Victor (Viktor) Abramovich Zalgaller (; ; 25 December 1920 – 2 October 2020) was a Russian-Israeli mathematician in the fields of geometry and optimization. He is best known for the results he achieved on convex polyhedra, linear and dynamic programming, isoperimetry, and differential geometry.

Biography
Zalgaller was born in Parfino, Novgorod Governorate on 25 December 1920. In 1936, he was one of the winners of the Leningrad Mathematics Olympiads for high school students. He started his studies at the Leningrad State University, however, World War II intervened in 1941, and Zalgaller joined the Red Army. He took part in the defence of Leningrad, and in 1945 marched into Germany.

He worked as a teacher at the Saint Petersburg Lyceum 239, and received his 1963 doctoral dissertation on polyhedra with the aid of his high school students who wrote the computer programs for the calculation.

Zalgaller did his early work under direction of A. D. Alexandrov and Leonid Kantorovich.  He wrote joint monographs with both of them.  His later monograph Geometric Inequalities (joint with Yu. Burago) is still the main reference in the field.

Zalgaller lived in Saint Petersburg most of his life, having studied and worked at the Leningrad State University and the Steklov Institute of Mathematics (Saint Petersburg branch).

In 1999, he immigrated to Israel. Zalgaller died on 2 October 2020 at the age of 99.

References

 V. A. Aleksandrov, et al. Viktor Abramovich Zalgaller (on his 80th birthday),  Russian Mathematical Surveys, Vol. 56 (2001), 1013–1014 (see here for a Russian version).
 Yu. D. Burago, et al. Viktor Abramovich Zalgaller (on his 80th birthday),  J. Math. Sci. (N. Y.)  J. Math. Sci. (N.Y.)  Vol. 119 (2004), 129–132 (see here for a Russian version).
 M. Z. Solomyak, A few words about Viktor Abramovich Zalgaller,  J. Math. Sci. (N.Y.)  Vol. 119  (2004), 138–140.
 S. S. Kutateladze, A Tribute to the Philanthropist and Geometer.
 List of papers of V. A. Zalgaller, available here (mostly in Russian).

External links

 Intrinsic Geometry of Surfaces — book by A.D Alexandrov and V.A. Zalgaller (AMS Online Book, originally translated in 1967).
  Personal war memoir (in Russian).
 Lecture read in 1999 in St.Petersburg, Russia (video, in Russian)

1920 births
2020 deaths
20th-century Russian mathematicians
21st-century Russian mathematicians
Differential geometers
Israeli Jews
Israeli mathematicians
People from Parfinsky District
Russian emigrants to Israel
Russian Jews
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Soviet mathematicians

Victor Zalgaller


Kevin Rigdon (born February 17, 1956, in Pontiac, Michigan, United States) is a scenic designer, lighting designer. He teaches at the University of Houston, and is the Associate Director/Design for Houston 's Alley Theatre.

Life
Rigdon's career in theatre began in 1974, when he joined classmates Gary Sinise and Jeff Perry as the resident designer for the newly formed Steppenwolf Theatre Company.
Since then, Rigdon has designed over 345 productions including several productions for Broadway, Alley Theatre, and several other theaters around the world.

Rigdon has been honored with two Tony Award nominations, seven Joseph Jefferson Awards, four Drama Desk Awards, 1986; 1990 American Theatre Wing Design Awards, and a Drama-Logue Award.
In 2003, his designs for American Buffalo were exhibited in Prague, Czech Republic as a part of the United States National Exhibit of the Prague Quadrennial Sceneography Exposition.

Rigdon is a member of United Scenic Artists Local 829.

References

External links

List of productions at Internet Off-Broadway Database
U of Houston - Theatre & Dance website

1956 births
Living people
American scenic designers

Kevin Rigdon


Jeanette Davis is a marine microbiologist, Policy Analyst for NOAA and children's book author.

Early life and education
Jeanette Davis was born in Wilmington, Delaware, in 1985. Davis discovered her passion for science at an early age. Unlike her siblings, who preferred video games and athletics, Davis loved spending time outside and experimenting. Her parents and school teachers encouraged her natural curiosity and inquisitiveness. By the time she got to high school, she knew that she wanted to pursue science and applied to colleges as pre-med as well as pre-law. However, when she began undergrad at Hampton University in Virginia as a criminology major, she quickly discovered her interest in marine science, though her interest in policy and advocacy remained.

Davis was first exposed to marine research during her first undergraduate summer internship, Multicultural Students at Sea Together. During this research experience Davis spent one month sailing around Chesapeake Bay on a 53-foot sailboat. As an undergraduate student, Davis's favorite courses included meteorology, followed by botany, microbiology, zoology and geology. She graduated from Hampton University in 2008 with a B.S. in Marine and Environmental Science.The Marine Sciences Department at Hampton University equipped Davis with a strong foundation in marine biology.

Davis went on to receive her PhD in marine microbiology from the University of Maryland in 2014, at the Center for Environmental Science's Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology. Davis had initially come to IMET as an intern with NOAA's Living Marine Resources Cooperative Science Center (LMRCSC), which also helped fund her studies at IMET. Her dissertation, "Characterization of the bacterial communities associated with two tropical sacoglossan mollusks Elysia rufescens and Elysia crispate", advised by Russell Hill, focused on tracing an anticancer compound back to its production by a bacterium associated with Hawaiian sea slugs.

Career
Davis lives in Washington, D.C. and works as a Policy Analyst and Invasive Species Coordinator for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). As a policy analyst, Davis conducts research, writes reports and helps guide ocean resource policies. Some of her work is on Omics technologies, which are methods used to analyze DNA, RNA, proteins and metabolites, and creating strategies to integrate them into achieving NOAA's goals. Additionally, Davis serves as the United States representative for two intergovernmental panels, helping promote and create scientific cooperation between different countries and their governments, and has advised the White House on ocean science and technology for the coming decade.

Davis has been working at NOAA since she was paired with the organization's National Marine Fisheries Service for her Sea Grant fellowship in 2015. During this fellowship she helped with sea turtle research and conservation, co-authoring a National Bycatch Report. After she completed her fellowship, she became a Research Associate with the NOAA Fisheries Office of Science and Technology.

Public engagement
Davis has visited more than a dozen countries and many colleges to talk about ocean science. She has been featured in magazines such as Ebony, Essence, and Black Enterprise, dubbed as the "next great marine scientist". Davis is a strong advocate for community involvement and empowering young people. She has mentored many students in elementary school through college and continues to mentor younger scientists at NOAA. To give back to youth in her hometown of Wilmington, where there are high rates of poverty and homicide, she founded the Marquis Pressey Scholarship. The Marquis Pressey Scholarship honors her cousin who was murdered several years ago and helps African American men through college.

Davis also works to empower and diversify the next generation of scientists, with her children's book, "Science is Everywhere, Science is for Everyone". Her book was featured as the #1 Hot New Release in Children's School Issues on Amazon, and is the first in a series Davis plans to publish.

Awards and honors

 Sea Grant John A. Knauss Marine Policy Fellowship beginning in 2015
 2020 Technology Rising Star Award from NOAA at the annual Women of Color in STEM conference

Selected publications

 Zan, J., Li, Z., Dianery Tianero, M., Davis, J., Hill, R.T., and M.S. Donia. (2019). A microbial factory for defensive kahalalides in a tripartite marine symbiosis. Science 364:eaaw6732.
 Montalvo, N.F., Davis, J., Vincente, J., Pittiglio, R., Ravel, J., and R.T. (2014). Integration of Culture-Based and Molecular Analysis of a Complex Sponge-Associated Bacterial Community. PLOS ONE 9(3): e90517. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090517
 Davis, J., Fricke, F., Hamann, M.T., Esquenazi, E., Dorrestein, P.C., and R.T. Hill. (2013). Characterization of the Bacterial Community of the Chemically Defended Hawaiian Sacoglossan Elysia rufescens. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 79 (22) 7073-7081;
 Davis, J. (2020). Science is Everywhere, Science is for Everyone. Atlanta, Georgia: Mynd Matters Publishing.
 Goodwin, K., Certner, R., Strom, M., Arzayus, F., Bohan, M., Busch, S., Canonico, G., Cross, S., Davis, J., Egan, K., Grieg, T., Kearns, E., Koss, J., Larsen, K., Layton, D., Nichols, K., O'Neil, J., Parks, D., Poussard, L., and C. Werner. (2020). NOAA 'Omics White Paper: Informing the NOAA 'Omics Strategy and Implementation Plan. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
 Goodwin, K., Davis, J., Strom, M., and C. Werner. (2020). NOAA 'Omics Strategy: Strategic Application of Transformational Tools. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, National Marine Fisheries Service. https://nrc.noaa.gov/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=RReWVFNjr5I%3d&tabid=92&portalid=0

References

1985 births
Living people
Women marine biologists
Scientists from Wilmington, Delaware
American marine biologists
Hampton University alumni
University of Maryland, College Park alumni
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration personnel
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American women writers

Jeanette Davis


William Prescott (February 20, 1726 – October 13, 1795) was an American colonel in the Revolutionary War who commanded the patriot forces in the Battle of Bunker Hill.  Prescott is known for his order to his soldiers, "Do not fire until you see the whites of their eyes", such that the rebel troops may shoot at the enemy at shorter ranges, and therefore more accurately and lethally, and so conserve their limited stocks of ammunition. It is debated whether Prescott or someone earlier coined this memorable saying.

