Sport Lisboa e Benfica (), commonly known as Benfica, is a professional football club based in Lisbon, Portugal, that competes in the Primeira Liga, the top flight of Portuguese football, where they are the current champions.

Founded on 28 February 1904 as Sport Lisboa, Benfica is one of the "Big Three" clubs in Portugal that have never been relegated from Primeira Liga, along with rivals Sporting CP and FC Porto. Benfica are nicknamed  (The Eagles), for the symbol atop the club's crest, and  (The Reds), for the shirt colour. Since 2003, their home ground has been the Estádio da Luz, which replaced the larger, original one, built in 1954. Benfica is the most supported Portuguese club and the European club with the highest percentage of supporters in its own country, having an estimated 14 million supporters worldwide and over 250,000 members, making them the largest sports club by membership in Portugal and second largest in the world. The club's anthem, "Ser Benfiquista", refers to Benfica supporters, who are called . "E pluribus unum" is the club's motto; Águia Vitória, the mascot.

With 86 major trophies won, Benfica is the most decorated club in Portugal. They have won 83 domestic trophies: a record 38 Primeira Liga titles, a record 26 Taça de Portugal, a record 7 Taça da Liga, 9 Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira and 3 Campeonato de Portugal. Internationally, they won the Latin Cup in 1950 and back-to-back European Cups in 1961 and 1962 – both unique feats in Portuguese football – and were runners-up at the Intercontinental Cup in 1961 and '62, at the European Cup in 1963, '65, '68, '88 and '90, and at the UEFA Europa League (formerly the UEFA Cup) in 1983, 2013 and '14. Benfica's ten European finals are a domestic record and ranked seventh all-time among UEFA clubs in 2014. Noncompetitively, Benfica is honoured with the Portuguese Orders of Christ (Commander), of Merit (Officer), and of Prince Henry.

Benfica was voted 12th in FIFA Club of the Century and ranked 9th in the IFFHS Top 200 European clubs of the 20th century. In UEFA, Benfica is 8th in the all-time club ranking and was 17th in the club coefficient rankings at the end of the 2022–23 season. In the UEFA Champions League (formerly the European Cup), Benfica have the second most participations (42) and are the Portuguese club with the most wins (130). In this tournament, they hold the overall record for the biggest aggregate win, achieved in 1965–66. Moreover, Benfica hold the European record for the most consecutive wins in domestic league (29), where they became the first undefeated champions, in 1972–73.

History

1904–1960

On 28 February 1904, after a football training session that day, the Catataus Group and members of Associação do Bem met at Farmácia Franco on Rua Direita de Belém with the goal of forming a social and cultural football club called Sport Lisboa, composed of Portuguese players only. Twenty-four people attended the meeting, including Cosme Damião. In that meeting, José Rosa Rodrigues was appointed club president, along with Daniel dos Santos Brito as secretary and Manuel Gourlade as treasurer. The founders decided that the club's colours would be red and white and that the crest would be composed of an eagle, the motto "E pluribus unum" and a football. Sport Lisboa played their first ever match on 1 January 1905, scoring their first goal. Despite important victories, such as the ones against Carcavelos and then-rivals Internacional, the club suffered from poor operating conditions, namely the football dirt field of Terras do Desembargador. As a result, eight players moved to Sporting CP in May 1907, threatening Sport Lisboa's existence, and later starting the rivalry between the two clubs.

On 13 September 1908, Sport Lisboa acquired Grupo Sport Benfica by mutual agreement and changed its name to Sport Lisboa e Benfica. Despite the merger, they continued their respective club operations. For Sport Lisboa, they maintained the football team, the shirt colours, the eagle symbol and the motto. For Grupo Sport Benfica, they maintained the field Campo da Feiteira, the main directors and the club's house. Both clubs determined that the foundation date should coincide with Sport Lisboa's because it was the most recognized club and quite popular in Lisbon due to its football merits. In regard to the crest, a bicycle wheel was added to Sport Lisboa's to represent cycling, the most important sport of Grupo Sport Benfica. Furthermore, the two entities of the newly-named club had simultaneous members who helped stabilize operations, which later increased the success of the merger.

However, problems with the club's rented field (Campo da Feiteira) remained. Benfica moved to their first football grass field, Campo de Sete Rios, in 1913. Four years later, after refusing an increase in rent, they relocated to Campo de Benfica. Finally, in 1925, they moved to their own stadium, the Estádio das Amoreiras, playing there fifteen years before moving to the Estádio do Campo Grande in 1940. The Portuguese league began in 1934, and after finishing third in its first edition, Benfica won the next three championships in a row (1935–36, '36–37, '37–38) – the club's first tri, achieved by Lippo Hertzka. Throughout the 1940s, Benfica would win three more Primeira Liga (1941–42, '42–43, '44–45) and four Taça de Portugal (1940, '43, '44, '49), with coach János Biri achieving the first double for the club in 1943.

Benfica's first international success happened in 1950, when they won the Latin Cup (the only Portuguese club to do so), defeating Bordeaux with a golden goal from Julinho at the Estádio Nacional in Lisbon, with Ted Smith as coach. It was the first international trophy won by a Portuguese club. They reached another final of the competition in 1957 but lost to Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu. With the election of president Joaquim Ferreira Bogalho in 1952 and the arrival of coach Otto Glória in 1954, Benfica became more modernized and professional and moved into the original Estádio da Luz, with an initial seating capacity of 40,000; expanded to 70,000 in 1960. During the 1950s, Benfica won three Primeira Liga titles (1949–50, '54–55, '56–57) and six Taça de Portugal (1951, '52, '53, '55, '57, '59). Despite being Portuguese champions in 1955, Benfica were not invited to the inaugural European Cup by the organizers, thus making their UEFA debut in 1957–58 against Sevilla.

1960–2003

Led by coach Béla Guttmann, who had been signed by Maurício Vieira de Brito, Benfica became back-to-back European Champions by winning the European Cup against Barcelona in 1961 (3–2) and Real Madrid in 1962 (5–3). Consequently, Benfica played in the Intercontinental Cup, where they were runners-up to Peñarol in 1961 and Santos in 1962. Later on, Benfica reached three more European Cup finals, losing them to AC Milan in 1963, Inter Milan in 1965, and Manchester United in 1968. Therefore, for their international performance, Benfica were ranked first in European football in 1965, '66 and '69, and were presented with the France Football European Team of the Year award in 1968. In the 1960s, Benfica won eight Primeira Liga (1959–60, '60–61, '62–63, '63–64, '64–65, '66–67, '67–68, '68–69), three Taça de Portugal (1962, '64, '69) and two European Cups (1960–61, '61–62). Many of these successes were achieved with Eusébio – the only player to win the Ballon d'Or for a Portuguese club – Coluna, José Águas, José Augusto, Simões, Torres, and others, who formed the 1963–64 team that set a club record of 103 goals in 26 league matches.

During the 1970s, with president Borges Coutinho, Benfica continued dominating Portuguese football, as they won six Primeira Liga titles (1970–71, '71–72, '72–73, '74–75, '75–76, '76–77) and two Taça de Portugal (1970, '72). In 1971–72, Benfica reached the semi-finals of the European Cup, where they were eliminated by Ajax of Johan Cruyff. Led by Jimmy Hagan the following season, Benfica became the first club in Portugal to win the league without defeat, winning 28 matches – 23 consecutively – out of 30, and drawing 2. They scored 101 goals, and Eusébio was again crowned Europe's top scorer, 2 goals short of his record (42). From October 1976 to September 1978, Benfica were unbeaten in the league for 56 matches. This decade was also marked by Benfica's admission of foreign players into the team, becoming the last Portuguese club to do so, in 1979.

In the 1980s, Benfica continued to thrive domestically. With Lajos Baróti in 1980–81, Benfica became the first club to win all Portuguese trophies in one season: Supertaça de Portugal, Primeira Liga and Taça de Portugal. Later, under the guidance of Sven-Göran Eriksson, they won two consecutive Primeira Liga (1982–83, '83–84), one Taça de Portugal (1983) and reached the final of the UEFA Cup in 1983, lost to Anderlecht. Following improvements to the Estádio da Luz, Benfica opened the stadium's third tier in 1985, transforming it into the largest stadium in Europe and third largest in the world. A season later, after they had won the domestic Super Cup in 1985 and the Portuguese Cup in 1986, Benfica clinched the double of Primeira Liga and Taça de Portugal. Then, from 1988 to 1994, Benfica won three Primeira Liga (1988–89, '90–91, '93–94), one Taça de Portugal (1993), one Super Cup (1989) and reached the European Cup finals of 1988 and 1990, won by PSV Eindhoven and Milan respectively.

Financial trouble in the early 1980s and a large investment on players throughout that decade started to deteriorate the club's finances under Jorge de Brito's presidency. The rampant spending and a questionable signing policy (over 100 players during Manuel Damásio's term) further aggravated the problem. Soon after, with president João Vale e Azevedo, Benfica was in huge debt and sometimes unable to pay taxes and player salaries. From 1994 to 2003, Benfica had eleven coaches, won the 1995–96 Taça de Portugal, suffered their biggest defeat in European competitions, 7–0 to Celta de Vigo in 1999, had their lowest ever league finish, a sixth place in 2000–01, and were absent from European competition in 2001–02 and '02–03, the first time since 1958–59. Back in 2000, club members had approved the construction of the new Estádio da Luz shortly after the election of Manuel Vilarinho.

2003–present

In 2003–04, with president Luís Filipe Vieira, Benfica ended their longest silverware drought by winning the Taça de Portugal. The following year, Benfica won their first league title since 1994, and the Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira. After that and until 2009, when Benfica won their first Taça da Liga – thus becoming the first club to win all major Portuguese competitions – they did not win any trophies and finished fourth in the 2007–08 league. In Europe, Benfica had three consecutive appearances in the group stage of the UEFA Champions League, with their best result being a quarter-final stage in 2005–06 after eliminating then European champions Liverpool on 3–0 aggregate.

For 2009–10, Jorge Jesus was appointed coach, a position he held until 2015. During that six-season span, Benfica won 10 domestic trophies, including an unprecedented treble in Portuguese football (league, cup and league cup) in 2013–14 and the club's first back-to-back league titles since 1984. At international level, Benfica were ranked sixth in the UEFA team ranking in 2015 due to their first European semi-final in 17 years at the 2010–11 Europa League, an appearance in the Champions League quarter-finals in the 2011–12 campaign, and two consecutive Europa League finals, in 2012–13 and '13–14.

