The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Wikipedia:

ꯋꯤꯀꯤꯄꯦꯗꯤꯌꯥ – a free, web-based, collaborative and multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit ꯋꯤꯀꯤꯃꯦꯗꯤꯌꯥ ꯃꯈꯣꯡ ꯫ It has more than 44 million articles ( in English) have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world. Almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site, and it has about 100,000 regularly active contributors.

What type of thing is Wikipedia?
 Reference work – compendium of information, usually of a specific type, compiled in a book for ease of reference. That is, the information is intended to be quickly found when needed. Reference works are usually referred to for particular pieces of information, rather than read beginning to end.The writing style used in these works is informative; the authors avoid use of the first person, and emphasize facts.
Encyclopedia – type of reference work or compendium holding a comprehensive summary of information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge. Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries, which are usually accessed alphabetically by article name. Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries.
 Internet encyclopedia project (online encyclopedia) – large database of useful information, accessible via the World Wide Web.
 Database – organized collection of data. The data is typically organized to model aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring information. For example, modelling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that supports finding a hotel with vacancies.
 Online database – database accessible from a network, including from the Internet (such as on a web page).
 Website – collection of related web pages containing images, videos or other digital assets. A website is hosted on at least one web server, accessible via a network such as the Internet or a private local area network through an Internet address known as a Uniform Resource Locator. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web.
 Wiki – website that allows the creation and editing of any number of interlinked web pages via a web browser using a simplified markup language or a WYSIWYG text editor. Wikis are typically powered by wiki software and are often developed and used collaboratively by multiple users.Examples include community websites, corporate intranets, knowledge management systems, and note services.The software can also be used for personal notetaking.
 Community – group of interacting people with social cohesion, who may share common values.
 Community of action – community in which participants endeavor collaboratively to bring about change.
 Community of interest – community of people who share a common interest or passion. These people exchange ideas and thoughts about the given passion, but may know (or care) little about each other outside of this area. The common interest on Wikipedia is knowledge.
 Community of purpose – community that serves a functional need, smoothing the path of the member for a limited period surrounding a given activity. For example, researching a topic on Wikipedia.org, buying a car on autobytel.com, or antique collectors on icollector.com or individual.
 Virtual community – social network of individuals who interact through specific media, potentially crossing geographical and political boundaries in order to pursue mutual interests or goals.
 Online community – virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership ritual. An online community can take the form of an information system where anyone can post content, such as a Bulletin board system or one where only a restricted number of people can initiate posts, such as Weblogs.
 Wiki community – users, especially the editors, of a particular wiki.
 Collective memory – shared pool of information held in the memories of two or more members of a group.

Implementation of Wikipedia
 Structure of Wikipedia
 List of Wikipedias – Wikipedia is implemented in many languages. As of April 2018, there were 299 Wikipedias, of which 289 are active.
 Logo of Wikipedia – unfinished globe constructed from jigsaw pieces—some pieces are still missing at the top—inscribed with glyphs from many different writing systems.
 Articles – written works published in a print or electronic medium. Each Wikipedia is divided into many articles, with each article focusing on a particular topic.
 Types of articles on Wikipedia
 Prose articles –
 Lists –
 Item lists –
 Article indexes (on the English Wikipedia) –
 Outlines (on the English Wikipedia) –
 Content management on Wikipedia – processes for the collection, managing, and publishing of information on Wikipedia
 Deletionism and inclusionism in Wikipedia – opposing philosophies of editors of Wikipedia concerning the appropriate scope of the encyclopedia, and the appropriate point for a topic to be included as an encyclopedia article or be "deleted".
 Notability in English Wikipedia – metric used to determine topics meriting a dedicated encyclopedia article. It attempts to assess whether a topic has "gained sufficiently significant attention by the world at large and over a period of time" as evidenced by significant coverage in reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic.
 Reliability of Wikipedia – Wikipedia is open to anonymous and collaborative editing, so assessments of its reliability usually include examinations of how quickly false or misleading information is removed. An early study conducted by IBM researchers in 2003—two years following Wikipedia's establishment—found that "vandalism is usually repaired extremely quickly—so quickly that most users will never see its effects" and concluded that Wikipedia had "surprisingly effective self-healing capabilities".
 Vandalism on Wikipedia – the act of editing the project in a malicious manner that is intentionally disruptive. Vandalism includes the addition, removal, or other modification of the text or other material that is either humorous, nonsensical, a hoax, spam or promotion of a subject, or that is of an offensive, humiliating, or otherwise degrading in nature. There are various measures taken by Wikipedia to prevent or reduce the amount of vandalism.
 Wiki magic – described by Jimmy Wales as a phenomenon whereby an author may write the beginnings of an article at the end of the day, only to wake up in the morning and find the stub converted into a much more substantial article.
 Computer technology that makes Wikipedia work:
 Hardware
 Computers – general purpose devices that can be programmed to carry out sets of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. A computer that is used to host server software is called a "server". It takes many servers to make Wikipedia available to the world. These servers are run by the WikiMedia Foundation.
 Software – Wikipedia is powered by the following software on WikiMedia Foundation's computers (servers). It takes all of these to make Wikipedia pages available on the World Wide Web:
 Operating systems used on WikiMedia Foundation's servers:
 Ubuntu Server – used on all Wikipedia servers except those used for image file storage
 Solaris – used on Wikipedia's image file storage servers
 MediaWiki – main web application that makes Wikipedia work. It's a free web-based wiki software application developed by the Wikimedia Foundation (WMF), written in PHP, that is used to run all of WMF's projects, including Wikipedia. Numerous other wikis around the world also use it.
 Content storage – Wikipedia's content (it's articles and other pages) are stored in MariaDB databases. WikiMedia Foundation's wikis are grouped into clusters, and each cluster is served by several MariaDB servers, in a single-master configuration.
 Distributed object storage – distributed objects are software modules that are designed to work together, but reside either in multiple computers connected via a network. One object sends a message to another object in a remote machine to perform some task.
 Ceph –
 Swift –
 Proxy servers – act as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other servers. A client connects to the proxy server, requesting some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource available from a different server and the proxy server evaluates the request as a way to simplify and control its complexity. Proxies were invented to add structure and encapsulation to distributed systems. Today, most proxies are web proxies, facilitating access to content on the World Wide Web. The proxy servers used for Wikipedia are:
 For serving up HTML pages – Squid and Varnish caching proxy servers in front of Apache HTTP Server. Apache processes requests via HTTP, the basic network protocol used to distribute information on the World Wide Web.
 For serving up image files – Squid and Varnish caching proxy servers in front of Sun Java System Web Server
 DNS proxies – WikiMedia Foundation's DNS proxy servers run PowerDNS. It's a DNS server program that runs under Unix (including Ubuntu). DNS stands for "domain name system".
 Load balancing –
 Linux Virtual Server (LVS) – Wikipedia uses LVS on commodity servers to load-balance incoming requests. LVS is also used as an internal load balancer to distribute MediaWiki and Lucene back-end requests.
 PyBal – Wikimedia Foundation's own system for back-end monitoring and failover.
 Caching
 Memcached – Wikipedia uses Memcached for caching of database query and computation results.
 For full-text search – Wikipedia uses Lucene, with extensive customization contributed by Robert Stojnic.
 Wikimedia configuration files
 Setting up Wikipedia on a home computer
 Downloading Wikipedia's database (all article text)
 Installing MediaWiki (the software that runs Wikipedia)

Wikipedia community
 Community of Wikipedia – loosely-knit network of volunteers, sometimes known as "Wikipedians", who make contributions to the online encyclopedia, Wikipedia. A hierarchy exists whereby certain editors are elected to be given greater editorial control by other community members.
 Volunteering – altruistic activity, intended to promote good or improve human quality of life, but people also volunteer for their own skill development, to meet others, to make contacts for possible employment, to have fun, and a variety of other reasons that could be considered self-serving. Volunteerism is the act of selflessly giving your life to something you believe free of pay. Wikipedia is written entirely by volunteers.
 Virtual volunteering – working on a task on-line, off-site from the organization being assisted, without the requirement or expectation of being paid, using a computer or other Internet-connected device. Wikipedia is developed on-line by contributors using their web browsers.
 Micro-volunteering – tasks done by a volunteer, or a team of volunteers, without payment, either online or offline in small increments of time.
 Motivations of Wikipedia contributors – article includes various studies about the motivations of Wikipedia contributors.
 Arbitration Committee (ArbCom) – panel of editors elected by the Wikipedia community that imposes binding rulings with regard to disputes between editors of the online encyclopedia. It acts as the court of last resort for disputes among editors.
 Wikipedia Signpost – on-line community-written and community-edited newspaper, covering stories, events and reports related to Wikipedia and the Wikimedia Foundation sister projects.

Viewing Wikipedia off-line
 Kiwix – free and open-source offline web browser created by Emmanuel Engelhart and Renaud Gaudin in 2007. It was first launched to allow offline access to Wikipedia, but has since expanded to include other projects from the Wikimedia foundation as well as public domain texts from the Project Gutenberg.
 XOWA – open-source application written primarily in Java by anonymous developers, intended for users who wish to run their own copy of Wikipedia, or any other compatible Wiki offline without an internet connection. XOWA is compatible with Microsoft Windows, OSX, Linux and Android.

Diffusion of Wikipedia
 Diffusion – process by which a new idea or new product is accepted by the market. The rate of diffusion is the speed that the new idea spreads from one consumer to the next. In economics it is more often named "technological change".
 Diffusion of innovations – process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.
 List of Wikipedias – Wikipedia has spread around the world, being made available to people in their native tongues. As of April 2018, there were 299 Wikipedias.

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 Books LLC – publishes print-on-demand paperback and downloadable compilations of English texts and documents from open knowledge sources such as Wikipedia.
 DBpedia –
 Koru search engine –
 Wikipediavision –

Websites that mirror Wikipedia
 Answers.com –
 Bing –
 Facebook –
 NationMaster –
 Reference.com –
 TheFreeDictionary.com –
 Wapedia –

Wikipedia derived encyclopedias
 Books LLC –
 Humane Informatics –
 VDM Publishing –
 Veropedia –
 WikiPilipinas –
 WikiPock –
 WikiReader –

Parodies of Wikipedia
 Bigipedia – a comedy series broadcast by BBC Radio 4 in July 2009, which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles.
 Encyclopedia Dramatica –
 La Frikipedia –
 Stupidedia –
 Uncyclopedia – satirical website that parodies Wikipedia. Founded in 2005 as an originally English-language wiki, the project currently spans over 75 languages. The English version has over 30,000 pages of content, second only to the Brazilian/Portuguese.