Life
Prescott was born in Groton, Massachusetts to Benjamin Prescott (1696–1738) and Abigail Oliver Prescott (1697–1765). He married Abigail Hale (1733–1821) on April 13, 1758, and they had one child, who is named William Prescott Jr. William Prescott owned a house in Pepperell, Massachusetts, on Prescott Street. Prescott was then a frontier town bordering upon Hollis N.H.   In fact, the Indians long continued to be his neighbors, so that there when it was considered unsafe to go into the field to their daily labor without their rifles.  Col. Prescott held his lands as his son, Hon. Wm. Prescott, late of Prescott, and his grandson Wm. H. Prescott, the historian, continued to hold them, under the original Indian title.

Prescott served in the provincial militia in King George's War where he served in the 1745 Siege of Louisbourg under William Pepperrell, and was a lieutenant in the Provincial troops which were sent to remove the neutral French from Nova Scotia in 1755.  After his return he married Miss Hale, as above, and was promoted to the office of captain.  In 1755, when the French and Indian War widened, he saw action at the Battle of Fort Beausejour. He turned down an offer to join the British Army for his service in that war.

The now-disincorporated town of Prescott, Massachusetts was named after him. He was the father of William Prescott Jr., who fought with him at the Battle of Bunker Hill. He was the grandfather of eminent historian William H. Prescott, after whom Prescott, Arizona is named.

American Revolutionary War
In 1774 Prescott was appointed colonel of a regiment of "minute men", enrolled in Pepperell and vicinity. After hearing of the "regulars'" (British) attack on Lexington on 19 April 1775, the alarm was raised that British troops were marching on Concord.  The news reached Pepperell about 10 am. Prescott immediately gave order for the company in Pepperell and the company in Hollis to march to Groton and thence to the scene of action.

Arriving before the Groton Companies were ready, the Pepperell and Hollis companies, after a short halt, proceeded on their way in advance of the Groton companies. Col. Prescott hastened ahead with as many of his regiment as he could collect to Concord and thence to Cambridge, but did not overtake the retreating British troops. They arrived too late to participate in the day's battles, but they became part of the small army that laid siege to Boston afterward. He and most of his men enlisted for eight months, the period of the first enlistment.

When the American military commanders were alerted to British plans to capture undefended high ground at Dorchester Heights and Charlestown, Prescott was chosen to lead 1,200 men onto the Charlestown peninsula and erect defenses on Bunker Hill.  The actual defenses were built on Breeds Hill, as it was lower and closer to the harbor.  "On the 16th of June, 1775, Gen. Artemas Ward, the commander-in-chief, issued an order for placing three Massachusetts regiments (Col. Prescott's, Col. Frye's and Col. Bridge's) and one hundred and twenty men from a Connecticut regiment (under the brave command of Thomas Knowlton), about one thousand in all, all under the command of Col. Prescott, directing them to proceed to Bunker Hill and there erect a fortification.

The detachment started from Cambridge Common at dark, proceeding silently to Bunker Hill.  There, at about 11 o'clock pm, the troops commenced building the entrenchments as laid out by Captain Richard Gridley. The breast work or redoubt was only constructed of such earth as the party had thrown up after the middle of the night and was not more than breast high to a man of medium height. Colonel Prescott being a very tall man, six feet and two or three inches in height, his head and shoulders and a considerable portion of his body must have been exposed during the whole of the engagement. He wore a three-cornered cocked hat and a ban-yan or calico coat. After one of his men was killed by cannon ball, Prescott, perceiving that this had made some of the soldiers sick at heart, mounted tile para-pet and walked leisurely around it, cheering his soldiers by approbation and humor. His clothing was repeatedly spattered with the blood and the brains of the killed and wounded.

The next day, his troops, who were tired from working to construct a redoubt and other defensive works, and had only limited ammunition, formed the centerpiece of the American defenses when the British attacked the position. The British began firing from the ship Lively at 4 a.m. and attacked at 3 p.m.

Prescott ordered the Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton to defend the left flank, where they used a crude dirt wall as a breastwork, and topped it with fence rails and hay. They also constructed three small v-shaped trenches between this dirt wall and Prescott's breastwork. Troops that arrived to reinforce this flank position included about 200 men from the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire regiments, under Colonels John Stark and James Reed.

In spirited battle, Prescott's men twice threw back British assaults on the redoubt. When the British made a third attempt, his men were almost out of ammunition; after an initial volley, he ordered a retreat from the redoubt. He was one of the last men to leave the redoubt, parrying bayonet thrusts with his ceremonial saber. The men on the left flank played a key part in the cover of the retreat.

Dr. O. Prescott Jr. saw the waistcoat and the ban-yan coat after the engagement, and they had several holes pierced by the bayonets of the British in their attempts at his life." The Americans, although raw troops, fought with the bravery and obstinacy of veterans, until their ammunition was exhausted. Col. Prescott was always confident that he could have maintained his position, even with the handful of men under him, if he had been supplied with ammunition.

Prescott told General Artemas Ward, the Commander-in-Chief, that he would retake the place that night or perish in the attempt, if Ward would give him three regiments, with bayonets and sufficient ammunition. But from prudential reasons it was declined.  While the British successfully captured Bunker Hill, the poorly organized colonial forces inflicted significant casualties.  The British were unable to capitalize their victory and lost 50 percent (killed or wounded) of the force commanded by General Howe.

Prescott is widely seen as having played a key role in the battle, keeping the relatively poorly trained militia under his command well-disciplined. As it was, however, the British were left in possession of the field, for they had carried the position at the point of the bayonet and technically the day was theirs.

Among the many Americans who distinguished themselves at Bunker Hill the names of Prescott, Putnam and Warren stand out most clearly. While General Putnam was on the scene at Bunker Hill by some writers he was not in the redoubt at Breeds Hill at any time during the action, but was attempting to direct affairs, to unit commanders who often misunderstood or disobeyed orders from that position. Joseph Warren, a Massachusetts politician and member of the colony's Committee of safety (American Revolution), volunteered to serve under Colonel William Prescott in the defense of the redoubt as a private and wanted to be close to the battle. It is during the retreat from the redoubt on Breeds Hill that Joseph Warren was killed.

When the Second Continental Congress established the Continental Army it sent George Washington to take command of the forces besieging Boston. Prescott received a colonel's commission, and his unit became the 7th Continental Regiment. The regiment saw service in the 1776 defense of New York.

While Prescott appears to have given up command of the regiment after that campaign, he apparently participated in some capacity in the 1777 Saratoga campaign, for he is depicted in the painting of the Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga by John Trumbull,
which hangs in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda.

In his person he was tall, with a large and muscular frame, but not corpulent, his features strong and indicative of intelligence. He was courteous and benevolent, and possessed a strong mind. Not having had the advantages of an early education he was most emphatically a self-made man. His departure from military service may have been due to injuries sustained in an accident on his farm.

Later life
Col. Prescott continued in the service until the end of 1776. He was stationed at Governor's Island, N. Y., until the Americans were obliged to retire from the city. In the autumn of 1777, he went as a volunteer, to assist in the capture of the army under General Burgoyne, which was his last military service. He was elected a member of the Provincial Congress held at Salem. After his retirement from the army he served the town as town clerk, selectman, representative to the General Court for three years, and was an acting magistrate for the remainder of his life. When Shays' Rebellion broke out, he hastened to Concord, and assisted in protecting the courts of justice and of preserving law and order. Prescott served in the Massachusetts General Court in later years. He also served in the militia called out in 1786 to suppress Shays' Rebellion. His brother Oliver Prescott was said to be influential in the suppression of that outbreak.

The following anecdote the writer had from Colonel Prescott himself: "While stationed with his regiment near New York in 1776, the out guards brought in a British deserter. As they approached the camp the deserter observed to the guards, 'That officer yonder is Colonel Prescott.' The guard informed the Colonel of the fact. 'How come you to know me?' inquired Colonel Prescott. 'I saw you on Bunker Hill,' replied the soldier, 'and recollected you immediately.' 'Why did you not kill me at that time?' asked Colonel Prescott. 'I tried my best,' said the soldier, 'I took deliberate aim at you more than once when I thought it impossible for you to escape. I also palsied at you several times with my bayonet when you were as near as I could have wished, and after several of us had taken possession of your works.' 'You are a brave fellow,' said Colonel Prescott, 'come into my tent and I will treat you.'" While on the retreat from the scene of conflict Colonel Prescott came to a house on Charlestown street, near the Boston Neck, where were three or four men who had just prepared a bowl of punch, and which they presented to Colonel Prescott before having tasted it. This, to a man suffering with fatigue and parched with thirst, was a most gratifying and acceptable offering. Prescott took the bowl, but before he had time to partake of its contents a cannon ball passed through the house, upon which the men immediately fled, leaving Colonel Prescott to drain the bowl by himself and at his leisure. Dr. O. Prescott further relates that Colonel Prescott was a true patriot. As a neighbor, kind and benevolent, and a peacemaker in to his vain, and was universally loved and respected. William died of dropsy of the chest, in Pepperell and was buried with military honors suitable to his rank, life and character at Walton Cemetery.  He fell at a ripe old age, full of honors, and highly esteemed and respected.   His widow died October 21, 1821, aged 88 years.

