In Craft Freemasonry, sometimes known as Blue Lodge Freemasonry, every Masonic lodge elects or appoints Masonic lodge officers to execute the necessary functions of the lodge's life and work. The precise list of such offices may vary between the jurisdictions of different Grand Lodges, although certain factors are common to all, and others are usual in most.

All of the lodges in a given nation, state, or region are united under the authority of a Grand Lodge sovereign to its own jurisdiction. Most of the lodge offices listed below have equivalent offices in the Grand Lodge, but with the addition of the word "Grand" somewhere in the title. For example, every lodge has an officer called the "Junior Warden", whilst the Grand Lodge has a "Grand Junior Warden" (sometimes "Junior Grand Warden"). A very small number of offices may exist only at the Grand Lodge level — such offices are included at the end of this article.

There are few universal rules common to all Grand Lodge jurisdictions of Freemasonry (see Masonic Landmarks for accepted universal principles of regular Freemasonry). However, the structure of the progressive offices is very nearly universal. While the precise hierarchy or order of various officers within the "line" of officers may vary, the usual progression is for a lodge officer to spend either one or two years in each position, advancing through "the chairs", until he is elected as Worshipful Master. In addition, there are some offices that are traditionally not considered to be part of the "line", and which may be held by the same brother for many years, or may be reserved for Past Masters.

Attribution of offices
The process of naming officers within Masonic lodges, rooted in centuries-old traditions, varies significantly across the globe. However, a common and widely practiced method is through merit-based selection and election, for some other Lodges, a progressive line is in use.

merit-based selection
A Masonic lodge typically consists of a dedicated group of officers responsible for the smooth operation and governance of the lodge. The highest-ranking officer, often referred to as the "Worshipful Master," plays a central role in this structure. In lodges that follow the merit-based appointment system, officers express their preferences for specific positions they aspire to hold in the coming year. The Worshipful Master then reviews these choices and considers the merits of each candidate. The appointment decisions are based on factors such as the candidate's dedication, knowledge, experience, and past contributions to the lodge.

The officers of a Masonic lodge, aside from the Worshipful Master, can include a Senior Warden, Junior Warden, Treasurer, Secretary, Senior Deacon, Junior Deacon, and other positions, depending on the lodge's specific organizational structure. These officers work in collaboration to ensure the lodge's rituals and activities run smoothly.

Elected Positions

In addition to appointed positions, Masonic lodges often feature elected positions where the brethren have the opportunity to choose their leaders through a democratic process. Any qualified brother who wishes to stand for an elected position, such as Senior Warden or Junior Warden, notifies the lodge's secretary of their intent. These positions are typically regarded as critical, as they play a pivotal role in the governance of the lodge and the execution of its rituals.

The election of officers is a crucial event in the Masonic calendar. On the designated election night, the names of the candidates are read aloud, and the members in attendance participate in a democratic vote. The criteria for evaluating candidates may include their contributions to the lodge, knowledge of Masonic principles, and their capacity to lead and support the brethren. The candidate who garners the most votes for a particular position is elected to that office.

Merit and Democracy in Masonic Officer Appointments

The combination of merit-based appointments and democratic elections creates a system in which officers with proven dedication and capabilities are recognized and rewarded. This ensures that the lodge's leadership is both competent and representative of the brethren's wishes.

Progressive office
Progressive office refers to a series of offices within the lodge, culminating in the office of Worshipful Master. Ideally, a mason starts at the most junior office and "progresses" to the next in line each year. The exact composition of the progressive officers varies slightly by jurisdiction, but will typically finish with the series: Junior Deacon, Senior Deacon, Junior Warden, Senior Warden, Worshipful Master.

Not all Masonic Lodges adhere to the practice of a progressive line, and this tradition is primarily prevalent in the United States. It has faced criticism for its focus on advancing officers who may expect promotion, potentially undermining the significance of other crucial positions that do not fall within this progressive hierarchy.

Offices common to all Masonic jurisdictions

Worshipful Master

The senior officer of a Masonic Lodge is the Master, normally addressed and referred to as the "Worshipful Master" (in Scotland, and in Lodges under the Scottish Constitution, the "Right Worshipful Master").  The Worshipful Master sits in the East of the lodge room, chairs all of the business of his lodge, and is vested with considerable powers without further reference to the members. He also presides over ritual and ceremonies.

The office of Worshipful Master is the highest honour to which a lodge may appoint any of its members. The office is filled annually by election, often by secret ballot.  The requirements as to who is eligible for election as Master vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but the majority of jurisdictions specify that a brother must have served as an installed Warden to qualify.  In practice, most lodges will nominate and elect the previous year's Senior Warden in an uncontested election.

At the conclusion of his limited term of office, a Worshipful Master is termed a Past Master.  The duties and privileges of Past Masters vary from lodge to lodge and jurisdiction to jurisdiction. For example, in some jurisdictions Past Masters become life members of the Grand Lodge, while in others they are not.  In most jurisdictions, a Past Master retains the honorific "Worshipful" (as in "Worshipful Brother Smith"), however there are a few where this honorific is used exclusively for sitting Masters.

The corresponding grand rank is Grand Master. The Grand Master may preside over his Grand Lodge, and also has certain powers and rights in every lodge under his jurisdiction.  Grand Masters are usually addressed as "Most Worshipful", or as in Pennsylvania, "Right Worshipful".

Senior Warden

The Senior Warden (sometimes known as First Warden) is the second of the three principal officers of a lodge, and is the Master's principal deputy.  Under some constitutions, if the Worshipful Master is absent then the Senior Warden presides at meetings as "acting Master", and may act for the Master in all matters of lodge business. Under other constitutions, only sitting Masters or Past Masters may preside as "acting Master", and so the Senior Warden cannot fulfill this role unless he is also a Past Master.  In many lodges it is presumed that the Senior Warden will become the next Worshipful Master.  In some jurisdictions, the position is an elected office, while in others it is appointed by the Master.

Junior Warden

The third of the principal officers is the Junior Warden (or Second Warden).  The Junior Warden is charged with the supervision of the Lodge while it is "at refreshment" (in recess for meals or other social purposes). In some jurisdictions the Junior Warden has a particular responsibility for ensuring that visiting Masons are in possession of the necessary credentials.  In others, this is the job of the Tyler.   In some jurisdictions the Junior Warden presides if both the Master and the Senior Warden are absent.  In some jurisdictions, the position is an elected office, while in others it is appointed by the Master.

The Wardens are "regular officers" of the Lodge, meaning that the positions must be filled.

Treasurer

The role of the Treasurer is to keep the accounts, collect annual dues from the members, pay bills, and forward annual dues to the Grand Lodge.

The annual presentation of accounts is an important measure of the lodge's continuing viability, whilst the efficient collection of annual subscriptions is vitally important, as any lapse in payment (deliberate or unintentional) can lead to a member losing voting rights, being denied the opportunity to visit other lodges, and finally even being debarred or excluded from his own lodge. In some jurisdictions, the position is an elected office, while in others it is appointed by the Master.

It is common for the Treasurer to be an experienced Past Master, but this is not required.

Secretary

The Secretary's official duties include issuing the summons (a formal notice of an impending meeting, with time, date and agenda), recording meeting minutes, completing statistical returns to the Grand Lodge, and advising the Worshipful Master on matters of procedure. Many individual lodge bylaws add to these duties by mandating, for example, that the Secretary serve on specific committees. Although any member may hold the office of Secretary, it is typically held by an experienced Past Master. It is not unusual for the office of Secretary to be held by the same member for long periods of time, even decades. In some jurisdictions, the position is an elected office, while in others it is appointed by the Master.

Some jurisdictions allow lodges to combine the duties of the Secretary and Treasurer into a single office the 'Secretary/Treasurer'.  Allowing the lodge to continue to operate with a smaller number of officers.  The Secretary/Treasurer must perform the duties listed above for both offices.  The Secretary/Treasurer typically wears the jewel for the Secretary.

Deacons

A Deacon is a junior officer in the lodge. In most jurisdictions, a lodge has two Deacons, styled Senior Deacon and Junior Deacon (though First Deacon and Second Deacon are sometimes encountered as an alternative.)

The principal duties of the Senior Deacon are to conduct candidates around the Lodge and speak for them during certain ceremonies, to attend the Worshipful Master as needed and to carry his orders to the Senior Warden.

The office and duties of Junior Deacon are similar in many respects to that of Senior Deacon, to attend the Senior Warden, and carry messages to the Junior Warden. In some jurisdictions he is also responsible for guarding the inside of the main door of the lodge and ensuring that the lodge is "tyled" (in other jurisdictions this duty is given to the "Inner Guard" or "Inside Sentinel" or Pursuivant).

In some Continental Freemasonry the Deacons are entirely absent, although not always, such as in the British Federation of Le Droit Humain. Continental lodges without Deacons share the functions between the Inner Guard and the Wardens.

The jewel of the deacons in some jurisdictions is denoted by a Dove or by Mercury, the winged messenger, indicating their duty in the Lodge.

Stewards

Stewards fulfill a number of junior assistant roles. There is considerable variance, even within the same jurisdiction, as to the precise roles played by Stewards. Some of their common duties could include the following:

 Stewards are often tasked with an understudy role to fill the position of the Senior Deacon or Junior Deacon, in their absence.
 When a degree ceremony is performed, one or more Steward(s) may be required to assist the two Deacons in conducting the candidates around the temple.
 Stewards have a traditional role in many jurisdictions of serving wine at any meal after the lodge meeting, often extended to a general supervision and planning of catering and refreshments.

Some jurisdictions specify that each lodge has two Stewards, known as the 'Senior Steward' and 'Junior Steward'. In others, the Worshipful Master may appoint any number of Stewards, according to the size and requirements of his lodge, and in this respect the office is unique.

Although newer members usually fill the office of Steward, in some lodges it is traditional for a Past Master to be appointed to supervise the stewards' work. The office may serve to dignify a useful member of the Lodge, such as a webmaster or wine buyer, or to establish precedence in the rotation of officers.

