (16-Single Room 10-Double Room): NYC 10811;
Class PAS Sleepercoach (16-Single Room 10-Double Room): NYC 10817;
Class PS Sleeper (22-roomette): NYC 10355 BOSTON HARBOR;
Class DKP Kitchen-Lounge Car: NYC 477;
Class DE Dining Room Car: NYC 406;
Class PS Sleeper (10-roomette 6-double bedroom): NYC 10171 CURRENT RIVER;
Class PS Sleeper (12-double bedroom): NYC 10511 PORT OF DETROIT;
Class PS Sleeper (12-double bedroom): NYC 10501 PORT BYRON;
Class PSO Sleeper-Buffet-Lounge-Observation (5-double bedroom): NYC 10633 HICKORY CREEK.

Legacy

The 20th Century Limited was advertised as "The Most Famous Train in the World". In the year of its last run,  The New York Times said that it "...was known to railroad buffs for 65 years as the world's greatest train". Its style was described as "spectacularly understated ... suggesting exclusivity and sophistication". Passengers walked to the train in New York and Chicago on a specially designed crimson carpet, giving rise to the phrase "the red-carpet treatment". "Transportation historians", said the writers of The Art of the Streamliner, "consistently rate the 1938edition of the Century to be the world's ultimate passenger conveyance—at least on the ground".

In 1926, Lucille Ball made her first trip to California from New York on the 20th Century Limited.

On  15 October 1942 after a meeting in Chicago on the Manhattan Project General Leslie Groves invited J. Robert  Oppenheimer to join himself, James C. Marshall and Kenneth Nichols on their return trip to New York. After dinner on the train they discussed the project while squeezed into Nichol's one-person roomette (of about 40" by 80" or 1m by 2m). Shortly afterwards Oppenheimer was appointed to head the Los Alamos Laboratory.

Regular passengers included Theodore Roosevelt, William Jennings Bryan, Lillian Russell, "Diamond Jim" Brady, J. P. Morgan, Enrico Caruso and Nellie Melba.

In fiction
The 20th Century Limited was the setting for a Broadway musical composed by Cy Coleman and written by Betty Comden and Adolph Green entitled On the Twentieth Century, about the romantic complications of a beautiful actress and an egocentric producer/director. Madeline Kahn and John Cullum starred in the award-winning production (five Tony Awards out of nine nominations), whose spectacular production design featured both the lavish Art Deco details of the time period as well innovative staging to open up what could be cramped quarters inside a train car. The musical was based on the 1932 Ben Hecht-Charles MacArthur stage play of the same subject, which in 1934 they adapted as a film entitled Twentieth Century, directed by Howard Hawks, with Carole Lombard and John Barrymore in the lead roles. The train also figured prominently as a setting for major scenes in both Alfred Hitchcock's North by Northwest and George Roy Hill's The Sting (which incorrectly had the train arrive in Chicago at night, not in the morning as it did in reality).

While doing research for her novel Atlas Shrugged, Ayn Rand learned the operation of the train and subsequently devised a fictional company– the "Twentieth Century Motor Company"– which would be important to the novel's plot.

The 20th Century Limited is frequently referenced as a main means of train transportation of the fictional Van Dorn detective Isaac Bell in several Clive Cussler period books featuring the early 1900s detective. The Wrecker (Clive Cussler with Justin Scott) is the second in the long-running series and has Bell with other Van Dorn detectives riding the 20th Century Limited often as they pursue a train-wrecking villain.

Other namesakes
The 20th Century Limited was also the inspiration for several cultural works. A recipe for the 20th Century cocktail was published in the Cafe Royal Bar Book in 1937.

See also
George Henry Daniels

References
General

Specific

Further reading

External links

Greatest Highway in the World Gutenberg.org e-book version of The Greatest Highway in the World:  Historical, Industrial and Descriptive Information of the Towns, Cities and Country passed through between New York and Chicago via The New York Central Lines (c. 1921)

Named passenger trains of the United States
Night trains of the United States
Passenger trains of the New York Central Railroad
Railway services introduced in 1902
Railway services discontinued in 1967
1902 establishments in the United States
1967 disestablishments in the United States
North American streamliner trains

20th Century Limited


Vakhtang () or Tsuata () (c. 1118 – 1138) was the Georgian Bagrationi prince and the son of King David IV "the Builder" (r. 1089–1125), probably of his second marriage to the Cuman-Kipchak "princess" Gurandukht, daughter of Otrok.

The 12th-century document The Will of King David contains a vague and controversial passage whereby David instructs the eldest son and heir apparent Demetrius I to rear his younger brother Vakhtang and make him a successor to the throne if the latter proves to be "capable". Given the Georgian order of succession based on primogeniture and indication that an attempted coup against Demetrius in the 1130s involved Vakhtang, many modern scholars in Georgia consider the passage to be a latter-day forgery by Vakhtang's sympathizers. A reference to the aristocratic plot against Demetrius on behalf of Vakhtang is found in the contemporaneous Armenian chronicle by Vardan although the author does not directly names the rebellious prince. This plot, intended to assassinate Demetrius I, was directed by the influential nobleman Ivane Abuletisdze and his son Kirkish. The king was timely warned by Ivane's father Abulet. Vakhtang was captured, blinded and cast in prison where he apparently died shortly afterwards.

Ancestry

References

1110s births
1138 deaths
Bagrationi dynasty of the Kingdom of Georgia
Georgian princes
People of Cuman descent

Vakhtang (son of David IV of Georgia)


Absolute idealism is chiefly associated with Friedrich Schelling and G. W. F. Hegel, both of whom were German idealist philosophers in the 19th century. The label has also been attached to others such as Josiah Royce, an American philosopher who was greatly influenced by Hegel's work, and the British idealists.

According to Hegel, being is ultimately comprehensible only as an all-inclusive whole (das Absolute). Hegel asserted that in order for the thinking subject (human reason or consciousness) to be able to know its object (the world) at all, there must be in some sense an identity of thought and being. Otherwise, the subject would never have access to the object and we would have no certainty about any of our knowledge of the world.

The absolute idealist position dominated philosophy in nineteenth-century Britain and Germany, while exerting significantly less influence in the United States. The absolute idealist position should be distinguished from the subjective idealism of Berkeley, the transcendental idealism of Kant, or the post-Kantian transcendental idealism (also known as "critical idealism") of Fichte and of the early Schelling.

Schelling and Hegel's concepts of the absolute
According to the scholar Andrew Bowie, Hegel's system depends upon showing how each view and positing of how the world is really has an internal contradiction: "This necessarily leads thought to more comprehensive ways of grasping the world, until the point where there can be no more comprehensive way because there is no longer any contradiction to give rise to it."

For Hegel, the interaction of opposites generates, in a dialectical fashion, all concepts necessary to comprehend what is.

For Kant, reason was only for us, and the categories only emerged within the subject. However, for Hegel, reason is fully immanent. Spirit emerges from nature in history and, in art, religion, and philosophy, knows itself in its truth.

Hegel shows that the world is not other than self. With the realization that mind and world are, by logical necessity, meaningfully coherent, our access to the world is made secure, a security that was lost in Kant's proclamation that the thing-in-itself was ultimately inaccessible.

Hegel's position is a critical transformation of the concept of the absolute advanced by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775–1854), who argued for a philosophy of Identity:

'Absolute identity' is, then, the link of the two aspects of being, which, on the one hand, is the universe, and, on the other, is the changing multiplicity which the knowable universe also is. Schelling insists now that "The I think, I am, is, since Descartes, the basic mistake of all knowledge; thinking is not my thinking, and being is not my being, for everything is only of God or the totality" (SW I/7, p. 148), so the I is 'affirmed' as a predicate of the being by which it is preceded.