Slavery
William Prescott never owned slaves, and spoke out against the practice of slavery.  Prescott advocated that Massachusetts outlaw slavery. When Massachusetts did abolish slavery in 1783, Prescott celebrated publicly.  Prescott was also outspoken about his praise for African-American soldier Salem Poor who fought with Prescott at Bunker Hill, going so far as to sign a letter to the court of Massachusetts praising his conduct in battle and advocating that he be rewarded for it.

Legacy

Prescott's likeness was made into a statue for a memorial for the Battle of Bunker Hill in Charlestown, Massachusetts and was dedicated in 1881.

The former town of Prescott, Massachusetts, was named in his honor.  The town was disincorporated in 1938 as part of the building of the Quabbin Reservoir, and the land now makes up Prescott Peninsula, which divides the main branches of the reservoir.

Colonel Prescott's famous order, "Do not fire until you see the whites of their eyes," is a significant part of the Schoolhouse Rock video and song, "The Shot Heard round the World."

In 1856, the Prescott School, named in his honor, was built on the northeasterly portion of the Bunker Hill Burying Ground in Charlestown, Massachusetts.  The Prescott School later merged with the Warren School to form the Warren-Prescott School.

Prescott's house is located in Pepperell, Massachusetts.

Cambridge, Massachusetts, has a small granite monument to the place where, on the night of June 16, 1775, 1,200 Patriot men assembled and were addressed by Prescott and Harvard President Langdon, before their march to Bunker and Breed's Hills. See citation for picture of its inscription, which erroneously calls him a general. This monument is located on the lawn west of Harvard's Littauer Center, itself west of Harvard's Science Center, just outside Harvard Yard. See citation for location map.

However, Prescott Street, two blocks from Harvard Yard in Cambridge is not named after Colonel William Prescott, but after his grandson, William Hickling Prescott (May 4, 1796 – January 28, 1859).  This grandson became a noted historian and author, who (in a remarkable moment of historical reconciliation) married the granddaughter of Captain John Linzee, captain of HMS Falcon, one of the British ships that fired on Bunker Hill Patriots. The city of Prescott, Arizona, is also named in honor of the scholarly grandson.

William Prescott Elementary School, in Scranton, PA, is named in his honor. Built in 1966, their mascot is the Patriots.

Footnotes

References

 (Paperback: )
The Prescott memorial, or, A genealogical memoir of the Prescott families in America by Prescott, William, 1788-1875. Published 1870.

External links

1726 births
1795 deaths
Continental Army officers from Massachusetts
People from Groton, Massachusetts
People of Massachusetts in the French and Indian War
People of colonial Massachusetts
Members of the Massachusetts General Court
People from Pepperell, Massachusetts
18th-century American politicians

William Prescott


Tansy is a 1921 British silent drama film directed by Cecil Hepworth and starring Alma Taylor, Gerald Ames and James Carew.  The film was based on a popular rural novel of the time by Tickner Edwardes, and was filmed largely on location on the Sussex Downs.

Tansy is a rare survival among Hepworth's feature-length films of the late 1910s and early 1920s, most of which are believed to have been irretrievably lost following Hepworth's bankruptcy in 1924, when his film stock was seized and melted down by administrators to release its saleable silver nitrate content.  A full print of the film is held in the British Film Institute's National Archive.

Hepworth once remarked: "It was always in the back of my mind from the very beginning that I was to make English pictures with all the English countryside for background and with English idiom throughout."  Critical assessment of Tansy tends to confirm the ability to capture beautiful English rural landscapes on film as Hepworth's greatest skill, albeit sometimes to the detriment of dramatic narrative when the scenery seems to command more of his attention than the actors or the plot.

Plot
George Firle (Rolf Leslie) is a shepherd, helped in his work by daughter Tansy (Taylor) who has learned shepherding skills from her father.  One evening Tansy slips out of the house after her father has gone to the pub to meet up with farm labourer Clem (Ames).  George returns, finds Tansy absent and goes to look for her.  He finds her in Clem's caravan, trying to fight off unwanted advances, and rescues her.  The owner of the farm hears about the incident and assumes that it shows Tansy's immorality and that she must have been leading Clem on to end up in such a compromising situation.  He orders George and Tansy to leave the farm.

George and Tansy set out on foot for the nearest town.  On the journey, George collapses.  Local farmer's son Joad Wilverley  (Carew) comes across the stricken pair while driving by and offers his help.  Arriving at the Wilverley farm, they discover that George has died.  The Wilverleys offer shelter to the distraught Tansy, and later she overhears Joad talking with his younger brother Will (Hugh Clifton) about their need for a shepherd.  Tansy offers her services, initially to the brothers' amusement, but she proves her worth by expertly rounding up a flock of sheep and is given the job.

Tansy's skills give the farm one of its best ever lambing seasons.  Meanwhile both brothers have fallen in love with her and begin to realise that they are rivals.  Joad, as the elder brother, believes he should have first claim; however Tansy is more drawn to Will, and allows him to kiss her while they are walking together.  The fraternal rivalry intensifies and Joad attempts to win over Tansy by buying her expensive gifts.  Will finally offers to marry Tansy and she accepts the proposal.  Will goes to break the news to Joad, who responds by provoking a fight during which he badly beats his brother.  At the same time Clem appears back on the scene and again tries to force himself on Tansy.  She manages to break free and flees in panic to the Wilverley house.  However Joad has been stricken with remorse for his treatment of Will and orders Tansy to leave, saying she has been the cause of all the trouble between the two.

After Tansy has departed, a Wilverley servant tells Joad that Tansy has always loved Will and he must tell Will to go after her.  Joad realises the truth that Will and Tansy should be free to marry.  He sends Will off in pursuit.  Clem has once again caught up with Tansy and is trying to accost her when Will catches up with them and deals appropriately with him.  Will and Tansy embrace.

Cast
 Alma Taylor as Tansy Firle
 Rolf Leslie as George Firle
 Gerald Ames as Clem Fordough
 James Carew as Joad Wilverley
 Hugh Clifton as Will Wilverley
 Teddy Royce as Mark Wilverley
 George Dewhurst as George Baston

References

External links

1921 films
1921 drama films
British silent feature films
Films directed by Cecil Hepworth
British black-and-white films
Films based on British novels
Hepworth Pictures films
1920s British films
Silent British drama films
1920s English-language films

Tansy (film)


Sibangea is a plant genus of the family Putranjivaceae, first described as a genus in 1883. It is sometimes included in Drypetes. It is native to central Africa.

Species
 Sibangea arborescens Oliv. - Cameroon, Gabon
 Sibangea pleioneura Radcl.-Sm. - Tanzania
 Sibangea similis (Hutch.) Radcl.-Sm. - Cameroon, Gabon, Nigeria

References

Putranjivaceae
Malpighiales genera
Flora of Africa

Sibangea


Carl von Voit (31 October 1831 – 31 January 1908) was a German physiologist and dietitian.

Biography
Voit was born in Amberg, the son of August von Voit and Mathilde Burgett. From 1848 to 1854 he studied at the universities of Munich and Würzburg. At Munich, his teachers were Justus von Liebig and Max Joseph Pettenkofer, and at Würzburg, he was a pupil of Albert von Kölliker. In 1855 he furthered his education at the University of Göttingen under chemist Friedrich Wohler, and in 1856/57 served as an assistant to Theodor von Bischoff in Munich. In 1857, he obtained his habilitation, and from 1863 was a full professor of physiology, as well as curator of the physiological collection at the University of Munich.

Contributions
Carl von Voit is considered by many to be the "father" of modern dietetics. As a chemist and physiologist, he found that the amount of nitrogen in excreted urea is a measure for the protein turnover. Using a respiration chamber, he could characterize the significance of individual nutrients, known as Voitsche Kostmaß.

He was also a successful teacher, attracting international students to the University of Munich and thus significantly influencing the US nutritionist, among others. One of his better known German pupils was Max Rubner.

Carl von Voit died in Munich.

The German Nutrition Society has been awarding the Carl-von-Voit-medal since 1961.