Later managed by Rui Vitória, Benfica won a fourth Primeira Liga title in a row – their first ever  – one Taça de Portugal, one Taça da Liga and two successive Super Cup trophies; the latter in 2017 after they reachieved a 36-year-old treble. Internationally, a year after they had consecutively reached the Champions League knockout phase for the first time in their history, Benfica suffered their biggest loss in the competition, 5–0 to Basel, and went on setting the worst Portuguese group stage campaign.

Following negative results in 2018–19, coach Bruno Lage led Benfica to their 37th champions title while achieving the league's all-time best second round. Later on, after thrashing Sporting CP in the Super Cup, Jesus returned for 2020–21 as part of the biggest spending in Portuguese football, amid the COVID-19 pandemic; they were eliminated in the Champions League third qualifying round, lost a Super Cup match, finished third in the league, and lost a Portuguese Cup final for a second time in a row. From 2021–22 to '22–23, with president Rui Costa, Benfica lost a league cup final for the first time and were third in the league before coach Roger Schmidt led them to their 38th league title and a second consecutive place in the Champions League quarter-finals.

Crest and shirt

Benfica's crest is composed of an eagle, as a symbol of independence, authority and nobility, positioned atop a shield with red and white colours, symbolizing bravery and peace respectively; the motto "E pluribus unum" ("Out of many, one"), defining union between all members; and the club's initials, "SLB", over a football – all this superimposed on a bicycle wheel representing one of the club's first sports, cycling.

The club has had four main crests since its inception in 1904. The origin of the current crest goes back to 1908, when Sport Lisboa absorbed Grupo Sport Benfica. Afterwards, the shape of the crest was changed in 1930 and 1999. The most significant of the latest changes were the modification and repositioning of the eagle and the reduction of the wheel's size.

Since the 2008–09 season, Benfica football shirts have displayed three stars above the crest, with each star representing ten league titles won by the club. In 2010–11 and 2011–12, however, the shirts displayed commemorative crests with one and two stars respectively, the former in the 50-year celebration of their first European Cup and the latter to celebrate their second consecutive European Cup.

José da Cruz Viegas was the person responsible for the selection of Benfica's kit in 1904. Red and white colours were chosen for being the ones that stood out better to players' eyes. One year after its inception, the club opted for red shirts with white collars, pockets and cuffs, combined with white shorts and black socks. Benfica's white alternative kit was officially used for the first time in 1944–45, when Salgueiros, who also wore red, were promoted to the first division.

Benfica have always worn red shirts; for that reason, in Portugal, Benfica and their supporters () were nicknamed  (Reds). This changed in 1936 with the start of the Spanish Civil War: the Portuguese Estado Novo's Censorship Commission censored the word "" because the Popular Front communists in Spain were also known by that name. From then on, Benfica became known as  – word similar to "reds", but with a different connotation.

Grounds

During the club's first decades, Benfica played mostly on rented fields. Their first own stadium was the Estádio das Amoreiras, built and opened in 1925, where they played until 1940. A year later, they moved to the Estádio do Campo Grande, a rented municipal stadium, before relocating to their second home ground thirteen years later.

From 1954 to 2003, Benfica played at the Estádio da Luz in Lisbon, the largest stadium in Europe and third largest in the world in terms of capacity – 120,000 – from 1985 to 1987. It was demolished between 2002 and 2003, and the new Estádio da Luz was finalized in 2003, with a construction cost of €162 million, roughly €25 million more than planned.

Like its predecessor, the Estádio da Luz is officially named Estádio do Sport Lisboa e Benfica. A UEFA category four stadium, it hosted several matches of UEFA Euro 2004, including the final, and was the venue for the UEFA Champions League finals in 2014 and 2020. Built with a seating capacity of 65,647, the stadium currently has 64,642 seats.

Training centre

Benfica's training ground and youth academy, Benfica Campus, is located in Seixal, Lisbon Region. It was built in 2005 and opened on 22 September 2006.

Support

The supporters of Benfica are known as . They sing the club's anthem at the start of every home match and sometimes during the match. They call the club  (The Glorious One), hence the chant "Glorioso SLB". In some countries, since 1952, Benfica has had supporters' clubs known as  (Benfica houses), places for cultural, social and sport interaction among . In recent years,  have celebrated league titles with the team at the Marquis of Pombal Square in Lisbon.

Benfica is the most popular club in Portugal and has always been seen as the working-class club of Portugal. According to a study published in 2006 by professors Luís Reto and Jorge de Sá, with the stamp of approval by Instituto Nacional de Estatística and Secretaria de Estado das Comunidades, Benfica has approximately 14 million supporters worldwide: over 5.5 million in Europe (4.7 in Portugal); over 6 million in Mozambique (3.8) and Angola (2.7); over 1 million in the United States and Canada; and the remainder in Brazil, Venezuela, the Caribbean, Indochina, China, Australia, and India. According to a study performed for UEFA in 2012, Benfica is the European club with the highest share of football supporters in its own country (47%).

In the 2022–23 season, Benfica had an average home attendance of 57,108 in the Portuguese league, the highest average of the competition and current record at the Estádio da Luz, with an average occupancy of 89.12%. The highest home attendance record was set in 2016–17; 64,519 spectators saw Benfica's 5–0 win over Vitória de Guimarães in the season's last match at Da Luz.

Members
The members of Benfica (called ), along with Benfica houses (such as Benfica de Macau), filiations (e.g. Benfica de Luanda) and delegations (e.g. Lusitano FC), elect the club president for a four-year term (three years until 2010) by voting in each candidate list, thus forming the highest governing body of the club. Benfica members may also participate and vote in general assemblies, submit proposals, take part in discussions, be elected to governing bodies, be designated for positions or functions at the club, and so forth.

In 2003 the club implemented electronic voting – a voting method that has been criticized by members of Benfica, including presidential candidates, and outsiders – and since 2010 only people with 25 years of continuous membership as an adult – that is, effective members aged at least 43 – can run for president of Benfica. Moreover, according to the current statutes of the club, approved by slightly more than 100 , each member is entitled to one or more votes depending on membership years: over 1 and up to 5 years, 1 vote; over 5 and up to 10, 5 votes; over 10 and up to 25, 20 votes; over 25 as an effective member, 50 votes. In addition, a delegate can also vote: when representing a Benfica house, 50 votes; a filliation or a delegation, 20 votes.

On 9 November 2006, Benfica set the Guinness World Record for "the most widely supported football club", with 160,398 paid-up members. In 2014, according to a study by Movimento Por Um Futebol Melhor, Benfica had 270,000 members and was the biggest club in the world in membership terms. On 31 March 2015, Benfica reported having 246,401 members. After a scheduled renumbering (done at least every ten years) by the club in August 2015, the number decreased to 156,916. By 9 October 2021, Benfica had over 250,000 members, of which 115,681 were eligible to vote in club elections that day.

Rivalries

Benfica has rivalries with Sporting CP and FC Porto, with whom it forms the "Big Three", Portugal's most decorated clubs. None of them have been relegated from the Portuguese league since its establishment in 1934.

As Lisbon-based clubs, Benfica and Sporting have shared a rivalry for over a century; it all started in 1907, when eight prominent Benfica players defected to Sporting. Any match between both teams is known as  ("Lisbon derby"),  ("eternal derby"), , or  ("derby of the derbies"). It is the most important football derby in Portugal and is followed in Europe, Africa, the Americas, and wherever the Portuguese diaspora is.

The rivalry between Benfica and FC Porto, which started with a friendly match on 28 April 1912, comes about as Lisbon and Porto are the largest Portuguese cities, respectively. Benfica and Porto are the two most decorated clubs in Portuguese football, with the former historically being the most decorated team overall. Any match between the two sides is called  (The Classic).

Media

In 2008, Benfica launched its own sports-oriented television network, Benfica TV (BTV for short), the first channel by a Portuguese club, and has operated it since. Its premium channel broadcasts Benfica's live matches at home in the Primeira Liga, Benfica B home matches in the LigaPro, under-19 team home matches, and the club's other sports matches, including youth categories. Until 2016, it broadcast three seasons of the English Premier League, and one season of the Italian Serie A and French Ligue 1. In January 2020, Benfica launched Benfica Play (BPlay for short), an over-the-top media service featuring exclusive content such as interviews with current and former Benfica players and behind-the-scenes video from matchdays and training sessions.

Moreover, the club publishes the weekly newspaper  every Friday since 28 November 1942. It contains information about everything in the club in the form of news and articles (mostly the former). By 2005, it had a circulation of close to 10,000. From 6 December 2007 to 11 July 2017, Benfica published the quarterly magazine . Free of charge for Benfica members, it comprised interviews with players and personnel of the club, reports about the club's history and recent events, news, opinion pieces, overviews of the club's sports, with football being its main focus, and a section dedicated to club members. Its last edition, number 33, had a circulation of 115,602 in mainland Portugal.  was the club's first magazine; it was launched on 1 October 1957 as a monthly supplement to the newspaper .

Museum

The Museu Benfica – Cosme Damião, located near the stadium, was inaugurated on 26 July 2013 and opened to the public three days later. Named after Cosme Dasmião, one of the club's founders, it was considered the Best Portuguese Museum of 2014 by the Portuguese Association of Museology.

Finances and ownership
On 10 February 2000, under the presidency of João Vale e Azevedo, Benfica created Sport Lisboa e Benfica – Futebol, SAD (a public limited sports company) with an initial equity of €75 million. There were five major reasons for creating an autonomous entity to manage the Benfica team: participation in professional football competitions at domestic and international level; development of football players; exploitation of TV rights on open and closed channels; management of the players' image rights; exploitation of the Benfica brand by the professional football team and at sporting events.

Benfica SAD entered the PSI-20 on 21 May 2007 with an initial stock value of €5 on 15,000,001 shares. Later in June that year, Joe Berardo launched an unsuccessful takeover bid of €3.50 per share for 60% of Benfica SAD. Following the general assembly of 23 December 2009, the SAD increased its €75 million equity to €115 million by absorbing Benfica Estádio, to come out of technical insolvency.

On 31 July 2014, the SAD completed the acquisition of Benfica Stars Fund by spending roughly €28.9 million for 85% of units, thus purchasing the remaining economic rights of nine players. Later in April, Benfica and Adidas renewed their previous ten-season contract of 2003 until 2021, for around €4.5 million per year. In May 2015, Emirates airline signed a three-year sponsorship deal worth up to €30 million to become Benfica's main jersey sponsor. Then in December, Benfica sold the TV rights of their first-team home matches as well as Benfica TV's broadcasting and distribution rights to NOS in a three-year deal, receiving €40 million per season, with the option to extend the contract to a maximum of ten seasons, totalling €400 million. Days later, Luís Filipe Vieira said the money from the latter contract would be used to lower Benfica's debt.