In a Grand Lodge, the Grand Stewards are typically promising junior members, who may subsequently expect accelerated promotion as Grand Officers. In United Grand Lodge of England nineteen lodges hold the right to nominate a Grand Steward each year, and as Grand Stewards wear distinctive red aprons, these lodges are known as 'red apron lodges'.  Typically these lodges nominate their current Worshipful Master and can, therefore, be relatively junior through to extremely senior members.  The importance of the rights to nominate Grand Stewards and their duties go back to the first formation of the Premier Grand Lodge, when the Office carried onerous financial liabilities.  Grand Stewards of United Grand Lodge of England are still expected to organise and subsidise the Grand Festival, which is held each year directly after the Annual Investiture.

Tyler

The 'Tyler' (sometimes spelled 'Tiler') is sometimes known as the 'Outer Guard' of the lodge. His duty is to guard the door (from the outside), with a drawn sword, and ensure that only those who are duly qualified manage to gain entry into the lodge meeting. In some jurisdictions, he also prepares candidates for their admission.  The Tyler is traditionally responsible for preparing the lodge room before the meeting, and for storing and maintaining the regalia after the meeting.

In some jurisdictions the Tyler is a Past Master of the Lodge while in others he may be an employed brother from another lodge.

Officers found in some jurisdictions and not in others
There are many officers that are found in some jurisdictions and not in others.  Depending on the jurisdiction, some are "progressive" others are not. The more common ones include:

Inner Guard or Inside Sentinel

The office of 'Inner Guard' (or Inside Sentinel) is mandatory in UK lodges, but rare in American lodges.  The Inner Guard is also an office in Australian and New Zealand lodges.  This position is commonly assigned to a fairly junior member, as it provides a good opportunity for him to meet members and observe and learn ceremonies, and is at the beginning of the progressive offices leading to the Chair.

The task of guarding the door is shared with the 'Tyler' (see above). The Inner Guard is on the inside of the door, and in some jurisdictions is armed with a poignard, or short dagger. In those jurisdictions which do not appoint an Inner Guard (and even in some that do), this duty is given to the Junior Deacon (see above).

Chaplain

In most Masonic jurisdictions, each lodge will have a 'Chaplain'. The principal duty of the Chaplain is to lead prayer before and after the lodge meeting, and to say grace while the lodge is at dinner.  In many lodges this position is filled by a clergyman (an ordained minister, priest, rabbi, imam, etc.) who is a brother of the lodge. However, it is not required that the Chaplain be a clergyman, as prayers are non-denominational.  In some lodges the tradition is for the immediate Past Master to act as Chaplain.

Director of Ceremonies / Ritualist / Ritual Director / Master of Ceremonies

The title 'Director of Ceremonies' is used in the United Grand Lodge of England and its subordinate lodges, as well as in many other jurisdictions. However, other titles found in other jurisdictions include 'Lecturer' and 'Ritualist'. Some Continental ritual uses 'Master of Ceremonies' and has the Deacon perform the duties linked to this title in other jurisdictions. This Continental Master of Ceremonies' primary duty is to lead people around the lodge.

Whatever the title, this officer is responsible for the smooth flowing of ceremonial and ritual and may hold rehearsals. He may be responsible for prompting other officers who forget their lines. In some jurisdictions, he directs proceedings during the installation of a new Worshipful Master. He is also responsible for forming processions and introducing visitors, except in those jurisdictions which appoint a 'Marshal' for these latter purposes (see below).

The Grand Lodge of New York has developed the position of Lodge Ritual Director to facilitate this role and to ensure the smooth flowing of ceremonial and ritual and may hold rehearsals. He may be responsible for prompting other officers who forget their lines.

Marshal

The office of 'Marshal' is quite common in the United States, but not in other countries. In some jurisdictions where it is found, the title is simply an alternative for 'Director of Ceremonies' (see above).

However, there are jurisdictions in which the office is distinct from any other, in which cases the duties of the office revolve around the organisation of processions and ensuring the correct precedence and etiquette in formal proceedings, including the introduction of visitors to the lodge. This is distinct (in such jurisdictions) from the role of the Director of Ceremonies in supervising the ritual of the lodge's degree ceremonies.

In many jurisdictions of the United States, the Marshal is also in charge of performing the flag ceremonies, including the posting of the flag, leading the Pledge of Allegiance, and retiring the flag.  In the case of lodges that use the flags of other countries, in addition of the US flag for special meetings or events, the Marshal is responsible for designating another brother to perform the appropriate similar ceremony for that flag, as the US flag.

Master of Banquets
The Master of Banquet is a role within some Masonic lodges responsible for organizing and overseeing Lodge meals under the supervision of the Junior Warden. This position involves coordinating the preparation of food and supplies for Lodge gatherings, working with apprentices and overseeing financial matters related to the meals. The Master of Banquet also plays a symbolic role, with their attire featuring Masonic symbols like a compass and pomegranates, representing precision, abundance, and fraternity. This position reports to the Junior Warden and supervises Senior and Junior Stewards, as well as instructs Entered Apprentices in setting-up Table Lodges and traditions.

Masters of Ceremony

The offices of 'Senior and Junior Masters of Ceremony' appear in some jurisdictions. Their primary duty is to prepare the candidates prior to each of the three degrees and conduct the candidates during the degree conferrals. They also maintain order during special circumstances at the discretion of the Worshipful Master. In some jurisdictions, the Masters of Ceremony are responsible for answering alarms at the preparing room, examination room or outer doors.

This title is sometimes used in Continental ritual, but to describe the Director of Ceremonies role. Here the Deacon performs the above Master of Ceremony duties.

Almoner
The Almoner (sometimes called the Caring Officer) is responsible for the well-being of lodge members and their families. He remains in contact with members who are unwell, and also maintains a discreet presence in the lives of widows of former members, so that the lodge may readily assist them should they find themselves in any particular need.

Of necessity, the Almoner must be well versed in local and national Masonic charities and the scope of their charitable work, so as to offer advice to those who might qualify for such assistance.

In some jurisdictions, these duties are handled by a committee (under various titles).

Organist / Director of Music / Master of Harmony

The 'Organist', 'Director of Music' sometimes Master of Harmony provides musical accompaniment to lodge proceedings, although there is no set form.  Many lodge rooms are equipped with a pipe organ or electronic organ, and in others, there is provision for a wider range of instruments. In other places, the Director of Music operates recorded or digital music systems, such as at the Grand Lodge of Austria in Vienna.

Orator

The Orator in a Masonic Lodge is a highly respected role often given to a Past Master or an experienced brother. They serve as the guardian of Masonic law and traditions and play a pivotal role in upholding Lodge values and unity. Key duties include preparing and delivering speeches for various Lodge events, welcoming new members, conducting research, and ensuring harmony during Lodge discussions and debates. The Orator is also responsible for maintaining order, mentoring fellow brothers, and embodying wisdom and integrity within the Lodge. This position is typically reserved for Past Masters due to their experience and wisdom.

In some jurisdictions there is a strong tradition of Masonic research and education, and the presentation of papers by members is as common as degree ceremonies or other business. In such cases, the 'Orator' may present papers, or be responsible for their presentation by others. The Orator may also be called upon to present a paper to celebrate milestones in the life of the lodge.

In addition, in some European jurisdictions (e.g. Germany, Austria, France) the Orator ('Redner', i.e. speaker) is a kind of legal advisor, he is responsible for upholding the Constitution and By-Laws and prosecutor in masonic disciplinary proceedings.  His ranking is right behind the Worshipful Master and his deputy. His jewel is the statute book.

This kind of office is originating in the 'Parlierer' of medieval operative stonemasons. They did elect the 'Parlierer' from among the senior fellows as their representative whereas the Master was appointed by the building owner.  The 'Parlierer' acted as a deputy to the Master.

The term Grand Orator refers to a similar office within Grand Lodges.

Superintendent of Works

The Superintendent of Works keeps the inventory, and is responsible for the material possessions of the lodge. It is his responsibility to see that the lodge is properly set out before the ceremony, and that everything is safely locked away at the end of the evening.

Immediate Past Master

While the Immediate Past Master (the last brother to hold the office of Worshipful Master, in some areas titled the "Junior Past Master") is not formally an officer of the lodge, in certain jurisdictions he has his own duties. In the United Grand Lodge of England, he has a ceremonial role in the opening and closing of the lodge, and is expected to deputise for the Worshipful Master in the event of his absence or death.

Additional (less common) offices
There are certain offices which exist only in particular lodges, or only in the lodges of one particular jurisdiction. As far as possible, the following list seeks to record all such offices that are either reasonably widespread, or else have been made notable by some other means, such as being held by famous people.

Historian / Librarian

Most lodges have a senior member who holds a particular interest in the lodge's history. In some jurisdictions, this interest may lead to appointment to formal office as the lodge's 'Historian'. The office involves the archiving of documents and artifacts, and the publishing and updating of historical information. In some jurisdictions, a 'Librarian' procures Masonic reading material for Members of the Lodge and maintains a small Library where books and magazines may be borrowed.

Charity Steward

All lodges are charged with maintaining an appropriate level of charitable giving to good causes. In some jurisdictions, the office of 'Charity Steward' exists.  He is responsible for encouraging the members to give generously, as well as leading discussions about the appropriate recipients of the lodge's charitable donations.

Poet Laureate

This rare office was first created by the 'Lodge Canongate Kilwinning' No 2 in Edinburgh. In 1787 the lodge appointed Robert Burns as 'Poet Laureate', an investiture later immortalised in a painting by Stewart Watson, the original of which hangs in the Grand Lodge of Scotland building in Edinburgh. The painting incorporates a certain amount of artistic license, which may possibly extend to the presence of Burns himself, for although he was certainly a member of the Lodge, it is not clear that he was present at the meeting at which he was appointed Poet Laureate. In 1843, David Wardlaw Scott is recorded as the Poet Laureate of the St. David's Lodge of Edinburgh. In 1884, Rob Morris was crowned 'the poet Laureate of Freemasonry' in New York. In 1905, the office of Poet Laureate in the Canongate Kilwinning No 2 lodge was awarded to Rudyard Kipling, who was made an honorary member for that purpose.

