Endeavor Group Holdings, Inc. (formerly William Morris Endeavor and WME-IMG) is an American holding company for talent and media agencies with its primary offices in Beverly Hills, California, United States. The company was founded in April 2009 after the merger of the William Morris Agency and Endeavor Talent Agency. Endeavor represents artists in film, television, music, theater, digital media, and publishing. It also represents the NFL and NHL. Endeavor owns Professional Bull Riders (PBR) and is majority owner of World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC)  through TKO Group.

The group additionally owns a 20% stake in film and television production company Fifth Season (formerly Endeavor Content), with the remaining 80% owned by South Korean entertainment and retail company CJ ENM. Endeavor is headed by CEO Ari Emanuel and executive chairman Patrick Whitesell.

History

Beginnings

The Endeavor Talent Agency launched in 1995. By 2009, it was one of the fastest-growing Hollywood talent agencies, with The New York Times singling out its reputation for "quick thinking, ferocity and barely bridled ambition".

William Morris Endeavor
On April 27, 2009, William Morris Agency (WMA) and the Endeavor Talent Agency announced that they were forming William Morris Endeavor, or "WME". Endeavor executives Ari Emanuel and Patrick Whitesell were widely seen as the architects of the merger and quickly became the Co-CEOs of WME. Following the official announcement of the merger, nearly 100 WMA employees and former board members were let go. One of those leaving was Jim Wiatt, who came to WMA in 1999 from International Creative Management, where he was vice-chairman. He had joined WMA as president and co-chief executive officers, and had risen to board chairman. Following the merger, WME moved its headquarters into the offices of Endeavor at 9601 Wilshire Boulevard in the heart of Beverly Hills.

In 2011, Emanuel was quoted in a Financial Times profile about the company saying, "We built a culture where people are rewarded for taking risks." Emanuel and Whitesell implemented several leadership strategies to boost the productivity of their agents, most notably, the "Farmhouse" training program.

Expansion
Endeavor grew to include several subsidiary companies and expanded divisions. Fortune named co-CEOs Ari Emanuel and Patrick Whitesell to their 2010 "Businessperson of the Year" list, acknowledging their corporate growth strategies. Emanuel had previously been recognized as a 21st-century "super agent" by both The Wall Street Journal and The Guardian, as well as an Advertising Age "Influencer."

In July 2011, the company and its foundation created Camp Summer Eagle, which provides donations and activities for schoolchildren at Foster Elementary in Compton, California.

Shortly after the merger, WME helped launch the investment group Raine, which aligned the company with properties like Vice Media and Zumba Fitness. In 2010, WME partnered with RED Interactive, a digital advertising agency. Two years later, they formed an alliance with the social media management firm TheAudience, partnering with digital entrepreneur Sean Parker and executing social campaigns for properties like the Seth MacFarlane motion picture Ted and the Coachella Music Festival. 2013 brought a strategic partnership between WME and creative music agency Jingle Punks, which creates, publishes and licenses music. WME is also an investor in the e-commerce platform [OpenSky], which was named one of America's "Most Promising Companies" by Forbes. In 2013, Whitesell and Emanuel were profiled in Fast Company, highlighting the company's digital growth.

On May 2, 2012, WME and Silver Lake Partners, a technology-focused private equity firm based in Silicon Valley, signed an agreement for Silver Lake to acquire a 31.25% minority stake in the agency for $250 million.  A new executive committee, consisting of Co-CEOs Ari Emanuel and Patrick Whitesell and Silver Lake Managing Director Egon Durban, was formed to lead the company's growth strategy and investment activities. In July 2013, WME acquired a minority stake in the creative agency Droga5. The partnership combines the companies' advertising and entertainment resources.

WME-IMG
On December 18, 2013, WME and Silver Lake announced the acquisition of IMG for $2.4 billion. WME's Ari Emanuel and Patrick Whitesell took over as co-CEOs. On January 21, 2015, it was announced that WME had acquired Global eSports Management (GEM), an international agency representing various esports and professional video game players and personalities. In April 2015, they bought the Professional Bull Riders. On September 23, 2015, it was announced that WME-IMG would be partnering with Turner Broadcasting to create a televised esports league, the ELeague.

On September 14, 2015, WME-IMG acquired from Donald Trump the Miss Universe Organization, which produces the Miss Universe, Miss USA and Miss Teen USA beauty pageants and related content. The organization sells television rights to the pageants in other countries. Financial details were not disclosed.

Softbank and Fidelity Investments in early 2016 invested in WME-IMG. The company formed a joint venture in June 2016 for China with Sequoia Capital, Tencent and FountainVest Partners.

On July 9, 2016, Zuffa, LLC, the parent company of Ultimate Fighting Championship, was sold to a group led by WME-IMG, its owner Silver Lake Partners, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, and MSD Capital, for $4.025 billion, the largest-ever acquisition in the sports industry. On August 22, 2016, WME acquired the literary agency Rabineau Wachter Sanford & Gillett (RWSG); its co-founders, Sylvie Rabineau and Jill Holwager Gillett, head a division of WME involved in the coordination of screen adaptations of literature. WME/IMG purchased in August 2017 a majority stake in Bloom, a film finance and sales company led by Ken Kao and Alex Walton.

Endeavor
WME-IMG reorganized in October 2017 with the parent company being renamed from WME-IMG to Endeavor. Ari Emanuel became Endeavor CEO and Patrick Whitesell became Endeavor executive chairman. The general talent agency retained the WME name as the sports agency retained the IMG name.

In October 2017, Endeavor Content was formed from the WME's and IMG's film financing and scripted TV sales units, WME's advisory group for film financiers and content producers and Bloom, which will continue to operate autonomously. Appointed as co-presidents of Endeavor Content were Graham Taylor and Chris Rice with additional hires of Negeen Yazdi as senior vice president of film and Joe Hipps as senior vice president of television.

 On November 15, 2017, actor Terry Crews stated on Good Morning America that Adam Venit, head of WME's motion picture department, had squeezed Crews' genitals with his hand at an industry party in February 2016. WME responded they had suspended Venit following an internal investigation, on November 27, 2017, it was announced Venit would return to work after a month's unpaid leave. On December 4, 2017, lawyers acting on behalf of Terry Crews filed suit against WME and Venit stating "It is now time to hold Venit accountable for his sexual predatory behavior and to hold WME accountable for its conduct in condoning, ratifying, and encouraging Venit's sexual predatory behavior".

Third Coast Content, a faith and family audiences production and publishing company, was founded in February 2018 by veteran film executive Ben Howard as CEO with Endeavor Content as an investor and as its provider of sales and advisory services. In April 2019, Droga5 was acquired by Accenture.

Initial public offering
On May 24, 2019, Endeavor filed forms for an initial public offering (IPO) with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) that would have valued the company at $7.6 billion. The form detailed Endeavor's revenue was $3.61 billion in 2018 with a net income of $100.1 million after adjustments, and potential risks involved of being potentially sued "over alleged long-term neurocognitive impairment arising from concussions", "collective bargaining to unionize the MMA athletes", and "five related class-action lawsuits filed against it alleging that UFC violated Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 by monopolizing the alleged market for elite professional MMA athletes' services". Also included in the filing was the statement that subsidiary WME Dragon Holdings LLC, which bought 49 percent of advertising agency Droga5 in 2013, agreed to sell its interest in Droga5 to Accenture Interactive for $233 million.

On September 26, 2019, a day before it planned to go public, Endeavor Group announced that the IPO had been postponed in order to "evaluate the timing for the proposed offering as market conditions develop." Contributing factors were reported to be the under-performance of the recent IPO for Peloton, and an ongoing lawsuit with several former UFC fighters.

On March 30, 2021, Endeavor Group announced a new planned IPO for later in 2021, with Elon Musk and Fawn Weaver nominated to join its board of directors. On April 28, 2021, Endeavor Group went public on the New York Stock Exchange. Endeavor subsequently used some of the proceeds from the IPO to buy out Zuffa's other shareholders at a value of $1.7 billion, making Zuffa a wholly-owned subsidiary of Endeavor. On July 19, 2021, Ursula Burns joined the board of directors. On September 27, 2021, Endeavor announced that it would acquire OpenBet for $1.2 billion in cash and stock. In March 2022, Musk resigned from the board.

Divestment of Endeavor Content
In 2019, the Writers Guild of America (WGA) filed a lawsuit against the four major Hollywood talent agencies, including WME, Creative Artists Agency (CAA), United Talent Agency (UTA) and ICM Partners, over their usage of packaging deals (under which a talent agency offers a production utilizing its represented writers, directors, and/or actors as a "package" to prospective studios), which the WGA asserted to be an illegal conflict of interest under state and federal law.

As part of agreements that would allow them to resume representing writers, the WGA called for talent agencies to reduce their interest in co-owned production companies, as they considered talent agencies owning their own production companies to also be a conflict of interest. In February 2021, Endeavor agreed to a new franchising deal with the WGA, under which it must cease the use of packaging deals, and not hold more than a 20% stake in production companies affiliated with the agency, thus necessitating that it divest at least 80% of Endeavor Content.

On June 8, 2021, Endeavor began to seek a partner for the division in compliance with the agreement, with the whole sales team returning to the company to start the process. On October 28, 2021, Endeavor started to solicit second-round bids for more than $750 million, with three equity firms and two strategic companies among those in the running. On November 19, 2021, South Korean conglomerate CJ ENM reached a deal to acquire the stake for $775 million. The acquisition primarily covers the company's scripted business, with Endeavor retaining its non-scripted, documentary, and film consulting businesses. The sale is CJ ENM's largest acquisition to-date. The $785 million purchase was completed in January 2022. In September 2022, the company was renamed to Fifth Season; the name stems from Eastern medicine, which recognizes the so-called "fifth season" as a celebratory time of harvest in late summer, thus representing the company's focus on global ideas and content.

On October 26, 2022, JKN Global Group acquired Miss Universe Organization (MUO) from Endeavor for $14 million.

On March 7, 2023, Endeavor acquired unscripted production company Asylum Entertainment Group.

On June 2, 2023, Endeavor acquired literary agency Ross Yoon Agency.