By June 2017, Benfica had earned €617 million from player transfers since the 2010–11 season, more than any other club in the world. In September 2018, Benfica SAD reported a profit of €20.6 million and a revenue of €206.2 million. Moreover, they reported a record equity of €86.8 million: assets of €485.1 million and liabilities of €398.3 million. It was the first time since 2010–11 that the debt was below €400 million. In January 2019, Benfica remained the only Portuguese club ever to appear in the Deloitte Football Money League, being ranked as the world's 30th highest commercial revenue generating football club in 2017–18, with a revenue of €150.7 million. In May 2019, Benfica was ranked by Brand Finance as the 40th most valuable football brand.

In May 2020, the Portuguese Securities Market Commission denied Benfica's takeover bid of 28.06% of Benfica SAD for €5 a share because the funding source was the SAD itself. By September 2021, Benfica owned the majority of the SAD's share capital, 63.65%, of which 40% belonged directly to the club, holder of all category A shares, and 23.65% to its holding company, Benfica SGPS, holder of category B shares. The remaining percentage pertains to shareholders who may only own B shares.

Players

First-team squad

Out on loan

Retired numbers

On 27 January 2004, Benfica retired squad number 29 in memory of Miklós Fehér, who had died while playing for them two days earlier.

Personnel

Coaching staff

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Position
! Name
|-
| Head coach
| Roger Schmidt
|-
| Assistant coaches
| Jörn-Erik WolfJens WissingYann-Benjamin KugelJavi García
|-
| Goalkeeping coach
| Fernando Ferreira
|-
| Analysis and observation
| Nuno CesárioRúben Soares

Management

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Position
! Name
|-
| President
| Rui Costa
|-
| Vice-presidents
| Luís MendesJaime AntunesDomingos Almeida LimaFernando TavaresSílvio CervanManuel BritoRui do Passo (substitute)José Gandarez (substitute)
|-
| General assembly president
| Fernando Seara
|-
| Supervisory president
| Fernando Fonseca Santos

Records and statistics

Individual

Nené is the Benfica player with the most official appearances (575). Eusébio is the club's all-time top goalscorer, with 473 goals in 440 competitive matches. He is also Benfica's top scorer in UEFA club competitions, with 56 goals. Luisão is the player with the most trophies won (20), the captain with the most matches and has the most appearances in European matches.

Cosme Damião is the longest-serving coach (18 consecutive years). Otto Glória is the coach with the most league titles won (4) and the most trophies won (9) before the advent of the league cup. Jorge Jesus is the coach with the most trophies won (10: 3 leagues, 1 cup, 5 league cups, 1 super cup). Rui Vitória is the coach with the highest percentage of wins in the domestic league with a minimum 34 matches played (85.29%).

Collective
Benfica became the first team in Portuguese league history to complete two seasons without defeat, namely the 1972–73 and '77–78 seasons. In the former, as unbeaten champions, they achieved two records: 58 points in 30 matches, the most ever obtained (96.7% efficiency), and the largest difference of points ever between champions and runners-up (18 points) in a two-points-per-win system. In the 2015–16 campaign, Benfica amassed 88 points in 34 matches and set the club's points record since the league is contested by 18 teams. Benfica's record for the lowest number of goals conceded in the Primeira Liga was achieved in 1988–89 with coach Toni: 15 goals in 38 matches.

Furthermore, Benfica hold the European records for the most consecutive wins in domestic league (29), between 1971–72 and '72–73, and the longest unbeaten run in all competitions since the advent of European competition – 48 matches from December 1963 to 14 February 1965. The latter record ranks third overall.

In the 1965–66 European Cup, Benfica scored 18 goals against Stade Dudelange and achieved the highest goal margin on aggregate in European Cup and their biggest win in UEFA competitions. In the UEFA Europa League, Benfica was the first club to reach two finals consecutively, the latter without defeat. As of the 2022–23 season, Benfica have 42 appearances in the UEFA Champions League (formerly the European Cup) and 21 participations in the UEFA Europa League (formerly the UEFA Cup). Additionally, they have appearances in now-defunct competitions: 7 in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and 2 in the Intercontinental Cup. By October 2017, Benfica were the 5th highest-scoring team in UEFA competition history, with 655 goals in 405 matches (1.62 per match).

Recent seasons

Benfica's season-by-season performance over the last ten completed seasons:

Key

Honours

Benfica have won a record 38 Primeira Liga, a record 26 Taça de Portugal (including a record 4 consecutively), a record 7 Taça da Liga (including a record 4 consecutively), 9 Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira and 3 Campeonato de Portugal (including a record 2 consecutively) – totalling 83 domestic trophies. Internationally, they have won 2 consecutive European Cups and 1 Latin Cup  – totalling 86 trophies. Therefore, in terms of overall trophies, Benfica is the most decorated club in Portuguese football.

In 2014, Benfica achieved the first ever treble of Primeira Liga, Taça de Portugal and Taça da Liga. Benfica was the first club to win the Primeira Liga and Taça da Liga double, moreover, a record four times. Benfica is the only club in Portugal to have successfully defended every major domestic title (Campeonato de Portugal, Primeira Liga, Taça de Portugal, Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira and Taça da Liga). In addition, Benfica are the only Portuguese team to have become back-to-back European champions.

Domestic
 Primeira Liga
 Winners (38) – record: 1935–36, 1936–37, 1937–38, 1941–42, 1942–43, 1944–45, 1949–50, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1974–75, 1975–76, 1976–77, 1980–81, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1986–87, 1988–89, 1990–91, 1993–94, 2004–05, 2009–10, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2018–19, 2022–23
 Taça de Portugal
 Winners (26) – record: 1939–40, 1942–43, 1943–44, 1948–49, 1950–51, 1951–52, 1952–53, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1958–59, 1961–62, 1963–64, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1971–72, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1982–83, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1992–93, 1995–96, 2003–04, 2013–14, 2016–17
 Taça da Liga
 Winners (7) – record: 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16
 Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira
 Winners (9): 1980, 1985, 1989, 2005, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2023
 Campeonato de Portugal
 Winners (3): 1929–30, 1930–31, 1934–35

European
 European Cup (now the UEFA Champions League)
 Winners (2): 1960–61, 1961–62

Other
 Latin Cup
 Winners (1): 1950

Doubles
 Primeira Liga and Taça de Portugal
 11 – record: 1942–43, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1963–64, 1968–69, 1971–72, 1980–81, 1982–83, 1986–87, 2013–14, 2016–17
 Primeira Liga and Taça da Liga
 4 – record: 2009–10, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16
 Taça de Portugal and Taça da Liga
 1 – shared record: 2013–14
 European Double
 1: 1960–61

Trebles
 Primeira Liga, Taça de Portugal and Taça da Liga
 1 – record: 2013–14
 Primeira Liga, Taça de Portugal and Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira
 2 – record: 1980–81, 2016–17
 Primeira Liga, Taça da Liga and Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira
 1 – record: 2014–15

Portuguese Orders
 Commander of the Military Order of Christ (1932)
 Officer of the Order of Merit (1936)
 Medal of the Order of Prince Henry (1979)

See also

 List of football club mergers
 List of UEFA club competition winners
 European Club Association
 S.L. Benfica (women)

Notes

References
General

Specific

External links

 S.L. Benfica at LPFP
 S.L. Benfica at UEFA

1904 establishments in Portugal
Association football clubs established in 1904
Companies listed on Euronext Lisbon
Football clubs in Lisbon
Football clubs in Portugal
Primeira Liga clubs
Publicly traded sports companies
Sport in Lisbon
Taça de Portugal winners
UEFA Champions League winning clubs
Unrelegated association football clubs

S.L. Benfica


Skyclad is a Fowk metal baund frae Ingland. Mony fowk sees thaim as unco influential in the shapin o the Fowk metal genre, aiblins the maist influential alang wi Bathory. They are cried efter the jaloused auncient pagan practice o dauncin in the scud (i.e. weirin the air for claes).

History
The baund wis stairted in 1990 bi Martin Walkyier an Steve Ramsey. The twa ettelt tae mak a pagan metal baund, an set tae recruitin members. They set furth their first record the neist year, an for the first twa-three year wis proleefic in their ootpit, maugre the heich nummers o fowk passin in an oot the line-up. The want o stabeelity made tourin gey teuch, tho in 1995 they toured wi Black Sabbath.

Walkyier quat the baund in 2001, an mony fans dreidit that, haen tint ane o their foondin members an their heidmaist leeracist, the baund wad suin spleet. This didna happen, but, tho it teuk the baund three year tae set furth new material (the time atween 2001 an 2004 bein taen up wi live records, re-recordins an compilations). Sinsyne the baund haes conteenad tae set furth new records an tour extensive.

Muisical an Leerical Chairacteristics
The baund tae the maist pairt plays Thrash metal jyned thegither wi fowk elements, tho mair rock an prog. stylins haes been merkit in their muisic an aw. Leericaly, the baund is gey byordinar amang fowk metal baunds in that they sing anent social issues an politics raither nor fantasy an drinkin. Their politics is for ordinar libertarian an left-wing, but no aye. For exemplar the sang Ten Little Kingdoms frae the album A Semblance of Normality (2004) is agin devolution.

Mony o their sang an album titles is puns or wird-plays o some kynd.