Wikipedia-related media
 Wikipedia Signpost – on-line community-written and community-edited newspaper, covering stories, events and reports related to Wikipedia and the Wikimedia Foundation sister projects.

Books about Wikipedia

 Common Knowledge?: An Ethnography of Wikipedia 2014 Dariusz Jemielniak
 The Cult of the Amateur –
 Good Faith Collaboration –
 How Wikipedia Works –
 La révolution Wikipédia –
 Wikipedia: A New Community of Practice? 2009 by British historian Dan O'Sullivan
 The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia –
 Wikipedia – The Missing Manual –
 The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality –

Films about Wikipedia
 List of films about Wikipedia –

Third-party software related to Wikipedia
 DBpedia (from "DB" for "database") – database built from the structured content of Wikipedia, including infoboxes, etc. It is made available for free on the World Wide Web. DBpedia allows users to semantically query relationships and properties associated with Wikipedia resources, including links to other related datasets.
 Kiwix – free program used to view Wikipedia offline (no Internet connection). This is done by reading the content of the project stored in a file of the ZIM format, which contains the compressed contents of Wikipedia. Kiwix is designed for computers without Internet access, and in particular, computers in schools in the Third World, where Internet service is scant.
 WikiTaxonomy – hierarchy of classes and instances (an ontology) automatically generated from Wikipedia's category system
 YAGO (Yet Another Great Ontology) – knowledge base developed at the Max Planck Institute for Computer Science in Saarbrücken. It is automatically extracted from Wikipedia and other sources. It includes knowledge about more than 10 million entities and contains more than 120 million facts about these entities.

Mobile apps

 QRpedia – mobile Web based system which uses QR codes to deliver Wikipedia articles to users, in their preferred language. The QRpedia server uses Wikipedia's API to determine whether there is a version of the specified Wikipedia article in the language used by the device, and if so, returns it in a mobile-friendly format. If there is no version of the article available in the preferred language, then the QRpedia server performs a search for the article title on the relevant language's Wikipedia, and returns the results.
 WikiNodes – app for the Apple iPad for browsing Wikipedia using a radial tree  approach to visualize how articles and subsections of articles are interrelated. It is a visual array of related items (articles or sections of an article), which spread on the screen, as a spiderweb of icons.

Reliability analysis programs
 Wiki-Watch – free page analysis tool that automatically assesses the reliability of Wikipedia articles in English and German. It produces a five-level evaluation score corresponding to its assessment of reliability.
 Wikibu – assesses the reliability of German Wikipedia articles. It was originally designed for use in schools to improve information literacy.
 WikiTrust – assesses the credibility of content and author reputation of wiki articles using an automated algorithm. WikiTrust is a plug-in for servers using the MediaWiki platform, such as Wikipedia.

General Wikipedia concepts
 Wikipedia iOS apps –
 Henryk Batuta hoax – hoax perpetrated on the Polish Wikipedia in the form of an article about Henryk Batuta (born Izaak Apfelbaum), a fictional socialist revolutionary and Polish Communist. The fake biography said Batuta was born in Odessa in 1898 and participated in the Russian Civil War. The article was created on November 8, 2004, and exposed as a hoax 15 months later when on February 1, 2006 it was listed for deletion.
 Bomis – former dot-com company founded in 1996 by Jimmy Wales and Tim Shell. Its primary business was the sale of advertising on the Bomis.com search portal, and to provide support for the free encyclopedia projects Nupedia and Wikipedia.
 Conflict of interest editing on Wikipedia –
 Crnogorska Enciklopedija –
 Deletionpedia –
 Democratization of knowledge –
 Enciclopedia Libre Universal en Español –
 Essjay controversy –
 Gene Wiki –
 Péter Gervai –
 Good Faith Collaboration –
 Internet Watch Foundation and Wikipedia –
 Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia
 Rick Jelliffe –
 Kidnapping of David Rohde –
 Alan Mcilwraith –
 National Portrait Gallery and Wikimedia Foundation copyright dispute –
 Network effect –
 Nupedia –
 Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia –
 Edward Owens (hoax) –
 Simon Pulsifer –
 QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia
 La révolution Wikipédia –
 WikiScanner –
 Speakapedia –
 The Truth According to Wikipedia –
 Truth in Numbers? –
 Universal Edit Button –
 US Congressional staff edits to Wikipedia –
 User-generated content –
 Wolfgang Werlé and Manfred Lauber –
 Wiki –
 Wikidumper.org –
 Wikipedia biography controversy –
 Wikipedia CD Selection –
 Wikipedia Review –
 Wikipedia in culture

Politics of Wikipedia
 Censorship of Wikipedia –
 Church of Scientology editing on Wikipedia –
 Corporate Representatives for Ethical Wikipedia Engagement –
 Wikipedia for World Heritage – effort underway to get Wikipedia listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

History of Wikipedia
History of Wikipedia – Wikipedia was formally launched on 15 January 2001 by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, using the concept and technology of a wiki pioneered by Ward Cunningham. Initially, Wikipedia was created to complement Nupedia, an online encyclopedia project edited solely by experts, by providing additional draft articles and ideas for it. Wikipedia quickly overtook Nupedia, becoming a global project in multiple languages and inspiring a wide range of additional reference projects.
 Nupedia – the predecessor of Wikipedia. Nupedia was an English-language Web-based encyclopedia that lasted from March 2000 until September 2003. Its articles were written by experts and licensed as free content. It was founded by Jimmy Wales and underwritten by Bomis, with Larry Sanger as editor-in-chief.
 Wayback Machine – digital time capsule created by the Internet Archive non-profit organization, based in San Francisco, California. The service enables users to see archived versions of web pages (including Wikipedia) across time, which the Archive calls a "three dimensional index". Internet Archive bought the domain waybackmachine.org for their own site. It is currently in its beta test.
 Wikipedia on the Wayback Machine
 Founders of Wikipedia
 Larry Sanger – chief organizer (2001–2002) of Wikipedia. He moved on and founded Citizendium.
 Jimmy Wales – historically cited as a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has disputed the "co-" designation, declaring himself the sole founder. Wales serves on the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit charitable organization he helped establish to operate Wikipedia, holding its board-appointed "community founder seat".
 Academic studies about Wikipedia – In recent years there have been numerous academic studies about Wikipedia in peer-reviewed publications. This research can be grouped into two categories. The first analyzed the production and reliability of the encyclopedia content, while the second investigated social aspects, such as usage and administration. Such studies are greatly facilitated by the fact that Wikipedia's database can be downloaded without needing to ask the assistance of the site owner.
 Flagged revisions – software extension to the MediaWiki wiki software that allows moderation of edits to Wiki pages. It was developed by the Wikimedia Foundation for use on Wikipedia and similar wikis hosted on its servers. On June 14, 2010, English Wikipedia began a 2-month trial of a similar feature known as pending changes. In May 2011, this feature was removed indefinitely from all articles, after a discussion among English Wikipedia editors.

Wikipedia-inspired projects
 Citizendium –
 Conservapedia –
 Infogalactic –
 Knol –
 Scholarpedia –
 Uncyclopedia – satirical website that parodies Wikipedia. Its logo, a hollow "puzzle potato", parodies Wikipedia's globe puzzle logo, and it styles itself "the content-free encyclopedia", which is a parody of Wikipedia's slogan, "the free encyclopedia". The project spans over 75 languages. The English version has approximately 30,000 pages of content, second only to the Portuguese.

Wikipedia in culture
Wikipedia in culture –
 Wikiracing – game using the online encyclopedia .Wikipedia which focuses on traversing links from one page to another. The average number of links separating any two Wikipedia pages is 3.67.

People in relation to Wikipedia
 Larry Sanger – chief organizer (2001–2002) of Wikipedia. He moved on and founded Citizendium.
 Jimmy Wales – historically cited as a co-founder of Wikipedia, though he has disputed the "co-" designation, declaring himself the sole founder. Wales serves on the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation, the non-profit charitable organization he helped establish to operate Wikipedia, holding its board-appointed "community founder" seat.
 Andrew Lih – veteran Wikipedia contributor, and in 2009 published the book The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia. Lih has been interviewed in a variety of publications, including Salon.com and The New York Times Freakonomics blog, as an expert on Wikipedia.

Critics of Wikipedia
 Murat Bardakçı – on Turkish television, he declared that Wikipedia should be banned.
 Nicholas G. Carr – in his 2005 blog essay titled "The Amorality of Web 2.0," he criticized the quality of volunteer Web 2.0 information projects such as Wikipedia and the blogosphere and argued that they may have a net negative effect on society by displacing more expensive professional alternatives.
 Jorge Cauz – president of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.. In July 2006, in an interview in The New Yorker, he stated that Wikipedia would "decline into a hulking, mediocre mass of uneven, unreliable, and, many times, unreadable articles" and that "Wikipedia is to Britannica as American Idol is to the Juilliard School."
 Conservapedia  English-language wiki project started in 2006 by homeschool teacher and attorney Andy Schlafly, son of conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly, to counter what he called the liberal bias of Wikipedia.
 Gay Nigger Association of America – anti-blogging Internet trolling organization. On Wikipedia, members of the group created a page about themselves, while adhering to every rule of Wikipedia in order to use the system against itself.
 Aaron Klein –
 Jaron Lanier –
 Robert McHenry –
 Patrick Nielsen Hayden –
 Andrew Orlowski –
 Robert L. Park –
 Jason Scott Sadofsky –
 Larry Sanger –
 Andrew Schlafly –
 John Seigenthaler –
 Lawrence Solomon –
 Sam Vaknin –
 Wikipedia Review –
 Tom Wolfe –

Wikipedia Foundations and Organizations
 ꯋꯤꯀꯤꯃꯦꯗꯤꯌꯥ ꯃꯈꯣꯡ – the non profit based in San Francisco, California, USA which was established to own and manage the trademarks and the servers for Wikipedia and its sister projects.