UFC–WWE merger
In January 2023, professional wrestling promotion WWE stated it was exploring a potential sale, with Endeavor being among potential suitors. Its founder Vince McMahon had stepped down as chairman and CEO in mid-2022 amidst a misconduct investigation. Endeavor Streaming had been providing backend services for WWE's streaming platform WWE Network since 2019.

On April 2, CNBC reported via sources that a deal between WWE and Endeavor was imminent and could be announced the next day. On April 3, Endeavor and WWE officially announced the deal, under which WWE will merge with UFC parent company Zuffa to form a new publicly-traded company; the name of the new entity was not announced, but it was stated that it will trade under the symbol "TKO". Endeavor will hold a 51% stake in "TKO", with WWE's shareholders having a 49% stake, marking the first time that WWE has not been controlled by the McMahon family. Vince McMahon will serve as executive chairman of the new entity, Emanuel  as CEO, and Mark Shapiro as president and chief operating officer. As with Endeavor's ownership of UFC, Emanuel will not take on any creative roles, with current WWE CEO Nick Khan being named president of WWE (in a similar capacity to Dana White's role in UFC).

Emanuel stated that this merger would "bring together two leading pureplay sports and entertainment companies" and provide "significant operating synergies", while McMahon stated that "given the incredible work that Ari and Endeavor have done to grow the UFC brand — nearly doubling its revenue over the past seven years — and the immense success we've already had in partnering with their team on a number of ventures, I believe that this is without a doubt the best outcome for our shareholders and other stakeholders." The deal is expected to be completed on September 12, 2023. WWE and the UFC will continue to run as separate divisions of the newly merged company as per statements made by WWE CEO Nick Khan. Hours after the sale, law firm Ademi LLP launched an investigation into the sale, looking for "possible breaches of fiduciary duty and other violations of law". WWE's stock price additionally decreased following the announcement of the sale. On May 16, it was reported that the new entity would operate under the name TKO Group Holdings.

The merger was finalized on September 12, 2023.

Holdings
International
Endeavor (founded in June 2016) – a Chinese subsidiary formed with the investments from Sequoia Capital, Tencent and FountainVest

Hospitality/live events/ticket sales
On Location Experiences (acquired in January 2020) – a company specializing in ticket sales and live experience management for sporting events
Frieze Art Fair – contemporary/modern art fairs and exhibitions
EXPO Chicago
The Armory Show

Talent agencies
 WME – talent agency representing entertainers, athletes, and fashion designers
 IMG – talent agency representing entertainers, athletes, and fashion designers
 Dixon Talent – talent agency representing late-night and other television (TV) hosts
 The Wall Group – talent agency representing stylists and designers
 Global eSports Management – talent agency representing professional video game players and personalities
 Rabineau Wachter Sanford & Gillett – literary agency
 Ross Yoon Agency – literary agency

Branding/promotions/advertising
160 over 90 (acquired in January 2018) – a company specializing in PR and advertising for entertainment and experiential events
Wonderful Union (acquired in August 2018) – a company that develops and executes promotions, contests, brand sponsorships and advertisements
Learfield – a collegiate sports marketing company
120 Sports
Campus Insiders
Longhorn Network

Movies
Fifth Season (known as Endeavor Content from October 2017 – September 2022) – a company specializing in film financing and scripted TV sales
Bloom (acquired a majority stake in August 2017) – a film finance and sales company

Broadcasting/publications
Endeavor Streaming – a digital video technology company
Frieze – a contemporary art magazine
Asylum Entertainment Group (acquired majority stake in March 2023) – an unscripted TV production company
Third Coast Content (made investment in February 2018) – a film, television and publishing company

Sports/camping
Camp Summer Eagle – Endeavor's summer camp donations, volunteering and activities arm
Professional Bull Riders – a professional bull riding organization
EuroLeague – a basketball league operated as a joint venture between Endeavor and EuroLeague Basketball
ELeague – an eSports league that initially operated as a joint venture between Endeavor and Turner Broadcasting System
TKO Group Holdings (51%) – a sports and entertainment media conglomerate
WWE – a professional wrestling organization
WWE's divisions and subsidiaries
UFC – a mixed martial arts organization
PRIDE
WEC
WFA
Strikeforce

References

Further reading

External links

 WME Foundation Website
 WME Speakers Website

Endeavor
2009 establishments in California
American companies established in 2009
Holding companies established in 2009
Entertainment companies established in 2009
Companies based in Beverly Hills, California
Entertainment companies based in California
Film production companies of the United States
Holding companies of the United States
Talent and literary agencies
Silver Lake (investment firm) companies
Ultimate Fighting Championship
WWE
2021 initial public offerings
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Companies of the United States

Endeavor (company)


Itahar is a community development block that forms an administrative division in Raiganj subdivision of Uttar Dinajpur district in the Indian state of West Bengal.

History
Historically the western frontier of ancient Pundravardhana kingdom, bordering ancient Anga of Mahabharat fame, the Dinajpur area remained somewhat obscure in the major empires that held sway over the region and beyond till the rise of the Dinajpur Raj during the Mughal period. Some areas later forming a part of Uttar Dinajpur were parts of kingdoms in Nepal. Dinajpur district was constituted by the British in 1786, with a portion of the estate of Dinajpur Raj. Subsequent to the Permanent Settlement in 1793, the semi-independent Dinajpur Raj was further broken down and some of its tracts were transferred to the neighbouring British districts of Purnea, Malda, Rajshahi and Bogra. In 1947, the Radcliffe Line placed the Sadar and Thakurgaon subdivisions of Dinajpur district in East Pakistan. The Balurghat subdivision of Dinajpur district was reconstituted as West Dinajpur district in West Bengal.  Raiganj subdivision was formed in 1948.

In order to restore territorial links between northern and southern parts of West Bengal which had been snapped during the partition of Bengal, and on the recommendations of the States Reorganisation Commission a portion of the erstwhile Kishanganj subdivision comprising Goalpokhar, Islampur and Chopra thanas (police stations) and parts of Thakurganj thana, along with the adjacent parts of the erstwhile Gopalpur thana in Katihar subdivision were transferred from Purnea district in Bihar to West Bengal in 1956, and were formally incorporated into Raiganj subdivision in West Dinajpur. The township of Kishanganj and its entire municipal boundary remained within Bihar. Islampur subdivision was formed in March 1959. At the same time, the portion of Chopra PS lying to the north of the Mahananda river covering an area that now comprises Bidhannagar-1 gram panchayat, Bidhannagar-2 GP, Chathat-Bansgaon GP and the southern half of Phansidewa-Bansgaon Kismat GP in Darjeeling district, was transferred from West Dinajpur to the jurisdiction of Phansidewa PS in Darjeling district. With the introduction of the Community Development Programme in 1960-61, community development blocks were set up in West Dinajpur district.

In 1992, West Dinajpur district was bifurcated and Uttar Dinajpur district was established.

Geography
Itahar is located at .

Uttar Dinajpur district has a flat topography and slopes gently from north to south. All rivers flow in that direction. Except for the eastern fringes of Chopra CD Block, most of the district is a part of the catchment area of the Mahanada and also a part of the larger Barind Tract. The soil is composed of different varieties of alluvium.  The main rivers are: Nagar, Mahananda, Kulik, Gamari, Chhiramati (Srimati) and Tangon. The rivers have little water in the dry season but with heavy rains, during monsoon, overflow the banks. The Mahananda river flows along the western boundary of Itahar CD Block. The Chhiramati river covers a portion of the eastern boundary  and the Gamari river flows through Itahar CD Block.

Itahar CD Block is bounded by Raiganj and Kaliaganj CD Blocks on the north, Harirampur CD Block, in Dakshin Dinajpur district, on the east, Gazole CD Block, in Malda district, on the south, Chanchal II, Chanchal I CD Blocks in Malda district and Barsoi CD Block in Katihar district of Bihar on the west.

Approximately 206 km of the India-Bangladesh border is in Uttar Dinajpur district. It covers the eastern boundary of the district. On the western side Uttar Dinajpur district has 227 km boundary with Bihar.

Itahar CD Block has an area of 362.40 km2.It has 1 panchayat samity, 12 gram panchayats, 194 gram sansads (village councils), 217 mouzas and 219 inhabited villages. Itahar police station serves this block. Headquarters of this CD Block is at Itahar.

Uttar Dinajpur district is one of the smaller districts in the state and stands 15th in terms of area (3,140.00 km2) in the state.

Gram panchayats of Itahar block/ panchayat samiti are: Chhayghara, Durgapur, Durlovpur, Gulandar I, Gulandar II, Itahar, Jayhat, Kapasia, Marnai, Patirajpur, Sarun I and Sarun II.

Demographics

Population
As per the 2011 Census of India, Itahar CD Block had a total population of 303,678, of which 297,656 were rural and 6,022 were urban. There were 155,777 (51%) males and 147,901 (49%) females. Population below 6 years was 43,549. Scheduled Castes numbered 78.177 (25.74%) and Scheduled Tribes numbered 25,134 (8.28%).

As per the 2001 census, Itahar block had a total population of 249,500, out of which 127,332 were males and 122,168 were females. Itahar block registered a population growth of 26.58 per cent during the 1991-2001 decade. Decadal growth for the district was 28.72 per cent.

The only census town in Itahar CD Block was (2011 population in brackets): Itahar (6,022).

Large villages (with 4,000+ population) in Itahar CD Block were (2011 population in brackets): Gorahar (4,823), Keotal (4,655), Dhulahar (5,681), Gulandar (4,105), Kapsia (10,159), Barot (4,394), Bangar (4,512) and Khesra (5,617).

Other villages in Itahar CD Block included (2011 population in brackets): Jayhat (3,957), Chhayghara (2001) and Durgapur (2,191).

