Green anarchism, also known as ecological anarchism or eco-anarchism, is an anarchist school of thought that focuses on ecology and environmental issues. It is an anti-capitalist and anti-authoritarian form of radical environmentalism, which emphasises social organization, freedom and self-fulfillment.

A green anarchist theory is normally one that extends anarchism beyond a critique of human interactions and includes a critique of the interactions between humans and non-humans as well. Beyond human liberation, green anarchist praxis can extend to some form of non-human, total liberation and an environmentally sustainable anarchist society.

The main tendencies of green anarchism are: social ecology, which argues that environmental issues stem directly from social issues; deep ecology, which critiques anthropocentrism and advocates instead for biocentrism; and anarcho-primitivism, which advocates for the abolition of technology and civilization.

History

Background
Before the Industrial Revolution, the only occurrences of ecological crisis were small-scale, localised to areas affected by natural disasters, overproduction or war. But as the enclosure of common land increasingly forced dispossessed workers into factories, more wide-reaching ecological damage began to be noticed by radicals of the period.

During the late 19th century, as capitalism and colonialism were reaching their height, political philosophers first began to develop critiques of industrialised society, which had caused a rise in pollution and environmental degradation. In response, these early environmentalists developed a concern for nature and wildlife conservation, soil erosion, deforestation, and natural resource management. Early political approaches to environmentalism were supplemented by the literary naturalism of writers such as Henry David Thoreau, John Muir and Ernest Thompson Seton, whose best-selling works helped to alter the popular perception of nature by rejecting the dualistic "man against nature" conflict.

Ecology in its modern form was developed by Charles Darwin, whose work on evolutionary biology provided a scientific rejection of Christian and Cartesian anthropocentrism, instead emphasising the role of probability and individual agency in the process of evolution.

Roots
The ecological roots of anarchism go back to the classical anarchists, such as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin, who both conceived of human nature as the basis for anarchism. Drawing from Charles Darwin's work, Bakunin considered people to be an intrinsic part of their environment. Bakunin rejected Cartesian dualism, denying its anthropocentric and mechanistic separation of humanity from nature. Bakunin's naturalism was developed into an ecological philosophy by the geographers Peter Kropotkin and Éliseé Reclus, who conceived the relationship between human society and nature as a dialectic. Their environmental ethics, which combined social justice with environmental protection, anticipated the green anarchist philosophies of social ecology and bioregionalism.

Kropotkin was among the first environmentalist thinkers to note the connections between industrialisation, environmental degradataion and workers' alienation. In contrast to Marxists, who called for an increase in industrialisation, Kropotkin argued for the localisation of the economy, which he felt would increase people's connection with the land and halt environmental damage. In Fields, Factories and Workshops, Kropotkin advocated for the satisfaction of human needs through horticulture, and the decentralisation and degrowth of industry. He also criticised the division of labour, both between mental and manual labourers, and between the rural peasantry and urban proletariat. In Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, he elaborated on the natural basis for communism.

Reclus himself argued that environmental degradation caused by industrialisation, exemplified to him by mass deforestation in the Pacific Northwest, was characteristic of the "barbarity" of modern civilisation, which he felt subordinated both workers and the environment to the goal of capital accumulation. Reclus was also one of the earliest figures to develop the idea of "total liberation", directly comparing the exploitation of labour with cruelty to animals and thus advocating for both human and animal rights.

Kropotkin and Reclus' synthesis of environmental and social justice formed the foundation for eco-socialism, chiefly associated with libertarian socialists who advocated for a "return to nature", such as Robert Blatchford, William Morris and Henry Salt. They also directly lay the foundations for the development of green anarchism in the 1960s, when it was first taken up by figures within the New Left.

Development
Green anarchism first emerged after the dawn of the Atomic Age, as increasingly centralized governments brought with them a new host of environmental and social issues. By the 1960s, as the threats presented by environmental degradation, industrial agriculture and pollution were becoming more urgent, the first green anarchists turned to decentralisation and diversity as solutions for socio-ecological systems.