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Wikimedia projects
  ꯀꯃꯣꯟꯁ – online repository of free-use images, sound and other media files, hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation.
  MediaWiki website – home of MediaWiki (the software that runs Wikipedia), and where it gets developed.
  Meta-Wiki  – central site to coordinate all Wikimedia projects.
  Wikibooks – Wiki hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation for the creation of free content textbooks and annotated texts that anyone can edit.
  Wikidata – free and open knowledge base that can be read and edited by both humans and machines.
  Wikinews – free-content news source wiki and a project of the Wikimedia Foundation that works through collaborative journalism.
  Wikiquote – freely available collection of quotations from prominent people, books, films and proverbs, with appropriate attributions.
  Wikisource – online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation.
  Wikispecies – wiki-based online project supported by the Wikimedia Foundation. Its aim is to create a comprehensive free content catalogue of all species and is directed at scientists, rather than at the general public.
  Wikiversity – Wikimedia Foundation project which supports learning communities, their learning materials, and resulting activities.
  Wikivoyage – free web-based travel guide for travel destinations and travel topics written by volunteer authors.
  Wiktionary – multilingual, web-based project to create a free content dictionary, available in 158 languages, run by the Wikimedia Foundation.

ꯂꯣꯟ ꯅꯥ ꯋꯤꯀꯤꯄꯦꯗꯤꯌꯥꯁꯤꯡ

 ꯑꯐ꯭ꯔꯤꯀꯥꯟꯁ (af)
 ꯑꯜꯕꯥꯅꯤꯌꯥꯟ (sq)
 ꯑꯜꯦꯃꯦꯅꯤꯛ (als)
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 ꯑꯔꯃꯦꯅꯤꯌꯥꯟ (hy)
 ꯑꯓꯔꯤ (az)
 ꯕꯥꯝꯕꯥꯔꯥ (bm)
 ꯕꯥꯁꯀꯤꯌꯨ (eu)
 ꯕꯦꯂꯥꯔꯨꯁꯤꯌꯥꯟ (be-x-old)
 ꯕꯦꯂꯥꯔꯨꯁꯤꯌꯥꯟ (be)
 ꯕꯦꯡꯒꯥꯂꯤ (bn)
 ꯕꯣꯁꯅꯤꯌꯥꯟ (bs)
 ꯕꯨꯜꯒꯥꯔꯤꯌꯥꯟ (bg)
 ꯀꯥꯟꯇꯣꯅꯤꯁ (zh-yue)
 ꯀꯥꯇꯥꯂꯥꯟ (ca)
 ꯆꯤꯕꯨꯑꯥꯅꯣ (ceb)
 ꯆꯦꯆꯦꯟ (ce)
 ꯆꯥꯏꯅꯤꯁ (zh)
 Chuvash (cv)
 Croatian (hr)
 Czech (cs)
 Danish (da)
 Dutch Low Saxon (nds-nl)
 Dutch (nl)
 Egyptian Arabic (arz)
 English (en)
 Esperanto (eo)
 Estonian (et)
 Finnish (fi)
 French (fr)
 Galician (gl)
 Georgian (ka)
 German (de)
 Greek (el)
 Haitian Creole (ht)
 Hebrew (he)
 Hindi (hi)
 Hungarian (hu)
 Indonesian (id)
 Irish (ga)
 Italian (it)
 Japanese (ja)
 Javanese (jv)
 Kannada (kn)
 Kazakh (kk)
 Korean (ko)
 Latin (la)
 Latvian (lv)
 Lithuanian (lt)
 Macedonian (mk)
 Malayalam (ml)
 Malay (ms)
 Marathi (mr)
 Minangkabau (min)
 Min Nan (zh-min-nan)
 Mongolian (mn)
 Neapolitan (nap)
 Nepal Bhasa (new)
 Nepalese (ne)
 Northern Sami (se)
 Norwegian (Bokmål) (no)
 Norwegian (Nynorsk) (nn)
 Occitan (oc)
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 Punjabi (pa)
 Persian (fa)
 Polish (pl)
 Portuguese (pt)
 Ripuarian (ksh)
 Romanian (ro)
 Russian (ru)
 Sanskrit (sa)
 Scots (sco)
 Serbian (sr)
 Serbo-Croatian (sh)
 Silesian (szl)
 Simple English (simple)
 Slovak (sk)
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 Swahili (sw)
 Swedish (sv)
 Tagalog (tl)
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 Telugu (te)
 Thai (th)
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 Uzbek (uz)
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 Võro (fiu-vro)
 Waray-Waray (war)
 Welsh (cy)
 Volapük (vo)
 Wolof (wo)
 Yiddish (yi)
 Zulu (zu)
 ꯋꯥꯠꯂꯤ...

ꯁꯤꯖꯨ ꯌꯦꯡꯉꯨ
 Wikipedia:Contents – network of outlines of Wikipedia's contents
 Outline of knowledge – outline about knowledge, and of the body of all human knowledge
 Wikipedia Signpost – on-line community-written and community-edited newspaper, covering stories, events and reports related to Wikipedia and the Wikimedia Foundation sister projects.
 Wikipedia:TourBusStop
 Wikipedia:Help
 List of wikis
 List of online encyclopedias
 Wikipedia:Semapedia –
 Wikipedia:Wikipedia CD Selection –

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ꯃꯄꯥꯟꯒ ꯁꯝꯅꯕꯁꯤꯡ

 Wikipedia – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions of the project)
 Wikipedia mobile phone portal

 Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times

 1

ꯋꯤꯀꯤꯄꯦꯗꯤꯌꯥ ꯀꯣꯏꯁꯤꯟꯂꯤꯕ ꯂꯩ ꯏ


The Northern Territory Special Reconnaissance Unit (NTSRU) was an irregular warfare unit of the Australian Army during World War II, composed mainly of Aboriginal people from the Northern Territory. Formed in 1941, the unit  patrolled the coast of Arnhem Land during 1942–43 searching for signs of Japanese landings and trained to fight as guerrillas using traditional weapons in the event of an invasion. In 1943, as the war moved northward from the Australian coast, the NTSRU was disbanded.

History
Wartime exigencies broke down previous resistance to the enlistment of non-Europeans in the armed forces, with the threat posed to Northern Australia by the Japanese from late-1941 resulting in the formation of a number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander units such as the Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion. In Northern Australia several irregular units were subsequently formed to utilise the local knowledge and bushcraft skills of the local Aboriginal people to provide surveillance of the more remote parts of the coastline, including the 2/1st North Australia Observer Unit based in Katherine, Northern Territory. Further north, east Arnhem Land was largely uninhabited except for a few Aboriginal Australians and unmapped prior to the war, but was considered a likely area for a possible Japanese landing.

Proposed in mid-1941, the NTSRU was subsequently formed between 12 February and 19 March 1942 under the command of Squadron Leader Donald Thomson, an anthropologist before the war with extensive experience working with the local Yolngu people in the 1930s, several of whom had previously been jailed for killing five Japanese pearlers and three Europeans during the Caledon Bay crisis in 1932–33. Thomson had been seconded to the Army from the Royal Australian Air Force in June to raise and command the unit. NTSRU personnel included 50 Aboriginal men (such as the Yolngu elder Wonggu and his sons), six Solomon Islanders, a Torres Strait Islander and several white non-commissioned officers, the unit patrolled the coast of Arnhem Land during 1942–43 searching for signs of Japanese landings and trained to fight as guerrillas using traditional weapons in the event of an invasion while reporting on enemy movements towards Darwin.

Meanwhile, similar units were raised on Bathurst Island, Melville Island (including the Snake Bay Patrol), the Cox Peninsula and Groote Eylandt. In 1943, as the war moved northward from the Australian coast, the NTSRU was disbanded, and Thomson returned to the Air Force. He was later badly injured in action in Dutch New Guinea, and spent the rest of the war in hospital before being medically discharged. None of the men that served in these irregular units were formally enlisted or paid during the war; however, in 1992 their service was formally acknowledged by the Federal Government with the receipt of pay and service medals.

See also
Regional Force Surveillance Units

Notes

References

Further reading

History of Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians in the Northern Territory
Military units and formations established in 1941
Military units and formations disestablished in 1943
Military units and formations of Australia in World War II
1940s in the Northern Territory
Indigenous Australians in the military


An Giang Airport is a planned airport in An Giang Province, Mekong Delta, southern Vietnam
According to the master plan, total cost is estimated around $64 million and will be invested in phases, the first phase will be constructed from 2011 to 2020. The airport will be located in commune of Cần Đăng, Chau Thanh District, An Giang Province. The airport will cover 235 ha, of which the civil airport area will occupy 34.2 ha while 31.2 ha will be allocated for a military airport area and 169 ha for other purposes.

The airport will have a 3,000-square meter passenger and management terminal and will have an 1,850 meter long runway, 45 meter wide designed to serve ATR72 aircraft by 2020 and then the runway will be expanded to 2400 m and can serve Airbus A320.

References

Airports in Vietnam
Buildings and structures in An Giang province
Proposed airports in Vietnam

An Giang Airport


The Blue Sulphur Springs Pavilion is a historic Greek Revival structure in Blue Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, United States. The Pavilion is the only surviving structure from the Blue Sulphur Springs Resort, a 19th-century mineral spa, and was built to shelter the sulphur spring at the resort. The Pavilion consists of twelve columns holding up a square roof, and is primarily built with brick. It was built in 1834 along with the resort and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 29, 1992.

Architecture
The Blue Sulphur Springs Pavilion is built on a square foundation, with sides measuring 32 feet and 10 inches. The foundation is brick with stone facing. Twelve columns rest on the foundation, giving the Pavilion an open structure; the columns are of a modified Doric order and are built of brick covered in plaster. The frieze of the Pavilion is undecorated and made of clapboard, and the cornices are plain; the simplicity of the structure here reflects its shelter-like nature. The Pavilion is topped with a four-sided hipped roof with clapboard pediments. A marble basin sits inside the Pavilion. The sulphur spring flows into the basin at a rate of 6 gallons per minute and a temperature of 58 degrees Fahrenheit. The Pavilion is the only resort pavilion in West Virginia and one of few rural structures built in the Greek Revival style. In his 1846 book on mineral springs, William Burke described the Pavilion as "well-designed but badly executed" and referred to the fountain inside as "one of the most beautiful objects imaginable."