Decadal Population Growth Rate (%)

Note: The CD Block data for 1971-1981, 1981-1991 and 1991-2001 is for Itahar PS covering the block

The decadal growth of population in Itahar CD Block in 2001-2011 was 19.28%. The decadal growth of population in Itahar PS  in 1991-2001 was 10.03%, in 1981-91 was 24.63% and in 1971-81 was 27.39%. The decadal growth rate of population in Uttar Dinajpur district was as follows:  30.2% in 1971-81, 34.0% in 1981-91, 28.7% in 1991-2001 and 23.2% in 2001-11. The decadal growth rate for West Bengal was 13.93% in 2001-2011, 17.77% in 1991-2001. 24.73% in 1981-1991 and 23.17% in 1971-1981.

Uttar Dinajpur district has the highest decadal population growth rate in West Bengal with a figure of 23.2% for the decade 2001-2011 and is much higher than the state average of 13.8%.

According to the Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur district, population growth in the area that later became Uttar Dinajpur district was low in the pre-independence era and started picking up with the waves of East Bengali refugees coming in from erstwhile East Pakistan. "A spurt in population growth rates first became evident between 1951-1961, and was further magnified between 1971-81 after the creation of Bangladesh when population growth in most districts bordering the Bangladesh-West Bengal frontier showed similar escalation. However, after 1981, when population growth in most other West Bengal districts had tapered off, growth rates in Uttar Dinajpur again showed a fresh spurt. Thus, no deceleration in population growth rates occurred in the district until after 1991… In addition to Hindu and tribal migrants from across the international border, a sizeable number of migrant Muslims have also settled in the district, mainly driven by economic reasons… migrants from other states comprised 23% of the total migrants residing in Uttar Dinajpur." The large number of migrants from other states is mainly from the neighbouring areas in Bihar.

A study by North Bengal University has observed that "Immigrants from East Pakistan/Bangladesh have arrived in Uttar Dinajpur in almost equal numbers before and after 1971." The Human Development Report opines, "The overall post-Partition impact on the rates of demographic growth has been particularly strong in all North Bengal districts. Despite its smaller relative size, the region has received more migration in pro rata terms than the West Bengal districts lying south of the Ganga."

Literacy
As per the 2011 census, the total number of literates in Itahar CD Block was 153,345 (58.95% of the population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 86,345 (64.68% of the male population over 6 years) and females numbered 67,000 (52.90% of the female population over 6 years). The gender disparity (the difference between female and male literacy rates) was 11.78%.

The literacy rate in Uttar Dinajpur district at 60.13% in 2011, up from 47.89% in 2001, was the lowest amongst all districts of West Bengal. The highest literacy rate amongst the districts of West Bengal was that of Purba Medinipur district at 87.66% in 2011.

See also – List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate

Language and religion

In the 2011 census, Muslims numbered 157,855 and formed 51.98% of the population in Itahar CD Block. Hindus numbered 144,049 and formed 47.43% of the population. Christians numbered 1,295 and formed 0.43% of the population. Others numbered 479 and formed 0.16% of the population. In Itahar CD Block, as per the District Statistical Handbook for Uttar Dinajpur, while the proportion of Muslims increased from 47.17% in 1991 to 48.18% in 2001, the proportion of Hindus declined from 52.61% in 1991 to 50.04% in 2001.

In the 2011 census, Uttar Dinajpur district had 1,501,170 Muslims who formed 49.92% of the population, 1,482,943 Hindus who formed 49.31% of the population, 16,702 Christians who formed 0.56% of the population and 6,319 persons belonging to other religions who formed 0.23% of the population. While the proportion of Muslim population in the district increased from 45.3% in 1991 to 49.9% in 2011, the proportion of Hindu population declined from 54.2% in 1991 to 49.2% in 2011.

At the time of the 2011 census, 90.85% of the population spoke Bengali and 6.35% Santali as their first language. 0.99% of the population recorded their language as 'Others' under Bengali in the census.

Rural poverty
As per the Rural Household Survey conducted in 2002, 64.9% of the rural families in Itahar CD Block belonged to the BPL category, against 46.7% of rural families in Uttar Dinajpur district being in the BPL category.  As per the Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur district, poverty and exclusion levels are very high in Itahar, which ranks fifth in terms of Human Development Index (HDI) but ascends to the second rank in terms of Human Poverty Index (HPI).

Economy

Livelihood

In Itahar CD Block in 2011, amongst the class of total workers, cultivators numbered 35,419 and formed 30.52%, agricultural labourers numbered 60,512 and formed  52.14%, household industry workers numbered 2,187 and formed  1.88% and other workers numbered  17,930 and formed 15.45%. Total workers numbered 116,048 and formed 38.21% of the total population, and non-workers numbered 187,630 and formed 61.79% of the population.

Note: In the census records a person is considered a cultivator, if the person is engaged in cultivation/ supervision of land owned by self/government/institution. When a person who works on another person's land for wages in cash or kind or share, is regarded as an agricultural labourer. Household industry is defined as an industry conducted by one or more members of the family within the household or village, and one that does not qualify for registration as a factory under the Factories Act. Other workers are persons engaged in some economic activity other than cultivators, agricultural labourers and household workers.  It includes factory, mining, plantation, transport and office workers, those engaged in business and commerce, teachers, entertainment artistes and so on.

Infrastructure
There are 219 inhabited villages in Itahar CD Block. All 219 villages (100%) have power supply. 218 villages (99.54%) have drinking water supply. 21 villages (9.59%) have post offices. 213 villages (97.26%) have telephones (including landlines, public call offices and mobile phones). 106 (48.4%) villages have a pucca (paved) approach road and 92 villages (42.01%) have transport communication (includes bus service, rail facility and navigable waterways). 13 villages (5.94%) have agricultural credit societies. 5 villages (2.28%) have banks.

Agriculture
"With its distinctive physiographic and agroclimatic features, the Dinajpur region has been a bread-basket area of Bengal for many centuries, growing multiple varieties of fine and coarse rice in vast quantities, along with major economic crops like jute. The livelihood profile of Uttar Dinajpur district has evolved in association with these old agricultural patterns, and more than two-thirds of its active workforce still draws livelihoods directly from agriculture and related occupations."

Agricultural potential has been uneven across Uttar Dinajpur based on soil conditions and irrigation potential. This has generated considerable internal migration within the district, as areas with higher agricultural potential and higher labour demand has attracted large number of people. The impact of land reforms has also varied. As the Islampur subdivision blocks evolved initially under the Bihar administration, the land estates were larger in size and the extent of land acquired under ceiling laws were higher. The cultivator population in Islampur subdivision was also thinner. Such conditions have been favourable for migrants. The movement of people from agricultural activities to non-agricultural activities has been low in Uttar Dinajpur district except for some pockets.

Itahar CD Block had 360 fertiliser depots, 14 seed stores and 60 fair price shops in 2013-14.

In 2013-14, Itahar CD Block produced 69,331 tonnes of Aman paddy, the main winter crop from 24,672 hectares, 32,654 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop) from 13,655 hectares, 13,912 tonnes of wheat from 5,412 hectares, 70,949 tonnes of jute from 5,517 hectares, 36,083 tonnes of potatoes from 857 hectares, 26,978 tonnes of sugar cane from 258 hectares. It also produced maskalai and oilseeds.

In 2013-14, the total area irrigated in Itahar CD Block was 934 hectares, out of which 345 hectares were irrigated by river lift irrigation and 589 hectares by deep tube wells.

Craft based activities
"More than eleven hundred rural households across the district are engaged in traditional crafts based industries, among which dhokra, mat making, terracotta, village pottery and bamboo craft in the Goalpokhar-1 and Kaliaganj regions are notable."

Banking
In 2012-13, Itahar CD Block had offices of 3 commercial banks and 5 gramin banks.

Backward Regions Grant Fund
Uttar Dinajpur district is listed as a backward region and receives financial support from the Backward Regions Grant Fund.  The fund, created by the Government of India, is designed to redress regional imbalances in development. As of 2012, 272 districts across the country were listed under this scheme. The list includes 11 districts of West Bengal.

Transport
Itahar CD Block has 8 ferry services, 7 originating/ terminating bus routes. The nearest railway station is 22 km from the block headquarters.

New broad gauge lines – Gazole-Itahar (27.20 km), Itahar-Raiganj (22.16 km) and Itahar-Buniadpur (27.095 km) – as a material modification of the Eklakhi-Balurghat project (commissioned in 2004) was included in the budget 1983-84. Initial work for the lines has been taken up by Northeast Frontier Railway. 431.973 ha of land is to be acquired. Land acquisition has commenced in the Gazole-Itahar sector with initial fund sanctions. As of August 2018, further sanctions are awaited. The Eklakhi–Balurghat branch line was taken up in 1983-84.

National Highway 12 (old number NH 34) passes through Itahar town and Itahar CD Block.

Construction of a bridge on the Mahananda connecting Itahar in Uttar Dinajpur district with Chanchal in Malda was taken up in 1999 but has been delayed.

Education
In 2012-13, Itahar CD Block had 174 primary schools with 25,417 students, 24 middle schools with 1,737 students, 4 high schools with 3,312 students and 28 higher secondary schools with 31,321 students. Kaliaganj CD Block had 1 general degree college with 2,799 students,1 technical /professional institutions with 100 students and 562 institutions for special and non-formal education with 36,786 students.

As per the 2011 census, in Itahar CD Block, amongst the 219 inhabited villages, 30 villages did not have a school, 147 villages had 1 or more  primary schools, 42 villages had at least 1 primary and 1 middle school and 18 villages had at least 1 middle and 1 secondary school.

The mid-day meal programme for rural school children was launched in 2005 in Uttar Dinajpur district. As on 30 April 2015, 602,557 children in 3,006 schools were covered under this programme.

College
Dr. Meghnad Saha College was established in 2000 at Village: Ranipur, PO Tilna, PS Itahar.
 Durgapur Womens College, (affiliated to Raiganj University). Durgapur, Itahar
 Itahar Government Polytechnic College, near Porsha, Itahar.
 Itahar Government ITI, near Durgapur, Itahar.
 Itahar Ideal Teachers Training (Dl.Ed. & B.Ed.) College.
 Moulana Abul Kalam Azad B.Ed. College was established in 2005 at Village: Bagbari, PO Itahar.