Green anarchism as a tendency was pioneered by Murray Bookchin, whose theory of social ecology presented an analysis for the relationship between society and nature. He presented human society as both the cause of and solution to environmental degradation, envisioning the creation of a rational and ecological society through a process of sociocultural evolution. Bookchin saw society itself as a natural product of evolution, which intrinsically tended toward ever-increasing complexity and diversity. While he saw human society as having the potential to become "nature  rendered self-conscious", in The Ecology of Freedom, he elaborated that the emergence of hierarchy had given way to an "aberrant" form of society that was both ecologically and socially destructive.

Bookchin considered that the human desire to dominate other humans had preceded the human desire to dominate nature, which itself caused a vicious circle of increasing socio-ecological devastation. As he considered social hierarchy to go against the natural evolutionary principles of complexity and diversity, he resolved that it would have to be abolished in order to resolve ecological crisis. Bookchin thus proposed a decentralised system of direct democracy, centred locally in the municipality, where people themselves could participate in decision making. He envisioned a self-organized system of popular assemblies to replace the state and re-educate individuals into socially and ecologically minded citizens.

During the 1970s, another tendency of green anarchism emerged that stood in contrast to social ecology. Developed by Arne Næss, the theory of deep ecology posited the rejection of anthropocentrism in favour of biocentrism, which recognized the intrinsic value of all life, regardless of its utility to humankind. Unlike Bookchin, theorists of deep ecology considered human society to be incapable of reversing environmental degradation and, as a result, proposed a drastic reduction in world population. The solutions to human overpopulation proposed by deep ecologists included bioregionalism, which advocated the replacement of the nation state with bioregions, as well as a widespread return to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The deep ecological approach was taken up by Earth First!, a group which advocated for direct action against environmentally destructive projects, such as deforestation, and welcomed the mass death caused by disease and famine as a form of population control.

Following deep ecology, the main development in green anarchism was John Zerzan's conception of anarcho-primitivism, which criticised the emergence of technology, agriculture and civilization as the source of all social problems. According to Zerzan, it was the division of labour in agricultural societies that had first given way to the social inequality and alienation which became characteristic of modernity. As such, Zerzan proposed the abolition of technology and science, in order for society to be broken down and humans to return to a hunter-gather lifestyle.

Contemporary developments
Contemporary writers such as Murray Bookchin and Alan Carter have claimed anarchism to be the only political ideology capable of addressing climate change.

Direct action

Some green anarchists engage in direct action (not to be confused with ecoterrorism). Organizing themselves through groups like Earth First!, Root Force, or more drastically the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), Earth Liberation Army (ELA) and Animal Liberation Front (ALF), they may take direct action against what they see as systems of oppression, such as the logging industry, the meat and dairy industries, animal testing laboratories, genetic engineering facilities and, more rarely, government institutions.

Eco-anarchist actions have included violent attacks, such as those carried out by cells of the Informal Anarchist Federation (IAF) and Individualists Tending to the Wild (ITS) against nuclear scientists and nanotechnology researchers respectively.

See also

 Animal rights and punk subculture
 Chellis Glendinning
 Earth Liberation Front
 Earth First!
 Green Scare
 Eco-socialism
 Intentional community
 Left-libertarianism
 Operation Backfire (FBI)
 Permaculture

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 The Institute for Social Ecology.
 Articles tagged with "green" and "ecology" at The Anarchist Library.

Anarchist schools of thought
Animal Liberation Front
Animal rights and politics
Animal rights movement
Animal welfare
Earth Liberation Front
Green anarchists
Green politics
Political theories
Simple living

Green anarchism


White Diamond: A Personal Portrait of Kylie Minogue is a 2007 documentary film directed and produced by William Baker and chronicling the life of Australian singer Kylie Minogue during her concert tour Showgirl: The Homecoming Tour. It was filmed between August 2006 and March 2007 in both Australia and the United Kingdom.

Intended as an account of Minogue's return to the stage following her recovery from cancer, the film features on-stage and back-stage footage and interviews with several of Minogue's tour crew, including the director, William Baker. Kylie's sister Dannii and U2 lead singer Bono are also featured.

The film had a one-night premiere in each country, starting in the United Kingdom on 16 October 2007 and ending on 16 November 2007 in New Zealand.  It was later released on DVD in two editions: the European/United Kingdom edition and the Australian/New Zealand edition. These were later followed by a two-disc edition; the second disc contained a concert that was filmed during Kylie's Showgirl: The Homecoming Tour in Melbourne, Australia.