For Schelling, the absolute is a causeless 'ground' upon which relativity (difference and similarity) can be discerned by human judgement (and thus permit 'freedom' itself) and this ground must be simultaneously not of the 'particular' world of finites, but also not wholly different from them (or else there would be no commensurability with empirical reality, objects, sense data, etc. to be compared as 'relative' or otherwise).

In both Schelling and Hegel's systems (especially the latter), the project aims towards a completion of metaphysics. As Redding describes it: "While opinions divide as to how Hegel's approach to logic relates to that of Kant, it is important to grasp that for Hegel logic is not simply a science of the form of our thoughts. It is also a science of actual content as well, and as such has an ontological dimension."

For Schelling, reason was an organic 'striving' in nature, and this striving was one in which the subject and the object approached an identity. Schelling saw reason as the link between spirit and the phenomenal world, as Lauer explains: "For Schelling [...] nature is not the negative of reason, to be submitted to it as reason makes the world its home, but has since its inception been turning itself into a home for reason."

Hegel's doubts about intellectual intuition's ability to prove or legitimate that the particular is in identity with whole led him to progressively formulate a speculative dialectic in which concepts like Aufhebung came to be articulated. Beiser summarizes the early formulation as follows:

a) Some finite concept, true of only a limited part of reality, would go beyond its limits in attempting to know all of reality. It would claim to be an adequate concept to describe the absolute because, like the absolute, it has a complete or self-sufficient meaning independent of any other concept.

b) This claim would come into conflict with the fact that the concept depends for its meaning on some other concept, having meaning only in contrast to its negation. There would then be a contradiction between its claim to independence and its de facto dependence upon another concept.

c) The only way to resolve the contradiction would be to reinterpret the claim to independence, so that it applies not just to one concept to the exclusion of the other but to the whole of both concepts. Of course, the same stages could be repeated on a higher level, and so on, until we come to the complete system of all concepts, which is alone adequate to describe the absolute.

Hegel's innovation in German Idealism was to theorize a historical mode of self-consciousness self-reflection capable of generating a more inclusively holistic understanding of what it ultimately means to be rational in the grand scheme of things.

Reactions

Absolute idealism has greatly altered the philosophical landscape. This influence is mostly felt in the strong opposition it engendered. Both logical positivism and analytic philosophy grew out of a rebellion against Hegelianism prevalent in England during the 19th century. Continental phenomenology, existentialism, and postmodernism also seek to 'free themselves from Hegel's thought'.

Martin Heidegger, one of the leading figures of Continental philosophy in the 20th century, sought to distance himself from Hegel's work. One of Heidegger's philosophical themes in Being and Time was "overcoming metaphysics," aiming to distinguish his book from Hegelian tracts. After the 1927 publication, Heidegger's "early dismissal of them [German idealists] gives way to ever-mounting respect and critical engagement." He continued to compare and contrast his philosophy with Absolute idealism, principally due to critical comments that certain elements of this school of thought anticipated Heideggerian notions of "overcoming metaphysics."

See also
 Doctrine of internal relations
 Jena Romanticism
 Objective idealism

Notes

Further reading
Hegel's Idealism – The Satisfactions of Self Consciousness (Pippin)
Endings – Questions of Memory in Hegel and Heidegger (ed. McCumber, Comay)

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
German idealism
Idealism
Metaphysical theories
Hegelianism
Neo-Spinozism

Absolute idealism


In ancient Egyptian religion, Aani is the dog-headed ape sacred to the Egyptian god Thoth. "One of the Egyptian names of the Cynocephalus Baboon, which was sacred to the god Thoth."

The Egyptian hieroglyphic word for "baboon" is jꜥnꜥ in the German style of transliteration.  Attested roughly forty times in extant literature, this word refers to the animal itself.  Many Egyptian gods can manifest in a baboon aspect or have other associations with the animal, including

 Hapy, a god who protects the canopic jar containing the lungs after embalming.
 Khonsu, a god known as "eater of hearts" in the Pyramid Texts.
 Thoth, a god of reason and writing:  "And so the Baboon of Thoth came into being," says one 18th Dynasty text.

Animal iconography does not imply the Egyptians identified the animals concerned as deities themselves.  Rather, the animal was an icon, or a large hieroglyph, representing a god.

Notes

Egyptian deities
Egyptian legendary creatures

Aani


In enzymology, a 2-oxoglutarate carboxylase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

ATP + 2-oxoglutarate + HCO3-  ADP + phosphate + oxalosuccinate

The 3 substrates of this enzyme are ATP, 2-oxoglutarate, and HCO3-, whereas its 3 products are ADP, phosphate, and oxalosuccinate.

This enzyme belongs to the family of ligases, specifically those forming carbon-carbon bonds.  The systematic name of this enzyme class is '''. Other names in common use include oxalosuccinate synthetase, carboxylating factor for ICDH (incorrect), CFI, and OGC'''.

References

EC 6.4.1
Enzymes of unknown structure

2-oxoglutarate carboxylase


The Airborne Surveillance Platform (ASP) is an Indian defence project initiated by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) with the aim to produce an Airborne Early Warning System. Two prototypes were developed and flight tested for three years. The project was cancelled in 1999 after the prototype aircraft crashed, killing eight scientists and the aircrew. After four years of inactivity, the project was revived in 2004 with a new platform and radar.

Origins
The ASP programme, code-named "Airavat", is one of the key force multipliers in India's modern war scenario.  DRDO is developing an advanced surveillance platform based on a Hawker Siddeley HS 748 aircraft to detect targets at extended ranges with all-around azimuth coverage. It is designed to handle 50 targets and features a hybrid navigation system, including both satellite and ground (beacon) based topography. The communication and data links are dual redundant secure systems.

The origin of the programme possibly lies in the aftermath of the 1971 India-Pakistan war. As revealed by air operations on the western front, timely information retrieval and coordination, namely vectoring and interception, could not be accomplished effectively from the ground. In late 1979, DRDO accordingly formed a team to study the possibility of mounting an airborne radar on an existing aircraft.

The problem was not the availability of suitable aircraft but the lack of an effective airborne radar. An ad hoc team of specialists from DRDO's Electronics and Radar Development Establishment (LRDE) began work on developing an airborne radar, allowing the programme to proceed. Studies and analysis began in July 1985 under the project name 'Guardian', later (possibly in 1987) renamed 'Airawat'. In the late 1980s an HS 748 aircraft was fitted with a 24 ft x 5 ft composite rotodome. The aircraft flew with the pylon, but not the dome, in May 1989 and with the rotodome in November 1990. The Centre for Airborne Systems (CABS) was set up in February 1991, under Dr K. Ramchand to act as a systems house and integration agency using all the expertise and infrastructure available in India. At the peak of its operations, some 300 scientists and engineers were involved in the project. The aircraft was unveiled to the public during flight demonstrations at the inauguration ceremony of the first Aero India show held in Bangalore in December 1996. Two testbed aircraft transferred from the western command of the Indian Air Force, with tail numbers H-2175 and H-2176, were employed in the design program.

Design

Antenna and rotodome
The platform's antenna is a slotted wave guide planar array and features very low side lobe levels and a narrow beam width in azimuth. It handles high power (better than 3.3 Kilowatt average) and weighs just 160 kg. For housing the primary and the secondary (IFF) antennas, an ellipsoidal structured (7.315 m x 1.524 m) rotodome was fabricated. It is made up of composites and aluminium alloy parts and is driven by a hydraulic servo system using aircraft hydraulic power. The rotodome has since been successfully flight tested with the ASP system.

Airborne data processor
The airborne radar data processor supports track-while-scan (TWS), which is required to form target tracks after receiving data from the various sensors of ASP, such as the primary radar and the secondary surveillance radar, which operate in TWS mode. The ARDP correlates the target plots from scan to scan to maintain the target tracks. It also correlates target information obtained from the secondary surveillance radar and endorsement with the primary radar track information. In May 1997, all the requirements were met and the system was delivered to CABS for integration.