Healthcare
During the 2008 bird flu outbreak in West Bengal, 16,000 birds were destroyed in Gualadar and Surun gram panchayats, which fall under the jurisdiction of Itahar police station. Some villagers refused to kill their birds and health workers had to retreat from those villages.

In 2013, Itahar CD Block had 1 block primary health centre and 3 primary health centres, with total 52 beds and 3 doctors (excluding private bodies). It had 42 family welfare subcentres. 3,038 patients were treated indoor and 308,871 patients were treated outdoor in the hospitals, health centres and subcentres of the CD Block.

Itahar rural hospital at Itahar (with 30 beds) is the main medical facility in Itahar CD block. There are primary health centres at Marani (with 10 beds), Churaman (with 6 beds), Paraharipur (Surun PHC) (with 6 beds).

External links

References

Community development blocks in Uttar Dinajpur district

Itahar


The Chevrolet Astro (and its sibling GMC Safari) was a Minivan that was built by Chevrolet from 1985 to 2005 to rival the Dodge Caravan/Plymouth Voyager twin models and the Japanese Toyota Van. The Astro had two generation and was manufactured by General Motors. The Astro offered two variations a passenger van and a cargo van it also offered optional AWD. The Astro was assembled at the Baltimore Assembly in Baltimore, Maryland. The Astro was discontinued in 2005 because General Motors thought that they were not selling as well as they used to. The Astro was replaced by the Chevrolet Uplander, Chevrolet Traverse and the Chevrolet City Express.

Other websites

Astro
Minivans
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles

Chevrolet Astro


Karacho (German for 'high speed') is a Gerstlauer steel roller coaster at Erlebnispark Tripsdrill, Germany designed by Imaginvest. It opened on 10 July 2013. It features a launch and 4 inversions, and accelerates to  in 1.6 seconds.

The ride was Gerstlauer's 50th roller coaster, with Erlebnispark Tripsdrill also being the park where the company installed their first roller coaster.

References

External links
 Pictures and press conference of Karacho (German)

Roller coasters in Germany

Karacho


Rainbow Falls is the highest waterfall on the Middle Fork of the San Joaquin River, in the eastern Sierra Nevada mountains of California, in the United States. Plunging  to the turbulent water below, the falls are named for the rainbows that appear in their mist on sunny summer days. Rainbow Falls is located within the boundaries of Devils Postpile National Monument.

About 75,000 years ago, lava erupted from a vent just east of the present-day falls. The eruption occurred in two stages. The first pulse of lava flowed about  westward and pooled in the Middle Fork of the San Joaquin drainage. The second pulse of lava insulated the first, allowing it to cool slowly and to fracture vertically. The layer above cooled under different conditions and fractured horizontally. Geologists describe these rocks as platy rhyodacite; they are visible in the cliffs that surround Rainbow Falls.

As water rushes over the cliff, it erodes the vertically fractured rhyodacite more easily. A small cavern begins to form at the base of the falls, and the overlying rock loses its support and collapses. This process, known as undercutting, causes the waterfall to recede slowly upstream. To date Rainbow Falls has retreated about  due to undercutting.

References

Landforms of Madera County, California
Waterfalls of California
Plunge waterfalls

Rainbow Falls (California)


Freedom of association encompasses both an individual's right to join or leave groups voluntarily, the right of the group to take collective action to pursue the interests of its members, and the right of an association to accept or decline membership based on certain criteria. It can be described as the right of a person coming together with other individuals to collectively express, promote, pursue and/or defend common interests. Freedom of association is both an individual right and a collective right, guaranteed by all modern and democratic legal systems, including the United States Bill of Rights, article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights, section 2 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and international law, including articles 20 and 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 22 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.  The Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work by the International Labour Organization also ensures these rights.

Freedom of association is manifested through the right to join a trade union, to engage in free speech or to participate in debating societies, political parties, or any other club or association, including religious denominations and organizations, fraternities, and sport clubs and not to be compelled to belong to an association. It is closely linked with freedom of assembly, particularly under the U.S. Bill of Rights. Freedom of assembly is typically associated with political contexts. However, (e.g. the U.S. Constitution, human rights instruments, etc.) the right to freedom of association may include the right to freedom of assembly.

The courts and delegated officers of local jurisdictions may impose restrictions on any of the rights of a convicted criminal as a condition of a legal stipulation. Rights to freedom of association and freedom of assembly are waived under certain circumstances, such as a guilty plea or conviction, restraining orders and probationer's search and seizure procedures.

History
The general freedom to associate with groups according to the choice of the individual, and for the groups to take action to promote their interests, has been a necessary feature of every democratic society. Because freedom of association necessarily recognizes pluralistic sources of power and organisation, aside from the government, it has been a primary target for repression by all dictatorial societies. In the United Kingdom, all forms of "combination" were prohibited and criminal, particularly worker organisations, until the Combination Act 1825. After this, it was still not by the Companies Act 1856, the Trade Union Act 1871 and the Criminal Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875 that companies and then trade unions became generally lawful. In Germany, a similar set of repressive laws were put in place against both trade unions and social democrat organisations by the Bismarck government under the Sozialistengesetze (the "Socialist Acts") in 1878. These remained in force until 1890. In 1933, trade unions were once again prohibited by the Fascist dictatorship of Hitler's National Socialist party, and the existing unions were nationalized and combined into a single government controlled German Labor Front. In West Germany after World War II, free trade unions were quickly resurrected and guaranteed by the German Grundgesetz. In the United States, trade unions were classified by various state courts, at various times, as being in restraint of trade. Under the Clayton Act of 1914, trade unions were given a general freedom to organize and to act collectively to secure collective agreements, however further hurdles were put in place until the National Labor Relations Act 1935 created a comprehensive labor code.

Law

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Section 2 of the Charter, under the heading of "Fundamental Freedoms", states:

Under Canadian jurisprudence, freedom of expression has three dimensions: the "constitutive" right to form associations with other people, a "derivative" right to collectively invoke other constitutional rights, and the "purposive" right to collectively bargain in order to be on equal footing with other groups and entities.

European Convention

Italian Constitution
In Italy the freedom of association is established in Article 18 of the Constitution, which states:

South African Bill of Rights

The South African Constitution's Bill of Rights establishes the right to freedom of association in Section 18, which states "Everyone has the right to freedom of association." Furthermore, Section 17 states "Everyone has the right, peacefully and unarmed, to assemble, to demonstrate, to picket and to present petitions", thus establishing the right to freedom of assembly. Workers' right to freedom of association in terms of the right to form trade unions and collective bargaining is recognized separately, in Section 23.

United States Constitution

While the United States Constitution's First Amendment identifies the rights to assemble and to petition the government, the text of the First Amendment does not make specific mention of a right to association.  Nevertheless, the United States Supreme Court held in NAACP v. Alabama (1958) that freedom of association is an essential part of freedom of speech because, in many cases, people can engage in effective speech only when they join with others. Other Supreme Court cases involving freedom of association issues include:
 Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen v. Virginia, 377 U.S. 1 (1964)
 United Mine Workers v. Illinois State Bar Association, 389 U.S. 217 (1967)
 Healy v. James, 408 U.S. 169 (1972)
 NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 U.S. 898 (1982)
 Boy Scouts of America v. Dale, 530 U.S. 640 (2000)
 Janus v. AFSCME, No. 16-1466, 585 U.S. ___ (2018)

Issues

Intimate association
A fundamental element of personal liberty is the right to choose to enter into and maintain certain intimate human relationships.  These intimate human relationships are considered forms of "intimate association."  The paradigmatic example of "intimate association" is the family.  Depending on the jurisdiction it may also extend to abortion, birth control and private, adult, non-commercial and consensual sexual relationships.

Expressive association
In the United States, expressive associations are groups that engage in activities protected by the First Amendment – speech, assembly, press, petitioning government for a redress of grievances, and the free exercise of religion.  In Roberts v. United States Jaycees, the U.S. Supreme Court held that associations may not exclude people for reasons unrelated to the group's expression.  However, in the subsequent decisions of Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston, the Court ruled that a group may exclude people from membership if their presence would affect the group's ability to advocate a particular point of view.  The government cannot, through the use of anti-discrimination laws, force groups to include a message that they do not wish to convey.

This concept continues to apply broadly to private groups, notwithstanding the Supreme Court's ruling in Christian Legal Society v. Martinez (2010), which upheld Hastings College of Law policy that a student group on campus could not enjoy university recognition while excluding people from group activities by requiring them to undergo a religious test. The Court found that the school's conditions on recognizing student groups were viewpoint neutral and reasonable. The policy requires student organizations to allow "any student to participate, become a member, or seek leadership positions, regardless of their status or beliefs" and so, can be used to deny the group recognition as an official student organization because it had required its members to attest in writing that "I believe in: The Bible as the inspired word of God; The Deity of our Lord, Jesus Christ, God's son; The vicarious death of Jesus Christ for our sins; His bodily resurrection and His personal return; The presence and power of the Holy Spirit in the work of regeneration; [and] Jesus Christ, God's son, is Lord of my life." The Court reasoned that Hastings sought to treat all student groups equally; the CLS, on the other hand, sought an exemption to apply a religious test to their membership. Thus, the college's all-comers policy is a reasonable, viewpoint-neutral condition on access to the student organization forum.

Limitation
The implicit First Amendment right of association in the U.S. Constitution has been limited by court rulings.  For example, it is illegal in the United States to consider race in the making and enforcement of private contracts other than marriage. This limit on freedom of association results from Section 1981 of Title 42 of the United States Code, as balanced against the First Amendment in the 1976 decision of Runyon v. McCrary.

Governments often require contracts of adhesion with private entities for licensing purposes, such as with Financial Industry Regulatory Authority for stock market trading in the 1938 Maloney Act amendments to the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. These contracts often bar association with banned members, as can be seen in United States v. Merriam, 108 F.3d 1162.

Organized labor

The organization of labor was commonly resisted during the 19th century, with even relatively liberal countries such as the United Kingdom banning it for various periods (in the UK's case, between 1820 and 1824).