Discography

Albums
 The Wayward Sons of Mother Earth (1991)
 A Burnt Offering for the Bone Idol (1992)
 Jonah's Ark (1993)
 Prince of the Poverty Line (1994)
 The Silent Whales of Lunar Sea (1995)
 Irrational Anthems (1996)
 Oui Avant-Garde a Chance (1996)
 The Answer Machine? (1997)
 Vintage Whin (1999)
 Folkémon (2000)
 A Semblance of Normality (2004)
 In the... All Together (2009)
 Forward into the Past (2017)

Compilation an live albums
 Old Rope Compilation (1996)
 History Lessens Compilation (2001)
 Another Fine Mess Live Album (2001)
 Poetic Wisdom Compilation (Limited tour Greek edition) (2001)
 No Daylights... Nor Heel Taps Compilation/Re-Raicordin (2002)
 Live at the Dynamo Compilation/Live Album (2002)

Singles an EPs
 Tracks from the Wilderness EP (1992)
 Thinking Allowed? Single (1993)
 utrageous Fourtunes Leemited Edition EP (1998)
 Classix Shape Leemited Edition EP [[1999)
 Swords of a Thousand Men Single [[2001)
 Jig-a-Jig Leemited Edition EP (2006)

Line-Up

Members
Kevin Ridley - Vocals, Guitar, acoustic guitar
Steve Ramsey - Lead guitar, acoustic guitar an backgrund vocals
Graeme English - Bass guitar, acoustic an clessical guitar
Georgina Biddle - Fiddle, keybuird an pianae
Arron Walton - Drums an percussion

Umwhile Members
Jay Graham - Drums
Martin Walkyier -Vocals
 Nick Acons - Guitar, Veeolin
John Leonard - Flute, Mandolin
Mitch Oldham - Drums
Dave Moore - Session-Guitar
Paul AT Kinson
Paul Smith - Drums
Dave Ray - Guitar
Jed Dawkins - Drums
Keith Baxter - Drums
Dave Pugh - Guitar
Fritha Jenkins - Veeolin
Cath Howell - Veeolin
Danny Porter - Session-Guitar

Fremmit Airtins
Offeecial Wabsteid
Offeecial Skyclad Myspace
Archives page anent Skyclad

Muisical groups established in 1990
Inglis hivy metal muisical groups

Skyclad


was a village located in Higashichikuma District, Nagano Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the village had an estimated population of 2,139 and a density of 71.85 persons per km². The total area was 29.77 km².

On October 11, 2005, Sakakita, along with the villages of Honjō and Sakai (all from Higashichikuma District), was merged to create the village of Chikuhoku.

Dissolved municipalities of Nagano Prefecture
Chikuhoku, Nagano

Sakakita, Nagano


Medicine in the American Civil War was not good by today's standards.  Doctors did not know about germs, so many soldiers caught infections.  They did have anesthesia, so they were able to stop soldiers' pain. Most doctors in the United States had two years of schooling.  Harvard Medical School did not have even one microscope.

One problem was that, like in World War I, people had just invented new weapons, like the Minié ball.  Guns with rifled barrels did not miss as often as the muskets from the Revolutionary War and other earlier wars did.  That meant doctors did not already know how to treat the injuries that these weapons could cause in the human body.  Another problem was that the camps and battlefields were very dirty.  A soldier in the American Civil war was twice as likely to die of disease as of a battle injury.

Diseases

560,000 soldiers died of diseases during the American Civil War. Malaria was a problem in the American Civil War.  Doctors gave patients quinine for malaria.  Soldiers also died of dysentery, diarrhea, and typhoid.

Germs

Most doctors did not know about germs in the mid-1800s.  They did not always wash their hands or tools between patients.  They also thought that pus, if thick and creamy, was "laudable pus" and meant the patient was getting better.  Really, pus means the patient has an infection.

Injuries

About 200,000 people had injuries in the American Civil War.

Anesthesia

Anesthesia was invented in 1846.  Doctors in the American Civil War did have chloroform, ether, and other anesthetics, and they used them.  90 percent of patients who had a limb cut off had anesthesia first, usually chloroform.  The doctors dripped chloroform onto a cloth and then put it over the patient's face.

Amputation

Doctors invented two ways to do amputations, the circular method and the fish-mouth method.  There were so many amputations in the American Civil War that doctors became very good at amputating.  The Minié ball and other new weapons could destroy large pieces of bone, so the doctors decided to amputation so the patient would not get gangrene.

Field stations and hospitals

First, injured soldiers were brought to field stations near the battle.  There, medical people gave the soldiers whiskey if they had it and put bandages on them.  Then, the patients were taken to hospitals.  The "hospital" could be only a barn or other building where the doctors had decided to work.  They were not always organized well.  There, the medical people did triage: they looked at the patient to plan what to do next.  They divided patients into three groups: patients who were sure to die soon, patients who needed surgery and other patients.  From there, some soldiers were sent to better hospitals in the bigger cities.  Patients could be taken from place to place in different ways.  General George B. McClellan started an ambulance corps in 1862, and the Confederacy soon made their own.  There were also hospital trains, or steamboats called "sanitary steamers."

Response

In 1861, the United States government (Union side, the North) created the U.S. Sanitary Commission to learn how to stop soldiers from becoming sick during wartime. Frederick Law Olmstead led the commission.  He told the army to have clean camps, good food, and hospitals with ventilation.

Many doctors learned much about the human body, disease and injuries during the American Civil War.  Many of them wrote down what they saw and did.  Between 1870 and 1888, these doctors published a book, Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion.

In 1861, Dorothea Dix became head of the United States Nursing Corps.  Professional nursing became more important in the United States.

References

History of medicine
American Civil War

Medicine in the American Civil War


Chrysosplenium alternifolium is a species of flowering plant in the saxifrage family known as the alternate-leaved golden-saxifrage. It is a mat-forming perennial of wet places that grows between  tall. It blooms from March onward.

Description
Alternate-leaved golden-saxifrage is a perennial, mat-forming plant with trailing stems growing to a height of . The fragile three-sided stems are hairy on the lower parts of the plant but smooth above. The alternately arranged leaves are stalked, broad and kidney-shaped with a few rounded shallow teeth and a few hairs. The flowers are surrounded by yellowish-green bracts and have down-turned yellowish-green sepals but no petals. The central flower in the corymb has five lobes and the others four lobes. There are eight stamens and two styles which are fused at the base. The fruit is a bowl-shaped lidded capsule. This plant flowers from April to June.

Distribution and habitat
Alternate-leaved golden-saxifrage is distributed across much of the cooler and wetter parts of Europe. Its natural habitat is streamsides, ditch verges, bogs, woodland seeps, waterside meadows and other wet places. It flowers very early in the year while woodland is relatively unshaded and before leaves have appeared on the trees. Raindrops striking the lids of the seed capsules cause them to be knocked off and the seed dispersed with the water splashes.

Status
This plant is in decline through a large part of its range because of the decrease of suitable wetland habitat. In France, it is protected in the regions of Île-de-France, Picardie, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Limousin and in the central region Centre.

References

alternifolium
Flora of Finland
Flora of Russia
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Chrysosplenium alternifolium


The Ig Nobel Prize is a parody of the Nobel Prize, which is awarded every autumn to celebrate ten unusual or trivial achievements in scientific research. Since 1991, the Ig Nobel Prizes have been awarded to "honor achievements that first make people laugh, and then make them think." The name of the award, the "Ig Nobel Prize" ( ) is a pun on the word ignoble, an achievement "characterized by baseness, lowness, or meanness", and is satirical social criticism that identifies absurd-sounding, yet useful research and knowledge.

Organized by the scientific humor magazine, the Annals of Improbable Research (AIR), the Ig Nobel Prizes are presented by Nobel laureates in a ceremony at the Sanders Theater, Harvard University, and are followed by the winners' public lectures at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

References

Parodies
Science awards

Ig Nobel Prize


Euthanasia is currently illegal in all 50 states of the United States. Assisted suicide is legal in 10 jurisdictions in the US: Washington, D.C. and the states of  California, Colorado, Oregon, Vermont, New Mexico, Maine, New Jersey, Hawaii, and Washington. The status of assisted suicide is disputed in Montana, though currently authorized per the Montana Supreme Court's ruling in Baxter v. Montana that "nothing in Montana Supreme Court precedent or Montana statutes [indicates] that physician aid in dying is against public policy."

Early history

Debates about the ethics of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide date from ancient Greece and Rome. After the development of ether, physicians began advocating the use of anesthetics to relieve the pain of death. In 1870, Samuel Williams first proposed using anesthetics and morphine to intentionally end a patient's life. Over the next 35 years, debates about euthanasia raged in the United States which resulted in an Ohio bill to legalize euthanasia in 1906, a bill that was ultimately defeated.

Euthanasia advocacy in the U.S. peaked again during the 1930s and diminished significantly during and after World War II. Euthanasia efforts were revived during the 1960s and 1970s, under the right-to-die rubric, physician assisted death in liberal bioethics, and through advance directives and do not resuscitate orders.

Several major court cases advanced the legal rights of patients, or their guardians, to withdraw medical support with the expected outcome of death. These include the Karen Ann Quinlan case (1976), Brophy and Nancy Cruzan cases. More recent years have seen policies fine-tuned and re-stated, as with Washington v. Glucksberg (1997) and the Terri Schiavo case. The numerous legislative rulings and legal precedents that were brought about in the wake of the Quinlan case had their ethical foundation in the famous 1983 report completed by the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine, under the title "Deciding to Forgo Life-Sustaining Treatment." The Commission sustained in its findings that it was morally acceptable to give up a life-supporting therapy and that withholding or withdrawing such a therapy is the same thing from an ethical stand-point, while artificial feeding and other life-supporting therapy are of the same importance for the patients and doctors. Before this report, to withdraw a medical therapy was regarded as much more serious decision than not to start a therapy at all, while artificial feeding was viewed as a special treatment. By 1990, barely a decade and a half after the New Jersey Supreme Court's historic decision, patients were well aware that they could decline any form of medical therapy if they simply choose to do that either directly or by expressing their wish via appointed representative.

In a 2004 article in the Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Brown University historian Jacob M. Appel documented extensive political debate over legislation to legalize physician-assisted suicide in both Iowa and Ohio in 1906. The driving force behind this movement was social activist Anna S. Hall. Canadian historian Ian Dowbiggin's 2003 book, A Merciful End, revealed the role that leading public figures, including Clarence Darrow and Jack London, played in advocating for the legalization of euthanasia.

Legislation and political movements

California
In the 1983 case of Barber v. Superior Court, two physicians had honored a family's request to withdraw both respirator and intravenous feeding and hydration tubes from a comatose patient. The physicians were charged with murder, despite the fact that they were doing what the family wanted. The court held that all charges should be dropped because the treatments had all been ineffective and burdensome. Withdrawal of treatment, even if life-ending, is morally and legally permitted and is considered passive euthanasia. Competent patients or their surrogates can decide to withdraw treatments, usually after the treatments are found ineffective, painful, or burdensome.

The California End of Life Option Act from 2016 provides a procedure for assisted suicide of a terminally ill adult. After meeting several requirements, a physician may prescribe the terminally ill adult an "aid-in-dying drug".

Maine
From 1 January 2020, Maine becomes the 8th US state to legalize assisted dying. In June 2019, the Maine Legislature by a very close vote passed a bill to legalize assisted dying. The Governor of Maine signed the bill into law within the same month.