Pursuivant

While more commonly seen at the Grand Lodge level, in some jurisdictions Lodges may also appoint a Pursuivant. He is often responsible for answering alarms at the outer door of the Lodge, in place of another officer.

Offices generally found only at Grand Lodge level

The offices in a Grand Lodge are generally derived from the corresponding offices in its subordinate lodges. However, there are certain offices that must necessarily be filled in Grand Lodges, but have no private lodge equivalent. These are outlined below.

Deputy Grand Master
In some jurisdictions, a Deputy Grand Master serves as the Grand Master's assistant, and is given the authority to act in the Grand Master's name in his absence.

In England, under the jurisdiction of the United Grand Lodge of England, should the Grand Master be a member of the Royal family, a Pro Grand Master is appointed to officiate as Grand Master in his absence on Royal duties.

Grand Education Officer or Grand Lecturer

In some jurisdictions the Grand Master will appoint a Grand Educator or Grand Lecturer, whose responsibility is to oversee the promotion of Masonic Education in the Jurisdiction. He develops programs, produces materials, and offers resources that enhance and elevate Masonic Knowledge for the brethren. He oversees the activities of the Education and Services Committee, and with the approval of the Grand Master, appoints District level officers to assist him in his duties.

Grand Chancellor

The Grand Chancellor is responsible for external relations and formal interaction with the Grand Lodges of other jurisdictions. The United Grand Lodge of England changed its constitution in 2007 to allow for the appointment of a Grand Chancellor for the first time.  Only a few jurisdictions have Grand Chancellors.  In most jurisdictions, the Grand Secretary fulfills these duties.

Lodge of Antiquity No.2 and Royal Somerset House and Inverness Lodge No.IV, in England, are rare examples of lodges that appoint a Chancellor as one of their officers. In Antiquity it tends to be the senior active member of the lodge.  In No.IV it appears that when the office was created in the nineteenth century it was intended to be similar to the role of Chaplain.  However, when revived in the early twentieth century, the role was more directed towards external relations. By the late twentieth century it appears that it had become customary for the office to be awarded to the longest-serving member of the Lodge.

Grand Registrar

In some jurisdictions a 'Grand Registrar' is appointed to be the principal legal officer of a Grand Lodge. The role is generally held by a qualified lawyer or judge. In other jurisdictions, there is no official title given to the holders of these duties.

Grand Superintendent of Works

When this office exists, the 'Grand Superintendent of Works' is a Grand Lodge officer responsible for the Grand Lodge building, and as such, the office is usually awarded to a qualified architect or builder. Responsibility for individual Lodge buildings usually falls to a committee.

Grand Sword Bearer

Many Grand Masters are preceded in formal processions by a ceremonial sword. In such cases a "Grand Sword Bearer" is appointed to carry the sword.

Grand Standard Bearer or Grand Banner Bearer

Many Grand Masters or Grand Lodges have an official standard which is carried behind the Grand Master in formal processions. In such cases a "Grand Standard Bearer" or "Grand Banner Bearer" is appointed.

Grand Pursuivant
It is the Grand Pursuivant's duty to announce all applicants for admission into the Grand Lodge by their names and Masonic titles; to take charge of the jewels and regalia of the Grand Lodge; to attend all communications of the Grand Lodge, and to perform such other duties as may be required by the Grand Master or presiding officer.

Order of precedence and honorary appointments
Under the jurisdiction of the United Grand Lodge of England, the order of precedence of masonic offices and their incumbents at Provincial, District and Metropolitan Grand Lodge level is:

 Provincial Grand Master
 Deputy Grand Master
 Assistant Grand Master
 Senior Grand Warden *
 Junior Grand Warden *
 Grand Chaplain
 Grand Registrar
 Grand Treasurer *
 Grand Secretary
 Grand Director of Ceremonies
 Grand Sword Bearer
 Grand Superintendent of Works
 Deputy Grand Chaplain
 Deputy Grand Registrar
 Deputy Grand Secretary
 Deputy Grand Director of Ceremonies
 Deputy Grand Sword Bearer
 Deputy Grand Superintendent of Works
 Grand Almoner *
 Grand Charity Steward *
 Grand Mentor *
 Grand Orator *
 Senior Grand Deacon *
 Junior Grand Deacon *
 Assistant Grand Chaplain
 Assistant Grand Registrar
 Assistant Grand Secretary
 Assistant Grand Director of Ceremonies
 Assistant Grand Sword Bearer
 Assistant Grand Superintendent of Works
 Grand Organist
 Deputy Grand Organist
 Grand Standard Bearer
 Assistant Grand Standard Bearer
 Grand Pursuivant
 Assistant Grand Pursuivant
 Grand Steward *
 Grand Tyler *

Offices which are marked with an asterisk (*) do not normally have further positions (e.g. as 'Deputy' or 'Assistant') associated with them, although this may vary from masonic province to masonic province.

Brethren who execute administrative and/or ceremonial functions in a Provincial Grand Lodge are called 'active rank' provincial grand officers. Past 'active rank' provincial grand officers may be considered for promotion to either a higher provincial office ('active' or titular) or, in due time, even at UGLE (Grand Lodge) level.

In addition, Provincial Grand Lodges in England and Wales usually maintain a practice of honouring certain Past Masters of Craft Lodges as well as other distinguished Brethren by granting them the rank and precedence of a 'past' provincial grand officer (e.g. as Past Provincial Assistant Grand Standard Bearer), even if they have never actively served as such.

See also
Swedish Rite has somewhat different offices.

References

Lodge Officers

Masonic lodge officer


Prince Frederick William of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg-Horetonburg (18 November 16683 June 1714) was a member of the House of Oldenburg and a Prince of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg.

He was the youngest son of Duke Ernest Günther, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg and his wife, Auguste of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. In 1675, when his father negotiated with Count Peder Griffenfeld about a marriage with Frederick William's sister, he was promised a profitable post as provost of the Cathedral in Hamburg and governor of Als. He was appointed as provost in Hamburg in 1676, after chairman Kielmansegge died. When his father died in 1689, the will stated that his possessions would go to his widow, who would have the right to settle the succession. She made a decision, which was upheld by the King in 1692. Her eldest living son, Ernest Augustus, was excluded from the inheritance, because he had converted to Catholicism, leaving the Duchy to Frederick William, who was by then the only other surviving son. Almost simultaneously, Frederick William was also appointed governor of Sønderborg.

However, when Ernest Augustus reverted to Lutheranism in 1695, he was appointed governor of Sønderborg, because he resided there. Ernest Augustus was also reinstated as heir of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. Nevertheless, when Ernest Augustus died childless in 1731, Frederick William's son Christian August I would inherit the duchy.

When his mother died in 1701, Frederick William inherited Augustenborg Palace, Rumohrsgaard Manor and Evelgunde Manor. In 1703, he purchased Avnbølgaard Manor in Sundeved.

Frederick William served as a Major General in the Danish army.

On 27 November 1694, he married Sophie Amalie, a daughter of the Chancellor, Frederik Ahlefeldt, Count of Langeland. She died on 24 December 1741.

References
 Jonathan Smith: Zur Geschichte des oldenburgischen Heerwesen während der Dänenzeit (1667-1773). In: Oldenburger Jahrbücher. 1940/41, S. 52ff, Digitalisat

House of Augustenburg
Danish generals
17th-century Danish people
1668 births
1714 deaths
17th-century Danish nobility
18th-century Danish nobility


A wage is money that is paid by an employer to an employee in exchange for work. The amount may be fixed for each task completed (this is called piece rate); or it may be based on time or other measurable quantity of work done.

Work for wages is the most common form of work. Because of this, the term "wage" sometimes refers to all forms of employee payment. However, a wage is different to a salary or commission. A salary is where the employer pays an arranged amount at regular intervals (such as a week or month) regardless of hours worked or amount of work done. Commission is usually an extra payment based on the performance of the worker or product. Waged employees may also receive "tips" paid directly by clients. They will usually not get the same benefits as those paid with a salary, such as annual leave and sick leave.

Wages are usually paid by the hour. This is called an hourly wage. Wages paid by the day are still common. Wage rates may be influenced by market forces (supply and demand), laws, and tradition. Market forces are perhaps more dominant in the United States, while tradition, social structure and seniority, perhaps play a greater role in Japan. In many countries, laws set a minimum wage that all employers must pay their workers. This means that employers cannot pay workers a lower rate than the minimum wage; however, they can pay them a higher rate. The minimum wage rate is there to protect the working class.

Wages were paid in the Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, and Ancient Rome.

References

Other websites

 Salary and wages data collection

Employment
Labor
Income

Wage


John H. Davis (April 5, 1914 – November 3, 1992) was an American child actor, notable for appearing in Hal Roach's Our Gang series. His sister Mildred Davis also acted; she appeared in Roach comedian Harold Lloyd's films as his leading lady. When Lloyd and Mildred were married in 1923, Lloyd pulled Jack out of Our Gang and enrolled him in military school.

Career

Davis first appeared in the fourth Our Gang short, Young Sherlocks. He was known as the little tough boy and was a rival (usually with Mickey) for Mary Kornman's affections. In other shorts he was a just a member of the gang instead of a bully. His screen career ended after 19 shorts in the series when Harold Lloyd and his older sister, Mildred Davis, got married, and Lloyd put the boy into military school. His final appearance was the 1923 short Derby Day. After degrees in anthropology and medicine Davis became a successful physician in the Los Angeles area, specialising in cardiology, and associate professor at the UCLA School of Medicine. He was the grandfather of American actress Carrie Mitchum and actor Bentley Mitchum.

Death
Davis died in 1992 in Santa Monica, California of respiratory failure at the age of 78.