Integrated navigation system
The ASP is guided by a high accuracy navigation system, which consists of an inertial navigation system and a Doppler navigation system. The velocity drifts of the inertial navigation system are contained by Doppler velocities using a Kalman filter, resulting in good navigation accuracy required for long endurance missions of ASP. Presently, work is in hand to integrate GPS/GLONASS receivers with the inertial navigation system to enhance performance, reliability and robustness.

Integration and testing
System integration began in the late 1980s and by 1989 Hindustan Aeronautics (HAL) had modified three HS 748 aeroplanes with pylons as well as an additional auxiliary power unit to power the rotodome hydraulics, computers, communications and the onboard experimental gear. Trials began in 1989 and the complete aircraft flew for the first time in November 1990.

The trials lasted for approximately three years until the airborne radar data processors had to be replaced with a newer variant and the trials were suspended pending completion of the upgrade. In 1995, when the tests resumed, the platform met most of the programme goals. At the same time, however, the Air Headquarters staff re-affirmed previous doubts about whether the specifications could be met. This led to the Defence Ministry's informing the Air Headquarters and the Air Force that the ASP was not expected to meet their requirements, and that the possibility of providing an airborne early warning platform should be studied as a step toward gaining the necessary development experience. Though observers point to these differences as the reasons contributing to the handing over of the ASP project to the Indian Navy rather than the Indian Air Force, both the Indian Navy and Air Force originally helped define the requirements.

After this clarification, the project progressed with renewed vigour, only to be again delayed on 12 January 1999 when the second prototype crashed (the first prototype had been only a test-bed for pylon studies). Two crew, four scientists and two IAF engineers died in the crash, a total of eight people, with no survivors.

Controversy about the platform

The main tasks allotted to CABS were the design, development, integration and evaluation of airborne electronic systems on a suitably modified flying platform for surveillance of airspace together with command and control functions and the transfer of appropriate technologies to industry. Besides CABS, LRDE and the Gas Turbine Research Establishment were entrusted with the development of ASP sub-systems.

The strategy adopted by CABS involved the development of an ASP using a rotodomed HS 748 aircraft as the flight test bed, as the first phase of the development of an indigenous airborne early warning technology to be evolved using a step by step, modular, low cost and low risk approach.

The selection of the particular platform was controversial. Particularly, this was an issue because Indian Airlines had completely phased out the HS 748 in 1989, citing passenger safety. Though the IAF continued to operate them in a logistics role, military leaders did not favor use of this platform for an airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft.

In October 1992 the Air Headquarters, while commenting on the system specification document, stated that the specifications were meant for ASP and were not expected to meet the Air Staff Requirements at that stage, although the design philosophy was targeted towards meeting the Air Staff Requirements at a later stage. The Ministry of Defence stated in February 1999 that ASP was not meant to meet the requirements of users but to induct and demonstrate the technology by utilizing the only viable platform. The fact remains that the ASP development programme was taken up as a first step towards the development of full-fledged AWACS, the need for which was projected by the military services in the early 1980s.

Following the 1999 crash, the ASP programme had been delayed for about three years. But due to the differences in opinion and chiefly due to the reported unreliability of the HS 748 platform, the project was discontinued.

Revival

By mid-2002 the project had been "re-activated", according to various news reports. As of March 2007, CABS was working on developing another indigenous airborne early warning system. According to the Defence Minister, completion of development activities and commencement of user trials were to occur in 2012. The platform selected was the Brazilian Embraer with a CABS airborne Active Electronic Scanned Array (AESA) radar.

The new system will be based on the Embraer EMB-145 aircraft and an active phased array radar. The Indian Air Force and the Army propose to use this mini-AWACs system as a complement to the larger AWACS system being imported from Israel. The Union Cabinet has approved the development of such an aircraft-based system.

Goals of the airborne early warning and control program:

 Nodal AWACS function(s) in the national grid (functioning in tandem with Phalcon)
 Comint capabilities
 Sigint capabilities
 IFR capabilities.

Functions and features:
 Asynchronous/synchronous datalink among 40 aircraft
 Hybrid Inertial/satellite navigation system
 Integrated IFF with mode-4 capability
 Multiple redundant air-to-air datalinks
 Multiple redundant air-to-ground datalinks
 Satcomm links.

On August 17, 2012, India received the first Embraer 145 airborne early warning and control aircraft built with Indian technology. It is claimed as a major breakthrough in mounting an electronic eye in the sky for India.

The aircraft is fitted with Indian airborne Active Electronic Scanned Array (AESA) radar, giving it the capability to detect missiles and hostile fighters at all angles. Programme Director Christopher was quoted by the media as saying, "The new EMB 145 would have airborne Active Electronic Scanned Array (AESA) radar designed by DRDO's Banglaore-based Centre for Airborne Systems (CABS). DRDO will integrate other mission systems in India and deliver the aircraft to the Indian Air Force".

Dr. Elangovan, Chief Controller Research & Development of DRDO, said the aircraft was upgraded to have major capabilities such as "in-fight refuelling system, significant increase in electric and cooling capacity and a comprehensive set of structural changes to allow installation of advanced mission systems."

See also
 E-2 Hawkeye
 E-3 Sentry

References

External links
 Surveillance Platform DRDO Technology Focus report on ASP
 Airborne Surveillance Platform on GlobalSecurity.org

Military radars of India
AWACS aircraft
Indian military aircraft

Airborne Surveillance Platform


Keen's point is one of the ventriculostomy sites used in neurosurgery, typically in pediatrics for ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement. Keen's point is located 3 cm superior and 3 cm posterior to the helix of the ear. A burr hole or small twist drill hole is made in the skull at the Keen's point, to introduce a catheter into the lateral ventricle of brain for the purpose of obtaining or diverting cerebrospinal fluid. The procedure is done for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

References

Neurosurgery
Ventricular system

Keen's point


Julita Ross (March 21, 1919 – June 29, 1981) was a singer of Puerto Rican danzas, also known as "The Great Lady of the Danzas".

Early years
Ross was born in Arecibo, Puerto Rico. Her parents Ramon and Clemencia moved to the Santurce section of San Juan in 1923.  Ross received her primary and secondary education and graduated from the Central High School of Santurce.  In 1940, she joined an artistic singing group which had a show called "Industrias Nativas" (Native Industries) and which was transmitted through the radio station "WIAC", until 1945.

During World War II, Ross entertained the troops with her voice in "USO shows" (United Service Organizations).  After touring with the USO, Ross went to New York City where she performed in many hispanic theaters, among which was "El Teatro Puerto Rico".  She was also heard on the radio stations "WWRL" and "WHOM".

Singing career

In 1947, Ross was offered a recording contract.  She recorded the boleros "Diez Años" (Ten Years) by Rafael Hernández and "Aunque Me Llores" (Even if you cry for me) by Claudio Ferrer.  In 1948, she recorded 49 danzas written by composers such as Juan Morel Campos, Manuel Gregorio Tavárez, Rafael Alers and Ángel Mislan among others.

In 1953, Ross returned to Puerto Rico where she received a contract from the radio station "WNEL" to do the show "La Voz de Borinquen" (The voice of Puerto Rico).  This is where she was nicknamed "The Great Lady of the Danzas".

Ross's first record was titled "Julita Ross Canta Danzas" (Julita Ross Sings Danzas). In 1961, she recorded "Julita y Chago" and in 1968 "La Siempre Recordada Julita Ross" (The Always Remembered Julita Ross). She also recorded , ,  and .

Later years
Ross moved to Levittown, Toa Baja in 1966. She continued to participate in many activities, especially with the Institute of   Puerto Rican Culture.  In 1974, Ross was honored by the Cayetano Coll y Toste Club in Arecibo.  She was given the "keys" to the city and inducted into the Arecibo Hall of Fame.