History
The Pavilion was constructed in 1834, the year the Blue Sulphur Springs Resort opened. George Washington Buster constructed the resort; it was named Blue Sulphur Springs for the iridescent color of the springs. The original resort included, along with the Pavilion, a three-story hotel with 200 rooms and a bathhouse. The resort was visited by several noteworthy guests in the 1840s, including Robert E. Lee, Henry Clay, and Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren. The resort was a prime spot for the promotion of relaxation and health, as the sulphur spring at the resort was considered to be a remedy for numerous diseases. Blue Sulphur Springs Resort began to decline in the 1850s due to competition from other resorts such as The Greenbrier and an economic downturn. The resort closed in 1859 and became Allegheny College, a school for Baptist ministers; the college closed in 1861. The resort buildings were used by both sides in the Civil War as a camp and hospital. In 1864, the Union Army burned the resort to prevent the Confederate Army from utilizing them; only the Pavilion survived the fire.

Geography
The Blue Sulphur Springs Pavilion is located in a valley at the junction of the Kitchen Creek and Sawmill Hollow valleys. It is located in the region of thermal mineral springs in the Appalachian Mountains, and is one of several mineral springs in the area. The Pavilion is located in a rural landscape, and offers views of the surrounding valley. William Burke described the landscape surrounding the Blue Sulphur Springs Resort as "a beautiful valley", though he complained that the designer of the resort had blocked the view with buildings.

References

American Civil War hospitals
American Civil War sites in West Virginia
Buildings and structures completed in 1834
Buildings and structures in Greenbrier County, West Virginia
Defunct resorts
Destination spas
Greek Revival architecture in West Virginia
Greenbrier County, West Virginia in the American Civil War
National Register of Historic Places in Greenbrier County, West Virginia
Resorts in West Virginia

Blue Sulphur Springs Pavilion


Levee Low Moan: Soul Gestures in Southern Blue, Vol. 3 is an album by Wynton Marsalis that was released in 1991. The album reached a peak position of number 8 on Top Jazz Albums chart of Billboard magazine.

Reception

The AllMusic reviewer wrote: "although the individual solos are fine, not much really happens; overall it is a rather weird tribute to the blues". The Billboard reviewer of all three volumes of Soul Gestures in Southern Blue commented on their "atmosphere of politeness, an absence of swing, and a somewhat shocking lack of true blues feeling". It is not clear whether the two reviewers cited above are qualified specialists in the Jazz genre, as there is no background (professional or biographical) given.

Track listing
All tracks are composed and performed by Wynton Marsalis unless otherwise noted.
Levee Low Moan – 11:15
Jig's Jig – 8:09
So This Is Jazz, Huh? – 7:00
In the House of Williams – 10:06 (Todd Williams)
Superb Starling – 11:39

Personnel
 Wynton Marsalis- trumpet
 Todd Williams- tenor saxophone
 Wes "Warmdaddy" Anderson- alto saxophone
 Marcus Roberts- piano
 Reginald Veal- acoustic bass
 Herlin Riley- drums

References

External links

Levee Low Moan (Soul Gestures In Southern Blue, Vol. 3) on official Wynton Marsalis website

1991 albums
Columbia Records albums
Wynton Marsalis albums


Ekmat (, meaning "Agreed upon" in Marathi) is a Marathi-language daily newspaper by "Indo Enterprises Pvt. Ltd." Headquartered in Latur, Maharashtra, India. Ekmat is the flagship newspaper of the foundation publication, Indo Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.

It is published in Marathwada and Solapur.

Product
The newspaper focuses on politics and gave prominence to civil issue and the students' need. Catering to its young audience, it started using common terms in its articles like world, sport, education, etc. Ekmat has seen a new phase in its layout style. This new-looking newspaper was made to cater to the needs of its readers. Also having supplement like My Latur shows that it has under-hood its audience and is here satisfy them to the fullest.

Saptarang offers Sunday Specials in the form of stories, articles and comprehensive coverage of latest happenings in the society with analysis and opinions from renowned experts from their respective fields.

Sakshi is a ladies/women's supplement who is their true friend, adviser and a source of trustworthy information. Sakshi a Tuesday supplement addresses the reading needs of ladies/women on a relaxed to the fullest.

The Ekmat Diwali Ank is the yearly Special Ank from Ekmat. This Ank is a collector's issue covering various topics like politics, entertainment, sports, health, fitness, etc. written by eminent Marathi writers and intelligentsia.

Sections and features

Main Sections - Local, Maharashtra, National, International, Agriculture, Sports. These sections are covered in every day all editions of Ekmat. Besides the above, there are some special sections, which only appear in certain edition or on certain days.

Ekmat is well known for providing readers with host of value added supplement and editorial specials.

They are as follows -

Spandan -
"Seven days a week", the supplement that covers local news and events of the city. Ekmathas 7 city supplements catering to various cities/regions across Maharashtra. These city supplements feature latest happenings and events of the city along with business and entertainment stories.

Monday - "Arth Jagatach Spandan", Focusing on in-depth business and financial news, Arth Jagatach Spandan is special of Ekmat, it dedicated to investments helping readers with tips on how to make the most their money. Arth Jagatach Spandan is dedicated to personal finance with colorful charts, graphs, tables and analysis explaining complex financial terminology in simple detail.

Tuesday - "Krushi Spandan"

Wednesday - "Health Spandan"

Thursday - "Yuva Spandan"

Friday - "Krida Spandan"

Saturday - "Career Spandan"
A Special supplement that guides youth on various Education & Career opportunities available to them Career Spandan provides students with comprehensive knowledge of procedures and processes of various competitive exams and career building prospects in diverse fields from Agriculture to Information Technology (IT).

Sunday - "Manoranjan Spandan"

External links
Ekmat official site
Bade Achhe Lagte Hain
Marathi Newspaper Circulation

Marathi-language newspapers
Latur district
Latur
Newspapers published in Maharashtra
Marathwada
Publications with year of establishment missing

Ekmat


The Saga of the Light Isles is a historical fantasy duology by Juliet Marillier. The two books are:

 Wolfskin (2002) – A young Viking warrior, Eyvind, joins a voyage of discovery. In the Light Isles (Orkney) he encounters a Pictish priestess, Nessa, and experiences a clash of cultures and faiths. When his blood brother, Somerled, shows his true colours, Eyvind's integrity is tested to the limit.
 Foxmask (2004) – A sequel to Wolfskin, but can be read alone. Thorvald sets out on a perilous quest to find the father he has never known. With his devoted friend Creidhe and fisherman Sam, he becomes embroiled in a mysterious conflict that will change him forever.

Fantasy novel series
Australian fantasy novels
Australian fantasy novel series
Pan Books books

Saga of the Light Isles


The alar fascia a portion or prevertebral fascia that may or may not be considered a distinct anatomical structure. When acknowledged, it is described as anterior to the prevertebral fascia.

Anatomy
Superiorly, it extends to the base of the skull; inferiorly, it extends to the second thoracic vertebra. Inferiorly, it unites with the visceral fascia of the neck.

Anatomical relations
The alar fascia represents the posterior boundary of the retropharyngeal space.

Research
In 2015, the anatomy of the alar fascia was revisited using dissection in conjunction with E12 plastination. The authors revealed that the alar fascia originated as a well defined midline structure at the level of C1 and does not reach the base of the skull. It is suggested that the area between C1 and the base of the skull is a potential entry into the danger space.

See also
 Retrovisceral space

References

Fascial spaces of the head and neck

Alar fascia


Junko Itō is a linguist. She was born in Japan and works in the United States. She earned her Ph.D. in Linguistics in 1986 at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Her doctoral supervisor was Alan Prince. She is a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Santa Cruz. She was chair of the department from 1999-2006.

Itō mostly researches phonology and morphology. Her work on syllable structure is well-known. She has studied and written about rendaku in the Japanese language.  Her work has been published in Linguistic Inquiry and other peer-reviewed research journals in linguistics. She often works with another UCSC professor, her husband Armin Mester.

She is the daughter of mathematician Kiyoshi Itō.

Publications
2015  Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. The perfect prosodic word in Danish. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 38(1). 5-36.

2015  Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. Sino-Japanese Phonology. Chapter 7 of Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. ed. by H. Kubozono. pp. 289–312.

2015  Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. Word Formation and Phonological Processes. Chapter 9 of Handbook of Japanese Phonetics and Phonology. 2015. ed. by H. Kubozono. pp. 363–395. Mouton de Gruyter Series Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics.

2013 Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. Prosodic Subcategories in Japanese. Lingua 124. 20-40.

2009	Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. The onset of the prosodic word. In Parker, Steve, ed. Phonological Argumentation: Essays on Evidence and Motivation. London: Equinox. 227-260.

2009 Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. Lexical classes in phonology. In Miyagawa, Shigeru, and Mamoru Saito, eds. Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 84-106.

2007 Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. Prosodic adjunction in Japanese compounds. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 55: Formal Approaches to Japanese Linguistics 4. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 97-111.

2003	Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. Japanese Morphophonemics: Markedness and Word Structure. MIT Press Linguistic Inquiry Monograph Series 41. Cambridge, Mass.

1999 Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. The structure of the phonological lexicon. In Tsujimura, Natsuko, ed. The Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. Malden, MA, and Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishers. 62-100.

1996 Ito, Junko, Yoshihisa Kitagawa, and Armin Mester. Prosodic faithfulness and correspondence. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 5. 217-294.
1995	Ito, Junko, Armin Mester, and Jaye Padgett. Licensing and redundancy: underspecification in Optimality Theory. Linguistic Inquiry 26. 571-614.

1995 Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. Japanese phonology. In Goldsmith, John, ed.,The Handbook of Phonological Theory. Blackwell. 817-838.

1986 Ito, Junko, and Armin Mester. The phonology of voicing in Japanese: theoretical consequences for morphological accessibility. Linguistic Inquiry 17.1. 49-73. 1985 Ito, Junko. Consonant Loss in Danish and Phonological Theory, Descriptive and Applied Linguistics 18, 109-120.

1984 Ito, Junko. Melodic Dissimilation in Ainu, Linguistic Inquiry 15.3, 505-513.

Other websites
Video: Junko Ito, Armin Mester (UC Santa Cruz), 2013: Supersized Units: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=duYc4W4Lhp4

Related pages
List of women linguists

References

University of California faculty
Linguists
Living people

Junko Itō


The Sochi () is a river in the city of Sochi in Krasnodar Krai, Russia. It is  long, and the area of its basin .