New Jersey
In the United States legal and ethical debates about euthanasia became more prominent in the Karen Ann Quinlan case who went into a coma after allegedly mixing tranquilizers with alcohol, surviving biologically for 9 years in a "persistent vegetative state" even after the New Jersey Supreme Court approval to remove her from a respirator. This case caused a widespread public concern about "lives not worth living", and the possibility of at least voluntary euthanasia if it could be ascertained that the patient would not have wanted to live in this condition. In April 2019, New Jersey became the 7th US state to allow assisted dying after the Governor of New Jersey signed the bill into law and went into effect since August 1, 2019.

Texas
In 1999, the state of Texas passed the Advance Directives Act. Under the law, in some situations, Texas hospitals and physicians have the right to withdraw life support measures, such as mechanical respiration, from terminally ill patients when such treatment is considered to be both futile and inappropriate. This is sometimes referred to as "passive euthanasia".

In 2005, a six-month-old infant, Sun Hudson, with a uniformly fatal disease thanatophoric dysplasia, was the first patient in which "a United States court has allowed life-sustaining treatment to be withdrawn from a pediatric patient over the objections of the child's parent".

Massachusetts
Currently, euthanasia is illegal in Massachusetts. According to Ch. 201D §12 Massachusetts states that "Nothing in this chapter shall be construed to constitute, condone, authorize, or approve suicide or mercy killing or to permit any affirmative or deliberate act to end one's own life other than to permit the natural process of dying". Even though euthanasia as well as physician assisted suicide is not legal in Massachusetts, the Supreme court ruled in 1997 to not allow euthanasia or physician assisted suicide, but to give the freedom to the patient to refuse life supporting medical care by making these two laws different from one another. So now although there is no euthanasia in Massachusetts, one is allowed to refuse artificial life support measures.

Oregon
Oregon voters passed the Death with Dignity Act in 1997.

Unsuccessful initiatives
Attempts to legalize euthanasia and assisted suicide resulted in ballot initiatives and legislation bills within the United States in the last 20 years. For example, Washington voters saw Ballot Initiative 119 in 1991, California placed Proposition 161 on the ballot in 1992, and Michigan included Proposal B in their ballot in 1998.

U.S. public opinion
In the U.S., there is a wide range of public opinion about euthanasia and the right-to-die movement in the United States.

Opinions of the general public

Since 1947, Gallup polling has regularly asked thousands of American citizens: "When a person has a disease that cannot be cured, do you think doctors should be allowed to end the patient's life by some painless means if the patient and his family request it?" to gauge public opinion on euthanasia. The question leaves unclear the diagnosis, age, or background of the patient and the legality of the situation. However, the question does clarify that the euthanasia is, in this case, voluntary. Support for euthanasia has increased from 37% in 1947 to a peak of 75% in 2005; however, support fell back to 64% in 2012. Gallup also uses a different phrasing to capture opinions of physician-assisted suicide instead of euthanasia by using terms like "severe pain, suicide, legalization." However, in these scenarios, support falls by roughly 10-15% showing that support for euthanasia is higher than support for physician-assisted suicide among the general population. This is an interesting discrepancy as there are no states in which voluntary euthanasia is legal, but at least 5 in which physician-assisted suicide is legal.

Physicians' opinions
A recent review studied surveys, interviews, and death certificates from 1947-2016 to gain insight into physician opinions on both physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia. In the U.S., less than 20% of physicians reported any patients asking for assistance with euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide; 5% or fewer reported agreeing to assist patients with euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide requests. In Oregon and Washington state, where physician-assisted suicide is legal, less than 1% of physicians prescribe medications for physician-assisted death each year. In other countries, these percentages were much higher - for example, 60% of Dutch physicians have prescribed medication for physician-assisted suicide; in the Netherlands and Belgium, over half of doctors reported patient requests for aid in dying. The study found a large percentage of these requests to be associated with cancer and to be for patients who were "older, white, and well-educated".

Opinions among physicians are harder to elucidate and have much smaller sample sizes than for the general public, and therefore may not be as accurate. Physicians surveyed were less likely to support either physician-assisted suicide or euthanasia than the public. Unlike the public opinion, physicians were more comfortable with physician-assisted suicide than euthanasia. In other countries where both are legal, namely Belgium and the Netherlands, physicians are much more supportive with a roughly 85% support rate.

Opinions by religious affiliation
In various studies from the 1990s, previously surveyed religious groups reported that religiosity (i.e., self-evaluation and frequency of worship service attendance) correlated to opinions on euthanasia. Individuals who attended church regularly and more frequently and considered themselves more religious were found to be more opposed to euthanasia than to those who had a lower level of religiosity. However, this study represents decades old data that is not confirmed by newer sources.

In more recent studies, a gap is exposed in the meaning of the word "religion" and how it relates to individual views on euthanasia. Evidently, there are vast differences between religious observers between and within religious sects. The deep differences among different religions, especially those religions not prevalent in the Western world, have been ill-accounted for in the vast majority of studies attempting to link euthanasia and religious views. Future research needs to better elucidate which religious views they correlate to views on euthanasia, with less emphasis on which religion/sect a person "belongs" to, as this may lead to clearer correlation between which beliefs are more or less likely to influence opinions on euthanasia.

Ethical arguments

Arguments for euthanasia
Arguments for euthanasia are varied and include a diverse array of opinions. Commonly cited reasons for euthanasia include:

 Patients should have the right to decide when they want to die (primacy of bodily autonomy)
 Patients deserve to die with dignity when they choose
 Each individual should retain their agency regarding time of death when possible. In situations of extreme anguish, this is often the most compassionate option when the decision originates from the patient.
 The decision to end medical care or to seek medical aid in dying should not be a political issue.

Arguments against euthanasia
There are varied arguments for not using euthanasia in a public health care setting as well. Commonly cited reasons for not advocating for euthanasia include:

 Variations of slippery slope argument are a common concern.
 Historically there are instances marginalized or vulnerable communities have been subjected to involuntary euthanasia. This speaks to a larger historical narrative of abuse and subsequent mistrust among marginalized populations.
 Religious objections
 Questions regarding the ethics of euthanasia when there are other alternatives, like palliative care
 There is a chance that some people can recover from a terminal illness, and offering them the possibility of euthanasia may seem like doctors are "giving up" on their patients.

See also
 Assisted suicide in the United States
 Brittany Maynard
 Principle of double effect

References

Further reading

Euthanasia in the United States


The DRDO Nishant (Nishant - End of Night) - is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) developed by India's Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), a branch of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) for the Indian Armed Forces. The Nishant UAV is primarily tasked with intelligence gathering over enemy territory and also for reconnaissance, training, surveillance, target designation, artillery fire correction, damage assessment, ELINT and SIGINT. The UAV has an endurance of four hours and thirty minutes. Nishant has completed development phase and user trials.

The 380 kg (840 lb) Nishant UAV requires rail-launching from a hydro-pneumatic launcher and is able to be recovered by a parachute system. Launches at a velocity of 45 m/s are carried out in 0.6 second with 100 kW power and subsequent launches can be carried out in intervals of 20 minutes. The Mobile Hydro-Pneumatic Launcher (MHPL) system mounted on a Tatra truck weighs 14,000 kg (31,000 lb) and boasts of a life cycle of 1000 launches before requiring overhaul. Nishant is one of the few UAVs in the world in its weight-class capable of being catapult-launched and recovered by using parachute, thus eliminating the need for a runway as in case of conventional take-off and landing with wheels.

Development
To meet the Army's operational requirement of a RPV (remotely piloted vehicle), it was decided in September 1988 that DRDO would undertake the indigenous development of the UAV. The General Staff Qualitative Requirement (GSQR) was finalised by the Army in May 1990. The Nishant RPV made its first test flight in 1995. In July 1999, for the first time the Indian army deployed its new Nishant UAV system in the fight against guerilla forces backed by Pakistan in Kashmir Valkey. Nishant, which had been developed for battlefield surveillance and reconnaissance needs of the Indian Army, was test flown again in early 2002. The indigenous Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) Nishant developed by ADE, DRDO had completed its 100th flight by June 15, 2002. The Indian Army has placed an order for 12 Nishant UAVs along with ground support systems. Nishant Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) developed by DRDO for Indian Army was successfully flight tested near Kolar on 20 June 2008. Nishant has completed development phase and user trials. The present flight tests are pre confirmatory trials before induction into services.

Test flight with Wankel engine
On Sunday, 5 April 2009 DRDO launched a test flight of the Nishant UAV. The main goal was to test the performance of the Wankel engine used on the UAV. An abandoned World War II runway at a village near Kolar played host to the first ever flight of this indigenous rotary engine-powered UAV. The flight took off on early Sunday morning and climbed to an altitude of  before cruising for a duration of 35 minutes. The air vehicle was recovered safely at the intended place at a dried-up lake, after a total flight duration of 40 min. The engine, a Wankel rotary type, was jointly designed and developed by National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Vehicle Research and Development Establishment (VRDE) and Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE). The provisional flight clearance for the first indigenous prototype engine was given by the certifying agency, the Regional Centre for Military Airworthiness and Certification. The engine was cleared for flight after rigorous ground endurance test runs. The Wankel engine weighs about 25 kg (70 lb), and this engine type is known for its high power-to-weight ratio in a single rotor category.

DRDO was satisfied with the test results. The performance of the engine during the flight met the requirements of the first flight of an engine in the air vehicle. This 55 hp indigenous engine is expected to replace the present imported engine of Nishant. The critical core engine, including the special cylinder composite nickel–silicon carbide coating and special aluminium alloy castings, was designed and developed by NAL. VRDE developed engine peripherals such as the ignition and fuel systems and ADE developed flight testing. The reconnaissance UAV, which has completed its user trials with the Indian Army, is expected to be handed over to the army shortly.

Nishant UAV again underwent crucial confirmatory user trials at Pokhran in April 2010. The trials began April 20 and were supposed to last for one week. A senior Army official at Pokhran said the trials are moving forward in a very satisfactory manner. "We are checking three crucial parameters: video quality, tracking ability and fall of gunshot [missed distance after firing]. These input performances are critical to our operations in the forward areas," the official said. DRDO has delivered the first four UAVs to the Indian Army at a cost of 800 million  ($17.9 million).

According to The Times Of India, two UAVs crash-landed in Jaisalmer district near the India-Pakistan border due to change in wind direction on April 28 and April 30. Confirming the news, a DRDO official said, "The user trials were going on and during the flight there were some technical snags owing to which the craft was landed using parachutes." He said, "But the landing was done safely and no one was hurt in the process. Though before our officials could reach to get the craft back, villagers damaged the aircraft and took away some equipment."