In the international labour movement, the freedom of association is a right identified under international labour standards as the right of workers to organize and collectively bargain.  Freedom of association, in this sense, is recognized as a fundamental human right by a number of documents including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Labour Organization Convention C87 and Convention C98 – two of the eight fundamental, core international labour standards. 'Freedom of association' can also refer to legal bans on private contracts negotiated between a private employer and their employees requiring workers at a particular workplace to join a union as a term and condition of employment. Supporters of this sort of private freedom of association claim that the right to join a union incorporates a right not to join a union. In the United States, the term 'right to work' is more common for this type of law.

"The Supreme Court today (1-21-1997) sharply limited the ability of labor union organizers to go onto an employer's property to distribute literature or urge workers to join the union. In a 6-to-3 opinion written by Justice Clarence Thomas, the Court said that the National Labor Relations Board had failed to give adequate protection to employers' property rights when it adopted a rule four years ago that gave union organizers greater access to areas like the parking lots of shopping centers or factories." -New York Times

Theory

Democracy and civil society
Jeremy McBride argues that respecting the freedom of association by all public authorities and the exercising of this freedom by all sections of society are essential both to establish a "genuine democracy" and to ensure that, once achieved, it remains "healthy and flourishing". In this regard he sees the formation of political parties as a significant manifestation of the freedom of association.

The freedom of association is however not only exercised in the political sense, but also for a vast array of interests – such as culture, recreation, sport and social and humanitarian assistance. Jeremy McBride argues that the formation of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), which he equates with civil society, is the "fruit of associational activity".

Libertarian
Right-libertarians believe that while freedom of association includes the right for workers to organise as unions and to withdraw their labour it also recognises the right of an employer to replace that labour. They also believe that where unions employ coercive or violent tactics, such behaviours would be in breach of both individual rights and property rights. Some critics of unionism allege that such breaches have frequently been the case with union activity.

See also

 Civil liberties
 Free association (Marxism and anarchism)
 Free State Project
 Libertarian socialism
 Self-determination
 United Nations Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association
 Voluntaryism

Notes

Human rights by issue
Concepts in political philosophy

Freedom of association


River Bend Farm is a historic farm located in East Coventry Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania in a bend of the Schuylkill River near Pottstown.  The farm house is a good example of early Chester County construction techniques, being built with stuccoed stone walls and pegged rafters. The farm was owned, but not lived in, by Michael Hillegas, the first Treasurer of the United States. It was also owned by members of the Joshua family political dynasty.

The farm was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

History

Henry Casdorp's family bought  on "Turkey Point," including the current farm site, on November 28, 1763, from Pennsylvania's proprietors, Thomas and Richard Penn for £60.  They sold the land for £2,400 to Michael Hillegas and Jacob Winey on May 23, 1764.  The property sold included a house, which was likely a log cabin built before the Casdorp purchase. The new owners, in turn, sold 300 acres sixteen months later to Daniel Hiester who bought the property for his son John.

Daniel's sons were active during the American Revolution. His son Daniel became a brigadier general in the Pennsylvania Militia and was elected to the first four U.S. congresses, representing Pennsylvania, and was later elected to represent Maryland. The elder Daniel's son John fought at the Battle of Brandywine, and after the war was elected a major general of Militia.  He was elected to the U.S. Congress in 1806, and John's son Daniel was elected to congress in 1808.

The house has two stories plus an attic. The first two stories have exceptionally high ceilings for the colonial period, 9 feet, 7 inches for the first floor and 8 feet, 11 inches for the second floor.

Another National Register of Historic Places listed site, Fricks Locks Historic District, lies about 600 yards south of the house.  Starting in 1974, the Limerick Nuclear Power Plant was constructed to the east of the house, directly across the Schuylkill River.

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
Houses completed in 1765
Houses in Chester County, Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Chester County, Pennsylvania

River Bend Farm


Carlo Giuseppe Merlo (5 November 1690 – 13 February 1760) was an Italian architect of the late-Baroque  period; born in Milan, Italy.
He was a pupil of  Francesco Bianchi, and from 1708 to 1716 trained in the College of Engineers and Architects in Milan. In 1716, he designed the Oratory for the church of San Bernardino, Milan (completed 1749).  In 1731, he designed the main altar for the Sanctuary of the ''Beata Vergine di Caravaggio''. In 1740, he designed the Oratory of the Immacolata in ponte Vecchio di Magenta. Like most architects of Milan, he contributed to the continuing work for the Duomo.  In 1738, he designed and directed the construction of the entryway stairs for Palazzo Litta in Milan.

He helped rebuild the parochial church of  San Giuliana in Caponago. In 1739, he helped designs for a project in the Monastery of the Visitazione in Milan. He helped design the façade for the parochial church of Sant'Andrea Apostolo of Pioltello. In conjunction with Giulio Galliori he designed the ephemeral decorative car used to translate the body of San Carlo Borromeo. Again with Galliori he designed the cupola of the sanctuary of the Beata Vergine of Rho. He helped raise the belltower for the parochial church of Olginate. He also helped design a house for the poor and jail.

References

1690 births
1760 deaths
18th-century Italian architects
Italian Baroque architects
Architects from Milan

Carlo Giuseppe Merlo


On 14 April 2018, beginning at 04:00 Syrian time (UTC+3), the United States, France, and the United Kingdom carried out a series of military strikes involving aircraft and ship-based missiles against multiple government sites in Syria during the Syrian Civil War. The strikes were a reprisal for the Douma chemical attack against civilians on 7 April, widely attributed to the Syrian government. The Syrian government called the airstrikes a violation of international law.

Background

A Syrian government offensive to recapture the rebel-held Eastern Ghouta suburb began in February 2018. The offensive was condemned by Western media and human rights organizations for its reportedly brutal humanitarian consequences. By the beginning of April, Douma was one of the last rebel enclaves remaining in the region, with rebel group Jaysh al-Islam in control of the city. Russian and Syrian state media reported a deal between the rebel group and Russia to hand over Douma to government control. Other news agencies reported members of the rebel group claiming a deal had not been brokered and that Jaysh al-Islam would not surrender Douma. What followed was a suspected chemical attack carried out in the Syrian city of Douma on 7 April 2018, with at least 70 people reported killed. One pro-opposition source said that a thousand people suffered from the effects. The Jaysh al-Islam rebel group, which controlled Douma at the time, along with several medical, monitoring, and activist groups, including the pro-rebel White Helmets (Syria Civil Defence), all reported that two Syrian Air Force Mi-8 helicopters had dropped barrel bombs. The bombs were filled with chlorine gas and possibly sarin. The World Health Organization said it received reports from partner agencies that some 500 people arrived at health facilities showing "signs and symptoms consistent with exposure to toxic chemicals." On 6 July 2018, the OPCW produced an interim report stating that chlorine residues had been found at the two attack sites, although no organophosphorous nerve agents or their degradation products were detected.

As with previous incidents, France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and other nations accused the Syrian government of being responsible for the use of chemical weapons. Russia and Iran, the Syrian government's main allies, denied chemical weapons had been used, claiming it was a false flag operation. Russia has said video of the chemical attack was staged by members of the White Helmets. Syrian Arab News Agency (SANA) said that the Saudi Arabian-backed Jaysh al-Islam was making "chemical attack fabrications in an exposed and failed attempt to obstruct advances by the Syrian Arab Army".

In May 2017, French President Emmanuel Macron said the use of chemical weapons in Syria would be a red line requiring immediate reprisal. France and the United States cited positive urine and blood samples collected as proof of chlorine being used in Douma.

In the early hours of 9 April 2018, an airstrike was conducted against Tiyas Military Airbase in Syria. The United States denied launching the airstrike, and an Israeli spokeswoman declined to comment. On 10 April, an emergency United Nations Security Council meeting was held where competing solutions were presented on how to handle the response to the chemical attack; all were eventually vetoed by Russia. By 11 April, Western nations began to consider military action in Syria, seeking a "strong joint response." On the same day, the Syrian government said it invited the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons to investigate the sites of the attacks. "Syria is keen on cooperating with the OPCW to uncover the truth behind the allegations that some western sides have been advertising to justify their aggressive intentions," said SANA, quoting an official source in the Foreign Ministry. Russia denied chemical weapons were used, and on 13 April, blamed Britain for staging the event in order to provoke US airstrikes.

By 12 April, British Prime Minister Theresa May had ordered Royal Navy submarines in the Mediterranean to move within cruise missile range of Syria by the end of the week. British military sources later told The Times that days before the missile strikes a British  submarine armed with Tomahawk missiles and approaching within firing range of Syrian military targets was chased by "one, and possibly two" Russian s from the Russian Navy base at Tartus. The Russian submarines were supported by two frigates and an antisubmarine aircraft, while the British submarine was assisted by a US Navy P-8 Poseidon patrol aircraft. Ultimately, no British submarine took part in the strikes.

Military action

International law
The United Nations Charter requires a mandate from the United Nations Security Council for sovereign states to use force for the purpose of maintaining international security, but not for acting in self-defence or the protection of populations threatened by extermination at the hands of their own government. Since the UN Charter came into effect in 1945, military action in retaliation or reprisal to the act of another state has been prohibited; but a reprisal may be justified if its aim is to force the other state into compliance with its international obligations. Russia's use of its veto meant there was no prospect of the Security Council authorizing the use of force. Therefore, military action relies on an international public order argument based on defending the credibility of the prohibition of the use of chemical weapons, enforcing Syria's obligations under the terms of its membership of the Chemical Weapons Convention, and protecting civilians from further chemical weapon attacks to alleviate humanitarian suffering.

The strikes came hours before inspectors from the OPCW Fact-Finding Mission were due to arrive in Syria to investigate the attack.

The United Kingdom published its legal position regarding military action which concluded limited strikes are justified on humanitarian grounds. After the strikes, the UK Parliament debated the considerations under international law regarding the urgency of the intervention, and whether there was a lack of practical alternatives.

Forces involved

The strikes were carried out by the forces of the United States, the United Kingdom, and France and were delivered by ship-launched, submarine-launched and airborne cruise missiles. All of the missiles launched by British and French forces were variants of the Storm Shadow missile, known as SCALP EG and Missile de Croisière Naval (MdCN for Naval Cruise Missile) in French service.