The title White Diamond was taken from one of Kylie's songs (written by Scissor Sisters). This song is the sole new song performed by her during Showgirl: The Homecoming Tour. The film opens with a reworked ballad version of it.

Two new songs, "I'm Hip" and "You Are There", are on the movie's soundtrack. Also on the soundtrack is "Alone Again", a previously unrecorded 2002 song that was co-written by Madonna and Rick Nowels.

Background and development
At the beginning of White Diamond, the director, William Baker, says: "For most people, Neighbours, 'I Should Be So Lucky,' Michael Hutchence, gold hot pants, 'Can't Get You Out of My Head,' and cancer equals Kylie. I want to rip that surface away."

On 17 May 2005, Kylie Minogue was forced to cancel the Australian leg of her Showgirl tour after being diagnosed with breast cancer. This is the story of her homecoming. (Introductory pre-credits text from White Diamond.)

White Diamond started out when Kylie's creative director and close friend William Baker was filming her for a personal record that was to be used as backstage bonus footage for the Showgirl: Homecoming Tour DVD. They had so much footage by the end of the tour, that they decided it would be better suited to a feature-length documentary format.

The original plan was to release it directly to DVD, but it was eventually given a single-day cinema release in some territories.

The film focuses on Kylie during her Australian and European tour, Showgirl: The Greatest Hits Tour. But during that tour, it was announced on 17 May 2005 that she had been diagnosed with breast cancer. This led to the postponement of the remainder of that tour and to her withdrawal from the Glastonbury Festival. After having had surgery on 21 May 2005, her tour later resumed in November 2006 in Australia, under the name Showgirl: The Homecoming Tour. Yet, while on this tour, Kylie was diagnosed with a respiratory tract infection. The tour was then postponed to January 2007.

Kylie stated that White Diamond was "a good way to thank the fans for their support and see where all their good wishes went. This started as quite a humble little project, and in many ways it still is." She had written on her website earlier in 2007: "I have to admit I was a little nervous to work on such a revealing project and I did pull the plug several times, but due to Willie's persistence it is now almost finished. It gives a great insight into the world of touring and the touring family."

Cast

Main roles
 Kylie Minogue – the Showgirl (as credited at the end of film)
 William Baker – director, photographer, and Kylie's best friend (known as "Dear")
 Dannii Minogue – Kylie's sister, who appeared in the film for the duet "Kids"
 Bono – who also appeared for the duet "Kids"
 Oliver Martinez – Kylie's former boyfriend, who made an appearance in some short scenes

Dancers
 Jason Beitel, Marco da Silva, Jamie Karitzis, Alan Lambie, Claire Meehan, Welly Locoh-Donou, Jason Piper, Nikoletta Rafaelisova, Andile Sotiya, Nikki Trow, Anoulka Yanminchey, Rachel Yau, and Terry Kvasnik

Production

Filming

A portion of White Diamond was shot in August 2006 in London, England, where Kylie had been living for 20 years. Kylie had travelled to Sadler's Wells studios for her dancing and choreography preparation for the Showgirl: Homecoming Tour. After that, the group went to Ealing, London, for musical rehearsals and to hold a promotional photo shoot.

Ruary McPhie filmed the England portion of the film (as noted in the end credits) because William Baker, the director, could not film there. While at Sadler's Wells, Baker said (in the film) that the tour would become a "bumpy ride" and would be emotional for everyone.

The group then went to Milan, Italy, for the designing of Kylie's outfits and costumes. While there, Kylie visited the fashion design company Dolce & Gabbana, who designed a cat-suit for her with gloves featuring "KM" on each glove.

Kylie also visited Chanel. They had travelled to Paris to get her custom-made Chanel Red Disc Dress. She had also had been invited to Paris Fashion Week. Kylie commented in the film that she was "blown away" and that she "loved it."

In November 2006, the group travelled to Sydney, Australia. While in Sydney, Kylie launched her perfume Darling. Later she performed in Brisbane, Australia, where she visited the Cancer Council. She said that the people there had "looked up to me and have been thinking about what I had been through," and that all of them had been "very brave" while fighting cancer.