On 3 February 2011 Nishant UAV successfully completed confirmatory trials conducted by the Indian Army at Pokhran, Rajasthan

A wheeled version of the Nishant UAV, named panchi, is under taxi trail as of September 2014, will be flight tested soon. UAV is capable of operating from semi-prepared runway, thereby reducing the turnaround time between missions, which is major advantage over the current catapult launched Nishant
As per the last report Panchi have been successfully completed Five flights proving the concept of conventional takeoff and landing. Data for aerodynamic, structure integrity and Flight control studies have been generated and analyzed.

Features
 Day/night capability training vehicle
 Battlefield reconnaissance & surveillance,
 Target tracking and localization
 Artillery fire correction
 All terrain mobility
 Target designation (using integral laser target designator)
 Endurance: 4 h 30 min

Variants
 Nishant catapult
 Panchi (Nishant Wheeled version)

Ground support systems

Ground control station (GCS)
Antenna vehicle/Ground Data Terminal (GDT)
Avionics preparation vehicle (APV)
Mechanical maintenance vehicle
UAV transportation vehicle
Power supply vehicle

Launch & recovery
 Launch: Mobile hydropneumatic launcher (MHPL) system
 Recovery: Parachute + landing bags

Former operators

  Indian Army – 4 (all lost)

Specifications

See also

References

Unmanned military aircraft of India
Single-engined pusher aircraft
Twin-boom aircraft
Nishant

DRDO Nishant


Michel Thomas Halbouty (21 June 1909 in Beaumont, Texas – 6 November 2004 in Houston, Texas) was an American geologist, petroleum engineer, and wildcatter.  Credited with discovering more than 50 oil and gas fields, he twice declared bankruptcy, but came back each time to regain wealth.  He authored hundreds of technical articles on petroleum geology, and two book-length histories of famous oil fields.  Halbouty is often described, including in his New York Times obituary, as "legendary."

Biography
Halbouty's father, a Lebanese immigrant, ran a grocery store.  Michel Halbouty got his first job in the oil business as a boy, bringing ice water to the drillers at the Spindletop oil field south of Beaumont.

He enrolled at Texas A&M University at age 16.  Although he was short of funds, the president of the university personally gave him a $50 loan to cover tuition.  He was graduated in 1930 with a double degree in geology and petroleum engineering.  The following year he gained a master's degree from Texas A&M, again in both Geology and Petroleum Engineering.  He always wore his A&M ring on his left-hand ring finger, and was instrumental in persuading George H. W. Bush to locate his presidential library on the A&M campus.

He discovered his first oil field in 1931, only six weeks out of college, when as a wellsite geologist for the Yount-Lee Oil Co. he drove from the wellsite and interrupted a formal dinner party at the owner's home to persuade the owner not to abandon an apparent dry hole, but to drill deeper.  Halbouty staked his job on the result, and drilled into the prolific High Island Field in Texas.

Halbouty served in the US Army during World War II, as an infantry officer, instructor in military science and tactics, and as Chief of the Petroleum Production Section of the Army-Navy Petroleum Board.  He attained the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel by the end of the war.

Halbouty was an outspoken proponent of increased American domestic exploration for oil and gas, rather than reliance on foreign sources.  He was highly critical of oil companies that cut back exploration efforts in the period of low oil prices during the 1980s and 90s, and especially of the efforts of T. Boone Pickens to dismantle exploration departments at various US oil companies.  Halbouty was fond of citing Wallace Pratt's dictum that "Oil is found in the minds of men", to encourage more creativity in oil exploration.

Halbouty died at age 95, while working on a West Texas oil project.

Honors and offices

 President of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), 1966
 American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers (AIME) honorary membership, 1973
 Horatio Alger Award, 1978
 Hoover Medal recipient, 1982
 Honorary "Doctor of Geoscience" degree from the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1990; the only such honor awarded to a scientist outside the Soviet Union.
 Michel T. Halbouty Geosciences Building at Texas A&M College of Geosciences
 The American Association of Petroleum Geologists awards the Michel T. Halbouty Outstanding Leadership Award to those providing "outstanding and exceptional leadership" in petroleum geosciences.
 Scientific adviser to the Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, People's Republic of China
 Elected to membership, Chinese Academy of Engineering
 Honorary Professor in Geology, Nanjing University, 1993
 "Legendary Geoscientist Award" recipient from the American Geological Institute, 2002
 Halbouty Road in Nikiski, Alaska

Published works
Halbouty wrote 370 articles and six books.

Selected articles
 "Rationale for deliberate pursuit of stratigraphic, unconformity, and paleogeomorphic traps," in Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields, (1972) Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Special Publication 10, p. 3-7.
 "Exploration into the new millennium", in Petroleum Provinces of the Twenty-First Century, (2001) Tulsa, Okla.: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 74.

Books
 Petrographic and Physical Characteristics of Sands from Seven Gulf Coast Producing Horizons, 1937, Houston, Tex.: Gulf Publ. Co.
 Spindletop (with James A. Clark), 1952, New York: Random House,
 Salt Domes, Gulf Region, United States and Mexico, 1969, Houston, Tex.: Gulf Publ. Co.
 Ahead of His Time; Michel T. Halbouty Speaks to the People, (ed. by James A. Clark) 1971, Houston, Tex.: Gulf Publ. Co.
 The Last Boom (with James A. Clark), 1972, New York: Random House, .
 Drilling in The Future (with Aidil Yunus B. Ismail), jan2014, Tronoh. Malaysia.

References

Further reading
 Jack Donohue, (1979) Wildcatter: the Story of Michel T. Halbouty and the Search for Oil, New York: McGraw-Hill,
 Jack Donohue, (1990) War Without End: Michel T. Halbouty's Fight for American Energy Security, Houston, Tex.: Gulf Pub. Co,  (0-87201-921-7)

American petroleum geologists
1909 births
2004 deaths
Texas A&M University alumni
American people of Lebanese descent
People from Beaumont, Texas
20th-century American geologists
Foreign members of the Chinese Academy of Engineering

Michel T. Halbouty


Martin Meyerson (November 14, 1922 – June 2, 2007) was an American city planner,  academic, and president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1970 to 1981. His research, mentorship, essays, and consulting were focused on post-World War II urban policy at the municipal and federal levels.

Early life and education
Meyerson was born in Brooklyn, New York City on June 2, 1922. He graduated from Columbia University. He then obtained his MA degree in city planning from Harvard University.

Career
Meyerson worked for Philadelphia's city planning commission. In 1948, he was appointed an assistant professor at the University of Chicago.

In 1952, Meyerson was appointed associate professor of city and regional planning at the [University of Pennsylvania School of Design]]. In 1957, he moved to Harvard University, where he was a professor. From 1963 to 1966, he served as dean of the College of Environmental Design at the University of California, Berkeley and as the acting chancellor in 1965 during a period of student unrest at the university and helped defuse the tension that had built up on the campus.  According to University of California president Clark Kerr, Meyerson was the first American Jew to serve as the leader of a major American research university, but he was unable to secure a permanent appointment as chancellor due to a combination of tactical errors on his part and antisemitism among the UC Board of Regents.

From 1966 to 1970, Meyerson was professor of public policy and president of the State University of New York at Buffalo. At the University at Buffalo, he broke ground and laid plans for the Amherst Campus, and presided over a period when students were active in demonstrating for rights.

University of Pennsylvania
In 1970, he was appointed president of the University of Philadelphia, where he served until 1981. During his tenure, he consolidated several colleges and programs into the school of arts and sciences and introduced its first affirmative action and equal opportunity programs for minorities and women.

Organizational affiliations
In January 1981, Meyerson retired from the university presidency, but remained active at Penn as professor of public policy analysis and city and regional planning and as chair of the University of Pennsylvania Foundation, the University of Pennsylvania Press (1984-1997; then chair emeritus), the Institute for Research on Higher Education, and the Monell Chemical Senses Center. He co-chaired Penn's 250th anniversary celebration (1990) and served on the boards of the Mahoney Institute of Neurological Sciences, the Lauder Institute of Management and International Studies, and the Institute for Strategic Threat Analysis and Response. He chaired the University's Fels Center of Government program until February 1996. In 1993, he and his wife were elected as co-presidents of the Friends of the Library, and they served on the Library's Board of Overseers.

Between 1988 and 2005, Meyerson headed the selection committee for the Liberty Medal, awarded by the National Constitution Center.

An expert on urban and industrial development, Meyerson was a United Nations advisor and delegate, and a consultant to several nations in West Africa and the governor of the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. He founded the Centre for Environmental Studies in London and the International Centre for the Study of East Asian Development in Japan. He was an advisor to the Institut National de la Communication Audiovisuelle in France. He chaired the International Institute for Education and served as president of the International Association of Universities. He served on several White House task forces and on the councils of several government agencies.

Meyerson was a trustee and senior fellow of the Aspen Institute and held planning positions with the Chicago Housing Authority, Chicago's Michael Reese Hospital, and the Philadelphia City Planning Commission. He was also a director of a number of corporations, a member of the senior executives council of the Conference Board, and a senior advisor to Arthur D. Little.

Meyerson was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Royal Society of Arts in Great Britain, the American Institute of Certified Planners, and an academician of European Academy for Arts, Sciences, and Letters. He was on the executive committee of the American Philosophical Society and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the National Academy of Education.

He was also decorated by the governments of France, Italy, and Japan. He received numerous prizes and held over 20 honorary degrees, including a doctor of laws degree conferred by the University of Pennsylvania in 1970.

Publications
Politics, Planning, and Public Interest
Housing, People, and Cities
Face of the Metropolis
Boston: The Job Ahead
Gladly Learn and Gladly Teach (co-author with Dilys Winegrad, director and curator of the Arthur Ross Gallery)
Franklin and His Heirs at the University of Pennsylvania, 1740-1976

Personal
Meyerson married Margy Ellin in 1946. They had two sons and a daughter. He died of prostate cancer on June 2, 2007, at age 84.

References

1922 births
2007 deaths
20th-century American academics
Chief Administrators of the University of Pennsylvania
Columbia University alumni
Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni
Harvard University faculty
Leaders of the University at Buffalo
Leaders of the University of California, Berkeley
Members of the American Philosophical Society
People from Brooklyn
People from Buffalo, New York
University of California, Berkeley faculty
University of Chicago faculty
University of Pennsylvania faculty

Martin Meyerson


Cochise ( ; Apache:  or , ; later  or , ; June 8, 1874) was the leader of the Chiricahui local group of the Chokonen and principal nantan of the Chokonen band of a Chiricahua Apache. A key war leader during the Apache Wars, he led an uprising that began in 1861 and persisted until a peace treaty was negotiated in 1872. Cochise County is named after him.