References

External links
  (appears to conflate a number of people with the same name)

American male film actors
American male child actors
American cardiologists
Male actors from California
1914 births
1992 deaths
20th-century American male actors
American male comedy actors
Hal Roach Studios actors
Our Gang

Jack Davis (actor)


Elihu Spencer (February 12, 1721 – December 27, 1784) was an American clergyman who  served as a chaplain during the French and Indian War.  During the American Revolution, he was invited to North Carolina by that colony's provincial congress to convince loyalist congregations to join  the patriot cause.

Spencer was born in East Haddam, Connecticut and graduated from Yale in 1746. He prepared to become a missionary to the Six Nations Iroquois under
David Brainerd and Jonathan Edwards.  In 1748, he accompanied Edwards to an Indian conference in Albany, New York, and on September 14 of that year, was ordained.

He served as a missionary on the New York frontier, and in 1750 he was appointed pastor of the Presbyterian Church in Elizabeth, New Jersey.  In 1756, he was appointed pastor of another Presbyterian Church in what is now Jamaica, Queens. Two years later, New York Governor James De Lancey appointed him chaplain of the colonies troops who were preparing for service in the French and Indian War.

After the war, Spencer served as pastor in Shrewsbury, Middletown Point, Shark River, and Amboy, New Jersey. In 1764 the synod of New York and Philadelphia send Spencer, along with Reverend Alexander McWhorter on a mission to organize the irregular North Carolina congregations.

References
 Thomas Spencer, his son
 Spencer Fullerton Baird, his great-grandson
Halsey, The Old New York Frontier, Pt. 2, Ch. 2, Missionaries from New England (1745–1748)

External links

1721 births
1784 deaths
American military chaplains
American Christian clergy
American Presbyterian missionaries
Presbyterian missionaries in the United States
American Revolution chaplains

Elihu Spencer


Ocean stratification is the natural separation of an ocean's water into horizontal layers by density, which is generally stable because warm water floats on top of cold water, and heating is mostly from the sun, which reinforces that arrangement. Stratification is reduced by wind-forced mechanical mixing, but reinforced by convection (warm water rising, cold water sinking). Stratification occurs in all ocean basins and also in other water bodies. Stratified layers are a barrier to the mixing of water, which impacts the exchange of heat, carbon, oxygen and other nutrients. The surface mixed layer is the uppermost layer in the ocean and is well mixed by mechanical (wind) and thermal (convection) effects. Climate change is causing the upper ocean stratification to increase.

Due to upwelling and downwelling, which are both wind-driven, mixing of different layers can occur through the rise of cold nutrient-rich and sinking of warm water, respectively. Generally, layers are based on water density: heavier, and hence denser, water is below the lighter water, representing a stable stratification. For example, the pycnocline is the layer in the ocean where the change in density is largest compared to that of other layers in the ocean. The thickness of the thermocline is not constant everywhere and depends on a variety of variables.

Between 1960 and 2018, upper ocean stratification increased between 0.7-1.2% per decade due to climate change. This means that the differences in density of the layers in the oceans increase, leading to larger mixing barriers and other effects. In the last few decades, stratification in all ocean basins has increased due to effects of climate change on oceans. Global upper-ocean stratification has continued its increasing trend in 2022. The southern oceans (south of 30°S) experienced the strongest rate of stratification since 1960, followed by the Pacific, Atlantic, and the Indian Oceans. Increasing stratification is predominantly affected by changes in ocean temperature; salinity only plays a role locally.

Density of water in the oceans
The density of water in the ocean, which is defined as mass per unit of volume, has a complicated dependence on temperature (), salinity () and pressure (), which in turn is a function of the density and depth of the overlying water, and is denoted as . The dependence on pressure is not significant, since seawater is almost perfectly incompressible. A change in the temperature of the water impacts on the distance between water parcels directly. When the temperature of the water increases, the distance between water parcels will increase and hence the density will decrease.  Salinity is a measure of the mass of dissolved solids, which consist mainly of salt. Increasing the salinity will increase the density. Just like the pycnocline defines the layer with a fast change in density, similar layers can be defined for a fast change in temperature and salinity: the thermocline and the halocline. Since the density depends on both the temperature and the salinity, the pycno-, thermo-, and haloclines have similar shapes. The difference is that the density increases with depth, whereas the salinity and temperature decrease with depth.

In the ocean, a specific range of temperature and salinity occurs. Using the GODAS Data, a temperature-salinity plot can show the possibilities and occurrences of the different combinations of salinity and potential temperature.

The density of ocean water is described by the UNESCO formula as: The terms in this formula, density when the pressure is zero, , and a term involving the compressibility of water, , are both heavily dependent on the temperature and less dependent on the salinity:with:andIn these formulas, all of the small letters,  and  are constants that are defined in Appendix A of a book on Internal Gravity Waves, published in 2015.

The density depends more on the temperature than on the salinity, as can be deduced from the exact formula and can be shown in plots using the GODAS Data. In the plots regarding surface temperature, salinity and density, it can be seen that locations with the coldest water, at the poles, are also the locations with the highest densities. The regions with the highest salinity, on the other hand, are not the regions with the highest density, meaning that temperature contributes mostly to the density in the oceans. A specific example is the Arabian Sea.

Quantification
Ocean stratification can be defined and quantified by the change in density with depth. The Buoyancy frequency, also called the Brunt-Väisälä frequency, can be used as direct representation of stratification in combination with observations on temperature and salinity.

The Buoyancy frequency, , represents the intrinsic frequency of internal gravity waves. This means that water that is vertically displaced tends to bounce up and down with that frequency.

The Buoyancy frequency is defined as follows:Here,  is the gravitational constant,  is a reference density and  is the potential density depending on temperature and salinity as discussed earlier. Water is considered to have a stable stratification for , leading to a real value of . The ocean is typically stable and the corresponding -values in the ocean lie between approximately  in the abyssal ocean and  in the upper parts of the ocean. The Buoyancy period is defined as . Corresponding to the previous values, this period typically takes values between approximately 10 and 100 minutes. In some parts of the ocean unstable stratification appears, leading to convection.

If the stratification in a water column increases, implying an increase of the value  , turbulent mixing and hence the eddy viscosity will decrease. Furthermore, an increase of , implies an increase of  , meaning that the difference in densities in this water column increase as well. Throughout the year, the oceanic stratification is not constant, since the stratification depends on density, and therefore on temperature and salinity. The interannual fluctuations in tropical Pacific Ocean stratification are dominated by El Niño, which can be linked with the strong variations in the thermocline depth in the eastern equatorial Pacific.

Furthermore, tropical storms are sensitive to the conditions on the stratification and hence on its change.  On the other hand, mixing from tropical storms also tends to reduce stratification differences among layers.

Observations on increasing stratification

Temperature and salinity changes due to global warming and climate change alter the ocean density and lead to changes in vertical stratification. The stratified configuration of the ocean can act as a barrier to water mixing, which impacts the efficiency of vertical exchanges of heat, carbon, oxygen, and other constituents. Thus, stratification is a central element of Earth's climate system. Global upper-ocean stratification continued its increasing trend in 2022 and was among the top seven on record.

In the last few decades, the stratification in all of the ocean basins has increased. Furthermore, the southern oceans (south of 30°S) experienced the strongest rate of stratification since 1960, followed by the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. When the upper ocean becomes more stratified, the mixed layer of surface water with homogeneous temperature may get shallower, but projected changes to mixed-layer depth by the end of the 21st century remain contested. The regions with the currently deepest mixed layers are associated with the greatest mixed layer shoaling, particularly the North Atlantic and Southern Ocean basin.

By looking at the GODAS Data provided by the NOAA/OAR/ESRL PSL, the Buoyancy frequencies can be found from January 1980 up to and including March 2021. Since a change in stratification is mostly visible in the upper 500 meters of the ocean, very specific data is necessary in order to see this in a plot. The resulting plots from the GODAS Data might indicate that there is also a decrease in stratification looking at the differences of the stratification between the years 1980, 2000 and 2020. It is possible to see that the change in stratification is indeed the biggest in the first 500 meters of the ocean. From approximately 1000 meters into the ocean, the stratification converges toward a stable value and the change in stratification becomes almost non-existent.

In many scientific articles, magazines and blogs, it is claimed that the stratification has increased in all of the ocean basins (e.g in Ecomagazine.com and NCAR & UCAR News ). In the figure below, the trends of the change in stratification in all of the ocean basins have been plotted. This data shows that over the years the stratification has drastically increased. The changes in stratification are greatest in the Southern Ocean, followed by the Pacific Ocean. In the Pacific Ocean, the increase of stratification in the eastern equatorial has found to be greater than in the western equatorial. This is likely to be linked to the weakening of the trade winds and reduced upwelling in the eastern Pacific, which can be explained by the weakening of the Walker circulation.

Causes and consequences

Temperature and mixing

The change in temperature dominates the increasing stratification, while salinity only plays a role locally. The ocean has an extraordinary ability of storing and transporting large amounts of heat, carbon and fresh water. Even though approximately 70% of the Earth's surface consists of water, more than 75% of the water exchange between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere occurs over the oceans. The ocean absorbs part of the energy from sunlight as heat and is initially absorbed by the surface. Eventually a part of this heat also spreads to deeper water. Greenhouse gases absorb extra energy from the sun, which is again absorbed by the oceans, leading to an increase in the amount of heat stored by the oceans. The increase of temperature of the oceans goes rather slow, compared to the atmosphere.

However, the ocean heat uptake has doubled since 1993 and oceans have absorbed over 90% of the extra heat of the Earth since 1955. The temperature in the ocean, up to approximately 700 meters deep into the ocean, has been rising almost all over the globe. The increased warming in the upper ocean reduces the density of the upper ~500 m of water, while deeper water does not experience as much warming and as great a decrease in density. Thus, the stratification in the upper layers will change more than in the lower layers, and these strengthening vertical density gradients act as barriers limiting mixing between the upper layers and deep-water.

There is limited evidence that seasonal differences in stratification have grown larger over the years.