After leaving Brisbane, she travelled to Byron Bay for a two-day break. She commented that her stay there was "freedom at last."

Kylie then travelled back to London and to the Wembley Arena for New Year's Eve. She celebrated there with the crew and the audience.

The last filming location was in Acapulco, Mexico, where Kylie did a commercial shoot and said that she would take a holiday there.

Music and soundtrack
Most of the songs in the film were performed by Kylie Minogue; however, the soundtrack also featured the English duo Pet Shop Boys, singing their song "Being Boring."

The Cure was also featured in the credits of the film for their song "Lovesong."

Liza Minnelli also had two songs featured in the film: "Rent" and "Losing My Mind."

"Kids" was sung with Dannii Minogue and Bono. The Bono version is on the tour's album, Showgirl: Homecoming Live, while the version with Dannii is a bonus feature on the movie DVD.

Kylie covered the songs "Vogue," "Try Your Wings," "You Are There," and "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend."

All songs were published by EMI Ltd.

Critical reception

Most critics compared the film to Madonna's 1991 film Truth or Dare (also entitled In Bed with Madonna).

Kathy McCabe of The Daily Telegraph gave it a positive review, saying "Kylie Minogue reveals her hopes and fears but few tears in White Diamond." She also described the film as "sparkling."

The Evening Times gave the film 2 out of 5 stars. They said that Baker was too close to the subject of the film and that, "We never see Minogue cry, shout, bitch, get tipsy or mauldin."

Fans have said that Baker, the director and a close friend of Kylie's, put too much of himself into the film relative to Kylie's actual screen time. Caitlin Moran of The Times said that the documentary was made by "a very discreet friend" and that it runs "an arse-fatiguing two hours." Before adding that it "leaves you in no doubt that Kylie is a charming, merry, adorable, disco mouse with a fabulous collection of shoes."

Commercial performance
White Diamond premiered in the United Kingdom on 16 October 2007 at all Vue Cinema locations across the country in a one-night-only event. Kylie attended this premiere at the Leicester Square Vue Cinema. She arrived in a diamond-studded dress, wearing over $1,000,000 worth of jewellery. She was accompanied by her sister, Dannii, and actor Rupert Everett.

Similarly, in Australia there was a one-night-only premiere of the film at Village Cinemas on 19 October 2007 and in New Zealand at Skycity Cinemas on 16 November 2007. Everyone in New Zealand who attended the screening at the Skycity Cinemas received a free copy of Kylie's then-new single "2 Hearts."

Music credits

Video release

The documentary movie was released on DVD with a 15 rating on 10 December 2007.
It was filmed in HD and released to cinemas in HD. No Blu-ray release has been planned.

In the United Kingdom, it was released in a two-disc package. The second disc contains a concert (Showgirl: The Homecoming Tour) that was filmed in Kylie's hometown of Melbourne, Australia, on 11 December 2006. The concert is two hours and twenty minutes long.

The DVD also features bonus footage of Kylie and Dannii Minogue performing "Kids" in Melbourne's Rod Laver Arena on 16 December 2006, and five extra songs filmed in London's Earls Court on 6 May 2005.

White Diamond was shown on United Kingdom television on 25 November 2006 prior to its release on DVD. The DVD reached number three on the Mexican Top 10 Music DVD Chart when it was released in Mexico in February 2008.

It was released on DVD in New Zealand on 16 March 2009 by Shock Records. It was rated "General" by the OFLC of New Zealand.

Track listing
Act 1: Homecoming:
 "Overture"
 "Better the Devil You Know"
 "In Your Eyes"
 "White Diamond"
 "On a Night Like This"

Act 2: Everything Taboo:
 "Shocked" / "What Do I Have to Do?"
 "Spinning Around"

Act 3: Samsara:
 "Confide in Me"
 "Cowboy Style" / "Finer Feelings"
 "Too Far"

Act 4: Athletica:
 "Butterfly" (Remix Interlude)
 "Red Blooded Woman" / "Where the Wild Roses Grow"
 "Slow"
 "Kids"

Act 5: Dreams
 "Over the Rainbow"
 "Come into My World"
 "Chocolate"
 "I Believe in You"
 "Dreams"