Biography
Cochise (or "Cheis") was one of the most noted Apache leaders (along with Geronimo and Mangas Coloradas) to resist intrusions by Mexicans and Americans during the 19th century. He was described as a large man (for the time), with a muscular frame, classical features, and long, black hair, which he wore in traditional Apache style. He was about  tall and weighed about . In his own language, his name Cheis meant "having the quality or strength of oak."

Cochise and the Chokonen-Chiricahua lived in the area that is now the northern region of Sonora, Mexico; New Mexico, and Arizona, which they had settled in sometime before the arrival of the European explorers and colonists.  As Spain and later Mexico attempted to gain dominion over the Chiricahua lands, the indigenous groups became increasingly resistant. Cycles of warfare developed, which the Apache mostly won. Eventually, the Spanish tried a different approach; they tried to make the Apache dependent (thereby placating them), giving them older firearms and liquor rations issued by the colonial government (this was called the "Galvez Peace Policy"). After Mexico gained independence from Spain and took control of this territory, it ended the practice, perhaps lacking the resources (and/or possibly the will) to continue it. The various Chiricahua bands resumed raiding in the 1830s to acquire what they wanted after the Mexicans stopped selling these goods to them.

As a result, the Mexican government began a series of military operations to stop the raiding by the Chiricahua, but they were fought to a standstill by the Apache. Cochise's father was killed in the fighting. Cochise deepened his resolve, and the Chiricahua Apache pursued vengeance against the Mexicans. Mexican forces captured Cochise at one point in 1848 during an Apache raid on Fronteras, Sonora, but he was exchanged for nearly a dozen Mexican prisoners.

Border tensions and fighting
Beginning with early Spanish colonization around 1600, the Apache suffered tension and strife with European settlers until the greater part of the area was acquired by the United States in 1850 following the Mexican War. For a time, the two peoples managed peaceful relations. In the late 1850s, Cochise may have supplied firewood for the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach station at Apache Pass.

The tenuous peace did not last, as American encroachment into Apache territory continued. In 1861, the Bascom affair was a catalyst for armed confrontation. An Apache raiding party had driven away a local rancher's cattle and kidnapped his 12-year-old stepson (Felix Ward, who later became known as Mickey Free). Cochise and his band were mistakenly accused of the incident (which had been carried out by another band, Coyotero Apache).  Army officer Lt. George Bascom invited Cochise to the Army's encampment in the belief that the warrior was responsible for the incident. Cochise maintained his innocence and offered to look into the matter with other Apache groups, but the officer tried to arrest him. Cochise escaped by drawing a knife and slashing his way out of the tent, but was shot at as he fled.

Bascom captured some of Cochise's relatives, who apparently were taken by surprise as Cochise escaped. Cochise eventually also took hostages to use in negotiations to free the Apache Indians.  However, the negotiations fell apart, because the arrival of U.S. troop reinforcements led Cochise to believe that the situation was spiraling out of his control. Both sides eventually killed all their remaining hostages. Cochise went on to carry out about 11 years of relentless warfare, reducing much of the Mexican/American settlements in southern Arizona to a burned-out wasteland. Dan Thrapp estimated the total death toll of settlers and Mexican/American travelers as 5,000, but most historians believe it was more likely a few hundred. The mistaken arrest of Cochise by Lt. Bascom is still remembered by the Chiricahua's descendants today, who describe the incident as "Cut the Tent".

Cochise joined his father-in-law Mangas Coloradas (Red Sleeves, Kan-da-zis Tlishishen), the powerful Chihenne-Chiricahua chief, in a long series of retaliatory skirmishes and raids on the white settlements and ranches. The Battle of Dragoon Springs was one of these engagements. During the raids, many people were killed, but the Apache quite often had the upper hand. The United States was distracted by its own internal conflict of the looming Civil War, and had begun to pull military forces out of the area. Additionally, the Apaches were highly adapted to living and fighting in the harsh terrain of the Southwest. Many years passed before the US Army, using tactics conceived by General George Crook and later adopted by General Nelson A. Miles, was able to effectively challenge the Apache warriors on their own lands.

Battle of Apache Pass
At Apache Pass in 1862, Cochise and Mangas Coloradas, with around 500 fighters, held their ground against a New Mexico-bound force of California volunteers under General James Henry Carleton until carriage-mounted howitzer artillery fire was brought to bear on their positions in the rocks above.

According to scout John C. Cremony and historian Dan L. Thrapp, the howitzer fire sent the Apaches into an immediate retreat. The Battle of Apache Pass was one of the rare pitched battles the Apaches fought against the Army. Normally, the Apaches' tactics involved guerrilla-style warfare. Capt. Thomas Roberts was persuaded by this conflict that it would be best to find a route around Apache Pass, which he did. Gen. Carleton continued unhindered to New Mexico and subsequently took over as commander of the territory.

In January 1863, Gen. Joseph R. West, under orders from Gen. Carleton, captured Mangas Coloradas by luring him into a conference under a flag of truce. During what was to be a peaceful parley session, the Americans took Mangas Coloradas prisoner and later murdered him. This fanned the flames of enmity between the encroaching Americans and the Apache. Cochise believed that the Americans had violated the rules of war by capturing and killing Mangas Coloradas during a parley session. Cochise and the Apache continued their raids against U.S. and Mexican settlements and military positions throughout the 1860s.

Capture, escape and retirement

Following various skirmishes, Cochise and his men were gradually driven into Arizona's Dragoon Mountains, but used the mountains for cover and as a base from which to continue attacks against white settlements. Cochise evaded capture and continued his raids against white settlements and travelers until 1872. In 1871, General Oliver O. Howard was ordered to find Cochise, and in 1872, Howard was accompanied by his aide 1st Lt Joseph A. Sladen and Captain Samuel S. Sumner to Arizona to negotiate a peace treaty with Cochise. Tom Jeffords, the Apache leader's only white friend, was also present. A treaty was negotiated on October 12, 1872. Based on statements by Sumner and descriptions by Sladen, modern historians such as Robert M. Utley believe that Cochise's Spanish interpreter was Geronimo.

After the peace treaty, Cochise retired to the short-lived Chiricahua Reservation (1872–1876), with his friend Jeffords as agent. He died of natural causes (probably abdominal cancer) in 1874, and was buried in the rocks above one of his favorite camps in Arizona's Dragoon Mountains, now called the Cochise Stronghold. Only his people and Tom Jeffords knew the exact location of his resting place, which they never disclosed.

Many of Cochise's descendants reside at the Mescalero Apache Reservation near Ruidoso, New Mexico, and in Oklahoma with the Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Chiricahua Warm Springs Apache.

Whether a portrait of Cochise exists is unknown; a reported portrait is actually that of a 1903 Pueblo of Isleta man named Juan Rey Abeita.

Family
Cochise married Dos-teh-seh (Dos-tes-ey, Doh-teh-seh – "Something-at-the-campfire-already-cooked", b. 1838), the daughter of Mangas Coloradas, who was the leader of the Warm Springs and Mimbreño local groups of the Chihenne band. Their children were Taza (1842–1876) and Naiche (1856–1919).

In popular culture

The best-selling novel by Elliott Arnold in 1947 titled Blood Brother gives a fictionalized account of the latter part of the struggle and friendship between Tom Jeffords and Cochise.
In 1950, director Delmer Daves turned Arnold's novel into a film retitled Broken Arrow, featuring James Stewart as Tom Jeffords and Jeff Chandler as Cochise. Broken Arrow is often credited as the first sound film to show a sympathetic picture of Native Americans and influenced the popular image of Native American people. The tall, handsome, deeply tanned Chandler, a Jewish actor born in Brooklyn, New York, portrayed Cochise as a noble, nearly tragic character forced to fight against the U.S. Army officers who led incursions into Apache territory.
John Ford's representation of Cochise in the 1948 film Fort Apache was also positive to Native Americans, although in that film, Cochise spoke Spanish (a language the Apaches had learned from their Mexican enemies).  Jeff Chandler again portrayed Cochise in the 1952 film The Battle at Apache Pass as well as  in Taza, Son of Cochise (1954), with Rock Hudson as his son, Taza. The film Conquest of Cochise released by Columbia Pictures in 1953 and starring John Hodiak as Cochise also showed Cochise as a caring man who wanted peace with whites. Broken Arrow is a TV series adapted from the 1950 film that told a fictionalized account of the historical relationship between Tom Jeffords (John Lupton) and Cochise (Michael Ansara); the show was aired on ABC in prime time from 1956 through 1958. Cochise was portrayed by Jeff Morrow in a 1961 episode of Bonanza.
"Cochise" is an instrumental piece in the album Guitars, by Mike Oldfield.
Audioslave's debut single "Cochise" is named after the chief. In an interview, guitarist Tom Morello said that Cochise was "the last great American Indian chief to die free and absolutely unconquered. When several members of his family were captured, tortured, and hanged by the U.S. Cavalry, Cochise declared war on the entire Southwest.... Cochise the avenger, fearless and resolute, attacked everything in his path with an unbridled fury."
The 2008 novel by Melody Groves titled Arizona War: A Colton Brothers Saga gives a fictionalized account of Cochise's dealings with the main characters, James and Trace Colton, during the early 1860s, including the Bascom affair of 1861 and the New Mexico-bound force of California volunteers under General James Henry Carleton during 1862.
Wes Studi portrays Cochise in A Million Ways to Die in the West despite the film being set in 1882, eight years after Cochise's death.
A statue of Cochise is shown as a meeting point between friends Jaime Reyes and Tye Longshadow in the Young Justice episode "Beneath".
A small lunar crater was named after Cochise, located near the landing site in the Taurus–Littrow valley, by the astronauts of Apollo 17.
Phoenix-area theme park, Legend City (now defunct), featured a popular animatronic river ride called Cochise's Stronghold.
An alien from the TV show Falling Skies is nicknamed "Cochise" by his human allies.

References

Further reading
 Bourke, John G. (1971). On the Border with Crook. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.  . .
 Nichols, Roger L. Warrior Nations: The United States and Indian Peoples. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013.

 Sweeney, Edward R. (2008) Making Peace with Cochise: The 1872 Journal of Captain Joseph Alton Sladen. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008. .