Works
 Die Gesetze der Ernährung des Fleischfressers (Leipzig 1860)
 Über die Wirkung des Kochsalzes, des Kaffees und der Muskelbewegung auf den Stoffwechsel (Munich 1860)
 Über die Kost in öffentlichen Anstalten (Munich 1876)
 Untersuchung der Kost in einigen öffentlichen Anstalten (Munich 1877)
 Über die Entwickelung der Erkenntnis (Munich 1879)
 Physiologie des allgemeinen Stoffwechsels und der Ernährung (volume 6, first section of Ludimar Hermann's "Handbuch der Physiologie", Leipzig 1881)
 Zeitschrift für Biologie (as publisher, together with Ludwig von Buhl und Max von Pettenkofer)

References

External links

1831 births
1908 deaths
Dietitians
People from Amberg
German physiologists
Science teachers
Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich

Carl von Voit


Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin (;  – 18 December 1980) was a Russian Political Leader who was Longest Serving Premier of the Soviet Union.  He was a friend of the previous Prime Minister, Nikita Khrushchev. He and Leonid Brezhnev led the country together until he died.

Early Life
Kosygin was born into a Russian working-class family consisting of his father and mother (Nikolai Ilyich and Matrona Alexandrovna) and his siblings. The family lived in Saint Petersburg. Kosygin was baptized (7 March 1904) one month after his birth. He lost his mother in infancy and was brought up by his father.

He and his father sympathized with the Revolution and Alexei was conscripted into a labour army on the Bolshevik side at the age of 14 during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922. After demobilization from the Red Army in 1921, Kosygin attended the Leningrad Co-operative Technical School and found work in the system of consumer co-operatives in Novosibirsk, Siberia. When asked[when?] why he worked in the co-operative sector of the economy, Kosygin replied, quoting a slogan of Vladimir Lenin: "Co-operation – the path to socialism!" Kosygin stayed there for six years until Robert Eikhe personally advised him to quit, shortly before the repressions hit the Soviet consumer co-operation movement.

Rise to Power

Pre-war period

He applied for a membership in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1927 and returned to Leningrad in 1930 to study at the Leningrad Textile Institute [ru]; he graduated in 1935. After finishing his studies, Kosygin worked as a foreman and later a manager in a textile mill director. He rose rapidly during the Great Purge, overseen in Leningrad by the provincial communist party boss, Andrei Zhdanov. He was appointed director of the October Textile Factory in 1937, head of the Industry and Transport department of the Leningrad provincial communist party in July 1938, and in October 1938, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Leningrad City Soviets of Working People's Deputies, ie 'mayor' of Leningrad City. In 1939, he was appointed People's Commissar for Textile and Industry and earned a seat on the Central Committee (CC). In 1940 Kosygin became a Deputy Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars.

Wartime

Kosygin was appointed by the State Defence Committee to manage critically important missions during the Great Patriotic War (World War II).

As deputy chairman of the Council of Evacuation, he had the task of evacuating industry from territories about to be overrun by the Axis. Under his command 1523 factories were evacuated eastwards, as well as huge volumes of raw materials, ready-made goods and equipment. Kosygin managed clearing of congestions on the railroads in order to maintain their stable operation.

During the siege of Leningrad he was sent to his hometown to manage the construction of an ice road and a pipeline across Lake Ladoga.  This allowed evacuating some half-million people, and brought fuel to its factories and power plants.

In 1943 Alexey Kosygin was promoted to Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars (government) of the Russian SFSR. In 1944 he was appointed to head the Currency Board of the Soviet Union.

Afterwar period

Kosygin became a candidate member of the Politburo in 1946. During the Soviet famine of 1946–47 He headed the foodstuff relief missions to the most suffering regions. He was appointed USSR Minister for Finance in February 1948, and a full member of the Politburo on 4 September 1948, putting him among the dozen or so most ranking officials in the USSR.

Kosygin's administrative skills led Stalin to take the younger man under his wing. Stalin shared information with Kosygin, such as how much money the families of Vyacheslav Molotov, Anastas Mikoyan, and Lazar Kaganovich possessed, spent and paid their staff. (A Politburo member earned a modest salary by Soviet standards but enjoyed unlimited access to consumer goods.) Stalin sent Kosygin to each home[when?] to put their houses into "proper order".

Temporary fall

Kosygin's patron, Zhdanov, died suddenly in August 1948. Soon afterwards, Zhdanov's old rivals Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov persuaded Stalin to let them remove members of the decapitated Zhdanov faction, of whom the three most prominent were Nikolai Voznesensky, then Chairman of the State Planning Committee and a First Deputy Premier, Alexey Kuznetsov, the party secretary with oversight over the security, and Kosygin. During the brutal purge that followed, known as the Leningrad affair, Voznesensky, Kuznetsov and many others were arrested and shot. Kosygin was relegated to the post of USSR Minister for Light Industry, while nominally retaining his membership of the Politburo until 1952.
Nikita Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs:

"Beria and Malenkov were doing everything they could to wreck this troika of Kuznetsov, Voznesensky and Kosygin ... Many people perished in Leningrad. So did many people who had been transferred from Leningrad to work in other regions. As for Kosygin, his life was hanging by a thread ... Men who had been arrested and condemned in Leningrad made ridiculous accusations against him ... I simply can't explain how he was saved from being eliminated along with the others. Kosygin, as they say, must have drawn a lucky lottery ticket."

Kosygin told his son-in-law Mikhail Gvishiani, an NKVD officer, of the accusations leveled against Voznesensky because of his possession of firearms. Gvishiani and Kosygin threw all their weapons into a lake and searched both their own houses for any listening devices. They found one at Kosygin's house, but it might have been installed to spy on Marshal Georgy Zhukov, who had lived there before him. According to his memoirs, Kosygin never left his home without reminding his wife what to do if he did not return from work. After living two years in constant fear, the family reached the conclusion[when?] that Stalin would not harm them.

Khrushchev era

In September 1953, six months after Stalin's death, Kosygin was appointed USSR Minister for Industrial Goods, and in December he was reinstated as a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, under Malenkov, Stalin's immediate successor, but lost that position in December 1956, during Khrushchev's ascendancy, when he was appointed Deputy Chairman of the State Economic Commission. When the power struggle between Khrushchev and the so-called 'Anti-Party Group came to a head in 1957, Kosygin backed Khrushchev because, as he said later, if Malenkov and his allies had won "blood would have flowed again", but the French journalist Michel Tatu, a close observer who based in Moscow at the time, concluded that "Kosygin did not owe anything to Khrushchev" and that out of the post-1957 leadership "was visibly the least willing to praise the First Secretary", and that Khrushchev was "somewhat reluctant" to promote Kosygin.

However, despite Khrushchev's reluctance, Kosygin's career made a steady recovery. In June 1957, he was again appointed a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers (for the third time), and a candidate member of the Presidium Central Committee (the renamed Politburo). In March 1959, he was made Chairman of Gosplan, and on 4 May 1960, he was promoted First deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and a full member of the Presidium.

As First Deputy Premier Kosygin travelled abroad, mostly on trade missions, to countries such as North Korea, India, Argentina and Italy. Since 1959 Kosygin headed Soviet mission to the ComEcon. Later, in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kosygin was the Soviet spokesman for improved relations between the Soviet Union and the United States. According to Michel Tatu, in 1960–62, Kosygin was one of the 'big four', with Khrushchev, Frol Kozlov and Leonid Brezhnev, who would be present in the Kremlin to greet visiting leaders of East European communist parties, implying, but in November 1962, after Khrushchev complained about the management of Gosplan, and opposed Kosygin's plans for economic reform, he was removed from the inner leadership.

Prime Minister of the Soviet Union (1964-1980)

When Khrushchev was removed from power in October 1964, Kosygin replaced him as Premier in a collective leadership that included Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary and Nikolai Podgorny who ultimately became Chairman of the Presidium. Overall, the new Politburo adopted a more conservative outlook than that under Khrushchev's rule.

Kosygin, Podgorny and Andrei Kirilenko were the most reformist members, Brezhnev and Arvīds Pelše belonged to the moderate faction while Mikhail Suslov retained his leadership of the party's Stalinist wing.

In October 1964, at a ceremony in honour of Soviet cosmonauts, Brezhnev called for the strengthening of the Party apparatus. This speech was only the beginning of a large campaign directed against Kosygin. Several newspapers, such as Pravda and Kommunist, criticized the work of the Council of Ministers, and indirectly Kosygin, its chairman, for planning the economy in an unrealistic fashion, and used the highly aggressive rhetoric previously used to condemn Khrushchev against Kosygin.

Brezhnev was able to criticize Kosygin by contrasting him with Vladimir Lenin, who - Brezhnev claimed - had been more interested in improving the conditions of Soviet agriculture than improving the quality of light industrial goods. Kosygin's support for producing more consumer goods was also criticized by Brezhnev, and his supporters, most notably Konstantin Chernenko, for being a return to quasi First World policies. At the 23rd Party Congress, Kosygin's position was weakened when Brezhnev's supporters were able to increase expenditure on defense and agriculture. However, Brezhnev did not have a majority in the Politburo, and could count on only four votes. In the Politburo, Kosygin could count on Kiril Mazurov's vote, and when Kosygin and Podgorny were not bickering with each other, they actually had a majority in the Politburo over Brezhnev. Unfortunately for Kosygin this was not often the case, and Kosygin and Podgorny were constantly disagreeing on policy.