Julita Ross died on June 29, 1981, in Levittown, Toa Baja and was buried in Bayamón.  The mayor of Toa Baja honored her memory by renaming the Levittown theater "El Theatro de Bellas Artes de Julita Ross" (The Julita Ross Theater of Beautiful Arts).

See also

 List of Puerto Ricans
 German immigration to Puerto Rico
 History of women in Puerto Rico

References

External links
 Julita Ross video on YouTube

1919 births
1981 deaths
People from Arecibo, Puerto Rico
20th-century Puerto Rican women singers
20th-century Puerto Rican singers
Puerto Rican people of German descent

Julita Ross


Audrey Sophia "Sophie" Harris (2 July 1900 – 10 March 1966) was an English award winning theatre and opera costume and scenic designer.

Biography
Born in Hayes, Kent, the third child and first daughter of William Birkbeck Harris, a Lloyds Insurance clerk, and his wife Kathleen Marion Carey. With her younger sister Margaret "Percy" Harris she studied at The Chelsea Illustrators Studio in London. A fellow student was Elizabeth Montgomery, and the three formed a theatre design partnership known as Motley Theatre Design Group. The first full-scale production on which they worked was Romeo and Juliet for the Oxford University Dramatic Society (OUDS), John Gielgud's début as a director. The great success of this led to an invitation from Gielgud to design Gordon Daviot's Richard of Bordeaux, which opened at the New Theatre in St Martins Lane, London, in February 1933. The production was a huge success, achieving cult status, with playgoers queuing round the block every night. It is widely recognised that the success was partly owing to the Motley sets and costumes, which captured the essence of the period in an artistic rather than a slavishly historical sense, and were much admired for their beauty and lightness. This early recognition led to a busy and highly successful decade during which they became Gielgud's regular collaborators, working with him on such productions as his celebrated Romeo and Juliet (1935), in which he alternated the parts of Romeo and Mercutio with Laurence Olivier, and his Hamlet of 1936. They also formed a partnership with the celebrated French director Michel Saint-Denis, whose production of André Obey's Noah, starring Gielgud in the title role, they designed in 1935. Saint Denis went on to found the London Theatre Studio (1936–1939), a radical new theatre school which incorporated courses in theatre design taught by the Motleys. This was the first time theatre design had been taught within a drama school in the UK. In addition to their teaching and theatre work, the Motleys also opened a couture house in 1936, to which Harris made a substantial contribution.

At the outbreak of World War II, Margaret Harris and Elizabeth Montgomery were in the USA, working with Laurence Olivier, and they decided to remain there until the end of the war. Sophie Harris, still in England, married the actor and director George Devine (1910–1966) with whom she formed a relationship after the OUDS Romeo and Juliet. Their daughter Harriet was born in 1942. Working on her own for the first time, Sophie designed several plays and films during this period.

Shortly after Devine's return after the war, he founded The Old Vic Theatre School, together with Saint-Denis and Glen Byam Shaw. Sophie, with Margaret Harris, back from America, taught design and costume at the school. Following the closure of the school in 1952, the Motleys continued to design extensively for both opera (at London's Sadler's Wells Theatre and English National Opera) and theatre. Their work at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre was much admired throughout the 1950s. Harris also had a successful solo career as a costume designer for films, as well as reviving her couture house under the name Elizabeth Curzon. In the early days of Devine's newly founded English Stage Company at the Royal Court Theatre (founded 1956), the Motleys designed numerous productions. Harris designed the costumes for several Woodfall Films, including Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960), A Taste of Honey (1961), The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962), and This Sporting Life (1963), and for Jack Clayton (The Innocents (1961) and The Pumpkin Eater, for which she won a BAFTA Award for best costume designer. (1963)).

Harris was divorced from George Devine in the early 1960s. She continued to work successfully in both theatre and film until her death in March 1966.

References

External links

1900 births
1966 deaths
English costume designers
Opera designers
English scenic designers
Instructors of the London Theatre Studio
Women scenic designers
People from Hayes, Bromley
BAFTA winners (people)

Sophie Harris


Henry Roscoe (17 April 1800 – 25 March 1836) was an English barrister, legal writer, and biographer.

Life
The youngest son of William Roscoe, he was born at Allerton Hall, near Liverpool, on 17 April 1800. He was educated by private tutors, and in 1817 was articled to Messrs. Stanistreet & Eden, solicitors, Liverpool. In January 1819 he moved to London and began studying for the bar, almost supporting himself by literary work. He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in February 1826, and then practised in the northern circuit and at the Liverpool and Chester sessions. He was also assessor to the mayor's court, Liverpool, and a member of the municipal corporation's commission.

He died at Gateacre, near Liverpool, on 25 March 1836.

Works
Roscoe wrote Lives of Eminent British Lawyers (1830), as one of the volumes of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia, and The Life of William Roscoe (2 vols. 1833).  His legal treatises were:

 A Treatise on the Law of Actions relating to Real Property, 1825, 2 vols.
 Digest of the Law of Evidence on the Trials of Actions at Nisi Prius, 1827.
 A Digest of the Law Relating to Bills of Exchange, Promissory Notes, and Bankers' Checks, 1829.
 Digest relating to Offences against the Coin, 1832.
 General Digest of Decisions in the Courts for 1834, 1835, and 1836, 3 vols.
 Digest of the Law of Evidence in Criminal Cases, 1835.

Several of these works were often reprinted. He also brought out an edition of Roger North's Lives (1826, 3 vols), and was the joint editor of Price's Exchequer Reports for 1834–35.

Family
By his marriage, on 29 October 1831, to Maria, second daughter of Thomas Fletcher and granddaughter of William Enfield, he had a son Henry Enfield Roscoe, and a daughter Harriet, who married Edward Enfield. Roscoe's widow, who died in April 1885, aged 86, published in 1868 Vittoria Colonna: her Life and Times about the Italian noblewoman and poet.

References

Attribution

1800 births
1836 deaths
English barristers
English biographers
English male non-fiction writers
19th-century English lawyers

Henry Roscoe (legal writer)


Zhangdian () is the central urban district of Zibo city in Shandong province, China. It covers an area of , including a built-up area of . It governs six towns, six subdistricts, 113 administrative villages, and 90 neighborhood committees. It has a registered population of 622,000, including an urban population of 480,400.

It contains the administrative offices of Zibo central government, and has major rail and bus stations. The outer area is highly industrialized. The central area is a mixture of high rise office buildings, condos, government offices and shopping malls. The Central Business District is located around People's Park.

History
Zhangdian was derived from Longshan culture and Dawenkou culture.

In the period of Warring States, Yue Yi, a general of Yan was awarded this district. He then established the state of Chang in this area.

At the end of Jin Dynasty and the beginning of Yuan dynasty, Zhangdian became famous as a trade center. It had always been a city of significance for Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasty.

In April, 1955, Zhangdian was officially established as one of the districts of Zibo city.

Administrative division
Zhangdian governs six towns, including Nanding, Fujia, Mashang, Fangzhen, Zhongbu and Fengshui.

It also governs six subdistricts, including Chezhan Subdistrict, Heping Subdistrict, Gongyuan Subdistrict, Keyuan Subdistrict, Tiyuchang Subdistrict and Xingyuan subdistrict.

Natural Environment

Landform
Zhangdian is on the north east side of the synclinal basin of Zibo. It is located on a transition area from low mountains and hills to Huangfan plain, with its eastern and southern parts higher than its western and northern part. The land is generally plain in Zhangdian, with its plain covering 72.43% of its gross area.

There is a northeast-trending massif in the northeast part of Zhangdian, with Heitie Mountain as its main peak. Heitie Mountain is 254 meters high. It is also the highest mountain in Zhangdian.

Soil
There are two kinds of soil in Zhangdian, cinnamon soil and Shajiang black soil.