Act 6: Pop Paradiso:
 "Burning Up" / "Vogue"
 "The Locomotion"
 "I Should Be So Lucky"
 "Hand on Your Heart"

Act 7: Dance of the Cybermen:
 "Can't Get You Out of My Head"
 "Light Years" / "Turn It into Love"

Encore:
 "Especially for You"
 "Love at First Sight"

Bonus features
 "Kids" (by Kylie and Dannii Minogue)
 Extra songs filmed at Earls Court:
 "In Denial"
 "Je Ne Sais Pas Pourquoi"
 "Confide in Me"
 "Please Stay"
 "Your Disco Needs You"

ROM section
 Weblinks
 Screensaver
 Wallpapers
 Gallery

See also
 X (Kylie Minogue album)  The song "White Diamond" is contained in the Australia and New Zealand iTunes bonus tracks of this album.

References

External links

2007 films
Kylie Minogue video albums
Australian independent films
Documentary films about singers
Live video albums
2007 video albums
Kylie Minogue live albums
2007 live albums
Documentary films about women in music
British independent films
Australian documentary films
2000s English-language films
2000s British films
British musical documentary films


Shine On is a nine-CD box set by English progressive rock band Pink Floyd, released in 1992 through EMI Records in the United Kingdom and Columbia Records in the United States, to coincide with Pink Floyd's 25th anniversary as a recording and touring band. All CDs were digitally remastered.

Content
The eight albums included in this box set are:
A Saucerful of Secrets
Meddle
The Dark Side of the Moon
Wish You Were Here
Animals
The Wall
A Momentary Lapse of Reason
The Early Singles (bonus CD, unavailable elsewhere)

The packaging on each of the previously released albums was unique to this set, with each CD housed in a solid black jewel case with a small sticker of the album cover affixed to the front. When lined up in order of release, the spines of the eight CD cases displayed the prism image from the cover of The Dark Side of the Moon.

Included with the box set was a hardcover book chronicling the career of Pink Floyd, from its inception to the late 1980s, and an envelope of postcards depicting artwork from the included seven albums and the cover of the box set itself.

As the collection was meant to showcase the best of Pink Floyd, the decision was made to not include the soundtrack albums More or Obscured by Clouds, or the albums Ummagumma, Atom Heart Mother and The Final Cut. The band's first album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, was also omitted, as EMI were planning to release a special edition of the album at the time, and it was hoped that new fans would buy both this set and the re-released debut album.

David Gilmour said the title of the Shine On box set (taken from the Wish You Were Here track "Shine On You Crazy Diamond") was not meant to indicate retirement on the band's part but rather a continuation of the band's progress. According to drummer Nick Mason, an initial suggestion for the title of the set was The Big Bong Theory.

The Early Singles
Shine On contained a bonus CD which compiled, for the first time ever, the band's first five 7" single A- and B-sides, in their original mono mixes. Some promotional copies of the disc were also issued separately to radio stations. Unlike the other discs in the box set, The Early Singles was housed in a digipak case.

Track listing

Original release dates
Tracks 1 & 2: 10 March 1967
Tracks 3 & 4: 16 June 1967
Tracks 5 & 6: 17 November 1967
Tracks 7 & 8: 19 April 1968
Tracks 9 & 10: 6 December 1968

Personnel
Richard Wright – piano; organ; mellotron on 7, 8; vibraphone on 10; vocals on 6, 7; backing vocals on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9
Syd Barrett – guitar on 1 to 6; vocals on 1 to 5; backing vocals on 6
David Gilmour – guitar on 7 to 10; vocals on 8, 9, 10; backing vocals on 7
Roger Waters – bass guitar; vocals on 9, 10; backing vocals on 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
Nick Mason – drums, percussion

Production
James Guthrie – remastering production
Alan Parsons – assistant remastering on the included release of The Dark Side of the Moon
Aubrey Powell – sleeve design
Doug Sax – remastering
Storm Thorgerson – sleeve design

References

Albums produced by David Gilmour
Albums produced by Joe Boyd
Albums produced by Nick Mason
Albums produced by Norman Smith (record producer)
Albums produced by Richard Wright (musician)
Albums produced by Roger Waters
Albums with cover art by Storm Thorgerson
Pink Floyd compilation albums
1992 compilation albums
Columbia Records compilation albums
EMI Records compilation albums
Albums recorded at A&M Studios
Albums recorded at Morgan Sound Studios
Albums recorded at CBS 30th Street Studio
Albums recorded at Studio Miraval