Early during Kosygin's tenure, the Brezhnev–Kosygin attempt to create stability was failing on various fronts. From 1969 to 1970, discontent within the Soviet leadership had grown to such an extent that some started to doubt both former and current Soviet policies. Examples include the handling of the Prague Spring and the later Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia[29] (which Kosygin initially resisted), the decline in agriculture production, the Sino–Soviet border conflict (he advocated restraint), the Vietnam War, and the Soviet–American talks on the limitation of strategic missiles. Two summit conferences between the US and the USSR were held: the Warsaw Pact Summit Conference and the Moscow Summit Conference; both failed to gain support for Soviet policies.

By 1970, these differences had not been resolved, and Brezhnev postponed the 24th Party Congress and the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1971–1975). The delay in resolving these issues led to rumors circulating in Soviet society that Kosygin, or even Brezhnev, would lose their posts to Podgorny. By March 1971, it became apparent that Brezhnev was the leader of the country, with Kosygin as the spokesman of the five-year plan and Podgorny's position within the collective leadership strengthened.

Foreign policy
Kosygin with US President Lyndon B. Johnson at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference

Early on in his tenure, Kosygin challenged Brezhnev's right as general secretary to represent the country abroad, a function Kosygin believed should fall into the hands of the head of government, as was common in non-communist countries. This was actually implemented for a short period,[16] which led Henry A. Kissinger to believe that Kosygin was the leader of the Soviet Union.[5] Kosygin, who had been the chief negotiator with the First World during the 1960s, was hardly to be seen outside the Second World[33] after Brezhnev consolidated his position within the Politburo,[16] but also due to Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko's dislike of Kosygin meddling into his own ministerial affairs.[34]

The Six-Day War in the Middle East had the effect of increasing Soviet–American cooperation; to improve relations even further, the United States Government invited Kosygin to a summit with Lyndon B. Johnson, the President of the United States, following his speech to the United Nations.[35] At the summit, which became known as the Glassboro Summit Conference, Johnson and Kosygin failed to reach agreement on limiting anti-ballistic missile systems, but the summit's friendly and even open atmosphere was referred to as the "Spirit of Glassboro".[36] Relations between the two countries improved further when the 1970 Moscow Treaty was signed on 12 August 1970 by Kosygin and Gromyko and Willy Brandt and Walter Scheel who represented West Germany.[37] In 1971, Kosygin gave an extensive interview to the American delegation that included David Rockefeller, presenting his views on US-Soviet relations, environmental protection, arms control and other issues.[38][39]

Alexei Kosygin (left) and Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr signing the Iraqi–Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Co-Operation in 1972

Kosygin developed a close friendly relationship with the President of Finland Urho Kekkonen, which helped the USSR to maintain active mutual trade with Finland and to keep it away from Cold War confrontation.[40]

In 1972, Kosygin signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the government of Iraq, building on strong Soviet ties to the Iraqi Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and previous close relations with Iraqi leader Abd al-Karim Qasim.[41]

Kosygin protected János Kádár's economic reforms and his position as leader of the Hungarian People's Republic from intervention by the Soviet leadership.[42] Polish leader Władysław Gomułka, who was removed from all of his posts in 1970, was succeeded by Edward Gierek who tried to revitalize the economy of the People's Republic of Poland by borrowing money from the First World. The Soviet leadership approved both countries' respective economic experiments, since it was trying to reduce its large Eastern Bloc subsidy programme in the form of cheap oil and gas exports.[43] During the discussions within the Soviet leadership of a possible Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia Kosygin reminded leaders of the consequences of the Soviet suppression of the 1956 Hungarian revolution. Kosygin's stance became more aggressive later on when he understood that the reforms in Czechoslovakia could be turned against his 1965 Soviet economic reform.[44]

We should tell Taraki and Amin to change their tactics. They still continue to execute those people who disagree with them. They are killing nearly all of the Parcham leaders, not only the highest rank, but of the middle rank, too.

— Kosygin speaking at a Politburo session.[45]

Kosygin acted as a mediator between India and Pakistan in 1966, and got both nations to sign the Tashkent Declaration. Kosygin became the chief spokesman on the issue of arms control. In retrospect, many of Kosygin's colleagues felt he carried out his work "stoically", but lacked "enthusiasm", and therefore never developed a real taste for international politics.[46]

The Sino–Soviet split chagrined Kosygin a great deal, and for a while he refused to accept its irrevocability; he briefly visited Beijing in 1969 due to increased tension between the USSR and Maoist China. Kosygin said, in a close-knit circle, that "We are communists and they are communists. It is hard to believe we will not be able to reach an agreement if we met face to face".[46] His view on China changed however, and according to Harold Wilson, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Kosygin viewed China as an "organized military dictatorship" whose intended goal was to enslave "Vietnam and the whole of Asia".[47]

During an official visit by an Afghan delegation, Kosygin and Andrei Kirilenko criticized Afghan leaders Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin for Stalinist-like repressionist behaviour. He promised to send more economic and military aid, but rejected any proposal regarding a possible Soviet intervention, as an intervention in Afghanistan would strain the USSR's foreign relations with the First World according to Kosygin, most notably West Germany.[48] However, in a closed meeting, without Kosygin, who strongly opposed any kind of military intervention, the Politburo unanimously supported a Soviet intervention.[49]

Economic policyEditFive-Year PlansEdit

Further information: Five-year plans of the Soviet Union

The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966–1970) is considered to be one of the most successful periods for the Soviet economy and the most successful when it comes to consumer production (see The "Kosygin" reform).[14] It became known as the "golden era".[50] The 23rd Party Congress and the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1971–1975) had been postponed by Brezhnev due to a power struggle within the Soviet leadership.[29] At the 23rd Party Congress Kosygin promised that the Ninth Five-Year Plan would increase the supply of food, clothing and other household appliances up to 50 percent.[51] The plan envisaged a massive increase in the Soviet standard of living, with Kosygin proclaiming a growth of 40 percent for the population's cash income in his speech to the congress.[52]

The Tenth Five-Year Plan (1976–1981) was referred to by Kosygin as the "plan of quality".[53] Brezhnev rejected Kosygin's bid for producing more consumer goods during the Tenth Five-Year Plan. As a result, the total volume of consumer goods in industrial production only stood at 26 percent. Kosygin's son-in-law notes that Kosygin was furious with the decision, and proclaimed increased defence expenditure would become the Soviet Union's "complete ruin".[54] The plan was less ambitious than its predecessors, with targets of national industrial growth no higher than what the rest of the world had already achieved. Soviet agriculture would receive a share investment of 34 percent, a share much larger than its proportional contribution to the Soviet economy, as it accounted for only 3 percent of the Soviet GDP.[55]

The "Kosygin" reformEdit

Main article: 1965 Soviet economic reform

Like Khrushchev, Kosygin tried to reform the command economy within a socialist framework. In 1965 Kosygin initiated an economic reform widely referred to as the "Kosygin reform". Kosygin sought to make Soviet industry more efficient by including some market measures common in the First World such as profit making for instance; he also tried to increase quantity of production, increase incentives for managers and workers, and freeing managers from centralized state bureaucracy.[56] The reform had been proposed to Khrushchev in 1964, who evidently liked it and took some preliminary steps to implement it. Brezhnev allowed the reform to proceed because the Soviet economy was entering a period of low growth.[57] In its testing phase, the reform was applied to 336 enterprises in light industry.[58]

The reform was influenced by the works of Soviet economist Evsei Liberman. Kosygin overestimated the ability of the Soviet administrative machine to develop the economy, which led to "corrections" to some of Liberman's more controversial beliefs about decentralization. According to critics, Kosygin's changes to Liberman's original vision caused the reform to fail.[57]

A propaganda poster promoting the reform. The poster reads: We're forging the keys of happiness.