River
Xiaofu River, Zhulong River, Laozi River and Mansi River are the main rivers in Zhangdian. Their length inside Zhangdian district are respectively 17 kilometers, 21.8 kilometers, 30.6 kilometers and 6.8 kilometers. They are all north-trending except Zhulong River.

Climate
Zhangdian has a temperate and monsoonal climate, with four clearly distinct seasons.

Tourist Attraction

Ceramics City
Ceramics City is located on Zhangdian centre cultural square. It exhibits fancy porcelains from the Neolithic Age until now which were produced and discovered in Zibo. The museum hall is divided in seven parts: integrated exhibition area, ancient exhibition area, neoteric exhibition area...

Yudaihu scenic area
Yudaihu scenic area is an integrated scenic area with the recreation tourism, agricultural ecology and food service.

Famous person
Chinese physician——Bianque

Ming Dynasty physician——Yuehanzhen

Strategist——Sunbin

Qi politician——Guanzhong

Qi prime minister (in ancient China)——Baoshuya

References

External links
Official website

 https://www.sdta.cn/scenic/41.html

County-level divisions of Shandong
Zibo

Zhangdian District


Abu'l-Walid Ma'n ibn Za'ida al-Shaybani () (died 769/70) was an 8th-century Arab general of the Shayban tribe, who served both the Umayyads and the Abbasids.

Under the Umayyads
Ma'n was a member of the nobility of the Shayban tribe, settled in the Jazira, and the first member of his family to rise to prominence. He entered the service of the Umayyad Caliphate, and under the patronage of the powerful governor of Iraq, Yazid ibn Umar ibn Hubayra, was sent to command against Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya in Fars in 746/7.

During the Abbasid Revolution, he returned to Iraq and fought against the Abbasids at the Siege of Wasit, again under Ibn Hubayra's command; indeed, he was one of those who claimed to have killed the Abbasid commander Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i. He was spared the execution of the leaders of the Wasit garrison after their surrender, having been sent to Kufa to submit to Caliph al-Saffah on Ibn Hubayra's behalf.

Under the Abbasids
After this he remained in hiding until 758/9, when he came out of retirement to fight the Rawandiyya rebels.  He was so successful in this that the Caliph al-Mansur gave him a full pardon and a place at court.  Ma'n was appointed to the governorship of Yemen in 759/60, where he "pacified the country brutally but successfully".  In 768 he was recalled from Yemen and sent to govern Sistan.  There he managed to defeat the local Kharijite rebels, but was killed by some of their number who disguised themselves as workmen to enter his residence at Bust (769/70).

Ma'n acquired a lasting reputation "as a fierce warrior, but also for his extreme generosity and as a patron of poets, notably Marwan ibn Abi Hafsa, who wrote a famous elegy on Ma'n".  At least two of his four sons rose to prominence:  Za'ida succeeded him in Yemen, while Sharahil participated in Harun al-Rashid's invasion of the Byzantine Empire in 806.  It was his nephews Yazid and Ahmad, however, who succeeded Ma'n in his position, both within the Shayban tribe and at court.  Both assumed important provincial governorships and military commands, while Yazid's descendants in particular came to dominate the region of Shirvan, where they later formed a separate dynasty (the shirvanshahs).

References

Sources

769 deaths
8th-century Arab people
Banu Shayban
Abbasid governors of Yemen
Generals of the Umayyad Caliphate
Arab generals
Governors of Sistan
Year of birth unknown
One Thousand and One Nights characters

Ma'n ibn Za'ida al-Shaybani


In music, a bow () is a tensioned stick which has hair (usually horse-tail hair) coated in rosin (to facilitate friction) affixed to it. It is moved across some part (generally some type of strings) of a musical instrument to cause vibration, which the instrument emits as sound. The vast majority of bows are used with string instruments, such as the violin, viola, cello, and bass, although some bows are used with musical saws and other bowed idiophones.

Materials and manufacture

A bow consists of a specially shaped stick with other material forming a ribbon stretched between its ends, which is used to stroke the string and create sound. Different musical cultures have adopted various designs for the bow. For instance, in some bows a single cord is stretched between the ends of the stick. In the Western tradition of bow making—bows for the instruments of the violin and viol families—a hank of horsehair is normally employed.

The manufacture of bows is considered a demanding craft, and well-made bows command high prices. Part of the bow maker's skill is the ability to choose high quality material for the stick. Historically, Western bows have been made of pernambuco wood from Brazil. However, pernambuco is now an endangered species whose export is regulated by international treaty, so makers are currently adopting other materials: woods such as Ipê (Tabebuia) and synthetic materials, such as carbon fiber epoxy composite and fiberglass.

For the frog, which holds and adjusts the near end of the horsehair, ebony is most often used, but other materials, often decorative, were used as well, such as ivory and tortoiseshell. Materials such as mother of pearl or abalone shell are often used on the slide that covers the mortise, as well as in round decorative "eyes" inlaid on the side surfaces. Sometimes "Parisian eyes" are used, with the circle of shell surrounded by a metal ring. The metal parts of the frog, or mountings, may be used by the maker to mark various grades of bow, ordinary bows being mounted with nickel silver, better bows with silver, and the finest being gold-mounted. (Not all makers adhere uniformly to this practice.) Near the frog is the grip, which is made of a wire, silk, or "whalebone" wrap and a thumb cushion made of leather or snakeskin. The tip plate of the bow may be made of bone, ivory, mammoth ivory, or metal, such as silver.

A bow maker or  typically uses between 150 and 200 hairs from the tail of a horse for a violin bow. Bows for other members of the violin family typically have a wider ribbon, using more hairs. There is a widely held belief among string players, neither proven nor disproven scientifically, that white hair produces a "smoother" sound and black hair (used mainly for double bass bows) is coarser and thus produces a "rougher" sound. Lower quality (inexpensive) bows often use nylon or synthetic hair, and some use bleached horse hair to give the appearance of higher quality. Rosin, or colophony, a hard, sticky substance made from resin (sometimes mixed with wax), is regularly applied to the bow hair to increase friction.

In making a wooden bow, the greater part of the woodworking is done on a straight stick. According to James McKean, "the bow maker graduates the stick in precise gradations so that it is evenly flexible throughout". These gradations were originally calculated by François Tourte, discussed below. To shape the curve or "camber" of the bow stick, the maker carefully heats the stick in an alcohol flame, a few inches at a time, bending the heated stick gradually—using a metal or wooden template to get the model's exact curve and shape.

The art of making wooden bows has changed little since the 19th century. Most modern composite sticks roughly resemble the Tourte design. Various inventors have explored new ways of bow-making. The Incredibow, for example, has a straight stick cambered only by the fixed tension of the synthetic hair.

Types

Slightly different bows, varying in weight and length, are used for the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.

These are generally variations on the same basic design. However, bassists use two distinct forms of the double bass bow. The "French" overhand bow is constructed like the bow used with other bowed orchestral instruments, and the bassist holds the stick from opposite the frog. The "German" underhand bow is broader and longer than the French bow, with a larger frog curved to fit the palm of the hand. The bassist holds the German stick with the hand loosely encompassing the frog. The German bow is the older of the two designs, having superseded the earlier arched bow. The French bow became popular with its adoption in the 19th century by virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. Both are found in the orchestra, though typically an individual bass player prefers to perform using one or the other type of bow.

Bowing

The characteristic long, sustained, and singing sound produced by the violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass is due to the drawing of the bow against their strings. This sustaining of musical sound with a bow is comparable to a singer using breath to sustain sounds and sing long, smooth, or legato melodies.

The term used for playing with a bow is "arco", from the Latin word "arcus", meaning bow. Therefore, to play arco is to play with a bow.