Flying from RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus, four Royal Air Force Tornado GR4 fighters of No. 31 Squadron, supported by four Eurofighter Typhoon air superiority fighters of No. 6 Squadron, fired a total of eight Storm Shadow missiles. The Royal Navy deployed the Type 45 destroyer, , to provide air defense for allied naval forces. The French Navy deployed a strike group in the Eastern Mediterranean consisting of the  , the  , the  , and the FREMM multipurpose frigates , , and ; the latter ship fired three MdCN land attack missiles. The French strike group was accompanied by the US Navy  , which launched six Tomahawk cruise missiles.

The French Air Force participation in the strikes consisted of five Rafale B fighters from the Escadron de Chasse 1/4 Gascogne based at Saint-Dizier Air Base, each carrying two SCALP EG missiles, four Mirage 2000-5F air superiority fighters from the Escadron de chasse 1/2 Cigognes from Luxeuil Air Base, two E-3F airborne early warning and control planes from the  from Avord Air Base, and six C-135FR tankers from the Groupe de ravitaillement en vol 2/91 Bretagne from Istres Air Base.

US forces included two US Air Force B-1B Lancer bombers from the 34th Bomb Squadron, which fired a total of nineteen JASSM missiles after taking off from Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar. They were accompanied by four F-22A Raptor air superiority fighters from the 95th Fighter Squadron, two KC-10 Extender tankers from the 908th Expeditionary Air Refueling Squadron and one US Marine Corps EA-6B Prowler electronic-warfare aircraft from VMAQ-2, which all departed from Al Dhafra Air Base in the United Arab Emirates. Immediately after the strike it was claimed that long-range JASSM-ER had been fired by the two B-1B Lancer bombers, but five days later, the U.S. Air Force Central Command  issued a correction saying that actually older JASSM-A were used. From a position in the Red Sea the US Navy   fired seven and the   thirty Tomahawk cruise missiles, while the Arleigh Burke-class destroyer  fired twenty-three Tomahawks from a position in the northern part of the Persian Gulf. The Arleigh Burke-class destroyer,  was reported to have participated in order to mislead defending forces, firing no missiles. US Secretary of Defense Jim Mattis said twice as many weapons were used in the strike as in the 2017 Shayrat missile strike; an anonymous US Defense Department official quoted by The Washington Post said about 100 Tomahawk missiles were fired by the US.

The US Air Force also deployed a fighter group over the Eastern Mediterranean in the air-superiority and defensive-counter-air role, which consisted of at least eight F-15C Eagle fighters from the 493d Fighter Squadron and seven F-16C Falcon fighters from the 510th Fighter Squadron. The fighters were accompanied by at least two KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft from the 351st Air Refueling Squadron.

According to US military's Director of the Joint Staff, the allocation of missiles to targets was:
 Barzah scientific research centre (Damascus): 57 Tomahawk and 19 JASSM missiles.
 Him Shanshar military installation storage site (west of Homs): 9 Tomahawk, 8 Storm Shadow, 3 MdCN, and 2 SCALP missiles.
 Him Shanshar military installation bunker: 7 SCALP missiles.

Syria responded using its air defense systems, and its state media aired a video purporting to show a successful missile interception. The Syrian state news agency SANA and Colonel-General Sergei Rudskoi of the Russian military said Syria used Russian and Soviet air defense systems Pantsir-S1, S-125, S-200, Buk, and Kvadrat.

Strikes

President Donald Trump announced the strikes at 9 pm EDT, 13 April (4 AM, 14 April in Syria, 2 AM in London, 3 AM in Paris) along with allies France and the United Kingdom. Explosions were heard in Damascus, the capital of Syria, just as Trump was speaking. According to US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Joseph Dunford, Russia had not been warned in advance of the incoming attack; he was contradicted by other American and French officials.

US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Joseph Dunford said three sites were targeted: a scientific research center in Damascus, a chemical weapons storage facility west of Homs, and an equipment storage facility and command post also near Homs. The UK Ministry of Defence reported British aircraft struck the Him Shanshar chemical weapons precursor storage site 15 miles west of Homs. Witnesses reported loud explosions and smoke in the capital Damascus in the early morning, including in the Barzeh neighborhood, the site of the Barzah scientific research centre, a major research establishment. The strike destroyed what employees of the facility characterised as a Syrian antivenom medical center, but which US General Joseph Dunford described as a center for research, development, production and testing of chemical and biological weapons. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) said the attack sites included a scientific research center in Damascus and another in the Homs area, as well as military bases in Damascus and Homs.
The US armed forces said all missiles hit their intended targets without interference, and according to Lieutenant General Kenneth McKenzie, the Syrian air defences fired 40 intercepting surface-to-air missiles but failed to hit any of the targets. He said most were fired after the last incoming missile had struck its target. Similarly, France said none of the twelve missiles it fired appear to have been intercepted, although there were reports that between three and seven French missiles were not fired due to malfunctions. The Syrian Army said it "intercepted most of the missiles", while the Syrian state media reported its air defenses shot down 13 incoming missiles near Al-Kiswah, south of Damascus. The Russian military reported Syria's air defences shot down 71 of 103 cruise missiles, and listed various airports and airbases, not mentioned by US military sources, as having been targeted partly or completely unsuccessfully. The SOHR, which is cited by many western media organisations, reported no known casualties, but stated there was considerable material damage while also saying that the Syrian Air Defense Force intercepted and downed at least 65 missiles. Syria's state-run TV news reported three civilians injured at Homs, and that the missile strike there was "aborted".

Aftermath
Workers at a destroyed laboratory denied ever making any chemical weapons.

Russia called for an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council on 14 April, but the resolution it brought to the session condemning the attacks failed to pass, with only Bolivia and China supporting it. Nikki Haley, Permanent Representative of the United States to the UN, said the United States was "locked and loaded", should the Syrian government use chemical weapons again. A further meeting of the Security Council was scheduled to be held on 16 April, to discuss a resolution presented jointly by France, the UK, and the US. The resolution calls for an independent inquiry into the use of chemical weapons in Syria, medical evacuations, and the safe passage of aid convoys across the country.

The effectiveness and impact of the strike has been downplayed by analysts. In Syria, the strikes were interpreted as a victory for Bashar al-Assad, because their limited scope was seen as indicating that Western countries no longer intended to seriously challenge his rule. According to Russian state media, the governor of Russia's autonomous Khanty-Mansiysk district said after meeting with Assad that "President Assad was in absolutely positive spirits. He is in a good mood." American Director of the Joint Staff, Lt. Gen Kenneth McKenzie, said the air strikes were a "severe blow" to the development of Syria's chemical weapons and that the United States military is "ready anytime" in the event of retaliation by the Syrian government.

The activity of web brigades increased by "2,000%" following the attack, according to Chief Pentagon spokesperson Dana W. White. The UK's National Cyber Security Centre, the FBI, and the US Department of Homeland Security issued a joint alert warning of a Russian global hacking campaign.

According to Syrian state television, Syrian air defenses intercepted missiles that targeted Shayrat Airbase "late Monday night" (16 April); however, the Pentagon spokesman said the US military was not active at the time, while an Israeli military spokesman declined to comment. Hezbollah's media unit claimed Syrian air defenses had also intercepted three missiles which targeted Al-Dumayr Military Airport; a commander in the regional military alliance backing the government told Reuters that it was a false alarm and part of an "electronic attack" by Israel and the US on the Syrian radar system.

According to Jane's IHS, on 25 April 2018, the Russian Ministry of Defence (MoD) "appeared to contradict" the MoD's earlier 16 April account, and was now stating that 22 (rather than 32) missiles hit their targets, that 66 (rather than 71) were intercepted, and those other incoming missiles had suffered technical malfunctions. According to Russia, 46 missiles were intercepted in five areas of the capital of Syria and Duvali, Dumayr, Blai, and Mazzeh nearby airfields, and 20 missiles were intercepted in three areas of the Homs air defense zone. The MoD did agree that the U.S. hit all three of the publicly targeted sites. The MoD also displayed remnants of SCALP and Storm Shadow missiles purportedly shot down; Jane's stated that "The missile remnants it displayed could have come from missiles that hit their targets or failed in a previous attack". Russian government sources claimed they had recovered as duds one Tomahawk and one 'precision air launched' missile, and would study them to improve their own weapons systems; the US denied the claims as "absurd".

On 21 April, the OPCW Fact-Finding Mission visited a site in Douma to collect samples, and on 25 April visited a second site in Douma to collect further samples. The team also interviewed people related to incident in Damascus. On 4 May, the OPCW announced that the initial deployment of the Fact-Finding Mission in Douma was complete. Analysis of the samples may take at least three to four weeks.

Statements and reactions
The Syrian state media called the attack a "flagrant violation of international law".

Domestic reaction

Within Syria the strikes, and the response of Syria's air defence units, was seen as a victory for the Government of President Assad. Crowds gathered in the streets of Damascus the following morning to celebrate what they said was the success of the Syrian Army.

Belligerent nations
French President Emmanuel Macron said in a statement on 14 April that France's "red line has been crossed", referring to the previous attacks on Douma.

While announcing the strikes, UK Prime Minister Theresa May said there was "no practicable alternative to the use of force" to deal with the Syrian government's use of chemical weapons. Opposition politicians condemned the strikes, with many questioning May's decision to press ahead without obtaining parliamentary approval first. Leader of the Opposition Jeremy Corbyn called the strikes "legally questionable", said "Bombs won't save lives or bring about peace", although some of his party's MPs backed the strikes. He also said that "while much suspicion rightly points to the Assad government", other groups had carried out similar attacks and weapons inspectors must continue their investigation.