Kosygin believed that decentralization, semi-public companies, and cooperatives were keys to catching up to the First World's contemporary level of economic growth. His reform sought a gradual change from a "state-administered economy" to an economy in which "the state restricts itself to guiding enterprises".[59] The reform was implemented, but showed several malfunctions and inconsistencies early on.[56]

ResultsEdit

The salary for Soviet citizens increased abruptly by almost 2.5 times during the plan. Real wages in 1980 amounted to 232.7 rubles, compared to 166.3 rubles before the 1965 Soviet economic reform and the Eighth Five-Year Plan. The first period, 1960–1964, was characterized by low growth, while the second period, 1965–1981, had a stronger growth rate. The second period vividly demonstrated the success of the Kosygin reform, with the average annual growth in retail turnover being 11.2 billion rubles, 1.8 times higher than in the first period and 1.2 times higher than the third period (1981–1985). Consumption of goods and daily demand also increased. The consumption of home appliances greatly increased. Refrigerators increased from a low of 109,000 in 1964 to 440,000 units by 1973; consumption declined during the reversal of the reform. Car production increased, and would continue to do so until the late 1980s. The Soviet leadership, under pressure, sought to provide more attractive goods for Soviet consumers.[60]

The removal of Khrushchev in 1964 signalled the end of his "housing revolution". Housing construction declined between 1960 and 1964 to an average of 1.63 million square metres. Following this sudden decrease, housing construction increased sharply between 1965 and 1966, but dropped again, and then steadily grew (the average annual growth rate was 4.26 million square metres). This came largely at the expense of businesses. While the housing shortage was never fully resolved, and still remains a problem in present-day Russia, the reform overcame the negative trend and renewed the growth of housing construction.[14]

Cancellation and aftermathEdit

Growing hostility towards reform, the initial poor results, and Kosygin's reformist stance, led to a popular backlash against him. Kosygin lost most of the privileges he had enjoyed before the reform, but Brezhnev was never able to remove him from the office of Chairman of the Council of Ministers, despite his weakened position.[5] In the aftermath of his failed reform, Kosygin spent the rest of his life improving the economic administration through the modification of targets; he implemented various programmes to improve food security and ensure the future intensification of production.[61] There is no proof to back up the claim that the reform itself contributed to the high growth seen in the late-1960s, or that its cancellation had anything to do with the stagnating growth of the economy which began in the 1970s.[62]

1973 and 1979 reformsEdit

Main articles: 1973 Soviet economic reform and 1979 Soviet economic reform

Kosygin initiated another economic reform in 1973 with the intentions of weakening the central Ministries and giving more powers to the regional authorities in republican and local-levels. The reform's failure to meet Kosygin's goal led to its cancellation. However, the reform succeeded in creating associations, an organization representing various enterprises.[63] The last significant reform undertaken by the pre-perestroika leadership was initiated by Kosygin's fifth government in a joint decision of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers. The "Improving planning and reinforcing the effects of the economic mechanism on raising the effectiveness in production and improving the quality of work", more commonly known as the 1979 reform. The reform, in contrast to the 1965 reform, was intended to increase the central government's economic involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries. Due to Kosygin's resignation in 1980, and because of Nikolai Tikhonov's conservative approach to economics, very little of the reform was actually implemented.

Awards and Honors
Order of Lenin(6 times - 1939,1944,1954,1964,1974,1974)
Order of the October Revolution (1979)
Order of the Red Banner (1943)
Gold Star Order
Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru (1970)
José Marti Order
"Hero of the Socialist Labour(2 times - 1964,1974)
Order of Klement Gottwald (1979)
Order of the White Lion (1970)
Medal "Veteran of Labour"
Medal "For Valiant Labour in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1945)
Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin" (1970)
Medal "For the Defence of Leningrad" (1945)
Medal "For the Defence of Moscow" (1945)
Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1945)
Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1965)
Jubilee Medal "Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (1975)
Jubilee Medal "50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (1968)
Jubilee Medal "60 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (1978)
Medal "In Commemoration of the 800th Anniversary of Moscow" (1947)
Medal "In Commemoration of the 250th Anniversary of Leningrad" (1954)

References

1904 births
1980 deaths
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin

Alexei Kosygin


Marvel Television was an American television production company responsible for live-action and animated (through Marvel Animation) television shows and direct-to-DVD series based on characters from Marvel Comics. The division was  based at affiliate ABC Studios' location.  Marvel Television also collaborated with 20th Century Fox in producing shows based on the X-Men franchise such as Legion and The Gifted. The division was transferred to Marvel Studios from Marvel Entertainment in October 2019 and was folded into the former two months later. Marvel Television is currently used as a label.

Background
Marvel previously licensed a few characters out for TV shows, with animated shows being more successful than the live action shows. The Incredible Hulk (1978–1982), produced by Universal Television and aired on CBS, was Marvel's only successful live action television series, running five seasons. The last TV series, Blade: The Series, produced by New Line Television (now ceased and folded into Warner Bros. Television), was canceled after one season on Spike.

Marvel's first live action TV licenses were for Spider-Man with the character in The Electric Company's Spidey Super Stories segments (1974–1977), CBS's The Amazing Spider-Man series (1977–1979) and Toei's tokusatsu style Spider-Man series (1978–1979). The Amazing Spider-Man pulled in reasonable ratings but was canceled in 1979 by CBS as they did not want to be known as the "comic book" network as they had already had three comic book-based shows, choosing to stay with The Incredible Hulk, as it had the better ratings.

In 1978, Doctor Strange received a television film to act as a pilot similarly to Spider-Man and Hulk. Captain America also starred in two pilots in 1979, Captain America and Captain America II: Death Too Soon. None of these pilots were picked up.

After the end of The Incredible Hulk in 1982, live-action Marvel shows did not return until 1988 with The Incredible Hulk Returns, designed as a backdoor pilot for Thor. Additionally, The Trial of the Incredible Hulk acted as a backdoor pilot for Daredevil, and The Death of the Incredible Hulk premiered in 1990.

Three direct pilots were done in the 1990s, Power Pack, Generation X and Nick Fury: Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., but none of them were picked up for series. Marvel had better luck in syndicating their properties in the late 1990s and early 2000s with Night Man and Mutant X, lasting two and three seasons, respectively. The latter show triggered a lawsuit by 20th Century Fox, who held the film rights for the X-Men. As a follow-up to the Blade film series, Blade: The Series was created for cable TV, lasting one season in 2006.

History

Entertainment division
On June 28, 2010, Marvel Entertainment announced the start of Marvel Television, together with the appointment of Jeph Loeb to head up the division as executive vice president, head of television. In October 2010, it was announced that the first live-action television series from Marvel Television for ABC would be centered on the Hulk, developed by Guillermo del Toro. In December 2010, it was revealed that Melissa Rosenberg was developing AKA Jessica Jones, based on the comic book series Alias and centered on Jessica Jones, for ABC, intended to air in 2011 of the 2011–2012 television season.

At San Diego Comic-Con International 2011, Loeb revealed, in addition to the Hulk project and AKA Jessica Jones, Marvel Television also had Cloak and Dagger and Mockingbird in development at ABC Family. In October 2011, ABC Studios sold a Punisher script to Fox, who gave the project a put-pilot commitment. In April 2012, Marvel Television signed with Creative Artists Agency for live action representation. In May 2012, it was announced that the Hulk project was not ready for the 2012–2013 season, and would possibly be for the 2013–2014 season. It was also announced that ABC had passed on AKA Jessica Jones.

In July 2012, it was reported that Marvel had again entered into discussions with ABC to create a show set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, and in August 2012, ABC ordered a pilot to be written by Joss Whedon, Jed Whedon, and Maurissa Tancharoen and directed by Joss Whedon, which became Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. It was officially ordered to series on May 10, 2013. By September 2013, Marvel was developing a series inspired by the Agent Carter Marvel One-Shot, featuring Peggy Carter, with Deadline reporting it was one of several series in development at Marvel.

By October 2013, Marvel was preparing four drama series and a miniseries, totaling 60 episodes, to present to video on demand services and cable providers, with Netflix, Amazon, and WGN America expressing interest. In November 2013, it was announced that Disney would provide Netflix with live-action series starting in 2015, based on Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Iron Fist, and Luke Cage, leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders. Responding to the Netflix announcement, Disney CEO Bob Iger said that Daredevil, Luke Cage, Iron Fist and Jessica Jones may appear on film if their shows are successful and that another outlet was chosen as ABC and Disney XD could not handle all Marvel shows. Disney will spend approximately $200 million in financing for the series. The four Netflix shows are set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.

It was also revealed in November 2013 that the Hulk project first announced in 2012 had been shelved, with Loeb saying, when "we saw what Joss Whedon and Mark Ruffalo were creating in The Avengers, that was a better solution". Additionally, Del Toro wanted to create a more violent take on the character than what ABC was hoping to achieve with the series. On May 8, 2014, ABC officially renewed Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. for a second season and ordered Marvel's Agent Carter straight to series, which later aired in January 2015.

In early April 2015, two unspecified shows were said to be in development to air on ABC: one was a spin-off series of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. centered on Bobbi Morse (Adrianne Palicki) and Lance Hunter (Nick Blood), which was being developed by Bell and writer Paul Zbyszewski based on storylines occurring at the end of the second season, and would receive its own pilot rather than a backdoor pilot; and another with writer-producer John Ridley. On May 7, 2015, ABC renewed Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and Agent Carter for a third and second season, respectively. Additionally, ABC also passed on the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. spinoff, though ABC Entertainment president Paul Lee did not rule out returning to the spin-off in the future, and Lee also confirmed that Ridley was working on a Marvel property for ABC. Also in May, Iger indicated that Disney saw potential in creating a streaming service dedicated to Marvel content as a way to further "take product... directly to consumer".

In August 2015, the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. spin-off series received new life as a reworked series, titled Marvel's Most Wanted, with a pilot order. Bell and Zbyszewski once again developed the series, while also serving as co-writers of the pilot, executive producers, and showrunners, with Loeb also attached as executive producer. The series would still focus on Morse and Hunter, with Palicki and Blood both attached, but is no longer intended to be a true spin-off of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. as previously believed, instead "being described as a new take focusing on the same duo and their continuing adventures."