Shine On (Pink Floyd box set)


Muilla coronata is a species of flowering plant known by the common name crowned muilla. It is native to the deserts of eastern California and southern Nevada, where it is found in scrub and Joshua Tree woodland habitat, as well as the slopes of nearby mountains. It is a perennial growing from a corm and reaching no more than 15 centimeters in height. The flowering stem bears an umbel-shaped array of up to 10, but usually fewer, flowers on pedicels up to 3 centimeters long. Each flower has six tepals which are white in color, often with a blue tinge inside and a greenish tinge on the outer surfaces. At the center of the flower are six stamens with wide white petal-like filaments. The filaments are partially fused into an erect, cylindrical "crown".

References

External links

Jepson Manual Treatment
USDA Plants Profile
Flora of North America
Photo gallery

Brodiaeoideae
Flora of California
Flora of Nevada

Muilla coronata


Friedrich "Fritz" Kreisler (February 2, 1875 – January 29, 1962) was an Austrian-born American violinist and composer. One of the most noted violin masters of his day, and regarded as one of the greatest violinists of all time, he was known for his sweet tone and expressive phrasing. Like many great violinists of his generation, he produced a characteristic sound which was immediately recognizable as his own. Although it derived in many respects from the Franco-Belgian school, his style is nonetheless reminiscent of the gemütlich (cozy) lifestyle of pre-war Vienna.

Biography

Kreisler was born in Vienna, the son of Anna (née Reches) and Samuel Kreisler, a doctor. Of Jewish heritage, he was however baptised at the age of 12. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory between 1882 and 1885 under Anton Bruckner, Jakob Dont and Joseph Hellmesberger Jr., and in Paris Conservatory between 1885 and 1887, where his teachers included Léo Delibes, Lambert Massart and Jules Massenet. He was graduated from Paris Conservatory with a degree of "Premier Prix" gold medal at the age of 12, competing against 40 other players, all of whom were at least 20 years of age.

He made his United States debut at the Steinway Hall in New York City on November 10, 1888, and his first tour of the United States in 1888–1889 with Moriz Rosenthal. He then returned to Austria and applied for a position in the Vienna Philharmonic, but was turned down by the concertmaster Arnold Rosé. As a result, he left music to study medicine. He spent a brief time in the army before returning to the violin in 1899, when he gave a concert with the Berlin Philharmonic conducted by Arthur Nikisch. It was this concert and a series of American tours from 1901 to 1903 that brought him real acclaim. Kreisler was also an excellent pianist, and his piano playing is preserved on Ampico reproducing piano rolls.

During a concert tour of the United States in 1901, Kreisler met Harriet Lies, a New York-born divorcée who was a Vassar graduate and the daughter of a German American tobacco merchant. They fell in love immediately and were married a year later, though they repeated the ceremony three more times because of legal technicalities.  They had no children, and Harriet devoted her life to his career.  They were married for 60 years, until his death in 1962.

In 1910, Kreisler gave the premiere of Sir Edward Elgar's Violin Concerto, a work commissioned by and dedicated to him. He served briefly in the Austrian Army in World War I before being honourably discharged after he was wounded. He arrived in New York on November 24, 1914, and spent the remainder of the war in America. He returned to Europe in 1924, living first in Berlin, then moving to France in 1938.  Shortly thereafter, at the outbreak of World War II, he settled once again in the United States, becoming a naturalized citizen in 1943. He lived there for the rest of his life, giving his last public concert in 1947, and broadcasting performances for a few years after that.

On April 26, 1941, he was involved in a serious traffic accident. Struck by a truck while crossing a street in New York, he suffered a fractured skull and was in a coma for over a week.

In his later years, he suffered from not only some hearing loss but also sight deterioration due to cataracts.

Kreisler died of a heart condition aggravated by old age in New York City in 1962. He was interred in a private mausoleum in Woodlawn Cemetery, the Bronx, New York City.