In modern practice, the bow is almost always held in the right hand while the left is used for fingering. When the player pulls the bow across the strings (such that the frog moves away from the instrument), it is called a down-bow; pushing the bow so the frog moves toward the instrument is an up-bow (the directions "down" and "up" are literally descriptive for violins and violas and are employed in analogous fashion for the cello and double bass). Two consecutive notes played in the same bow direction are referred to as a hooked bow; a down-bow following a whole down-bow is called a retake.

Generally, the player uses down-bow for strong musical beats and up-bow for weak beats. However, this is reversed in the viola da gamba—players of violin family instruments look like they are "pulling" on the strong beats, where gamba players look like they are "stabbing" on the strong beats. The difference may result from the different ways player hold the bow in these instrument families: violin/viola/cello players hold the wood part of the bow closer to the palm, whereas gamba players use the opposite orientation, with the horsehair closer. The orientation appropriate to each instrument family permits the stronger wrist muscles (flexors) to reinforce the strong beat.

String players control their tone quality by touching the bow to the strings at varying distances from the bridge, emphasizing the higher harmonics by playing sul ponticello ("on the bridge"), or reducing them, and so emphasizing the fundamental frequency, by playing sul tasto ("on the fingerboard").

Occasionally, composers ask the player to use the bow by touching the strings with the wood rather than the hair; this is known by the Italian phrase col legno ("with the wood"). Coll'arco ("with the bow") is the indication to use the bow hair to create the sound in the normal way.

History

Origin

The question of when and where the bow was invented is of interest because the technique of using it to produce sound on a stringed instrument has led to many important historical and regional developments in music, as well as the variety of instruments used.

Pictorial and sculptural evidence from early Egyptian, Indian, Hellenic, and Anatolian civilizations indicate that plucked stringed instruments existed long before the technique of bowing developed. In spite of the ancient origins of the bow and arrow, it would appear that bowed string instruments only developed during a comparatively recent period.

Eric Halfpenny, writing in the 1988 Encyclopædia Britannica, says, "bowing can be traced as far back as the Islamic civilization of the 10th century ... it seems likely that the principle of bowing originated among the nomadic horse riding cultures of Central Asia, whence it spread quickly through Islam and the East, so that by 1000 it had almost simultaneously reached China, Java, North Africa, the Near East and Balkans, and Europe." Halfpenny notes that in many Eurasian languages the word for "bridge" etymologically means "horse," and that the Chinese regarded their own bowed instruments (huqin) as having originated with the "barbarians" of Central Asia.

The Central Asian theory is endorsed by Werner Bachmann, writing in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Bachmann notes evidence from a 10th-century Central Asian wall painting for bowed instruments in what is now the city of Kurbanshaid in Tajikistan.

Circumstantial evidence also supports the Central Asian theory. All the elements that were necessary for the invention of the bow were probably present among the Central Asian horse riding peoples at the same time:

In a society of horse-mounted warriors (the horse peoples included the Huns and the Mongols), horsehair obviously would have been available.
Central Asian horse warriors specialized in the military bow, which could easily have served the inventor as a temporary way to hold horsehair at high tension.
To this day, horsehair for bows is taken from places with harsh cold climates, including Mongolia, as such hair offers a better grip on the strings.
Rosin, crucial for creating sound even with coarse horsehair, is used by traditional archers to maintain the integrity of the string and (mixed with beeswax) to protect the finish of the bow.

(From this information it can be seen that the invention of the bow originates from a Mongol warrior, having just used rosin on his equipment, idly stroking his harp or lyre with a rosin-dusted finger, producing a brief continuous sound, thus inspiring them to restring their bow with horsehair, leading to the earliest example of the bow)

However the bow was invented, it spread quickly and widely. The Central Asian horse peoples occupied a territory that included the Silk Road, along which merchants and travelers transported goods and innovations rapidly for thousands of miles (including, via India, by sea to Java). This would account for the near-simultaneous appearance of the musical bow in the many locations cited by Halfpenny.

Arabic rabāb

The Arabic rabāb is a type of a bowed string instrument so named no later than the 8th century and spread via Islamic trading routes over much of North Africa, the Middle East, parts of Europe, and the Far East. It is the earliest known bowed instrument, and the ancestor of all European bowed instruments, including the rebec, lyra and violin.

Modern Western bow

The kind of bow in use today was brought into its modern form largely by the bow maker François Tourte in 19th-century France. Pernambuco wood, which was imported into France to make textile dye, was found by the early French bow masters to have just the right combination of strength, resiliency, weight, and beauty. According to James McKean, Tourte's bows, "like the instruments of Stradivari, are still considered to be without equal."

Historical bows
The early 18th-century bow referred to as the Corelli-Tartini model is also referred to as the Italian 'sonata' bow. This basic Baroque bow supplanted by 1725 an earlier French dance bow that was short with a little point. The French dance bow was held with the thumb under the hair and played with short, quick strokes for rhythmic dance music. The Italian sonata bow was longer, from 24 to 28 inches (61–71 cm.), with a straight or slightly convex stick. The head is described as a pike's head, and the frog is either fixed (the clip-in bow) or has a screw mechanism. The screw is an early improvement, indicative of further changes to come. As compared to a modern Tourte-style bow, the Corelli-Tartini model is shorter and lighter, especially at the tip, the balance point is lower down on the stick, the hair more yielding, and the ribbon of hair narrower—about 6 mm wide.

In the early bow (the Baroque bow), the natural bow stroke is a non-legato norm, producing what Leopold Mozart called a "small softness" at the beginning and end of each stroke.

A lighter, clearer sound is produced, and quick notes are cleanly articulated without the hair leaving the string.

A truly great example of such a bow, described by David Boyden, is part of the Ansley Salz Collection at the University of California at Berkeley. It was made around 1700, and is attributed to Stradivari.

Towards the middle of the century (18th century), there was a move into the Transitional period, the separation of hair from stick became greater, particularly at the head. This greater separation is necessary because the stick becomes longer and straighter, approaching a concave shape.

Up until the advent of the bow by Tourte, there was absolutely no standardization of bow features during this Transitional period, and every bow was different in weight, length and balance.
In particular, the heads varied enormously by any given maker.

Another transitional type of bow may be called the Cramer bow, after the violinist Wilhelm Cramer (1746–99) who lived the early part of his life in Mannheim (Germany) and, after 1772, in London. This bow and models comparable to it in Paris, generally prevailed between the gradual demise of the Corelli-Tartini model and the birth of the Tourte—that is, roughly 1750 until 1785.
In the view of top experts, the Cramer bow represents a decisive step towards the modern bow.

The Cramer bow and others like it were gradually rendered obsolete by the advent of François Tourte's standardized bow. The hair (on the Cramer bow) is wider than the Corelli model but still narrower than a Tourte, the screw mechanism becomes standard, and more sticks are made from pernambuco, rather than the earlier snakewood, ironwood, and china wood, which were often fluted for a portion of the length of the stick.

Fine makers of these Transitional models were Duchaîne, La Fleur, Meauchand, Tourte père, and Edward Dodd.

The underlying reasons for the change from the old Corelli-Tartini model to the Cramer and, finally, to the Tourte were naturally related to musical demands on the part of composers and violinists.
Undoubtedly the emphasis on cantabile, especially the long drawn out and evenly sustained phrase, required a generally longer bow and also a somewhat wider ribbon of hair. These new bows were ideal to fill the new, very large concert halls with sound and worked great with the late classical and the new romantic repertoire.

Today, with the rise of the historically informed performance movement, string players have developed a revived interest in the lighter, pre-Tourte bow, as more suitable for playing stringed instruments made in pre-19th-century style.

Stradivarius bows
A Stradivari bow, The King Charles IV Violin Bow attributed to the Stradivari Workshop, is currently in the collection of the National Music Museum Object number: 04882, at the University of South Dakota in Vermillion, South Dakota. The Rawlins Gallery violin bow, NMM 4882, is attributed to the workshop of Antonio Stradivari, Cremona,  1700.
This bow is one of two bows (the other in a private collection in London) attributed to the workshop of Antonio Stradivari.