At the end of August 2015, Marvel Entertainment's film subsidiary Marvel Studios was integrated into Walt Disney Studios, leaving Marvel Television and Marvel Animation (formerly part of Marvel Studios) under Marvel Entertainment and CEO Isaac Perlmutter's control.

In October 2015, ABC ordered a put pilot for a half-hour live action comedy series Damage Control, based on the comics construction company of the same name. The series is being developed by Ben Karlin. Later in the month, FX ordered a pilot for Legion, about David Haller, a young man who may be more than human. The pilot was produced by FX Productions (FXP) and Marvel Television, with FXP handling the physical production. Also in October, Fox Broadcasting Company announced that 20th Century Fox Television and Marvel Television were developing a series titled Hellfire Club, based on the secret society from the comics of the same name.

In January 2016, Lee stated the Most Wanted pilot would begin production "in the next few months" and announced that a second Marvel comedy series was in development in addition to Damage Control. Also in January, Netflix was in the early stages of developing a Punisher television series starring Jon Bernthal, who appeared in the second season of Daredevil. More information was revealed regarding the Legion series, including that in addition to the pilot, FX had ordered several scripts and that it would not take place in the established X-Men film universe but in a parallel universe instead. Should the series be picked up, it would consist of 10 episodes and is expected to air in 2016.

In April 2016, the ABC-owned network Freeform greenlit Cloak & Dagger with a straight-to-series order as Marvel's first work with ABC Signature. The series, which is set in the MCU, premiered in 2018. At the end of the month, Marvel and Netflix officially picked up the series, The Punisher, with Bernthal attached to reprise his role as the lead character. In May 2016, ABC cancelled Agent Carter and passed on the pilot for Most Wanted.

In July 2016, Fox and Marvel announced a put pilot order for an untitled series developed by Matt Nix. The series, which will be produced by 20th Century Fox and Marvel, with 20th Century Fox handling physical production, focuses on two ordinary parents who discover their children possess mutant powers, forcing them to run from the government and join an underground network of mutants. Nix will serve as an executive producer along with Bryan Singer, Lauren Shuler Donner, Simon Kinberg, Loeb and Jim Chory. It was also revealed that Hellfire Club was no longer in development.

The following month, it was announced that Runaways had received a pilot order, along with additional scripts, from the streaming service Hulu, based on the team of the same name. The pilot is written by Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage, who also serve as executive producers and showrunners. By the end of the month, the division and ABC Studios were developing a half-hour comedy series based on the New Warriors featuring Squirrel Girl, with the series being offered to cable networks and streaming outlets. In April 2017, Freeform announced a straight-to-series order for the half-hour live action series, Marvel's New Warriors, with the first season, consisting of 10 episodes, set to air in 2018. In May 2017, Hulu ordered Runaways to series with 10 episodes, to premiere on November 21, 2017.

In November 2016, Marvel Television and IMAX Corporation announced Inhumans, to be produced in conjunction with ABC Studios, and to air on ABC. The series, which is co-financed by IMAX and saw the first two episodes and select subsequent action sequences filmed with IMAX digital cameras, had versions of the first two episodes be screened in IMAX beginning September 1, 2017, for two weeks, before premiering on ABC on September 29.

In May 2017, Fox ordered the Matt Nix TV series, now titled The Gifted, to series, and FXX placed a series order for an adult animated series based on Deadpool, which will be co-produced by Marvel Television, FX Productions and ABC Signature Studios. Donald Glover and his brother Stephen Glover would serve as showrunners, executive producers and writers for the series. In August 2017, senior vice president of original programming Karim Zreik indicated that Marvel Television was working with ABC on a "Jessica Jones-esque" female-focused show. By November 2017, Disney was developing a Marvel series specifically for release on its new Disney+ streaming service, which it planned to launch before the end of 2019. By March 2018, the Deadpool series was no longer in development. In May 2018, ABC cancelled Inhumans after one season. By September, Allan Heinberg began developing a Marvel series for ABC about female superheroes.

In October 2018, Netflix cancelled both Iron Fist and Luke Cage, each after two seasons, followed by the cancellation of Daredevil in November after three seasons. Luke Cage was cancelled due to third season financial terms, while Daredevil was due to Netflix looking to fund their own properties. Kevin Mayer, chairman of Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer and International, indicated that he would consider the show for Disney+, but the Netflix-Marvel TV pact restricts the appearance of the four original characters from any non-Netflix series for two years after being canceled. Thus 2020 would be the earliest that the shows could be revived on Disney+.

In February 2019, it was announced that Legion would end after its third season. It was also revealed that Heinberg's series would not move forward at ABC. In addition, Hulu ordered four adult animated Marvel series leading up to a crossover special titled The Offenders, all to be executive produced by Loeb. Hulu also expressed interest in reviving the cancelled Netflix series. Netflix then cancelled both Jessica Jones and The Punisher. In August 2019, Loeb revealed Marvel Television was working on series for the streaming service Disney+.

Studios label
In October 2019, Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige was given the title of Chief Creative Officer, Marvel, and would oversee Marvel Television and Marvel Family Entertainment (animation), with both being placed under the Marvel Studios banner. With the promotion of Feige, Loeb was expected to leave his post as the head of Marvel Television by Thanksgiving. On December 10, Marvel Television was folded into Marvel Studios, which inherited all of Marvel Television's shows that were in development at the time, and no new series were being considered from Marvel Television. In January 2022, Hulu's head of content, Craig Erwich, stated that additional seasons of M.O.D.O.K. and Hit Monkey, the two remaining series from Marvel Television, would be determined solely by the Marvel Studios team.

Production library

Series
All series are part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, unless otherwise noted.

Pilots

See also
Marvel Productions
List of Marvel Cinematic Universe television series
X-Men in television
List of television series based on Marvel Comics
List of unproduced television projects based on Marvel Comics

Notes

References

External links

2010 establishments in California
2019 disestablishments in California
American companies established in 2010
American companies disestablished in 2019
Defunct film and television production companies of the United States
Disney production studios
Former subsidiaries of The Walt Disney Company
Marvel Entertainment
Mass media companies established in 2010
Mass media companies disestablished in 2019
Television production companies of the United States
Companies based in Burbank, California

Marvel Television


The XP210 series Toyota Yaris is the fourth generation of the Yaris, a subcompact car/supermini (B-segment) manufactured by Toyota for the Japanese, European and Australasian markets. The model was released in October 2019 to replace the XP130 series Yaris/Vitz, and built on the GA-B platform. Unlike the preceding Vitz-based Yaris models, the standard XP210 series Yaris variants are only available in 5-door hatchback bodywork; the bespoke 3-door model is reserved for the performance-oriented variant called GR Yaris.

Overview
Built on the GA-B platform, its development was led by chief engineer Yasunori Suezawa and chief hybrid engineer Takashi Uehara under the internal "Toyota Compact Car Company". During its development, Toyota CEO Akio Toyoda in 2015 decided to delay the planned launch of the vehicle by one year to revise the GA-B platform, which was initially larger, heavier, and more expensive than targeted, since it shared many parts with other larger TNGA platforms. The vehicle had been seen testing in July 2019 at the Nürburgring circuit in Germany.

The XP210 series Yaris was then unveiled simultaneously on 16 October 2019 in Japan and Amsterdam, Netherlands. It went on sale in Japan on 10 February 2020, while the petrol 4WD variant went on sale in April 2020.

Markets

Japan
The Japanese market Yaris was launched in 10 February 2020. It marked the debut of the Yaris nameplate in the market, as its predecessors were badged as Vitz. The rebrand was attributed to a sharp drop in sales, and as an effort to expand its middle-aged customer base. The other reasons of the name change is its WRC popularity and the unification of Toyota sales network in Japan. Prior to this generation, the Vitz was an exclusive model of the Netz Store dealerships, while the newer Yaris is positioned as a widely available compact car since the unification of Japanese dealership line-up in May 2020.

The Japanese-built XP210 series Yaris retained the  width of the previous generation Vitz in order to stay in the "compact car" classification of Japanese government dimension regulations. Three powertrain options are offered, ranging from the base 1.0-litre petrol, 1.5-litre petrol and 1.5-litre petrol hybrid engines. Four-wheel drive is available as an option for 1.5-litre models, with the hybrid version received an "E-Four" electric four-wheel drive system. 6-speed manual transmission is only available for the 1.5-litre conventional petrol engine. Trim levels offered are X "B package", X, G, and Z.

Since February 2023, a modified version of the XP210 series Yaris is sold by Mitsuoka as the Mitsuoka Viewt Story, which is a fourth-generation Viewt. It replaced the previous Nissan March-based Viewt. Like its previous iterations, its design was inspired by the Jaguar Mark 2.

Australasia

The XP210 series Yaris was revealed for Australia and New Zealand in June 2020, with sales starting from August 2020. Sourced from Japan, the Yaris for these markets received the 1.5-litre petrol engine both in conventional and hybrid configuration, with the latter being positioned as the replacement to the Prius c. The Australian line-up consists of three trim levels, which are Ascent Sport, SX and ZR.