Salinity
The salinity is associated with the difference between evaporation and precipitation. Ocean currents are important in moving fresh and saline waters around and in keeping a balance.

Evaporation causes the water to become more saline, and hence denser. Precipitation has the opposite effect, since it decreases the density of the surface water. Hence, it can be stated that salinity plays a more local role in the increase of stratification, even though it is less present compared to the influence of the temperature. For example, salinity plays an important role in the subtropical gyre, North (-East) Pacific, North Atlantic and Arctic regions.

In the Arctic, the decrease of salinity, and hence density, can be explained by the input of freshwater from melting glaciers and ice sheets. This process and the increase of stratification in the Arctic will continue with the current carbon emissions.

De-oxygenation

A decline in dissolved oxygen, and hence in the oxygen supply to the ocean interior, is a likely effect of the increase in stratification in the upper ocean. Since oxygen plays a direct and important role in the cycles of carbon, nitrogen and many other elements such as phosphorus, iron and magnesium, de-oxygenation will have large consequences. It plays a vital role for many organisms and the variety of ocean animals of all kinds.

The de-oxygenation in subsurface waters is due to the decrease in ocean mixing, which is caused by the increase of stratification in the upper ocean. To illustrate, in the period between 1970 and 1990, approximately 15% of the de-oxygenation can be explained by an increase of temperature and the rest by reduced transport due to stratification. In the period between 1967 and 2000 the decrease in oxygen concentration in the shallow waters, between 0 and 300 meters, was 10 times faster in the coastal ocean compared to the open ocean. This has led to an increase of hypoxic zones, which can lead to a change in behavior of the aquatic flora and fauna. The increase of stratification in the upper ocean during the second half of the 21st century can lead to a decoupling between the surface and the deeper oceans. This decoupling can cause de-oxygenation in the deeper ocean as well, since the decoupling makes it less likely for the oxygen to reach the deeper oceans.

Nevertheless, the change in oxygen concentration can also be influenced by changes in circulation and winds. And even though oxygen has decreased in many areas of the oceans, it can also increase locally, due to a variety of influences on the oxygen. For example, between 1990 and 2000, the oxygen in the thermocline of the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean has increased.

Mixed layer depth (MLD)

The surface mixed layer is the uppermost layer in the ocean and is well mixed by mechanical (wind) and thermal (convection) effects. Turbulence in this layer occurs through surface processes, for example wind stirring, surface heat fluxes and evaporation, The mixed layer is inherently the layer most connected to the atmosphere and affects and is affected by all weather systems, especially those with strong winds such as hurricanes.  Heat stored in the mixed layer in the tropical western Pacific plays a vital role in El Nino development.

The depth of the mixed layer is associated with physical, chemical and biological systems and is one of the most important quantities in the upper ocean. Throughout the year, the depth of the mixed layer varies. The thickness of the layer increases in wintertime and decreases in the summer. If the mixed layer is really deep, less light can reach the phytoplankton. Phytoplankton have been shown to be important in the global carbon cycle. Furthermore, since phytoplankton are at the bottom of the food chain, a decrease in phytoplankton can have consequences on a very large scale.

An exact relation between an increase in stratification and a change in the mixed layer depth has not yet been determined and remains uncertain. Although some studies suggest that a thinner mixed layer should accompany a more stratified upper ocean, other work reports seasonal deepening of the mixed layer since 1970. There is literature substantiating the statement that in the years from 1970 to 2018, the stratification in the basis of the mixed layer as well as the depth of the mixed layer have increased. Contradicting this result, other literature states a decrease of the depth of the mixed layer partly as a result of the increase of upper-ocean stratification. It has been found that the mixed layer in the extension of the Kuroshio Current, at the west side of the North Pacific, has decreased more than 30 meters. This shoaling is caused by weakening of wind and a reduction of seasonal vertical mixing. Furthermore, there exists research stating that heating of the surface of the ocean, and hence an increase in stratification, does not necessarily mean an increase nor decrease in the mixed layer depth. Using the GODAS Data it can be seen that the depth of the mixed layer has increased as well as decreased over time.

Between 1970 and 2018, the summertime mixed-layer depth (MLD) deepened by 2.9 ± 0.5% per decade (or 5 to 10 m per decade, depending on the region), and the Southern Ocean experienced the greatest deepening. However, there is limited observational evidence that the mixed layer is globally deepening, and only under strong greenhouse gas emissions scenarios do global mixed-layer depths shoal in the 21st century. Although it is virtually certain that upper ocean stratification will increase through the 21st century, scientists express low confidence in how the mixed-layer depth will evolve.

See also

 Ocean heat content

References

Aquatic ecology
Physical oceanography

Ocean stratification


Viking expansion was the historical movement which led Norse explorers, traders and warriors, the latter known in modern scholarship as Vikings, to sail most of the North Atlantic, reaching south as far as North Africa and east as far as Russia, and through the Mediterranean as far as Constantinople and the Middle East, acting as looters, traders, colonists and mercenaries. To the west, Vikings under Leif Erikson, the heir to Erik the Red, reached North America and set up a short-lived settlement in present-day L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, Canada. Longer lasting and more established Norse settlements were formed in Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Russia, Ukraine, Great Britain, Ireland and Normandy.

Motivation for expansion
There is much debate among historians about what drove the Viking expansion.

Researchers have suggested that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands. The concept was expressed in the 11th century by historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin in his semi-imaginary History of The Normans. Rich and powerful Viking men tended to have many wives and concubines, and these polygynous relationships may have led to a shortage of eligible women for the average Viking male. Due to this, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. Viking men would often buy or capture women and make them into their wives or concubines. Polygynous marriage increases male-male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men who are willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex-seeking behaviors. The Annals of Ulster states that in 821 the Vikings plundered an Irish village and "carried off a great number of women into captivity".

Another theory is that it was a quest for revenge against continental Europeans for past aggressions against the Vikings and related groups, Charlemagne's campaign to force Saxon pagans to convert to Christianity by killing any who refused to become baptized in particular. Those who favor this explanation point out that the penetration of Christianity into Scandinavia caused serious conflict and divided Norway for almost a century. However, the first target of Viking raids was not the Frankish Kingdom, but Christian monasteries in England. According to the historian Peter Sawyer, these were raided because they were centers of wealth and their farms well-stocked, not because of any religious reasons.

A different idea is that the Viking population had exceeded the agricultural potential of their homeland. This may have been true of western Norway, where there were few reserves of land, but it is unlikely that the rest of Scandinavia was experiencing famine.

Alternatively, some scholars propose that the Viking expansion was driven by a youth bulge effect: Because the eldest son of a family customarily inherited the family's entire estate, younger sons had to seek their fortune by emigrating or engaging in raids. Peter Sawyer suggests that most Vikings emigrated due to the attractiveness of owning more land rather than the necessity of having it.

However, no rise in population, youth bulge, or decline in agricultural production during this period has been definitively demonstrated. Nor is it clear why such pressures would have prompted expansion overseas rather than into the vast, uncultivated forest areas in the interior of the Scandinavian Peninsula, although perhaps emigration or sea raids may have been easier or more profitable than clearing large areas of forest for farm and pasture in a region with a limited growing season.

It is also possible that a decline in the profitability of old trade routes drove the Vikings to seek out new, more profitable ones. Trade between western Europe and the rest of Eurasia may have suffered after the Roman Empire lost its western provinces in the 5th century, and the expansion of Islam in the 7th century may have reduced trade opportunities within western Europe by redirecting resources along the Silk Road. Trade in the Mediterranean was at its lowest level in history when the Vikings began their expansion. The Viking expansion opened new trade routes in Arab and Frankish lands, and took control of trade markets previously dominated by the Frisians after the Franks destroyed the Frisian fleet.

One of the main aims of the Viking expansion throughout Europe was to acquire and trade silver. Bergen and Dublin are still important centres of silver making. An example of a collection of Viking-age silver for trading purposes is the Galloway Hoard.

Settlement demographics

Viking settlements in Ireland and Great Britain are thought to have been primarily male enterprises; however, some graves show nearly equal male/female distribution. Disagreement is partly due to method of classification; previous archaeology often guessed biological sex from burial artifacts, whereas modern archaeology may use osteology to find biological sex, and isotope analysis to find origin (DNA sampling is usually not possible). The males buried during that period in a cemetery on the Isle of Man had mainly names of Norse origin, while the females there had names of indigenous origin. Irish and British women are mentioned in old texts on the founding of Iceland, indicating that the Viking explorers were accompanied there by women from the British Isles who either came along voluntarily or were taken along by force. Genetic studies of the population in the Western Isles and Isle of Skye also show that Viking settlements were established mainly by male Vikings who mated with women from the local populations of those places.

However, not all Viking settlements were primarily male. Genetic studies of the Shetland population suggest that family units consisting of Viking women as well as men were the norm among the migrants to these areas.

This may be because areas like the Shetland Islands, being closer to Scandinavia, were more suitable targets for family migrations, while frontier settlements further north and west were more suitable for groups of unattached male colonizers.

British Isles

England

During the reign of King Beorhtric of Wessex (786–802), three ships of "Northmen" landed at Portland Bay in Dorset. The local reeve mistook the Vikings for merchants and directed them to the nearby royal estate, but the visitors killed him and his men. On 8 June 793, "the ravages of heathen men miserably desecrated God's church on Lindisfarne, with plunder and slaughter".  According to the 12th-century Anglo-Norman chronicler Symeon of Durham, the raiders killed the resident monks or threw them into the sea to drown or carried them away as slavesalong with some of the church treasures.  In 875, after enduring eight decades of repeated Viking raids, the monks fled Lindisfarne, carrying the relics of Saint Cuthbert with them.

In 794, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a small Viking fleet attacked a rich monastery at Jarrow. The Vikings met with stronger resistance than they had expected: their leaders were killed. The raiders escaped, only to have their ships beached at Tynemouth and the crews killed by locals. This represented one of the last raids on England for about 40 years. The Vikings focused instead on Ireland and Scotland.