Originating at Bolshaya Shura Mountain in the Greater Caucasus Mountains, it flows southwest and enters the Black Sea at Sochi, itself named for the river and site of the 2014 Winter Olympic Games. It is the third longest river in Sochi after the Mzymta and the Shakhe. Administratively, the valley of the river belongs to Khostinsky City District of the city of Sochi, except for the lowest part, which belongs to Tsentralny City District. The upper course of the Sochi lies in the Caucasus Nature Reserve, a World Heritage Site, whereas the middle course, down to Plastunka, belongs to Sochi National Park.

The Sochi River begins on the southern slopes of the  Bolshaya Shura Mountain and flows toward the west-southwest through mountainous terrain and is joined by tributaries such as the Ushkho and the Ats along the way.  About  before its end at Sochi proper, the Sochi River is joined by its main tributary, the Agva.  Just beyond is site of scenic Orekhovka Falls on the Bezumenka River as it flows into the Sochi River at Nizhnaya-Orekhovka.  The Sochi then turns southward and flows through the suburbs of Plastunka, Baranovka, and Navaginka before reaching the city centre of Sochi where it is contained by concrete embankments before it enters the Black Sea.

References

Sochi
Rivers of Krasnodar Krai
Tsentralny City District, Sochi
Khostinsky City District
Tributaries of the Black Sea

Sochi (river)


Richard Howly (1740 – December 1784), sometimes spelled Howley, was an American planter and lawyer from Liberty County, Georgia. He served briefly as the governor of Georgia in 1780, as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1780 and 1781, and as chief justice of Georgia in 1782 and 1783.

Early life
Little is known about Howley's early life. In 1775 he married Sarah Fuller of Charleston, South Carolina, the widow of William Fuller and mother of two daughters. Subsequently, the couple had two daughters of their own, only one of whom reached adulthood.

Revolutionary War
When the Revolution began, Howley was practicing law in Sunbury, where he also owned a small plantation and a few slaves. He was not prominent in the early stages of the Revolution in Georgia. Savannah fell to the British on December 29, 1778, and Colonel Augustine Prevost began a siege of Sunbury. When Fort Morris surrendered in January 1779, Howley and his family fled to Augusta.

The British occupied eastern Georgia, and fighting moved into the back country. Georgia Whigs, openly divided into radical and conservative factions since the infamous duel in May 1777 between patriot leader Button Gwinnett and Lachlan McIntosh, vied for political leadership as they tried to convene a new assembly in Augusta. After selecting an executive council to govern the sections of the state still under Whig control, this council, dominated by conservative Whigs, elected John Wereat president on August 6, 1779. Howley was associated with the radical Whig faction and a close ally of George Walton who, after the joint American and French siege of Savannah failed in October 1779, was sent to Augusta to hold new elections. Backed by Howley, George Wells, and their back country supporters, Walton organized a rival assembly in November 1779. This body elected Walton governor and Walton, Howley, and three others delegates to the Continental Congress, in effect ousting Wereat from power. Within two months, Walton departed for Philadelphia. The assembly elected Howley governor on January 4, 1780 and empowered him to act on behalf of the government even if forced into exile. During these uncertain times he called on Georgians to be steadfast in their support of independence. As British raids increased, the council directed Howley to flee to the Carolinas. Howley and several council members transported the state archives and some paper money to New Bern, North Carolina. On July 1, 1780 he was among those listed under the British Disqualifying Act.

Political life
Howley took his seat in Congress in July 1780. He assisted in obtaining a new loan from France. His primary interest, however, was to guard against peace proposals that would allow Britain to retain control of Georgia. With Walton and William Few, he published Observations upon the Effects of Certain Late Political Suggestions by the Delegates of Georgia.

Howley lost his re-election bid to Congress and returned to Georgia. He was elected to the Georgia General Assembly in 1782. He was able to acquire confiscated Tory property being sold in Chatham and Liberty counties. Aedanus Burke turned down an offer to become chief justice of Georgia, and in October 1782 Howley was appointed pro tempore chief justice. He represented Liberty County in the general assembly during 1783 and 1784, after which he moved his residence to Savannah.

Death
A devout Roman Catholic, Howley journeyed to St. Augustine in December 1784 to receive sacraments of penance and holy communion that were not available in Georgia. While there, he wrote to Bishop Echevarrio of Cuba requesting that priests from Florida be sent to administer sacraments to Catholics in Georgia. Apparently ill when he returned from Florida, Howley died at his residence in Savannah.

References

External links

1740 births
1784 deaths
Continental Congressmen from Georgia (U.S. state)
Governors of Georgia (U.S. state)
People from Liberty County, Georgia
Independent state governors of the United States
Georgia (U.S. state) Independents
18th-century American politicians
18th-century American judges
Members of the Georgia General Assembly
Georgia (U.S. state) state court judges
Catholics from Georgia (U.S. state)

Richard Howly


Satan's Playground, also known as Chemistry, is a 2006 American horror film directed and written by Dante Tomaselli. The film stars Felissa Rose, Ellen Sandweiss, and Edwin Neal.

This was Sandweiss' first film appearance since 1981's The Evil Dead, and was the first time Tomaselli did not serve as the producer of his own film.

Plot
Donna (Felissa Rose) and Frank (Salvatore Paul Piro) Bruno have decided to take a trip into the Pine Barrens with their autistic son Sean (Danny Lopes), new mother Paula (Ellen Sandweiss), and her baby Anthony (Marco Rose). When their car breaks down in the middle of the forest Frank goes off to find help and comes across the house of Mrs. Leeds (Irma St. Paule), a palm reader that lives there with her mute daughter Judy (Christie Sanford) and her son. Mrs. Leeds rushes him into the house, insisting that the Jersey Devil lives in the forest. However, despite her concern, it soon becomes apparent that her family is just as dangerous when Judy murders Frank.

One by one the people remaining in the car go out to search for their lost family members. Donna goes off in search of Frank and is assaulted and captured by the Leeds. Sean wanders off and gets lost in the woods. Paula initially tries to stay in the car and keep her baby safe, but inevitably leaves the car to investigate a police cruiser. However rather than containing help, it contains the corpse of an officer killed by the Jersey Devil. When she returns to the car she finds that Anthony has been taken and she goes off in search of him, which takes her to the Leeds house, where she's killed by the Leeds. Sean eventually makes it to the Leeds house where he is given a palm reading and then sent back into the night, where he gets sucked underground by what appears to be quicksand. This leaves only Donna alive, who manages to escape by bribing the Leeds son with diazepam. She eventually makes it to safety and wakes up in a hospital bed, where she is told that the Leeds house has been abandoned for years. Donna manages to persuade the police to check out the Leeds house in the hopes of finding Anthony, only for the Leeds to murder the police officer accompanying her. Terrified, Donna flees the house and tries to once again make it to safety, but is then killed by the Jersey Devil.

Cast

Reception

The film holds a rating of 67% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 6 reviews, with an average rating of 6.30/10.
Variety gave the film a positive review, noting that while it was more accessible than some of his previous films, it still would not appeal to all viewers. Overall the magazine called it a "richly atmospheric exercise in surreal horror". JoBlo.com and Slant Magazine both praised the film, and JoBlo's reviewer noted that the movie was "a relentless and uber entertaining circus of horror". Dread Central's review was more mixed, praising the film's look as "polished" while criticizing the film's acting and non-linear story line.

References

External links

2006 films
2006 horror films
2000s avant-garde and experimental films
2006 independent films
American avant-garde and experimental films
American independent films
American monster movies
American supernatural horror films
2000s English-language films
Films about autism
Films about cryptids
Films about families
Films set in forests
Films set in New Jersey
Films shot in New Jersey
Jersey Devil in fiction
Films about mass murder
Films about Satanism
Supernatural slasher films
2000s American films

Satan's Playground


The Ohio Country, (Ohio Territory, Ohio Valley) was a name used before 1787 for a region of North America west of the Appalachian Mountains  north of the upper Ohio and Allegheny rivers, and extending to Lake Erie. The area encompassed present-day northwestern West Virginia, Western Pennsylvania, most of Ohio, and a wedge of southeastern Indiana.

Control of the territory and the region's fur trade was disputed in the 17th century by the Iroquois, Huron, Algonquin, other Native American tribes, and France. New France claimed this area as part of the administrative district of La Louisiane. France and Britain fought the French and Indian War over this area in the mid-18th century as the North American front of their Seven Years' War (1753–1763). Following the British victory, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi River to them in the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

During the following decades, several minor frontier wars, including Pontiac's Rebellion and Lord Dunmore's War, were fought in the territory. In 1783, the Ohio Country became unorganized U.S. territory under the Treaty of Paris that officially ended the American Revolutionary War and became one of the first frontier regions of the United States. Several U.S. states had conflicting claims to portions of it, based on historical royal and colonial charters. The states' claims were largely extinguished after negotiations with the federal government by 1787, and it became part of the larger, organized U.S. Northwest Territory. Most of the former areas north and west of the Ohio River were organized as the state of Ohio, admitted to the Union in 1803.

History

Pre-colonial period

In the 17th century, the area north of the Ohio River was occupied by the Algonquian-speaking Shawnee and some Siouan language-speaking tribes, such as the Omaha and Ponca. Around 1660, during a conflict known as the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois and allied tribes seized control of the Ohio Country, driving out the Shawnee and Siouan peoples. Those tribes moved further northwest and west, with several eventually settling west of the Mississippi River. In the east, the Iroquois (or Haudenosaunee) conquered and absorbed the Erie (who also spoke an Iroquoian language) during this time. The Ohio Country, however, remained largely uninhabited for decades, used primarily as a hunting ground by the Iroquois peoples.

In the 1720s, a number of Native American groups began to migrate into the Ohio Country from the east, driven by pressure from encroaching European colonists. By 1724, Delaware Indians had established the village of Kittanning on the Allegheny River in present-day western Pennsylvania. With them came those Shawnee who had historically expanded further to the east. Other eastern bands of the scattered Shawnee tribe began to return to the Ohio Country in the decades that followed. A number of Seneca and other Iroquois peoples also migrated to the Ohio Country, moving away from the Anglo-French rivalries and warfare south of Lake Ontario. The Seneca were the westernmost of the original Five Nations of the Iroquois centered in western New York. In 1722, the Tuscarora, an Iroquoian-speaking tribe from the Carolinas, completed a migration to the area and were allowed to settle near the lands of the Oneida. They were considered cousins to the Iroquois and became the sixth nation in the confederacy

Colonial period

In the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British and French angled for control of the territory. The English intended to gain control of the area by sheer number of settlers on the ground. In 1749, The Crown through the government of the Colony of Virginia granted the Ohio Company a beneficial deal on this territory on the condition that it be settled by colonists from the Thirteen Colonies.