US President Donald Trump announced the strikes in a televised address, arguing they were part of the effort to stop Assad from using chemical weapons, and said the US was "prepared to sustain this response" until this was achieved. Dana W. White, The Pentagon Chief Spokesperson, said "this operation does not represent a change in US policy or an attempt to depose the Syrian regime". The New York Times reported the reactions initially broke among partisan lines, with members of the Republican Party—the party of President Donald Trump—being generally supportive while the Democrats were generally critical. Republicans Tom Cotton and Orrin Hatch praised the strikes. Other US lawmakers, in particular Democrats, although generally supportive of a limited strike to punish Assad for using banned chemical weapons, criticized the Trump administration for not seeking Congressional approval and for not having a "coherent Syria Strategy". Democratic senator Tim Kaine re-emphasized his long-held belief that the military intervention without Congressional authorization and long-term strategy are "illegal" and "reckless".

On 19 April, at a Pentagon press briefing, American Director of the Joint Staff Lt. Gen. Kenneth McKenzie affirmed that Russian air defenses - which included advanced S-400 missile systems - were active but did not engage any missiles during the operation. "Russian air defenses were energized. They were scanning. They had a  air defense aircraft up. They did not choose to engage, so I cannot speculate about why they did or did not do that," McKenzie stated, while denying that any missiles were shot down by Syrian air defenses.

Syrian-allied states
The Iran Foreign Ministry condemned the missile strikes, said there is "no proof" of Syrian responsibility in the chemical attack on Douma, and criticized the United States for attacking without waiting for an Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons investigation. Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, called Trump, May and Macron "criminals" and warned "they will gain nothing" from the strike.

Russian politician Alexander Sherin referred to the strike as a terrorist attack and compared it to Operation Barbarossa. Russian President Vladimir Putin described the strikes as an "act of aggression". Russia also called for an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council. Anatoly Antonov, the Russian ambassador to the United States, strongly condemned the coalition attacks on Syria and warned the Western countries of "consequences". Sergei Rudskoi, a Russian Colonel-General, in a TV briefing, said Russia may consider sending S-300 surface-to-air missile systems to Syria and other countries.

Other NATO member states
Albania, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Italy,
the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Spain, and Turkey all agreed the decision to attack was justified.

Supranational organizations
Secretary-General of the United Nations António Guterres called for restraint from all states.

President of the European Council Donald Tusk confirmed the European Union's support for the strikes as did High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Federica Mogherini. Secretary General of NATO Jens Stoltenberg supported the strikes in a statement.

The Collective Security Treaty Organization condemned the strikes as violating norms of international law.

Non-state organizations

Mohammed Alloush, a key member of the Army of Islam (a coalition of Salafist and Islamist rebel groups) criticized the missile strikes for not going far enough, writing on Twitter that the airstrikes were a "farce" and an example of punishing "the instrument of the crime while keeping the criminal [in power]". In a press statement released on 14 April 2018, Hamas spokesman Fawzi Barhoum that the organization "condemns in the strongest terms" the airstrikes, describing them as "blatant aggression on Syrian soil [with the aim] to destroy its capabilities in order to preserve the existence of the Zionist entity".

Religious organizations
Moran Mor Ignatius Aphrem II, the patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church, and Patriarch  John X of Antioch, primate of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All The East, issued a joint condemnation of the strikes. They said the bombings "were clear violation of the international laws and the UN Charter", and that the "unjust aggression encourages the terrorist organizations and gives them momentum to continue in their terrorism."

Public opposition in the West

Protests against the strikes occurred in the United Kingdom in April 2018, including in London (organised by the Stop the War Coalition, which said the strikes risked "causing a catastrophic war with Russia") and Bristol, Exeter, Swansea and Milton Keynes. The British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament described the decision of the government to carry out airstrikes in Syria as defying international law and criticised Prime Minister Theresa May for bypassing parliament in her decision on the matter. The British Stop the War Coalition condemned the missile strikes in a public statement in April 2018.

See also
 2017 Shayrat missile strike
 September 2016 Deir ez-Zor air raid
 International reactions to the 2013 Ghouta chemical attack § Military options
 Operation Odyssey Dawn
 List of United States attacks on Syria during the Syrian civil war

References

External links

2018 in international relations
April 2018 events in Syria
Articles containing video clips
British involvement in the Syrian civil war
Damascus in the Syrian civil war
French involvement in the Syrian civil war
History of Homs
Military operations involving France
Military operations involving the United Kingdom
Military operations of the Syrian civil war in 2018
Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving the Syrian government
Military operations of the Syrian civil war involving the United States
Trump administration controversies
2018 airstrikes
Russia–United Kingdom military relations

April 2018 missile strikes against Syria


The historic counties of Wales (Welsh: siroedd hynafol) are  sub-divisions of Wales. They were used for various functions for several hundred years, but for administrative purposes have been superseded by contemporary sub-national divisions, some of which bear some limited similarity to the historic entities in name and extent. They are alternatively known as ancient counties.

The counties

1 The earldom of Pembroke and lordship of Glamorgan pre-date the Edwardian conquest.
2 These counties originate in 1282, following King Edward I's conquest.
3 These counties originate in 1535, with the Laws in Wales Act, 1535, converting the remaining Marcher Lordships into counties.
4 Despite being created at the same Act as the other counties, Monmouthshire was included with English counties for legal purposes until 1974. Between 1536 and 1974 the formulation "Wales and Monmouthshire" was frequently used.

The 1535 Laws in Wales Act had the effect of abolishing the marcher lordships within and on the borders of Wales.  In the border areas, several were incorporated in whole or in part into English counties.  The lordships of Ludlow, Clun, Caus and part of Montgomery were incorporated into Shropshire; and Wigmore, Huntington, Clifford and most of Ewyas were included in Herefordshire.

The historic counties established by 1535 were used as the geographical basis for the administrative counties, governed by county councils, which existed from 1889 to 1974. The historian William Rees said, in his "Historical Atlas of Wales": (published 1959)
"... the boundaries of the modern shires have largely been determined by the ancient divisions of the country. The survival of these ancient local divisions within the pattern of historical change constitutes a vital element in the framework of the national life and helps to preserve its continuity."

Four circuits of Wales
In the 1536 acts of the Union, a Court of Great Sessions in Wales was created in Wales for four separate circuits. The circuits each had 3 counties involved. Some of the original territorial Marcher lordships were split into regional circuits and others were created from regions of the former Principality of Wales:

Anglesey, Caernarfon & Merioneth
Flint, Denbigh & Montgomery
Cardigan, Carmarthen & Pembroke
Radnor, Brecon & Glamorgan

Exclaves
The Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844 abolished several enclaves. One of these, Welsh Bicknor (Llangystennin) was an exclave of Monmouthshire between Gloucestershire and Herefordshire and was transferred to Herefordshire. Two townships of the ancient parish of Cwmyoy were also exclaves of Herefordshire. Bwlch Trewyn was transferred to Monmouthshire, whereas the other, Ffwddog (identified using the English variant Fothock on older maps), was not.

The Herefordshire township of Litton and Cascob (in the parishes of Cascob and Presteigne), was transferred to Radnorshire.

The Denbighshire township of Carreghofa (in the parish of Llanymynech) was transferred to Montgomeryshire.

The exclaves of Flintshire, called English Maelor and Marford and Hoseley were left untouched.

Monmouthshire

The territory which became Monmouthshire was part of the Welsh kingdoms of Gwent and Glywysing and later, after the Norman conquest of southern Wales, of the Welsh Marches.  Although the original Laws in Wales Act of 1535 specifically stated the lands making up Monmouthshire were from the 'Country or Dominion of Wales', the Laws in Wales Act 1542 added Monmouthshire to the Oxford circuit of the English Assizes rather than falling under the Court of Great Sessions in Wales.  According to historian John Davies, this arrangement was the cause of the erroneous belief that the county had been annexed by England rather than remaining part of Wales.  In later centuries, some English historians, map-makers, landowners and politicians took the view that Monmouthshire was an English rather than a Welsh county, and references were often made in legislation to "Wales and Monmouthshire".  The position was finally resolved by the Local Government Act 1972, which confirmed Monmouthshire's place within Wales.

Local government

1889
The Local Government Act 1888 created a parallel system of administrative counties based on the historic counties in 1889. Additionally, certain boroughs were deemed to be county boroughs, outside the administrative counties (Cardiff and Swansea in 1889, Newport in 1891 and Merthyr Tydfil in 1908). As a result of 85 years of local government boundary changes, the boundaries of the administrative counties became increasingly different from the historic counties, until they were abandoned altogether for a different system of local government in 1974.

1974
The Local Government Act 1972 replaced the administrative counties created in 1889 with eight new administrative counties in 1974. The existing Lieutenancy areas were also redefined to use the newly created local government areas, defined by the act as "counties." Furthermore, use of the historic counties as postal counties was stopped by the Royal Mail in 1975 and those historic counties were no longer shown on maps. However, in spite of widespread misunderstanding, the Local Government Act 1972 never abolished the historic counties. Indeed, the Department of the Environment made this very clear in a statement it issued on 1 April 1974:

"  The new county boundaries are solely for the purpose of defining areas of...local government. They are administrative areas, and will not alter the traditional areas of Counties (the historic counties), nor is it intended that the loyalties of people living in them will change."

The eight new administrative counties were themselves replaced in 1996 by the current principal areas of Wales, but modified versions were retained for Lieutenancy as the preserved counties.

Vice counties
The vice counties, used for biological recording throughout Great Britain and Ireland since 1852, are largely based on historic county boundaries. They ignore all exclaves and are modified by subdividing large counties and merging smaller areas into neighbouring counties. The static boundaries make longitudinal study of biodiversity easier.

Index of Place Names
The historic counties of Wales are included in the Index of Place Names (IPN) published by the Office for National Statistics. Each "place" included in the IPN is related to the historic county it lies within, as well as to a set of administrative areas. The Historic Counties Trust has published demographic statistics for the historic counties of the UK from the 2011 United Kingdom census including a comparison of population and population density in the historic counties of England and Wales between the 1901 United Kingdom census   and the 2011 United Kingdom census  and a comparison of the number of Welsh speakers in the historic counties of Wales between the 1911 United Kingdom census   and the 2011 United Kingdom census.

References

External links
The Historic Counties Trust
Campaign for Historic Counties
Interactive map of the historic counties
Family history links to historic counties of Wales

Wales
Counties Wales
Lists of counties of Wales

Historic counties of Wales


Izki () is a town in the region Ad Dakhiliyah, northeastern Oman. It is located at c.  altitude, and has a population of 35,173 (2003 census).