In 865, a group of hitherto uncoordinated bands of predominantly Danish Vikings joined to form a large army and landed in East Anglia. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described this force as the mycel hæþen here (Great Heathen Army) and went on to say that it was led by Ivar the Boneless and Halfdan Ragnarsson. The army crossed the Midlands into Northumbria and captured York (Jorvik). In 871, the Great Heathen Army was reinforced by another Danish force known as the Great Summer Army led by Guthrum. In 875, the Great Heathen Army split into two bands, with Guthrum leading one back to Wessex, and Halfdan taking his followers north. Then in 876, Halfdan shared out Northumbrian land south of the Tees amongst his men, who "ploughed the land and supported themselves", founding the territory later known as the Danelaw.

Most of the English kingdoms, being in turmoil, could not stand against the Vikings, but King Alfred of Wessex defeated Guthrum's army at the Battle of Edington in 878. There followed the Treaty of Wedmore the same year and the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum in 886. These treaties formalised the boundaries of the English kingdoms and the Viking Danelaw territory, with provisions for peaceful relations between the English and the Vikings. Despite these treaties, conflict continued on and off. However, Alfred and his successors eventually drove back the Viking frontier and retook York.

A new wave of Vikings appeared in England in 947, when Erik Bloodaxe captured York. The Viking presence continued through the reign of the Danish prince Cnut the Great (reigned as King of England: 1016–1035), after which a series of inheritance arguments weakened the hold on power of Cnut's heirs.

When King Edward the Confessor died in 1066, the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada challenged his successor as King of England, Harold Godwinson. Hardrada was killed, and his Norwegian army defeated, by Harold Godwinson on 25 September 1066 at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Harold Godwinson himself died when the Norman William the Conqueror defeated the English army at the Battle of Hastings in October 1066. William was crowned king of England on 25 December 1066; however, it was several years before he was able to bring the kingdom under his complete control. In 1070, the Danish king Sweyn Estridsson sailed up the Humber with an army in support of Edgar the Ætheling, the last surviving male member of the English royal family. However, after capturing York, Sweyn accepted a payment from William to desert Edgar. Five years later one of Sweyn's sons set sail for England to support another English rebellion, but it had been crushed before the expedition arrived, so they settled for plundering the city of York and the surrounding area before returning home.

In 1085, Sweyn's son, now Canute IV of Denmark, planned a major invasion of England but the assembled fleet never sailed. No further serious Danish invasions of England occurred after this. Although, some raiding occurred during the troubles of Stephen's reign, when King Eystein II of Norway took advantage of the civil war to plunder the east coast of England, sacking Hartlepool and Whitby in 1152, as well as raiding the Yorkshire coast. However, the intention was raids not conquest, and their conclusion marked the end of the Viking Age in England.

Scotland

The monastery at Iona on the west coast was first raided in 794, and had to be abandoned some fifty years later after several devastating attacks. While there are few records from the earliest period, it is believed that Scandinavian presence in Scotland increased in the 830s.

The isles to the north and west of Scotland were heavily colonised by Norwegian Vikings. Shetland, Orkney and the Hebrides came under Norse control, sometimes as fiefs under the King of Norway, and at other times as separate entities under variously the Kings of the Isles, the Earldom of Orkney and the later Kings of Mann and the Isles. Shetland and Orkney were the last of these to be incorporated into Scotland in as late as 1468.

Wales
Viking colonies were not a feature of Wales as much as the other nations of the British Isles. This has traditionally been attributed to the powerful unified forces of the contemporary Welsh kings, particularly Rhodri the Great. Thus, the Vikings were unable to establish any states or areas of control in Wales and were largely limited to raids and trading.

The Danish are recorded raiding Anglesey in 854. However, Welsh record state that two years later, Rhodri the Great would win a notable victory, killing the Danish leader, King Gorm. Two further victories by Rhodri are recorded in the Brut y Tywysogion for 872. The first battle was at a place named as Bangolau or Bann Guolou or Bannoleu, where the Vikings in Anglesey were again defeated "in a hard battle". In the second battle at Manegid or Enegyd, the records state that the remaining Vikings "were destroyed". The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 893, records Viking armies being pursued by a combined force of West Saxons and north Welsh along the River Severn. This combined army eventually overtook the Vikings before defeating them at the Battle of Buttington.

Impact on English toponymy in Wales
The early Normans in Wales shared the maritime history of the Vikings, tracing their lineage back to the same wave of raiders and settlers that harried the Welsh coast in the ninth century. As such, it was often the Viking names that were favoured by the Cambro-Normans and passed into Middle English. This impact can be seen today where many coastal names in Wales have an English name derived from the Vikings and unrelated to the original Welsh name.

The modern English name Anglesey () is of Scandinavian origin, as are a number of the island's most prominent coastal features. The English names for Caldey Island (), Flat Holm () and Grassholm () are also those of the Viking raiders. Wales' second largest city, Swansea () takes its English name from a Viking trading post founded by Sweyn Forkbeard. The original name,  translates as Sweyn's island or Sweyn's inlet. Worm's Head () is derived from , the word for snake or dragon, from the Vikings' tradition that the serpent-shaped island was a sleeping dragon.

Cornwall

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported that heathen men (the Danes) raided Charmouth, Dorset in 833 AD, then in 997 AD they destroyed the Dartmoor town of Lydford, and from 1001 AD to 1003 AD they occupied the old Roman city of Exeter.

The Cornish were subjugated by King Æthelstan, of England, in 936 and the border finally set at the River Tamar. However, the Cornish remained semi-autonomous until their annexation into England after the Norman Conquest.

Ireland

In 795, small bands of Vikings began plundering monastic settlements along the coast of Gaelic Ireland. The Annals of Ulster state that in 821 the Vikings plundered Howth and "carried off a great number of women into captivity". From 840 the Vikings began building fortified encampments, longphorts, on the coast and overwintering in Ireland. The first were at Dublin and Linn Duachaill. Their attacks became bigger and reached further inland, striking larger monastic settlements such as Armagh, Clonmacnoise, Glendalough, Kells and Kildare, and also plundering the ancient tombs of Brú na Bóinne. Viking chief Thorgest is said to have raided the whole midlands of Ireland until he was killed by Máel Sechnaill I in 845.

In 853, Viking leader Amlaíb (Olaf) became the first king of Dublin. He ruled along with his brothers Ímar (possibly Ivar the Boneless) and Auisle. Over the following decades, there was regular warfare between the Vikings and the Irish, and between two groups of Vikings: the Dubgaill and Finngaill (dark and fair foreigners). The Vikings also briefly allied with various Irish kings against their rivals. In 866, Áed Findliath burnt all Viking longphorts in the north, and they never managed to establish permanent settlements in that region. The Vikings were driven from Dublin in 902.

They returned in 914, led by the Uí Ímair (House of Ivar). During the next eight years, the Vikings won decisive battles against the Irish, regained control of Dublin, and founded settlements at Waterford, Wexford, Cork and Limerick, which became Ireland's first large towns. They were important trading hubs, and Viking Dublin was the biggest slave port in western Europe.

These Viking territories became part of the patchwork of kingdoms in Ireland. Vikings intermarried with the Irish and adopted elements of Irish culture, becoming the Norse-Gaels. Some Viking kings of Dublin also ruled the kingdom of the Isles and York; such as Sitric Cáech, Gofraid ua Ímair, Olaf Guthfrithson and Olaf Cuaran. Sitric Silkbeard was "a patron of the arts, a benefactor of the church, and an economic innovator" who established Ireland's first mint, in Dublin.

In 980, Máel Sechnaill Mór defeated the Dublin Vikings and forced them into submission. Over the following thirty years, Brian Boru subdued the Viking territories and made himself High King of Ireland. The Dublin Vikings, together with Leinster, twice rebelled against him, but they were defeated in the battles of Glenmama (999) and Clontarf (1014). After the battle of Clontarf, the Dublin Vikings could no longer "single-handedly threaten the power of the most powerful kings of Ireland". Brian's rise to power and conflict with the Vikings is chronicled in Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib ("The War of the Irish with the Foreigners").

European mainland

Normandy
The name of Normandy itself denotes its Viking origin, from "Northmannia" or Land of The Norsemen.

The Viking presence in Normandy began with raids into the territory of the Frankish Empire, from the middle of 9th century. Viking raids extended deep into the Frankish territory, and included the sacking of many prominent towns such as Rouen, Paris and the abbey at Jumièges. The inability of the Frankish king Charles the Bald, and later Charles the Simple, to prevent these Viking incursions forced them to offer vast payments of silver and gold to prevent any further pillage. These pay-offs were short lived and the Danish raiders would always return for more.

The Duchy of Normandy was created for the Viking leader Rollo after he had besieged Paris. In 911, Rollo entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks Charles the Simple through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. This treaty made of Rollo the first Norman Count of Rouen. In addition, Rollo was to be baptized and marry Gisele, the illegitimate daughter of Charles. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he and his Viking allies had previously conquered.

The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance languages and intermarried with the area's original inhabitants. They became the Normans – a Norman French-speaking mixture of Scandinavians and indigenous Franks and Gauls. The language of Normandy heavily reflected the Danish influence, as many words (especially ones pertaining to seafaring) were borrowed from Old Norse or Old Danish. More than the language itself, the Norman toponymy retains a strong Nordic influence. Nevertheless, only a few archaeological traces have been found: swords dredged out of the Seine river between its estuary and Rouen, the tomb of a female Viking at Pîtres, the two Thor's hammers at Saint-Pierre-de-Varengeville and Sahurs and more recently the hoard of Viking coins at Saint-Pierre-des-Fleurs.

Rollo's descendant William, Duke of Normandy (the Conqueror) became King of England after he defeated Harold Godwinson and his army at the Battle of Hastings in October 1066. As king of England, he retained the fiefdom of Normandy for himself and his descendants. The kings of England made claim to Normandy, as well as their other possessions in France, which led to various disputes with the French. This culminated in the French confiscation of Gascony that precipitated what became known as the Hundred Years' War, in 1337.