French and Indian War

With the arrival of Europeans to America, both Great Britain and France had claimed the territory and sent fur traders into the area to do business with the Ohio Country Indians. The Iroquois League also claimed the region by right of conquest. The rivalry among the two European nations, the Iroquois nations, and the Ohio valley Indian tribes for control of the region played an important part in the French and Indian War that lasted from 1754 through 1760. Having initially remained neutral, eventually the Ohio Country Indians largely sided with the French who were more interested in hunting in the region and were not actively settling the area as was their British colonial rivals. Armed with supplies and guns from the French, the Indians launched raids against their enemies via the Kittanning Path east of the Alleghenies. After they destroyed Fort Granville in the summer of 1756, Pennsylvania's Proprietary Governor John Penn ordered Captain John Armstrong to destroy the Shawnee villages west of the Alleghenies, hoping to put an end to their raiding activities. Meanwhile, other British and colonial forces drove the French from Fort Duquesne. They built Fort Pitt at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers that form the Ohio River. After being defeated by Britain, France ceded their claims to the entire Ohio Country in the 1763 Treaty of Paris. They had done so, however, without consulting their Native American allies who—in many cases—continued the fight against the colonial frontiersmen.

Colonies such as Pennsylvania, Virginia, New York, and Connecticut claimed some of the westward lands as had been granted by their original charters. The area, however, was officially closed to European settlement by the Royal Proclamation of 1763, an attempt to preserve the western lands as territory exclusively set aside for use by Native American peoples. By enacting the treaty, the British Crown no longer recognized prior claims that the colonies made on this territory. On June 22, 1774, Parliament in England passed the Quebec Act, which annexed the region to the Province of Quebec. Colonists in the Thirteen Colonies considered this one of the Intolerable Acts that contributed to the call for American Revolution the following year, which began in earnest the following year, in 1775.

American Revolution and afterward

Despite the Crown's actions limiting westward expansion, frontiersmen from the Virginia and Pennsylvania colonies had migrated across the Allegheny Mountains for over a decade since the Proclamation. This eventually led them into conflict with the Shawnee tribes that claimed the area as their hunting grounds. The Shawnee, who referred to the settlers as the 'long knives', viewed the colonists as competitors to their resources and a threat to their way of life. Because of this, the Shawnee and other Indian tribes of the Ohio Country, chose to side with the British against the American colonists during the American Revolutionary War. They hoped to expel the colonists permanently from their lands.

In 1778, after several Patriot military victories in the region by an expeditionary force led by General George Rogers Clark, the Virginia legislature organized a nominal civil government over the area. They called this first official territory Illinois County, Virginia. It encompassed all of the lands lying west and north of the Ohio River to which Virginia had previously laid claim.

The high water mark of the Native American struggle to retain control of the region was in 1782, when the Ohio Valley Indian Nations met with the British in a war council at Chalawgatha, a Shawnee village located along the Little Miami River, where they planned what was to become a successful rout of the Americans two weeks later at the Battle of Blue Licks. In 1783, following the Treaty of Paris in which America had gained its independence, Britain ceded its claims over the area to the new United States. The new federal government immediately opened this area to settlement by American pioneers, considering it unorganized territory. The Ohio Country quickly became one of the most desirable locations for Trans-Appalachian settlements, in particular among veterans of the Revolutionary War, who were often granted land in lieu of pay for their military service during the war.

In the treaties of Fort Stanwix (late 1784) and Fort McIntosh (early 1785), the United States fixed boundaries between territory open to settlement and the native tribal lands. The Shawnee and other tribes, however, continued to resist American encroachment into their historic hunting grounds. This resistance eventually led to the Northwest Indian War.

States' claims

Considered highly desirable, the area was subject to the overlapping and conflicting territorial ambitions of several eastern states:
 Connecticut claimed a strip of land across the northern part of the region, delineated by the westward extension of its northern and southern state boundaries, called the Connecticut Western Reserve.
 New York claimed an elastic part of the region based on its perceived sovereignty over the Iroquois, though the majority of the four tribes, allies of the British, resettled in Upper Quebec and Ontario).
 Pennsylvania claimed land as a westward extension of its colonial boundaries.
 Virginia, claimed the entire region and more, originally based on the charter of the Virginia Colony. It later claimed Illinois County by right of conquest.

Incorporation of the Northwest Territory

After negotiation with the federal government, these states ceded their claims to the United States between 1780 and 1786. In July 1787, most of Ohio Country, the southern peninsula of what is today the state of Michigan, and eastern Illinois Country were incorporated as the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio. In 1803, most of what was formerly Ohio Country north and west of the Ohio River was admitted to the union as the state of Ohio.

See also
 Gnadenhutten massacre
 Illinois County, Virginia which encompassed Ohio Country and part of Illinois Country
 Nanfan Treaty

Notes

References

External links
 Ohio History Central: The Ohio Country
 Ohio Lands in the History Community at RootsWeb
 Ohio Territory Grant Map
 National Archives: Historical Documents Celebrating the 200th Anniversary of Ohio Statehood
 Ohio Division of Geological Survey: Map of Original Land Subdivisions of Ohio (1.9 MB pdf)
 Shawnee History

1750s in New France
1760s in New France
1780s in the Northwest Territory
1790s in the Northwest Territory
Colonial United States (British)
Former regions and territories of the United States
History of Pittsburgh
Louisiana (New France)
Northwest Indian War
Northwest Territory
Pontiac's War
Pre-statehood history of Indiana
Pre-statehood history of Ohio
Pre-statehood history of Pennsylvania
Pre-statehood history of West Virginia
Shawnee history

Ohio Country


Maryann Mahaffey (January 18, 1925 – July 27, 2006) was an American politician and activist.

Early life and education
Mahaffey was born in Burlington, Iowa. Mahaffey attended, and graduated from Cornell College in 1946.

Activism
While in college, during the summer of 1945, Mahaffey worked at Poston Internment Camp as a Recreation Director. In this work, she became aware that the internment camp's real was to hold American citizens because of their ethnicity and not because of any crimes they had committed. Influenced by her early work experiences, Mahaffey decided to attend the University of Southern California to obtain a master's degree in Social Work.

She successfully ran for election in 1973 for Detroit City Council. Mahaffey was one of a few members of the Democratic Socialists of America to be elected to public office. She served on the Detroit City Council from 1973 until 2005, from 1990 to 1998 and from 2001 to 2005 as council president.

She filed a lawsuit that allowed women to run for office under their birth name, instead of their husband's surname. She led efforts to open the Detroit Athletic Club to women and helped enact an ordinance prohibiting sexual harassment of city employees. She successfully opposed the closing of the city's main hospital for the uninsured and oversaw redevelopment of several inner city neighborhoods, and championed construction along the Woodward Corridor.

Mahaffey was active in many organizations related to nutrition, women in politics, peace, and ending discrimination.

Personal life
While a student in the School of Social Work, she met Herman (Hy) Dooha, whom she married in June 1950. After Mahaffey and Dooha graduated in 1951, they moved to Indianapolis where Mahaffey began work with Girl Scouts of the United States of America.

She died on July 27, 2006, from health complications related to leukemia, aged 81.

References

External links
Maryann Mahaffey Papers, Walter P. Reuther Library
MaryAnn Mahaffey Legacy Campaign, Wayne State University, School of Social Work
Maryann Mahaffey, Michigan Women's Hall of Fame

1925 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American women politicians
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians
American women academics
Cornell College alumni
Deaths from leukemia
Detroit City Council members
Members of the Democratic Socialists of America
Politicians from Burlington, Iowa
USC Suzanne Dworak-Peck School of Social Work alumni
Wayne State University faculty
Women city councillors in Michigan
Michigan socialists

Maryann Mahaffey


Company A-1 is the oldest outfit in the Texas A&M Corps of Cadets, having been the original outfit formed for all 20 of A&M's first cadets in 1876.

Unit genealogy
Company A (1876-1901)
Company A Infantry (1901-1916)
Company A Infantry, 1st Regiment (1917-?)
Company A Infantry (?-1959)
Company A-1 "Animal A" (1959–present)

Traditions

"For The Good Times"
In the early 1980s, Animal A faced disbandment due to increasingly shrinking recruiting classes and several disciplinary incidents. The cadets, convinced that the final football march-in would be the last for Company A-1, decided to play the song "For The Good Times" by country music singer Ray Price before they formed up to march out. As it turned out, Company A-1 would survive (and in fact continue to be the oldest surviving non-disbanded outfit in the Corps) and thrive in the coming years, returning to prominence in the Corps. To this day, Animal A continues to circle up before each home football game and put their arms around their fellow Animals, swaying back and forth to the slow, pulsing beat of "For The Good Times."

Ranger Joe
Company A-1 has long been known throughout the Corps as an outfit that has an exceptionally high rate of cadets who contract as officers in the U.S. Army. As such, A-1 adopted the "Ranger Joe" character meant to personify the grit, skill, and high standards of the U.S. Army Rangers as an unofficial company mascot. Ranger Joe has since appeared on most outfit signs and logos since the mid-20th century. Ranger Joe is also an addition to the outfit. Found in 2006 by Aaron Farmer '10, this red slider is passed down the sixth week of school to a fish of single status as a form of motivation.

Company Bonfire
After the collapse of the bonfire stack in 1999, the subsequent ban of an on-campus bonfire has prevented A-1 from participating in many of their time-honored bonfire traditions (including the fish eating a grasshopper at First Cut to prove they were an Animal). In the fall of 2003, the A-1 freshman class (the class of '07) decided to have a class bonfire at the ranch of one of their fish buddies. The  tradition continued the following year and became an official, outfit-wide function in the fall of 2005. The Company Bonfire is a perfect time for members of A-1 to display the strong work ethic, teamwork, and camaraderie that they develop as Animals. In 2016, A-1 was allowed to participate in Bonfire for the first time.