Other types of bow
The Chinese yazheng and yaqin, and Korean ajaeng zithers are generally played by "bowing" with a rosined stick, which creates friction against the strings without any horsehair. The hurdy-gurdy's strings are similarly set into vibration by means of a "rosin wheel," a wooden wheel that contacts the strings as it is rotated by means of a crank handle, creating a "bowed" tone.

The modern Curved Bow

In the 20th century, violinists and cellists used a so-called Curved Bow to enable polyphonic sounds on string instruments. Renowned string instrumentalists such as Emil Telmányi, Rudolf Gaehler, Tossy Spivakovsky, Lorin Maazel, Michael Bach, Gustav Rivinius, Janos Starker and Mstislav Rostropovich, as well as composers such as John Cage, Dieter Schnebel, Walter Zimmermann, Hans Zender and Michael Bach Bachtischa have dealt with this innovation in string instrument playing.

Maintenance
Careful owners always loosen the hair on a bow before putting it away. James McKean recommends that the owner "loosen the hair completely, then bring it back just a single turn of the button." The goal is to "keep the hair even but allow the bow to relax." Over-tightening the bow, however, can also be damaging to the stick and cause it to break.

Since hairs may break in service, bows must be periodically rehaired, an operation usually performed by professional bow makers rather than by the instrument owner.

Bows sometimes lose their correct camber (see above), and are recambered using the same heating method as is used in the original manufacture.

Lastly, the grip or winding of the bow must occasionally be replaced to maintain a good grip and protect the wood.

These repairs are usually left to professionals, as the head of the bow is extremely fragile, and a poor rehair, or a broken ivory plate on the tip, can lead to ruining the bow.

Nomenclature
In vernacular speech, the bow is occasionally called a fiddlestick. Bows for particular instruments are often designated as such: violin bow, cello bow, and so on.

See also
Bariolage
Bowed guitar
Curved bow

References
Sources
Harnoncourt, Nikolaus. Baroque music today: music as speech. Amadeus Press, c. 1988.
Saint-George, Henry (1866–1917). The Bow (London, 1896; 2: 1909).
Seletsky, Robert E., "New Light on the Old Bow," Part 1: Early Music 5/2004, pp. 286–96; Part 2: Early Music 8/2004, pp. 415–26.

Notes

Further reading
 Bachmann, Werner. The Origins of Bowing and the Development of Bowed Instruments Up to the Thirteenth Century. London, Oxford U.P., 1969.
 Saint-George, Henry, The Bow, Its History, Manufacture and Use
 Templeton, David. "Fresh Prince: Joshua Bell on composition, hyperviolins, and the future". Strings no. 105 (October 2002).
 Young, Diana. A Methodology for Investigation of Bowed String Performance Through Measurement of Violin Bowing Technique. PhD Thesis. M.I.T., 2007.

External links

 Article about horse hair.
 Commissioning a bow.
 Mastering New Materials: Commissioning an Amber Bow, no.65
 Production of a carbon fiber bow
 eNotes article on the history and making of bows.
 The violin bow: a brief depiction of its history
 Bows used in traditional music (Polish folk musical instruments)

Musical instrument parts and accessories

Arab inventions
Mongolian inventions
Turkish inventions

Bow (music)


Anthony Richard Birley  (8 October 1937 – 19 December 2020) was a British ancient historian, archaeologist and academic. He was the son of Margaret Isabel (Goodlet) and historian and archaeologist Eric Birley.

Early life and education
Anthony Birley was the son of the archaeologist Eric Birley. Eric bought the house next to the archeological site Vindolanda where Anthony and his brother, Robin, began to excavate the site. The brothers took part in many of the excavations there. From 1950 to 1955, Anthony studied at Clifton College, a private school in Bristol, England. He studied classics at Magdalen College, Oxford, graduating with a first-class Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in 1960. He remained at the University of Oxford, and completed his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in 1966: his doctoral thesis was titled "The Roman high command from the death of Hadrian to the death of Caracalla, with particular attention to the Danubian wars of M. Aurelius and Commodus".

Career
Birley remained at the University of Oxford with a Craven Fellowship from 1960 to 1962, and was then a research fellow at the University of Birmingham. He moved to the University of Leeds as a lecturer, and was later promoted to Reader. He was the Professor of Ancient History at the University of Manchester (1974–1990) and additionally at the University of Düsseldorf (1990–2002). He was an Honorary Professor in the Department of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Durham.

He was elected as Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London (FSA) in 1969, and was a corresponding Member of the German Archaeological Institute (1981) and a member of Nordrhein-Westfälische Akademie der Wissenschaften from 1994 to 2002.

Birley was a founder trustee of the Vindolanda Trust since 1970 and remained in this role until 2016, having also served as the Chair of Trustees from 1996 to 2016.

Personal life
Birley was married to Heide. Together they had children.

Birley died of lung cancer on 19 December 2020.

Selected publications
Hadrian's Wall: an illustrated guide. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO) (1963).
Imperial Rome with drawings by the artist. Alan Sorrell London: Lutterworth Press (1970)
Life in Roman Britain (1972)
Lives of the Later Caesars (1976)
The Fasti of Roman Britain, Clarendon Press (1981)
Septimius Severus: The African Emperor (1972, revised edition 1988)
Roman Papers, vol. 6, by Ronald Syme, edited by A. R. Birley (Clarendon Press 1991)
The People of Roman Britain (1992)
Marcus Aurelius: a Biography, London: Routledge, (1993)
Anatolica - Studies in Strabo, by Ronald Syme, edited by A. R. Birley (Oxford: OUP 1995)
Vindolanda Research Reports (new series) 6 vols. (1996)
Hadrian: the Restless Emperor, London: Routledge, (1997)
Eques Romanus - Reiter und Ritter (in German) by Michel Stemmler, edited by A. R. Birley (Peter Lang GmbH, 1997)
Onomasticon to the Younger Pliny, Clarendon Press (2000)
Garrison Life at Vindolanda: a Band of Brothers, Stroud: Tempus, (2002)
The Roman Government of Britain (2005)
Agricola and Germany (2009)

References

External links
Entry on Birley family genealogy

1937 births
2020 deaths
British people of English descent
People educated at Clifton College
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
Academics of the Victoria University of Manchester
British archaeologists
Academic staff of Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf
Anthony Birley
Scholars of Hadrian's Wall
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
British classical scholars
Deaths from lung cancer in the United Kingdom
Academics of the University of Leeds

Anthony Birley


Ziziphus mistol or mistol is a spiniferous tree of the family Rhamnaceae, that belongs to genus Ziziphus, natural (and very abundant) of certain areas of Gran Chaco, South America. The word "mistol" derives from colonial era Spanish, from the word "mixture" (mezcla) since it was believed that mistol was a hybrid between species of genus Schinopsis because of the likely color of its wood to Spaniard colonists' perception.

Morphology
The mistol varies greatly in height, it may reach 10 to 15 meters though most individuals have no more than 4 to 9 meters high. Trunk diameter is also variable, it ranges 20 to 60 centimeters. The branches are pubescent, abundant, with spines near the leaves, and arranged in zig-zag. Its foliage is semi-deciduous. Mistol leaves are  oval shaped, alternate, entire, with three prominent basal veins, 2–7 cm long and slightly petiolated. It flowers late in spring, from October to December and fructifies from November to march. The fruit is an edible drupe, reddish-hazel coloured, roughly spherical, 1–5 cm long, sweet and sugary, with a distinct bitterness when ripe.

Mistol wood is quite tough, heavy and enduring (hence its early confusion with that of Schinopsis genus). It is often used in hand held tools, carriage wheels and less frequently to produce slow burning coal.