West Francia and Middle Francia

West Francia and Middle Francia suffered more severely than East Francia during the Viking raids of the 9th century. The reign of Charles the Bald coincided with some of the worst of these raids, though he did take action by the Edict of Pistres of 864 to secure a standing army of cavalry under royal control to be called upon at all times when necessary to fend off the invaders. He also ordered the building of fortified bridges to prevent inland raids.

Nonetheless, the Bretons allied with the Vikings and Robert, the margrave of Neustria, (a march created for defence against the Vikings sailing up the Loire), and Ranulf of Aquitaine died in the Battle of Brissarthe in 865. The Vikings also took advantage of the civil wars which ravaged the Duchy of Aquitaine in the early years of Charles' reign. In the 840s, Pepin II called in the Vikings to aid him against Charles and they settled at the mouth of the Garonne as they did by the Loire. Two dukes of Gascony, Seguin II and William I, died defending Bordeaux from Viking assaults. A later duke, Sancho Mitarra, even settled some at the mouth of the Adour near Bayonne in an act presaging that of Charles the Simple and the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte by which the Vikings were settled in Rouen, creating Normandy as a bulwark against other Vikings.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Vikings raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the coast and along the rivers of the Low Countries. Although Vikings never settled in large numbers in those areas, they did set up long-term bases and were even acknowledged as lords in a few cases. They set up bases in Saint-Florent-le-Vieil at the mouth of the Loire, in Taillebourg on the mid Charente, also around Bayonne on the banks of the Adour, in Noirmoutier and obviously on the River Seine (Rouen) in what would become Normandy.

Antwerp was raided in 836. Later there were raids of Ghent, Kortrijk, Tournai, Leuven and the areas around the Meuse river, the Rhine, the Rupel river and the tributaries of those rivers. Raids were conducted from bases established in Asselt, Walcheren, Wieringen and Elterberg (or Eltenberg, a small hill near Elten). In Dutch and Frisian historical tradition, the trading centre of Dorestad declined after Viking raids from 834 to 863; however, since no convincing Viking archaeological evidence has been found at the site (), doubts about this have grown in recent years.

One of the more important Viking families in the Low Countries was that of Rorik of Dorestad (based in Wieringen) and his brother Harald (based in Walcheren). Around 850, Lothair I acknowledged Rorik as ruler of most of Friesland. Again in 870, Rorik was received by Charles the Bald in Nijmegen, to whom he became a vassal. Viking raids continued during this period. Harald's son Rodulf and his men were killed by the people of Oostergo in 873. Rorik died sometime before 882.

Buried Viking treasures consisting mainly of silver have been found in the Low Countries. Two such treasures have been found in Wieringen. A large treasure found in Wieringen in 1996 dates from around 850 and is thought perhaps to have been connected to Rorik. The burial of such a valuable treasure is seen as an indication that there was a permanent settlement in Wieringen.

Around 879, Godfrid arrived in Frisian lands as the head of a large force that terrorised the Low Countries. Using Ghent as his base, they ravaged Ghent, Maastricht, Liège, Stavelot, Prüm, Cologne, and Koblenz. Controlling most of Frisia between 882 and his death in 885, Godfrid became known to history as Godfrid, Duke of Frisia. His lordship over Frisia was acknowledged by Charles the Fat, to whom he became a vassal. In the siege of Asselt in 882, the Franks sieged a Viking camp at Asselt in Frisia. Although the Vikings were not forced by arms to abandon their camp, they were compelled to come to terms in which their leader, Godfrid, was converted to Christianity. Godfrid was assassinated in 885, after which Gerolf of Holland assumed lordship and Viking rule of Frisia came to an end.

Viking raids of the Low Countries continued for over a century. Remains of Viking attacks dating from 880 to 890 have been found in Zutphen and Deventer. The last attacks took place in Tiel in 1006 and Utrecht in 1007.

Iberian Peninsula

Compared with the rest of Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula seems to have been little affected by Viking activity, either in the Christian north or the Muslim south. In some of their raids on Iberia, the Vikings were crushed either by the Kingdom of Asturias or the Emirate armies.

Knowledge of Vikings in Iberia is mainly based on written accounts, many of which are much later than the events they purport to describe, and often also ambiguous about the origins or ethnicity of the raiders they mention. A little possible archaeological evidence has come to light, but research in this area is ongoing. Viking activity in the Iberian peninsula seems to have begun around the mid-ninth century as an extension of their raids on and establishment of bases in Frankia in the earlier ninth century, but although Vikings may have over-wintered there, there is as yet no evidence for trading or settlement.

The most prominent and probably most significant event was a raid in 844, when Vikings entered the Garonne and attacked Galicia and Asturias. When the Vikings attacked La Coruña they were met by the army of King Ramiro I and were heavily defeated. Many of the Vikings' casualties were caused by the Galicians' ballistas – powerful torsion-powered projectile weapons that looked rather like giant crossbows. Seventy of the Vikings' longships were captured on the beach and burned.

They then proceeded south, raiding Lisbon and Seville. This Viking raid on Seville seems to have constituted a significant attack.

The period from 859 to 861 saw another spate of Viking raids, apparently by a single group. Despite some elaborate tales in late sources, little is known for sure about these attacks. After raids on both northern Iberia and Al-Andalus, one of which in 859 resulted in the capture and exorbitant ransom of king García Íñiguez of Pamplona, the Vikings seem also to have raided other Mediterranean targetspossibly but not certainly including Italy, Alexandria, and Constantinople−and perhaps overwintering in Francia.

Evidence for Viking activity in Iberia vanishes after the 860s, until the 960s–70s, when a range of sources including Dudo of Saint-Quentin, Ibn Ḥayyān, and Ibn Idhārī, along with a number of charters from Christian Iberia, while individually unreliable, together afford convincing evidence for Viking raids on Iberia in the 960s and 970s.

Tenth- or eleventh-century fragments of mouse bone found in Madeira, along with mitocondrial DNA of Madeiran mice, suggests that Vikings also came to Madeira (bringing mice with them), long before the island was colonised by Portugal.

Quite extensive evidence for minor Viking raids in Iberia continues for the early eleventh century in later narratives (including some Icelandic sagas) and in northern Iberian charters. As the Viking Age drew to a close, Scandinavians and Normans continued to have opportunities to visit and raid Iberia while on their way to the Holy Land for pilgrimage or crusade, or in connection with Norman conquests in the Mediterranean. Key examples in the saga literature are Sigurðr Jórsalafari (king of Norway 1103–1130) and Røgnvaldr kali Kolsson (d. 1158).

Italy and Sicily

Around 860, Ermentarius of Noirmoutier and the Annals of St-Bertin provide contemporary evidence for Vikings based in Frankia proceeding to Iberia and thence to Italy.

Three or four eleventh-century Swedish Runestones mention Italy, memorialising warriors who died in 'Langbarðaland', the Old Norse name for southern Italy (Longobardia). It seems clear that rather than being Normans, these men were Varangian mercenaries fighting for Byzantium. Varangians may first have been deployed as mercenaries in Italy against the Arabs as early as 936.

Later, several Anglo-Danish and Norwegian nobles participated in the Norman conquest of southern Italy. Harald Hardrada, who later became king of Norway, seems to have been involved in the Norman conquest of Sicily between 1038 and 1040, under William de Hauteville, who won his nickname Iron Arm by defeating the emir of Syracuse in single combat, and a Lombard contingent, led by Arduin. Edgar the Ætheling, who left England in 1086, went there, Jarl Erling Skakke won his nickname after a battle against Arabs in Sicily. On the other hand, many Anglo-Danish rebels fleeing William the Conqueror, joined the Byzantines in their struggle against Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, in Southern Italy.

Islamic Levant
The well-known Harald Hardrada would also serve the Byzantine emperor in Palestine as well as raiding North Africa, the Middle East as far east as Armenia, and the island of Sicily in the 11th century, as recounted in his saga in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla.

Evidence for Norse ventures into Arabia and Central Asia can be found in runestones erected in Scandinavia by the relatives of fallen Viking adventurers. Several of these refer to men who died in "Serkland".

Meanwhile, in the Eastern Mediterranean the Norse (referred to as Rus') were viewed more as "merchant-warriors" who were primarily associated with trade and business.
Indeed, one of the only detailed accounts of a Viking burial come from Ibn-Fadlan's account. At times this trading relationship would break down into violence – Rus' armadas raided in the Caspian on at least three occasions, in 910, 912 and 943.

Eastern Europe

The Vikings settled coastal areas along the Baltic Sea, and along inland rivers in what is now Russian territories such as Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod and along major waterways to the Byzantine Empire.

The Varangians or Varyags (Russian, Ukrainian: Варяги, Varyagi) sometimes referred to as Variagians were Scandinavians who migrated eastwards and southwards through what is now Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine mainly in the 9th and 10th centuries. Engaging in trade, colonization, piracy and mercenary activities, they roamed the river systems and portages of Garðaríki, reaching and settling at the Caspian Sea and in Constantinople.

The real involvement of the Varangians is said to have come after they were asked by the Slavic tribes of the region to come and establish order, as those tribes were in constant warfare among each other ("Our country is rich and immense, but it is rent by disorder. Come and govern us and reign over us."). The tribes were united and ruled under the leadership of Rurik, a leader of a group of Varangians. Rurik's successors conquered Kiev and established control of the trade route extending from Novgorod to the Black Sea through the Dnieper river. This Rurik Dynasty went on to maintain their control over the Kievan Rus', and later, Muscovy until 1598.

Iran and the Caucasus

Ingvar the Far-Travelled led expeditions to Iran and the Caucasus between 1036 and 1042. His travels are recorded on the Ingvar runestones.