References

External links
Official website

Texas A&M University student organizations
Military education and training in the United States
Military units and formations established in 1876
1876 establishments in Texas

Company A-1


Timothy Aloysius Smiddy (1875–1962) was an Irish academic, economist, and diplomat. He is best known as Ireland's first Ambassador/overseas Minister, serving as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States of America for the Irish Free State from 1924 to 1929.

Personal life
Timothy Aloysius "Audo" Smiddy was born on 30 April 1875 in Kilbarry, County Cork, the son of William Smiddy, a wealthy merchant originally from Ballymacoda, East Cork, and Honora Mahony, of the Blarney Mahony family. He was educated at St. Finbarr's College Cork, before attending University College Cork, graduating with a B.A. (1905) and an M.A. (1907). Later he attended universities in Paris, France and Cologne, Germany. At one point, he considered the priesthood. However in 1900, he married Lillian "Muddie" O'Connell, also from Cork city. They had six children including five daughters Pearl (Binnie), Muriel, Cecil, Ita and Ethna, and a son Sarsfield.

Role in independence
A contemporary and friend of Michael Collins, the Irish revolutionary, Smiddy was appointed by Collins to be his Economic Adviser to Plenipotentiaries for the Treaty Negotiations from October to December 1921 following the War of Independence. This was at a time when Michael Collins was the Minister for Finance in the putative Republic.

Professor of Economics, UCC
Smiddy was first and foremost an academic and an economist. In the College at Cork in the newly constituted National University of Ireland, which replaced the Royal University of Ireland, Smiddy was holder of the Professorship of Economics and Commerce. He served in this post from 1903 to 1924, one of only six to have held the post since the formation of the Department of Mental and Moral Science at the College in 1849. In 1952, he was awarded the Honorary Degree of DEconSc by University College, Cork.

Minister Plenipotentiary

Smiddy was initially appointed as the Irish Free State's Representative in Washington in 1922. Following representations by the Free State's government to London and Washington, and in particular to tackle the problem of anti-Treaty propaganda, this role was officially recognised in 1924. From then until 1929, Smiddy served as Minister Plenipotentiary and Envoy Extraordinary to the United States of America for the Irish Free State.

Smiddy's appointment represented not only the establishment of the Irish Free State's first formal diplomatic relations with another country since secession from the UK, but also the first attempt by any British dominion or colony to appoint what would these days be regarded as an Ambassador to a third country. The appointment was also a significant development in the domestic affairs of Irish Free State, as it was "part of an overall campaign to discredit Republican attacks on the integrity of the Free State and to strengthen the new state's position by formally demonstrating its essential independence from the United Kingdom."

Later life
Smiddy also served as the Irish Free State's High Commissioner to London (1929–30) and was a member of the Tariff Commission (1930–33) and then became chairman of the Commission on Agriculture (1939–1945). Thereafter, he served on various Boards, and was head of Combined Purchasing Section at the Department of Local Government and Public Health from 1933 to 1945. He was also Director of the Irish Central Bank.

Throughout the late 1930s and the 1940s, Smiddy advised the de Valera government on economic matters. In particular, he was instrumental in bringing about a universal child allowance. He died in 1962.

References

External links

1875 births
1962 deaths
Irish diplomats
20th-century Irish economists
High Commissioners of Ireland to the United Kingdom
People from County Cork
Alumni of University College Cork
Academics of University College Cork

Timothy Smiddy


Catharina Pieternella "Ella" Vogelaar (23 December 1949 – 7 October 2019) was a Dutch politician of the Labour Party (PvdA) and trade union leader.

Political career
After graduating from the HBS in Zierikzee she attended the social academy in Driebergen between 1967 and 1972. During that period, Vogelaar was an active member of the Communist Party of the Netherlands (CPN). In 1972 she began to work as a youth worker. In the mid 1980s she began to work for the Education Trade Union and she began to study education studies at the University of Amsterdam specialising in education policy and law. In 1987 she graduated from the University of Amsterdam and in 1988 she became chair of the Trade Union for Education. During her tenure as chair, she prepared the merger between the social-democratic ABOP education trade union and the liberal NGLOA education trade union. In 1994 she became vice-chair of the Federation Dutch Labour Movement, as such she was member of the Social Economic Council and the Foundation of Labour. Between 1997 and 2000 she was project manager at the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment. Since 2000 Vogelaar worked as an independent advisor and interim-manager, as such she has coordinated the projected Integration Task Force at the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations. She advised governments, organisations and companies on employment policy, social security, education and integration. She was also part of the board of VNO-NCW, the largest Dutch employers' federation.

She was part of the advisory board and the board of directors of several companies, including the Amsterdam Municipal Transport Agency, the Harbour of Rotterdam and Unilever. She served on the board of the Nederlands-Vlaamse Accreditatie Organisatie, which inspects the quality of Dutch and Flemish universities and on the board of the Dutch Center for Foreigners. From 2004 through 2007, she was chair of Oxfam Novib, the largest Dutch international development organization.

On 13 November 2008 she resigned as Minister of Integration and Housing after the party leadership removed their confidence for her position after increasing criticism of her media performance. An example of this was her performance in a video by the blog GeenStijl in which their reporter Rutger Castricum asked her critical questions about reports that she had hired a spin doctor.

Death
On 7 October 2019, Vogelaar died at the age of 69. She committed suicide after struggling with depression.

Decorations

References

External links

Official
  Drs. C.P. (Ella) Vogelaar Parlement & Politiek

1949 births
2019 deaths
Dutch corporate directors
Dutch nonprofit directors
Dutch politicians who committed suicide
Dutch political commentators
Dutch political writers
Dutch social workers
Dutch trade union leaders
Labour Party (Netherlands) politicians
Ministers without portfolio of the Netherlands
People from Steenbergen
Suicides in the Netherlands
University of Amsterdam alumni
Women government ministers of the Netherlands
20th-century Dutch civil servants
21st-century Dutch civil servants
21st-century Dutch women politicians
21st-century Dutch politicians
21st-century Dutch women writers
2019 suicides
20th-century Dutch women

Ella Vogelaar


Joseph-A. Fowler (14 November 1845 – 4 January 1917) was a Canadian composer, organist, choirmaster, pianist, and music educator. His compositional output mainly consists of sacred music, although he did compose some secular songs for voice and piano and a number of works for solo piano. He wrote two masses for choir and orchestra: Mass of the Blessed Virgin Mary (published by I. Suckling & Sons, 1893) and Mass of the Sacred Heart (published by Whaley Royce, 1898).

Life and career
Born in Montreal, Fowler was the son of an Irish father and a French-Canadian mother. He studied the piano with Paul Letondal and was notably one of his first students. He visited Europe three times during his life, experiences which enriched his musical life. At the age of 16 he began teaching at the Collège Sainte-Marie de Montréal where he worked for seven years. From 1868 to 1890 he taught at the Sacré-Coeur Convent at Sault-au-Récollet just outside Montreal. Among his notable pupils were Alexis Contant and Arthur Pépin. He also occasionally organized concerts and promoted artists in Montreal, notably bringing Irish baritone William Ludwig to the city among other performers.

An active recitalist and accompanist on the piano, Fowler notably performed Ludwig van Beethoven's Variations on God Save the Queen in an 1870 concert organized by Adélard Joseph Boucher on the occasion of composer's centenary birth. He also served as the organist/choirmaster at St. Patrick's Basilica, Montreal from 1868 until his retirement in 1908. He was named an organist emeritus by St. Patrick's and in 1915 he donated an organ to the church's Lady Chapel.

References

1845 births
1917 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century classical pianists
20th-century Canadian pianists
20th-century classical composers
Canadian classical composers
Canadian classical organists
Male classical organists
Canadian classical pianists
Male classical pianists
Male conductors (music)
Canadian music educators
Canadian male classical composers
Academic staff of the Université du Québec à Montréal
Canadian male pianists
20th-century Canadian conductors (music)
20th-century Canadian male musicians
19th-century male musicians

Joseph-A. Fowler


David O'Loughlin is the mayor of Prospect since 2006 and president of the Australian Local Government Association 2016-2020.

Originally from Port Pirie, he studied Architecture at the University of Adelaide and completed a Graduate Diploma in Project Management at the University of South Australia, completed the Australian Institute of Directors course in 2000 and graduated from the Governor's Leadership Foundation in 2002. O'Loughlin has been involved in youth work, service club membership, church and school committees and is a member of Prospect Kiwanis, a board member of Reconciliation SA, chair of the Blackfriars Priory School Board, a member of the Architectural History Advisory Board, the Prospect Gallery Advisory Group, the Prospect Public Art Advisory Board and is also Convenor of the Adelaide Chapter of the Art Deco and Modernism Society.

O'Loughlin was elected as a Ward Councillor for the City of Prospect in 2003 and was on many Council committees before being elected as Mayor of the City of Prospect in November 2006 and re-elected in 2010 and 2014. Elected to the State Executive of the Local Government Association (LGA) in December 2006, O'Loughlin served as vice president of the LGA for four years. He also served as the Chair of the Metropolitan Local Government Group from 2009 to 2011. From 2013 to 2015 he served as the President of the South Australian LGA. In November 2016 he was elected President of the Australian Local Government Association and was the sector's representative on COAG.

Professionally qualified as a Project Manager, O'Loughlin has held senior positions in the construction industry and was an Executive Manager at Built Environs and State Manager at Badge Construction. O'Loughlin joined the public sector from 2008 as Projects Director in Housing SA and became Director Major Projects in Renewal SA in 2012 and delivered a range of projects including the delivery of the $404 million, 1,475 dwelling, social housing component of the Nation Building Economic Stimulus Plan. He won 34 industry awards over five years in government, including the multi award-winning $48 million UNO Apartments project on Waymouth Street. Since August 2017, he has been a Commissioner of the South Australian Development Assessment Commission.

O'Loughlin took leave from his position as Prospect Mayor in March 2014 to focus on his campaign for the South Australian House of Assembly seat of Adelaide. He ran for the 2014 state election for Labor and finished with a two-party preferred vote of 47.6 percent, an increase of 1.8 percent against incumbent Liberal MP Rachel Sanderson.

References

Living people
Mayors of places in South Australia
Year of birth missing (living people)

David O'Loughlin (politician)


A naval ship (or naval vessel) is a military ship (or sometimes boat, depending on classification) used by a navy. Naval ships are differentiated from civilian ships by construction and purpose. Generally, naval ships are damage resilient and armed with weapon systems, though armament on troop transports is light or non-existent.