The archaeological landmarks are still evidence of the ancient heritage of the state, where there are about 142 towers, and three castles, one of which is "Al Awamir Castle" and two castles in the town of "Al Qaryatayn", in addition to the presence of a number of archaeological houses, the most important of which are "Al Nazar and Al Yamin", along with a large fortress that was built during the reign of Said bin Sultan and some parts of it have been demolished due to the passage of time and erosion factors.

Location
One of the states in the Interior Governorate. It is bordered by Al Jabal Al Akhdar to the west, and by the states of Manah and Nizwa to the west and south. It is bordered by the state of Samail to the north and by the state of Al Mudhaibi in the North Eastern Governorate to the east. Its area is approximately 2500 square kilometers and it is about 138 kilometers away from the capital, Muscat. It has adopted the Royal Canal as its emblem.

History

Legendarily, Izki is Oman's oldest city. Popularly revered 'oldest cities' are claimed the world over, the historicity of which usually rests on local pride. Its ancient aflaj (water canals) probably nourished such beliefs. The twin walled towns, Izki/al-Yemen and al-Nizar, differ from each other in size and appearance. The former presently has half of the surface area as the latter. In 1908 the estimated number of houses in al-Nizar at 450, and in al-Yemen at 350, which contradicts this. Al-Nizar is still inhabited; al-Yemen has been deserted since prior to 1980, but the owners still care for their own houses. The present appearance, especially the regular streets, results from the 18th century destruction and rebuilding of al-Yemen.

Early Iron Age Izki appears to find mention in cuneiform texts. According to Neoassyrian sources, in 640 BCE, "Pade, king of Qade, who lives in Izke…sent envoys to cultivate good relations [and a state contract] burdened with gifts. They travelled six months, came to me [Aššurbanipal], asked of my condition and beseeched my rule." Some believe that Izki was mentioned in Neoassyrian cuneiform texts from Nineveh.

Serious archaeological fieldwork began in Izki with J. Schreiber (2007). He strove to contextualise this centre amongst other large oases in Oman by means of archaeological survey. In order to reach this goal, he studied the different contexts of key sites in Central Oman first hand as a pottery specialist. The poor preservation of such continuously occupied sites scared off most archaeologists. In his survey J. Schreiber tallied in and immediately around the old twin towns 1045 sites (2007: 124) ranging from the Hafit to Islamic periods.

In 2011 excavation and survey partly confirmed Schreiber's results. The town contains the remains of the entire pre-Islamic period. Numerous were the finds of the Early Iron Age and Late Iron Age. Particularly eroded and disturbed was al-Nizar. Excavation of the highest part of Al-Yemen revealed an older mosque, presumably that destroyed during the civil war (886-970 AD).

On the other side of the Wadi Khalfayn lies a large cemetery which contains pottery sherds of the Samad Late Iron Age, but of other periods as well. The graves are mostly of this period.

Attractions
One of the most prominent tourist attractions in the state is "Al Maliki Canal", which gained its name from Malik bin Fahm Al Azdi, as well as "Ghar Wajranan", which is surrounded by many intertwined stories between reality and fiction.

Zakiet Archaeological Tombs
Located in the Al-Dakhiliyah Governorate, historians say that they date back to the 3rd millennium BC. The Zakiet archaeological tombs are situated on a cylindrical-shaped hill overlooking the village. They consist of two walls made of mountain rocks resembling the shape of a beehive cell. The presence of tombs on the top of the hill leads researchers to believe that the site was used as a fortress to repel invading armies.

Jarnan Cave
Jarnan Cave is located in the Azki state and dates back to the pre-Islamic era. It is situated on an unstable rocky hill, overlooking the ancient neighborhood of Al-Nazar. The cave was named Jarnan after the old name of the state in the pre-Islamic era. The entrance to the cave is in front of the Halfeen Valley. It was previously said that a person could only enter the cave by crawling, but due to erosion, these openings have become almost invisible.

The length of the cave extends from approximately 15 to 20 meters. Many stories circulate about Jarnan Cave, although many locals deny their validity.

The legends say that the people of Azki used to worship an idol in the form of a golden calf named Jarnan, adorned with jewelry and precious gems. When the people of Azki embraced Islam, the calf was hidden inside a cave beneath the village of Nazar, and it was guarded by magical incantations. Since that day, no one has seen the calf.

Demnographics
The total population of the state of Izki is 36,296 people, consisting of 4,492 families according to the National Center for Statistics and Information for the year 2012. The majority of them are Sunni Muslims. Some of its popular and traditional arts include Razha, Al-Azi, sword fighting, and Ta'awib, which is one of the women's arts.

Traditional crafts and industries
These include leather tanning, spinning, weaving, silverware manufacturing, palm weaving, as well as trade, construction, woodworking, and blacksmithing.

service institutions
It has 20 schools at all educational levels, and several government offices that provide necessary services to the population. It also has a center for agricultural development, a municipal center, an electricity office, a post office, a police center, a Sharia court, an office for the governor, as well as tourist parks, restaurants, and recreational places.

References

External links
University of Heidelberg
HeidICON

Sources
D.T. Potts From Qadê to Mazûn: Four Notes on Oman, c. 700 to 700 AD, Journal of Oman Studies 8.1, 1985, 81–95.
Juergen Schreiber, Transformationsprozesse in Oasensiedlungen Omans. Die Vorislamische Zeit am Beispiel Von Izki, Nizwa und dem Jebel Akhdar, internet dissertation, Munich 2007.
URL: http://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/7548/

Paul Yule, Cross-roads – Early and Late Iron Age South-eastern Arabia, Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 30, Wiesbaden 2014, 29-30 Fig. 10
Paul Yule, Excavation and Prospection in Izkī and Neighbouring Areas of Central Oman 2011, in Archaeological Research in the Sultanate of Oman, Der Anschnitt, 2015, 179‒203.

Populated places in Oman
Archaeological sites in Oman

Izki


The Bishop's Palace, Ely was one of the residences of the Bishop of Ely from the 15th century until 1941. It is a Grade I listed building.

The palace was built in the 15th century by Bishop John Alcock however just two towers from the original building remain. He also completed the bishop's palace (now Wisbech Castle) at Wisbech (where he died in 1500). Bishops over the following centuries expanded and remodelled the palace.

During the Second World War the palace was used as a base for the British Red Cross and after this period it became a home for disabled children until its closure in the 1980s. Following this, the palace was purchased on a 99 years lease by the Sue Ryder Care organization although the palace went up for sale again in 2010. Later that year, local public school, King's Ely took over the lease from Sue Ryder Care and refurbished the palace to become the school new sixth form centre. It was opened by the Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester on Friday 25 January 2013.

References

Ely, Cambridgeshire
Grade I listed buildings in Cambridgeshire
Buildings and structures completed in the 15th century
Episcopal palaces in England
Diocese of Ely

Bishop's Palace, Ely


Kathleen Joan Heddle,  (November 27, 1965 – January 11, 2021) was a Canadian rower. She won two gold medals at the 1992 Summer Olympics and 1996 Summer Olympics. Heddle also won a bronze medal in 1996. In 1997, Heddle was awarded the Order of British Columbia and was honored into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame. Heddle was born in Trail, British Columbia.

Heddle died on January 11, 2021 in Vancouver, British Columbia from breast cancer and lymphoma, aged 55.

References

1965 births
2021 deaths
Canadian Olympic gold medalists
Canadian Olympic bronze medalists
People from Trail, British Columbia
Canadian rowers
Sportspeople from British Columbia

Kathleen Heddle


Magnum, P.I. is an American American crime drama television series. It stars Tom Selleck and John Hillerman. It was on TV from 1980 to 1988. It is about Thomas Magnum III, a smooth private detective working in Hawaii.

Other websites

1980 establishments in the United States
1980 television series debuts
1988 disestablishments in the United States
1988 television series endings
1980s American drama television series
1980s American workplace television series
1980s crime television series
American workplace drama television series
Detective television series
Hawaii
CBS network shows
English-language television programs

Magnum, P.I.


In mathematics and computing, a radix point (or radix character) is a symbol used to separate whole numbers (integers) from fractions. For example, the number  represents an integer of 1200 with a fractional part of 25, and these are separated with a decimal point.

Radix point is the umbrella term for this point in all bases. The most commonly known example is the decimal point, named so for its use in base 10 notation. Similarly, "binary point" is used for base 2. In most English-speaking countries the radix point is usually a small dot (.), but this can vary as other languages can use different notation such as a comma (,) instead.

Examples
In mathematical notation, each column of numbers represents a power of the radix, with a radix point separating negative powers. For example, the base 10 number  is read as follows:

Hence, we can unwrap the representation as this:

To the left of the radix point is the integer parts (made from positive powers of base 10). To the right of the radix point is the fractional parts (made from negative powers).

Related pages
 Floating point
 Fixed point
 Positional notation
 Scientific notation

References

Numerals
Computing

Radix point


Saxe-Gotha () was a state in today's Thuringia, Germany.

It was created in 1640 for Duke Ernest I and ended in 1680 when his lands were divided after his death in 1675. The area around Gotha passed to Ernest's eldest surviving son, Frederick of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, who also inherited Altenburg (which Ernest had inherited through his wife Elisabeth Sophie) and became Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.

Dukes of Saxe-Gotha
 Ernest I the Pious (1640 – 75, also Duke of Saxe-Altenburg from 1672)
 Divided into Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Römhild, Saxe-Eisenberg, Saxe-Hildburghausen and Saxe-Saalfeld in 1680

When the house of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was split. Saxe-Gotha passed to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld who in turn gave Saalfeld to Saxe-Meiningen. The Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen became Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, and gave Saxe-Hildburghausen to Saxe-Meiningen.

After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War it became a part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920.

References
 Saxe-Gotha , Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press (2001 – 05), accessed January 27 2007

1572 disestablishments
1640 establishments
House of Wettin
States of the Holy Roman Empire
Thuringia
1640s establishments in Europe

Duchy of Saxe-Gotha