Usage
Known for centuries before Spanish colonization of Gran Chaco, the mistol was a regular (or even key) dietary item for several local tribes of South American Indians (comechingons, diaguitas, quilmes, etc.). It can be eaten natural when ripe or processed. A known preparation with mistol fruit is arrope, an overcooked result of its juice, pulp and cane sugar. Mistol coffee is available in South American diet shops, it is becoming slowly popular because it contains almost no caffeine or other xanthine alkaloids.

External images
Herbarium natural sample from The Field Museum website (Chicago)
Modelled distribution of Ziziphus mistol

References

 Mabberley, D.J., The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the higher plants, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1990
 Vásquez, Ch. R. & S.G. Coimbra, Frutas silvestres comestibles de Santa Cruz, Editorial FAN, 2002, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia.

mistol
Trees of Argentina
Flora of Bolivia
Flora of Argentina
Drought-tolerant trees
Argentine cuisine
Data deficient plants

Ziziphus mistol


STV Glasgow was a British local television station serving Glasgow and surrounding areas. The station was owned and operated by STV Group plc in partnership with Glasgow Caledonian University.

The channel was closed on Sunday 23 April 2017 and replaced by STV2, a semi-national network of local TV stations which itself closed on 1 July 2018.

History
STV were awarded local TV licences in January 2013 to operate two digital television channels, under the working titles of GTV and ETV, in Glasgow and Edinburgh respectively, for up to 12 years. Three other bids were made for the Glasgow licence by Glasgow TV, Made in Glasgow and Metro8 Glasgow.

The channel was run in partnership with Glasgow Caledonian University.

STV Glasgow launched at 6.30pm on Monday 2 June 2014, originally airing every day from midday until around midnight. The channel claimed to have reached over half a million viewers in its first month. Its sister station STV Edinburgh launched on 12 January 2015.

The channel extended its hours in March 2015, along with sister channel STV Edinburgh. The two city channels then shared the majority of programming, with most STV Glasgow productions also broadcast on its sister station.

On Monday 24 April 2017, with the launch of more STV City channels in Aberdeen, Ayr and Dundee, the network of services was merged and relaunched as STV2.

Programming

STV Glasgow aired a locally focused schedule of new, archived and imported programming, including daily magazine shows, an expanded STV News service, features, former STV programmes, documentaries and drama.

Non-news productions from the Glasgow studios included the early evening show, Live at Five, sports chat show Peter and Roughie's Football Show, interview series My Life in Ten Pictures and entertainment show Grass Roots Music.

STV Glasgow also aired archived drama series including Taggart, Take the High Road and Rebus alongside the acclaimed Polish World War II drama Czas honoru (Days of Honour) and the comedy drama series High Times. The station aimed to broadcast at least an hour a week of non-English language programming.

References
Notes

Sources

External links

STV2 on STV Player

2014 establishments in Scotland
Local television channels in the United Kingdom
Mass media in Glasgow
STV Group
Television channels and stations established in 2014
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2017
Defunct television channels in Scotland

STV Glasgow


Carbon enhanced metal poor stars, usually referred to as CEMP stars, are a class of chemically peculiar star. CEMP stars have [C/Fe] > +1, which means compared to the Sun these stars have carbon enhanced at least ten times more than iron, and [Fe/H] < -1, meaning that iron is less than a tenth that in the Sun.

These are further categorized by whether r-process or s-process elements are enhanced. CEMP-no stars have no enhancement. Some of these are the earliest formed in the Milky Way. The others are termed CEMP-r, CEMP-s, or CEMP-r/s. Metal poor stars are more likely to be CEMP stars, and once [Fe/H] < -5.0, then all the stars are CEMP stars.

Subdivisions
CEMP-r stars have [Eu/Fe] > +1 and [Ba/Eu] < 0.

CEMP-s stars have [Ba/Fe] > +1 and [Ba/Eu] > +0.5 80% of CEMP stars fall into this category.

CEMP-r/s stars have [Ba/Eu] between 0 and +0.5 so they are under the level for CEMP-s stars.

CEMP-no stars have [Ba/Fe] < 0. About 20% of CEMP stars fall into this category.

References

Star types

CEMP star


Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare is a 1991 American comedy horror slasher movie and the sixth movie in the Nightmare on Elm Street series. It is the sequel to A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child and is followed by Wes Craven's New Nightmare.

This was New Line Cinema's first movie released in 3-D. Upon its release, the movie received a poor critical reception.

Robert Englund reprises his role as Freddy Krueger; Lisa Zane, Yaphet Kotto, Breckin Meyer, Shon Greenblatt, Ricky Dean Logan, Lezlie Deane and Tobe Sexton also star.

The movie made $34.9 million in the box office. It was released on September 13, 1991.

References

1991 comedy movies
1991 horror movies
American comedy movies
A Nightmare on Elm Street movies
Movies about nightmares
Movies about child abuse
Movies about amnesia
Movies set in Ohio
Movies about dysfunctional families
Movies set in the 1950s
Movies set in the 1960s
Movies set in the 1970s
Movies directed by Rachel Talalay

Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare


Nigel Gavin is a New Zealand based musician and composer, best known as a guitar player. In addition to being a highly regarded solo artist and session musician, Nigel has been a member of bands such as popular New Zealand jazz quartett The Nairobi Trio, Robert Fripp's The League of Crafty Guitarists, klezmer "Jews Brothers", and Jonathan Besser's Bravura, as well as collaborator with artists such as folk singers Luke Hurley, Wayne Gillespie and Lorina Harding, Maori soul diva Whirimako Black, multi-instrumentalist Tom Ludvigson, jazz singer Caitlin Smith and harmonica maestro Brendan Power. He has a vast musical vocabulary which ranges from acoustic blues and folk to jazz, rock, fusion, surf pop, complex ambient grooves and various world music genres, in particular klezmer. Nigel's original jazz compositions cross boundaries of genre and combine musical traditions. He has toured extensively and performed at numerous music and art festivals in New Zealand, America, Australia and Europe.
An active mentor to young artists, Nigel founded and mentored the New Zealand guitar collective concept bands Gitbox and Gitbox Rebellion. As a constant innovator, he is a regular contributor to the Auckland experimental music salon Vitamin S and has given multimedia performances with photographer Ralph Talmont's photographs.

Solo albums
Nigel Gavin has recorded three solo albums. Music for Flem volume II, Thrum in 2003 and Visitation in 2007.

Instruments
Nigel started out as a bass player and is best known as a guitarist but should probably be described as a stringed instrument player. His signature instrument is a 7-string acoustic guitar, made by New Zealand luthier Laurie Williams. His favourite electric guitars are a Fender Telecaster and an Ibanez 7-string, both of which he uses with a variety of effects. He also plays a Yamaha 6-string steel string acoustic, acoustic and electric mandolins, a banjo and an 11-string Godin Glissentar – in effect a fretless electric oud with the same scale and size as a conventional guitar. He is also a proficient piano player and percussionist.
Nigel often employs live loops in both performance and recording, using a custom effects box with a large variety of foot pedals.
He plays with both fingers and a pick but also has been known to strike, pick, strum and pluck an instrument's strings with a variety of implements, including a pipe cleaner.

Discography

References

 Trevor Reekie, Moments Like These: Nigel Gavin, NZ Musician, 2009. Vol: 14 No: 8
 Andrew Healey, Nigel Gavin – One out of the Box, NZ Musician, 2007. Vol: 13 No: 4

External links
Nigel Gavin – Official Home Page
AudioCulture profile
Nigel Gavin's "Thrum" in iTunes
Blog entry about the cover of Richard Adams's and Nigel Gavin's "Recent Works" by collaborator, photographer Ralph Talmont

Living people
New Zealand composers
Male composers
New Zealand guitarists
New Zealand male guitarists
Seven-string guitarists
Crafty guitarists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Sony Music New Zealand artists

Nigel Gavin