Naval ships designed primarily for naval warfare are termed warships, as opposed to support (auxiliary ships) or shipyard operations.

Naval ship classification

Naval ship classification is a field that has changed over time, and is not an area of wide international agreement, so this article currently uses the system as currently used by the United States Navy.

Aircraft carrierships that serve as mobile seaborne airfields, designed primarily for the purpose of conducting combat operations by Carrier-based aircraft which engage in attacks against airborne, surface, sub-surface and shore targets.
Surface combatantlarge, heavily armed surface ships which are designed primarily to engage enemy forces on the high seas, including various types of battleship, battlecruiser, cruiser, destroyer, frigate, and corvette.
Submarineself-propelled submersible types regardless of whether they are employed as combatant, auxiliary, or research and development vehicles which have at least a residual combat capability.
Patrol combatantcombatants whose mission may extend beyond coastal duties and whose characteristics include adequate endurance and sea keeping providing a capability for operations exceeding 48 hours on the high seas without support.
Amphibious warfareships having organic capability for amphibious assault and which have characteristics enabling long duration operations on the high seas.
Combat logisticsships that have the capability to provide underway replenishment to fleet units.
Mine warfareships whose primary function is mine warfare on the high seas.
Coastal defenseships whose primary function is coastal patrol and interdiction.
Sealiftships that have the capability to provide direct material support to other deployed units operating far from home base.
Supportships, such as oilers and auxiliary ships designed to operate in the open ocean in a variety of sea states to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore based establishments. (Includes smaller auxiliaries which, by the nature of their duties, leave inshore waters).
Service type craftnavy-subordinated craft (including non-self-propelled) designed to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore-based establishments.

Size

In rough order of tonnage (largest to smallest), modern surface naval ships are commonly divided into the following different classes. The larger ships in the list can also be classed as capital ships.
 Aircraft carrier
 Helicopter carrier
 Amphibious assault ship
 Stealth ship
 Battleship
 Battlecruiser
 Heavy cruiser
 Light cruiser
 Destroyer
 Frigate
 Corvette
 Patrol boat
 Fast attack craft

Some classes above may now be considered obsolete as no ships matching the class are in current service. There is also much blurring and gray areas between the classes, depending on their intended use, history, and interpretation of the class by different navies.

Auxiliary ships

Navies also use auxiliary ships for transport and other non-combat purposes. They are classified by different names according to their roles:
Ammunition ships are ships to transport and replenish ammunition for warships and naval aircraft.
Barracks ships are ships or barges for temporary accommodation for sailors, soldiers and other military personnel.
Colliers were ships used to transport and replenish coal for warships during the Age of Steam.
Command ships are the flagship of the commander of a fleet.
Combat stores ships are ships to transport supplies and replenish ships in the high seas.
Depot ships are ships used as mobile or fixed bases for destroyers, fast attack craft, minesweepers, submarines, patrol vessels, landing craft and other small ships.
Fast combat support ships are a type of auxiliary ships designed with high speed to keep up with the carrier battle group/carrier strike group, while the multi-product station is capable of supplying all types of necessities for the fleet.
Hospital ships are ships functioning as floating hospitals and are used to provide medical treatment in the high seas. The Second Geneva Convention prohibits military attacks on hospital ships that meet specified requirements, though belligerent forces have right of inspection and may take patients, but not staff, as prisoners of war.
Repair ships are ships to provide maintenance and repairs to warships.
Aircraft repair ships are repair vessels to provide maintenance and repairs to naval aircraft.
Rescue and salvage ships are ships to aid stricken vessels.
Submarine rescue ships are used for submarine rescue and deep sea salvage operations.
Research ships are ships to research military concerns, such as sonar or weapons trails.
Replenishment oilers are ships to transport oil and refuel ships in the high seas.
Spy ships are dedicated ships to collect intelligence.
Survey ship is any type of ship or boat that is used for underwater surveys.
Ship's tender is a type of ship used to serve other boats, submarines, ships or seaplanes.
Destroyer tender
Submarine tender
Torpedo boat tender
Motor torpedo boat tender
Seaplane tender
Troopships are ships, usually repurposed passenger ships used to transport marines and soldiers.
Training ship are ships to train students into sailors. Sail training ships are used to provide an unconventional and effective way of building many useful skills on and off the water.
Torpedo trials craft are ships used by navies for the development of new naval torpedoes and during practice firings. These craft are designed to track and monitor, locate and retrieve the spent torpedo for analysis and refurbishment for reuse.
Tracking ships are a type of ship fitted with antennas and electronics to support the launching and tracking of rockets and missiles.

See also
 List of naval ship classes in service
 List of auxiliary ship classes in service
 List of submarine classes in service
 List of ship classes of the Second World War

External links

 *

Ship types

Naval ship


Charles William Socarides (January 24, 1922 – December 25, 2005) was an American psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, physician, educator and author. He focused much of his career on homosexuality, which he believed could be altered. He helped found the National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH) in 1992 and worked extensively with the organization until his death.

Biography

Socarides was born in Brockton, Massachusetts. In 1935, at the age of 13, after reading a biography of Sigmund Freud, Socarides decided to become a physician and psychoanalyst. In 1952, at the age of 30, he graduated from Harvard College and received his certificate in Psychoanalytic Medicine from what is now the Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research. Socarides wrote or co-wrote numerous books and psychoanalytic articles. He appeared on news programs such as Dateline NBC, 60 Minutes and Larry King Live to discuss his work. He was a president of the National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH), which he helped to found in 1992. He was on the board of directors of the Margaret S. Mahler Psychiatric Research Foundation. He was a member of the International Advisory Committee, the Second Delphi International Psychoanalytic Symposium, held in Delphi, Greece, in 1988, the American Medical Association, the American Psychiatric Association, the Association for Psychoanalytic Medicine and the International Psychoanalytical Association. Socarides was a life member of the American Psychoanalytic Association, where he chaired a discussion group, and an affiliate member of the Royal Society of Medicine in London, United Kingdom. He has received numerous awards, including that of Distinguished Psychoanalyst, Association of Psychoanalytic Psychologists, British Health Service; the first Sigmund Freud Lectureship Award from the New York Center for Psychoanalytic Training, NYC, and the 1987 Sigmund Freud Award given by the American Society of Psychoanalytic Physicians in recognition of distinguished service to psychiatry and psychoanalytic research.

Socarides was a practicing psychiatrist and psychoanalyst in New York City from 1954 until his death. He treated patients for homosexuality throughout his career. He reported that "about a third" of his patients became heterosexual after treatment. He taught Psychiatry at Columbia University and the State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, and was Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York City, from 1978 to 1996. He lectured on his research findings in London at the Anna Freud Centre, the Portman Clinic, the Tavistock Clinic and before the British Psychoanalytical Society.

Much of Socarides' career was devoted to studying homosexuality. He has been grouped with Irving Bieber and Lionel Ovesey as the main representatives of the U.S. psychoanalytical current that has been active in promoting analytical methods to 'cure' homosexuality. Socarides postulated that homosexuality was a neurotic adaptation, and that it could be treated so as to turn gay people straight. He wrote that male homosexuality typically develops in the first two years of life, during the pre-Oedipal stage of a boy's personality formation. In his view, it is caused by a controlling mother who prevents her son from separating from her, and a weak or rejecting father who does not serve as a role model for his son or support his efforts to escape from the mother.

Socarides was vocally opposed to the American Psychiatric Association's decision to remove homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and he continued to label homosexuality a mental illness. In 1992, Socarides founded the National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality with Joseph Nicolosi and Benjamin Kaufman. Socarides also spoke publicly about his opposition to the gay rights movement, which he believed would undermine societal gender roles and the family.

Socarides was the father of five children: a son, Richard Socarides, from his first marriage; a daughter, also from his first marriage; two children from his second marriage; and one from his fourth marriage, with Claire Alford Socarides. Richard, who is gay, was Bill Clinton's Senior Advisor for Public Liaison for gay and lesbian issues.

Works
 Socarides, Charles W. (1968). The Overt Homosexual. Jason Aronson, Inc. .
 Socarides, Charles W. (1975). Beyond Sexual Freedom. New York Times/Quadrangle Books. .
 Socarides, Charles W.; & Kramer, Selma (1975). Work and Its Inhibitions: Psychoanalytic Essays. International Universities Press. .
 Socarides, Charles W. (1977). The World of Emotions: Clinical Studies of Affects and Their Expression. International Universities Press. .
 Socarides, Charles W.; & Karasu, Toksoz B. (1979). On Sexuality: Psychoanalytic Observations. International Universities Press. .
 Socarides, Charles W. (1988). Preoedipal Origin and Psychoanalytic Therapy of Sexual Perversions. International Universities Press. .
 Socarides, Charles W. (1989). Homosexuality: Psychoanalytic Therapy. Jason Aronson, Inc. . First published in 1978 under the title Homosexuality.
 Volkan, Vamik D.; & Socarides, Charles W. (1990). The Homosexualities: Reality, Fantasy, and the Arts. International Universities Press. .
 Volkan, Vamik D.; & Socarides, Charles W. (1991). The Homosexualities and the Therapeutic Process. International Universities Press. .
 Socarides, Charles W. (1992). Sexual Politics and Scientific Logic: The Issue of Homosexuality. Association for Psychohistory. ASIN B0006RCH62.
 Socarides, Charles W. (1995). Homosexuality: A Freedom Too Far. A Psychoanalyst Answers 1000 Questions About Causes and Cure and the Impact of the Gay Rights Movement on American Society. Roberkai. .
 Socarides, Charles W.; & Freedman, Abraham (2002). Objects of Desire: The Sexual Deviations. International Universities Press. .
 Loeb, Loretta L.; & Socarides, Charles W. (2004). The Mind of the Paedophile: Psychoanalytic Perspectives. Karnac. .

See also
Homosexuality and psychology
 Richard Socarides

References

External links
Should Marriage Between Homosexuals Be Permitted? Debate on Same-sex Marriage, The Advocates, 1974.

1922 births
2005 deaths
Sexual orientation change efforts
Columbia University alumni
Conversion therapy practitioners
Harvard College alumni
American psychoanalysts
American male writers
Discrimination against LGBT people in the United States
Psychiatry writers on LGBT topics
Writers from Brockton, Massachusetts
American psychiatrists

Charles W. Socarides