External links
 Chiricahua Apache Nation
   Note that the first photo in Find a Grave is actually not Cochise.  That photo is a popular one of Chato (Apache) from the Smithsonian's National Anthropological Archives:  See Portrait of Chief Chato in Native Dress 1886. Since the photo was taken in 1886, Cochise was long gone (he died in 1874).  The second photo in Find a Grave is of Eskiminzin, the Aravapai Apache leader.

19th-century Native Americans
Apache Wars
Native American people of the Indian Wars
Native American leaders
Chiricahua people
Native American people from Arizona
People from New Mexico
People of the American Old West
American folklore
1800s births
1874 deaths

Cochise


Saint Louis encephalitis is a disease caused by the mosquito-borne Saint Louis encephalitis virus.  Saint Louis encephalitis virus is related to Japanese encephalitis virus and is a member of the family Flaviviridae. This disease mainly affects the United States, including Hawaii. Occasional cases have been reported from Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean, including the Greater Antilles, Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica.

Signs and symptoms
The majority of infections result in mild illness, including fever and headache. When infection is more severe the person may experience headache, high fever, neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, occasional convulsions and spastic paralysis. Fatality ranges from . Elderly people are more likely to have a fatal infection.

Transmission
Mosquitoes, primarily from the genus Culex, become infected by feeding on birds infected with the Saint Louis encephalitis virus. The most common vector of this disease within the genus Culex is Culex pipiens, also known as the common house mosquito. Infected mosquitoes then transmit the Saint Louis encephalitis virus to humans and animals during the feeding process. The Saint Louis encephalitis virus grows both in the infected mosquito and the infected bird, but does not make either one sick. Only infected mosquitoes can transmit Saint Louis encephalitis virus. Once a human has been infected with the virus it is not transmissible from that individual to other humans.

Genetics
Five evolutionary genetic studies of SLE virus have been published of which four focused on phylogeny, genetic variation, and recombination dynamics by sequencing the envelope protein gene and parts of other genes.

A recent evolutionary study based on 23 new full open reading frame sequences (near-complete genomes) found that the North American strains belonged to a single clade. Strains were isolated at different points in time (from 1933 to 2001) which allowed for the estimation of divergence times of SLE virus clades and the overall evolutionary rate. Furthermore, this study found an increase in the effective population size of the SLE virus around the end of the 19th century that corresponds to the split of the latest North American clade, suggesting a northwards colonization of SLE virus in the Americas, and a split from the ancestral South American strains around 1892. Scans for natural selection showed that most codons of the SLE virus ORF were evolving neutrally or under negative selection. Positive selection was statistically detected only at one single codon coding for amino acids belonging to the hypothesized N-linked glycosylation site of the envelope protein. Nevertheless, the latter can be due to selection in vitro (laboratory) rather than in vivo (host). In an independent study 14 out of 106 examined envelope gene sequences were found not to contain a specific codon at position 156 coding for this glycosylation site (Ser→Phe/Tyr).

Another study estimated the evolutionary rate to be  (95% confidence ). The virus seems to have evolved in northern Mexico and then spread northwards with migrating birds.

Treatment
There are no vaccines or any other treatments specifically for Saint Louis encephalitis virus, although one study showed that early use of interferon alfa-2b may decrease the severity of complications.

Epidemiology

In the United States an average of 128 cases of Saint Louis encephalitis are recorded annually. In temperate areas of the United States, Saint Louis encephalitis cases occur primarily in the late summer or early fall. In the southern United States where the climate is milder Saint Louis encephalitis can occur year-round.

History
The name of the virus goes back to 1933 when within five weeks in autumn an encephalitis epidemic of explosive proportions broke out in the vicinity of St. Louis, Missouri, and the neighboring St. Louis County.
Over 1,000 cases were reported to the local health departments and the newly constituted National Institutes of Health of the United States was appealed to for epidemiological and investigative expertise.
The previously unknown virus that caused the epidemic was isolated by the NIH team first in monkeys and then in white mice.

On September 11, 2001, an outbreak of this disease prompted an emergency alert in Louisiana after 50 cases were reported.

References

External links

 United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Saint Louis encephalitis.

 The Encephalitis Society - A Global resource on Encephalitis

Viral encephalitis
Insect-borne diseases

Saint Louis encephalitis


Mamia III Gurieli (), also known as Mamia the Great Gurieli (დიდი გურიელი, Didi Gurieli) or the Black Gurieli (შავი გურიელი, Shavi Gurieli) (died 5 January 1714), of the western Georgian House of Gurieli, was Prince of Guria from 1689 to 1714. Involved in civil wars plaguing western Georgia, he became King of Imereti three times in the years of 1701, 1711–1712, and 1713–1714. After his first reign as king for a year in 1701, he abdicated the throne of Imereti, being unable to tolerate the influence of his father-in-law Giorgi Abashidze. Subsequent periods of his royal career was the result of a feud with Giorgi VII of Imereti. Mamia died while still sitting on the throne of Imereti, which then reverted to his rival Giorgi VII.

Accession and early rule in Guria
Mamia was a younger son of Giorgi III Gurieli and Tamar Chijavadze. On Giorgi's death at the battle of Rokiti against King Alexander IV of Imereti in 1684, Mamia joined his brothers in exile in Akhaltsikhe under the protection of its Ottoman governor Yusuf-Pasha. In the subsequent infighting between Mamia's elder brother Kaikhosro and his paternal uncle Malakia, the former lost his life, while the latter was deprived of his sight. Eventually, in 1689, at the request of Guria's nobility, Mamia was summoned from Akhaltsikhe and installed as prince-regnant with the pasha's support, while the blinded Malakia was made Bishop of Shemokmedi by the new Gurieli ruler.

In 1690, Mamia hosted Giorgi XI, the exiled king of Kartli and a foe of Alexander IV of Imereti, but soon became suspicious of his nobles' loyalty to the guest and began a crackdown on the suspected opposition, forcing Giorgi to relocate to the Ottoman-controlled Gonio. In the incessant power struggles in Imereti, Mamia originally supported his father-in-law Giorgi Abashidze, but, in 1699, he helped Abashidze's estranged son-in-law, King Simon, return from his exile in Kartli and recover the crown of Imereti. In return, Simon agreed to divorce Abashidze's daughter Anika and marry Mamia's sister. Abashidze, supported by the Mingrelian regent Giorgi Lipartiani, marshaled his troops on the borders of Guria and requested that Gurieli kill Simon, promising to make Mamia king of Imereti. Gurieli refused to do that himself, but allowed Abashidze's agents to shoot Simon dead in a bathroom in 1701.

First reign in Imereti and Ottoman invasion
Pursuant to his promise, Abashidze made Mamia king of Imereti, if in name only. Abashidze controlled royal domains, revenues, and nobility, while Mamia had to sell his Gurian subjects in slavery to meet his own expenses. Later that year, Mamia felt compelled to abdicate and retire to Guria. Abashidze made himself king of Imereti and, thus, a suzerain of Guria and Mingrelia.

In 1703, Guria as well as the rest of western Georgia faced a major invasion by the Ottoman Empire. Eager to tighten a loosening grip over their Caucasian subjects, the Ottomans mounted a large-scale invasion, with the intention to eliminate the sovereignty of Guria and limit that of Imereti. A revolt of the troops bound to Georgia forced the Ottomans to withdraw from Georgia's interior, but the coastal area around Batumi was permanently lost for Guria.

Second and third reigns in Imereti
By 1707, the unity imposed by Abashidze on western Georgia crumbled. In 1709, Abashidze and his Mingrelian allies were defeated by his rival Giorgi VII, who enjoyed the Ottomans' support. Giorgi then raided and ravaged Guria in response of Mamia's support of Abashidze. Giorgi's corrupt rule soon became intolerable to the Imeretians; in October 1711, Mamia secured the support of the nobles of Mingrelia, Racha, and Lechkhumi and reestablished himself as king of Imereti, leaving Guria to his son Giorgi IV Gurieli. During his tenure, he banned slave-trading and opened schools in Guria.

Both Giorgi VII and Giorgi Abashidze took refuge with King Vakhtang VI of Kartli, who attempted to end the feud. Abashidze returned to his estates in Imereti. The deposed king Giorgi went to Akhaltsikhe and conspired with Zurab Abashidze, Giorgi Abashidze's nephew, who had been dispossessed by Mamia. In June 1712, Giorgi VII and Zurab Abashidze secretly invaded the district of Argveti and inflicted defeat on Mamia and Giorgi Abashidze at Chkhari.

Gurieli fled to Racha and then to Kartli, where he was hosted in Tskhinvali by Vakhtang VI's son Bakar. Supported by the government of Kartli, Mamia made his way to Guria. In November 1713, Mamia Gurieli, joined by Dadiani, the duke of Racha, Giorgi Abashidze, and the Lechkhumians, defeated King Giorgi at Kutaisi and forced him into flight to Akhaltsikhe. Mamia died two months later, on 5 January 1714 and Giorgi VII was restored once again. Mamia's remains were taken to Guria and interred at the Shemokmedi Monastery.

Family
Mamia Gurieli was married twice. He first wed, in 1698, Elene, daughter of Giorgi Abashidze. Their marriage was repudiated in 1711 and Mamia married Tamar (died 1716), daughter of Papuna I, Duke of Racha, and former wife of Prince Papuna Chkheidze. After the death of Mamia, she married his husband's rival King Giorgi VII of Imereti, but died shortly after the marriage and was buried at Gelati.

Mamia had seven children, four sons and three daughters:

 Prince Giorgi IV Gurieli (1702–1726), Regent in Guria (1711–1714), Prince of Guria (1714–1726), King of Imereti (1716);
 Prince Kaikhosro III Gurieli (died c. 1751), rival Prince of Guria (1716);
 Prince Nikoloz (died 1755), Bishop of Semokmedi c. 1719;
 Prince Levan, rival regent in Guria (1711–1713);
 Princess Tamar (died 1742), who was married to Giorgi IV Dadiani from 1710 to 1714 and Giorgi VII of Imereti from 1716 to 1720;
 Princess N., wife of Aslan-Pasha of Akhaltsikhe;
 Princess N., wife of Giorgi Shervashidze, Duke in Guria.

References

1714 deaths
House of Gurieli
Kings of Imereti
Year of birth unknown
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
17th-century people from Georgia (country)
18th-century people from Georgia (country)

Mamia III Gurieli


The Cromwell current is the name of a submarine river. It was discovered in 1952 by the scientist Townsend Cromwell. It is 250 miles (400 km) wide. It flows to the east. The current appears about 300 feet below the surface of the Pacific Ocean at the equator.

The Cromwell current carries a lot of oxygen and nutrients. It is very rich in marine life.

Oceanography

Cromwell current