Around 1036, Varangians appeared near the village of Bashi on the Rioni River, to establish a permanent settlement of Vikings in Georgia. The Georgian Chronicles described them as 3,000 men who had traveled from Scandinavia through present-day Russia, rowing down the Dnieper River and across the Black Sea. King Bagrat IV welcomed them to Georgia and accepted some of them into the Georgian army; several hundred Vikings fought on Bagrat's side at the Battle of Sasireti in 1042.

North Atlantic

Iceland

Iceland was discovered by Naddodd, one of the first settlers on the Faroe Islands, who was sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands but got lost and drifted to the east coast of Iceland. Naddoddr named the country Snæland (Snowland). Swedish sailor Garðar Svavarsson also accidentally drifted to the coast of Iceland. He discovered that the country was an island and named it Garðarshólmi (literally Garðar's Islet) and stayed for the winter at Húsavík. The first Scandinavian who deliberately sailed to Garðarshólmi was Flóki Vilgerðarson, also known as Hrafna-Flóki (Raven-Flóki). Flóki settled for one winter at Barðaströnd. It was a cold winter, and when he spotted some drift ice in the fjords he gave the island its current name, Ísland (Iceland).

Iceland was first settled around 870. The first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfr Arnarson. According to the story, he threw two carved pillars overboard as he neared land, vowing to settle wherever they landed. He then sailed along the coast until the pillars were found in the southwestern peninsula, now known as Reykjanesskagi. There he settled with his family around 874, in a place he named Reykjavík (Bay of Smokes) due to the geothermal steam rising from the earth. It is recognized, however, that Ingólfur Arnarson may not have been the first one to settle permanently in Iceland – that may have been Náttfari, a slave of Garðar Svavarsson who stayed behind when his master returned to Scandinavia.

Greenland

In the year 985, Erik the Red was believed to have discovered Greenland after being exiled from Iceland for murder in 982. Three years later in 986, Erik the Red returned with 14 surviving ships (as 25 set out on the expedition). Two areas along Greenland's southwest coast were colonized by Norse settlers, including Erik the Red, around 986. The land was at best marginal for Norse pastoral farming. The settlers arrived during a warm phase, when short-season crops such as rye and barley could be grown. Sheep and hardy cattle were also raised for food, wool, and hides. Their main export was walrus ivory, which was traded for iron and other goods which could not be produced locally. Greenland became a dependency of the king of Norway in 1261. During the 13th century, the population may have reached as high as 5,000, divided between the two main settlements of Eystribygð (Eastern Settlement) and Vestribygð (Western Settlement). The organization of these settlements revolved mainly around religion, and they consisted of around 250 farms, which were split into approximately fourteen communities that were centered around fourteen churches, one of which was a cathedral at Garðar. The Catholic diocese of Greenland was subject to the archdiocese of Nidaros. However, many bishops chose to exercise this office from afar. As the years wore on, the climate shifted (see Little Ice Age). In 1379, the northernmost settlement was attacked by the Skræling (Norse word for Inuit). Crops failed and trade declined. The Greenland colony gradually faded away. By 1450, it had lost contact with Norway and Iceland and disappeared from all but a few Scandinavian legends.

North America

A Norwegian ship's captain named Bjarni Herjólfsson first came across a part of the North American continent ca. 985 when he was blown off course sailing to Greenland from Iceland. Subsequent expeditions from Greenland (some led by Leif Erikson) explored the areas to the west, seeking large timbers for building in particular (Greenland had only small trees and brush). Regular activity from Greenland extended to Ellesmere Island, Skraeling Island and Ruin Island for hunting and trading with Inuit groups. A short-lived settlement was established at L'Anse aux Meadows, located on the Great Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland, Canada. Wood from timber-framed buildings in the settlement was dated by a solar storm in the year 993 which caused a spike in carbon 14 in the dendrochronological layer for the year. Tree rings were counted from that year on three separate logs from the settlement, and all three were found to have been felled in the year 1021, indicating that the settlement was occupied at that date.

There is also evidence for Viking contact with Native Americans. The Vikings referred to them as the Skræling ("barbarians" or "puny, weaklings"). Fighting between the Natives and the Vikings did take place with the natives having the advanced weaponry of bows and arrows. Nevertheless, trade by barter did also take place between them. However, the conflict between these two groups led to the Vikings' eventual evacuation of the area.

The Greenlanders called the new-found territory Vinland. It is unclear whether Vinland referred to in the traditionally thinking as Vínland (wine-land) or more recently as Vinland (meadow- or pasture-land). In any case, without any official backing, attempts at colonization by the Norse proved failures.  There were simply too many natives for the Greenlanders to conquer or withstand and they withdrew to Greenland.

Svalbard

Vikings may have discovered Svalbard as early as the 12th century. Traditional Norse accounts exist of a land known as Svalbarð – literally "cold shores". This land might also have been Jan Mayen, or a part of eastern Greenland. The Dutchman Willem Barents made the first indisputable discovery of Svalbard in 1596.

Azores

Multiple studies suggest the idea that the Norse could have reached the Azores islands and settled there between 700 and 850 AD. For example, a 2015 study showed that there were substantial mitochondrial DNA similarities between mice living in the Azores and Scandinavia, and the idea was put forward that they might have traveled on Viking ships from there.

Another study from 2021 collected cylindrical sediment cores from five lakes on various islands of the archipelago, trying to describe the climatic history of the region. The study found in the sediment layer corresponding to the years between 700 and 850 AD, an unusual uptick in the organic compound called 5-beta-stigmastanol, which is found in the feces of ruminants such as cows or sheep. In addition, a decrease in native tree pollen and an increase in carbon particles was noted at this time, suggesting that the islands' early settlers felled the trees and burned them, perhaps to make room for the ruminants they brought with them. More livestock fecal sterols and carbon particles from the year 950 onwards were also found continuously in Lake Peixinho, at Pico Island, and more punctually in Lake Caldeirão, at Corvo Island. The same study found pollen from Secale cereale (non-native) on Pico Island dated to around 1150 AD and on São Miguel to around 1300 AD. Finally, climate simulations of the archipelago at those times indicate that at that time the prevailing winds from the North Atlantic came from the northeast, making navigation from Scandinavia more or less direct and at the same time difficult to navigate from the east, which could indicate that these early settlers of the islands would not have come from Portugal, but from northern lands.

However, despite the prevailing winds coming from the north, this would not make navigation from the east entirely impossible, and the geographer Simon Connor noted on the subject of mice, that thanks to the trade routes already established at the time , a mouse from Scandinavia could have arrived by boat in what is now Portugal, and from there it would have taken another course towards the Azores

Genetic evidence and implications

Studies of genetic diversity have provided scientific confirmation to accompany archaeological evidence of Viking expansion. They additionally indicate patterns of ancestry, imply new migrations, and show the actual flow of individuals between disparate regions. However, attempts to determine historical population genetics are complicated by subsequent migrations and demographic fluctuations. In particular, the rapid migrations of the 20th century have made it difficult to assess what prior genetic states were.

Genetic evidence contradicts the common perception that Vikings were primarily pillagers and raiders. A news article by Roger Highfield summarizes recent research and concludes that, as both male and female genetic markers are present, the evidence is indicative of colonization instead of raiding and occupying. However, this is also disputed by unequal ratios of male and female haplotypes (see below) which indicate that more men settled than women, an element of a raiding or occupying population.

Mitochondrial and Y-chromosome haplotypes
Y-chromosome haplotypes serve as markers of paternal lineage much the same as mDNA represents the maternal lineage. Together, these two methods provide an option for tracing back a people's genetic history and charting the historical migrations of both males and females.

Often considered the purest remnants of ancient Nordic genetics, Icelanders trace 75% to 80% of their patrilineal ancestry to Scandinavia and 20% to 25% to Scotland and Ireland. On the maternal side, only 37% is from Scandinavia and the remaining 63% is mostly Scottish and Irish. Iceland also holds one of the more well-documented lineage records which, in many cases, go back 15 generations and at least 300 years. These are accompanied by one of the larger genetic records that have been collected by deCODE genetics. Together, these two records allow for a mostly reliable view of historical Scandinavian genetic structure although the genetics of Iceland are influenced by Norse-British migration as well as that directly from Scandinavia.

Common Y-haplogroups
Haplogroup I-M253, also known as haplogroup I1, is the most common haplotype among Scandinavian males. It is present in 35% of males in Norway, Denmark and Sweden; 40% of males within Western Finland. It is also prominent on the Baltic and North Sea coasts, but decreases further south.

Haplogroup R1b is another very common haplotype in all of Western Europe. However, it is not distinctly linked to Vikings or their expansion. There are indications that a mutant strand, R-L165, may have been carried to Great Britain by the Vikings, but the topic is currently inconclusive.

C1
The mitochondrial C1 haplotype is primarily an East Asia-American haplotype that developed just prior to migration across the Bering sea. This maternal haplotype, however, was found in several Icelandic samples. While originally considered to be a 20th-century immigrant, a more complete analysis has shown that this haplotype has been present in Iceland for at least 300 years and is distinct from other C1 lineages. This evidence indicates a likely genetic exchange back and forth between Iceland, Greenland, and Vinland.

Surname histories and the Y-haplotype
There is evidence suggesting Y-haplotypes may be combined with surname histories to better represent historical populations and prevent recent migrations from obscuring the historical record.

Cys282Tyr
Cys282Tyr (or C282Y) is a mutation in the HFE gene that has been linked to most cases of hereditary hemochromatosis. Genetic techniques indicate that this mutation occurred roughly 60–70 generations ago or between 600 and 800 CE, assuming a generation length of 20 years. The regional distribution of this mutation among European populations indicates that it originated in Southern Scandinavia and spread with Viking expansion. Due to the timing of the mutation and subsequent population movements, C282Y is very prominent in Great Britain, Normandy, and Southern Scandinavia although C282Y has been found in almost every population that has been in contact with the Vikings.

See also
 The Exploration Museum
 Salme ships
 Pre-modern human migration

Explanatory notes

References

Anglo-Norse England
Historical migrations
Migration Period
America
Scandinavian Scotland
Expansion
Vikings

Viking expansion