Europe
For the European market, specifications were detailed in July 2020. It is available with the 1.5-litre petrol hybrid engine, while certain markets in the region also received the 1.0-litre and 1.5-litre conventional petrol engines. Production commenced at Toyota Motor Manufacturing France in Onnaing since 6 July 2020. It is also produced by Toyota Motor Manufacturing Czech Republic in Kolín since November 2021.

In August 2021, a two-seater van version of the Yaris Hybrid was released in Spain as the Yaris Hybrid ECOVan.

In December 2021, the GR Sport trim was introduced. This includes revised suspension tunings, increased body rigidity, and electric power steering readjustment.

An uprated 1.5-litre petrol hybrid engine option with a combined system output of  was made available on 30 May 2023, marketed as the 'Hybrid 130' while the older hybrid option was named 'Hybrid 115'.

The Yaris Hybrid-based Mazda2 Hybrid is produced from December 2021 and went on sale in 2022 alongside the older Mazda-built, regular petrol-powered DJ model.

Powertrain

Safety
In Europe, the fourth-generation Yaris is the first car to be tested with all-new frontal offset test and counter-measure for injuries in far-side impacts by a "mobile progressive deformable barrier" (MPDB) test. It is also the first Toyota to come with centre airbags. It was received five stars out of possible five from ANCAP and Euro NCAP.

Awards
The fourth-generation Yaris was awarded as the 2021 European Car of the Year.

References

External links

Yaris (XP210)
Cars introduced in 2019
2020s cars
Subcompact cars
Hatchbacks
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Vehicles with CVT transmission
Hybrid electric cars
Partial zero-emissions vehicles

Toyota Yaris (XP210)


Physical dependence is a term used in medicine: If a drug is taken regularly, a certain level of tolerance may have developed. Abruptly stopping to use the drug will cause drug withdrawal symptoms. If the drug has been taken for a longer period of time, or the dosage was higher, the withdrawal symptoms will be more severe. Well known drugs with withdrawal symptoms include opioids, alcohol, and may of the drugs knownn as neuroleptics.

Medicine

Physical dependence


Amatonormativity is the set of societal assumptions that everyone prospers with an exclusive romantic relationship. Elizabeth Brake coined the neologism to capture societal assumptions about romance. Brake wanted to describe the pressure she received by many to prioritize marriage in her own life when she did not want to. Amatonormativity extends beyond social pressures for marriage to include general pressures involving romance.

Etymology
The word amatonormativity comes from amatus, which is the Latin word for "loved", and normativity, referring to societal norms. Another word which is similarly related to the word amatonormativity is amative. Merriam-Webster dictionary defines the word amative as: strongly moved by love and especially sexual love. Relating to or indicative of love. Amorous is a closely related word also derived from amatus. Related terms include allonormativity, which means a worldview that assumes all people experience sexual and romantic attraction, and compulsory sexuality, which means social norms and practices that marginalizes non-sexuality.

The term was modeled after the term heteronormativity, the belief that heterosexuality is the default for sexual orientation. Normative bias against ethical non-monogamy in particular is instead known as mononormativity.

Examples
Elizabeth Brake describes the term as a pressure or desire for monogamy, romance, and/or marriage.
The desire to find relationships that are romantic, sexual, monogamous, and lifelong has many social consequences. People who are asexual, aromantic, and/or nonmonogamous become social oddities. According to researcher Bella DePaulo, it puts a stigma on single people as incomplete and pushes romantic partners to stay in unhealthy relationships because of a fear the partners may have of being single.

According to Brake, one way in which amatonormativity is institutionally applied is the law and morality surrounding marriage. Loving friendships, queerplatonic, and other relationships are not given the same legal protections romantic partners are given through marriage.

Brake wrote a book, Minimizing Marriage, in which she defines amatonormativity as "the widespread assumption that everyone is better off in an exclusive, romantic, long-term coupled relationship, and that everyone is seeking such a relationship."

See also
Allonormativity
Aromanticism
Criticism of marriage
Discrimination against asexual people
Heteronormativity
Polyamory
Relationship anarchy

References

Feminist terminology
Neologisms
Gender-related prejudices
Intimate relationships
Romance
Philosophy of love
Aromanticism

Amatonormativity


Gaitlawbrig (or Gatelawbrig, English: Gatelawbridge) is a clachan in the historical coonty o Dumfriesshire in Dumfries an Gallowa, Scotland. It is situatit 2.5 mile east o Thornhill an near the heuch Chrichope Linn. The oreegin o the name is unkent tho in the past the locals cried it Gately Bridge, sae mebbe it taks its name for a type o brig ower the River Cample in the centre o the sattlement. The river divides the pairishes, wi aw thaim that's east o the river bein in Closeburn Pairish, an thaim that's west of the river bein in Morton pairish.

The African explorer Joseph Thomson bade in Gaitlawbrig fae the age o 10 until leavin for Edinburgh. He gaed til the seicontary schuil Morton Academy in Thornhill (noo the Wallace Hall Academy), makkin the jurney ilk day on his pownie cried Donald. His faither wis the quarrel master an apparently that is whaur his interest in rocks begoud. He studied geology at the Varsity o Edinburgh. Efter graduatin he wis engaged on several explorations in East Africae an North Africae. He diskivert the Thomson's Faws watterfaw in Kenyae an the Thomson's gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii) is name't efter him.  He wis kent tae be a kind an fair man, that refuised tae beat his beirers in Africae whan thay did wrang, preferin tae reduce thair wages insteid. This wis houiver verra ill-leukit-upon at the time wi the beirers that at ane pynt gaed on strike an left him. He becam ill acause o infections pickit up on his traivels an dee'd a young man. His freends upset a fine moniment tae him that staunds neist til the schuil in Thornhill.

Gaitlawbrig is the site o several reid-saundstane quarrels appent in the 19t century that wis ance linkit bi rail til the G&SWR main line near Cample veelage. Thay is noo lairgely disuised. the saundstane derived fae a muckle saund-dune that stendit fae Gaitlawbrig throu Locharbriggs tae Annan. This saundstane is buildin material o muckle o Dumfriesshire, an wis exportit til Americae whaur it wis uised tae build the famous 'brownstones' o New York. The clachan haes seen a lot o growthe recent wi several new hooses being biggit.

References

External links
Video 'Crichope Linn - Sir Walter Scott, Elsf an Covenaters

Veelages in Dumfries an Gallowa
Dumfries an Gallowa
Places o Scotland

Gaitlawbrig


The Rectified Scottish Rite, also known as Order of Knights Beneficent of the Holy City or Knights Benefactor of the Holy City (), is a Christian Masonic rite founded in Lyon (France) in 1778.

Origins

The Rite was mainly elaborated by Jean-Baptiste Willermoz. This famous Mason reformed the French branch of the Rite of Strict Observance at the Congress of Gauls in 1778, including some items coming from the Elect Cohen Order and denying the Templar legacy. This date may be considered as the birth of the Rectified Scottish Rite. It came from several initiatory systems of the 18th century:

 The Order of Knight Masons of the Elect Cohens of the Universe, of Martines de Pasqually,
 The Templar Strict Observance, Knight Masonry born in Germany in the middle of the 18th century then spread in the rest of Europe,
 Scottish Masonry (all the existing higher degrees, when it was not yet structured),
 Craft Masonry in 3 degrees (entered apprentice, fellowcraft, master mason) as it was in use in French Freemasonry (Grand Orient de France) at this time and that became the French Rite. It might be noted that during this period, the Grand Orient of France was still in regularity and amity with English Freemasons, and there exists some evidence to suggest that English Masons, living in France, may have also introduced or practised some early ritual forms of degrees which are now constituted in the York Rite.  In fact, many Grand Orient lodges practised at least the Mark Master and Royal Arch degrees, either as "side degrees" or as portions of the second and third craft degrees respectively. (UGLE Series Lecture, 22 OCT 1997) If these were present, they ceased to be included with historical Rectified Scottish Rite practices after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, when the rite took its sojourn in Switzerland.

The evolution and transformation of this system during the 1778 (Lyon) and 1782 (Wilhelmsbad) congresses created the Rectified Scottish Rite in 1782.

Since then, rituals have remained the same, except the possible removal of the "York" influences just seven years later as mentioned above. It is a Christian rite which contains the doctrine of the Traité de la réintégration des êtres, Martines de Pasqually's major book.

Organization

 Blue or Craft Lodges (lodges of St John)
 Entered Apprentice
 Fellow Craft
 Master Mason
 Green Lodges (Lodges of St Andrew)
 Scottish Master of St Andrew
 Inner Order
 Squire Novice
 Beneficent Knight of the Holy City (Chevalier Bienfaisant de la Cité Sainte) or CBCS, sometimes used as a short name for the rite
 Secret Class
 Profes
 Grand Profes

The RSR in the World
In England and Wales, the Rectified Scottish Rite is administered from Mark Masons' Hall, London.

See also
 List of Masonic Rites

External links

Masonic rites

Rectified Scottish Rite