Legacy
Kreisler wrote a number of pieces for the violin, including solos for encores, such as "Liebesleid" and "Liebesfreud". Some of Kreisler's compositions were pastiches ostensibly in the style of other composers.  They were originally ascribed to earlier composers, such as Gaetano Pugnani, Giuseppe Tartini and Antonio Vivaldi, and then,  in 1935, Kreisler revealed that it was he who wrote the pieces. When critics complained, Kreisler replied that they had already deemed the compositions worthy: "The name changes, the value remains", he said. He also wrote operettas, including Apple Blossoms in 1919 and  in 1932, a string quartet, and cadenzas, including ones for Brahms's Violin Concerto, Paganini's D major Violin Concerto, and Beethoven's Violin Concerto. His cadenzas for the Beethoven concerto are the ones most often played by violinists today.

He wrote the music for the 1936 movie The King Steps Out directed by Josef von Sternberg, based on the early years of Empress Elisabeth of Austria.

Kreisler performed and recorded his own version of the first movement of Paganini's D major Violin Concerto. The movement is rescored and in some places reharmonised, and the orchestral introduction is completely rewritten in some places. The overall effect is of a late-nineteenth-century work.

Kreisler owned several antique violins made by luthiers Antonio Stradivari, Pietro Guarneri, Giuseppe Guarneri, and Carlo Bergonzi, most of which eventually came to bear his name. He also owned a Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume violin of 1860, which he often used as his second violin, and which he often loaned to the young prodigy Josef Hassid. In 1952 he donated his Giuseppe Guarneri to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. where it remains in use for performances given in the library.

On recordings, Kreisler's style resembles that of his younger contemporary Mischa Elman, with a tendency toward expansive tempi, a continuous and varied vibrato, expressive phrasing, and a melodic approach to passage-work. Kreisler makes considerable use of portamento and rubato. The two violinists' approaches are less similar in big works of the standard repertoire, such as Felix Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto, than in smaller pieces.

A trip to a Kreisler concert is recounted in Siegfried Sassoon's 1928 autobiographical novel Memoirs of a Fox-Hunting Man.

The Australian manufacturer of electronics and consumer goods Kriesler (later a subsidiary of Philips) supposedly took its name after Fritz Kreisler but had intentionally misspelled the name as to avoid possible juristical actions from other parties.

Work

Compositions

Forgeries
Kreisler created a number of musical forgeries throughout his career. These include
 Sicilienne and Rigaudon by François Francœur.
 Allegretto by "Luigi Boccherini"
 Andantino by "Giovanni Battista Martini"
 Aubade Provençale by "Louis Couperin"
 Chanson Louis XIII and Pavane by "Louis Couperin"
 La Chasse (Caprice) by "Jean Baptiste Cartier"
 Grave by "Wilhelm Friedemann Bach"
 Menuett by "Nicola Porpora"
 Praeludium and Allegro by "Gaetano Pugnani"
 La Précieuse by "Louis Couperin"
 Preghiera by "Giovanni Battista Martini"
 Scherzo by "Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf"
 Sicilienne and Rigaudon by "François Francoeur"
 Study on a Choral by "Johann Stamitz"
 Tempo di Minuetto by "Gaetano Pugnani"
 Variations on a Theme by Corelli by "Giuseppe Tartini"
 Violin Concerto in C major by "Antonio Vivaldi"

Recordings
Kreisler recorded extensively for Victor/RCA Victor and HMV. His recordings have been reasonably well represented on both LP and CD reissues. His final recordings were made in 1950.
Bach Concerto for Two Violins in D minor, BWV 1043, with Efrem Zimbalist (second violin), and a string quartet. rec. January 4, 1915;
Beethoven Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 61, with Leo Blech, Berlin State Opera Orchestra. rec. December 15, 1926;
Beethoven Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 61, with John Barbirolli, London Philharmonic Orchestra. rec. June 16, 1936;
Beethoven Sonata No. 8 in G major, Op. 30, No. 3, with Sergei Rachmaninoff, pF. rec. March 22, 1928;
Beethoven Sonata No. 9 in A major, Op. 47, with Franz Rupp, pf. rec. June 17–19, 1936;
Brahms Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 77 with Leo Blech, Berlin State Opera Orchestra, rec. November 21, 1927;
Brahms Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 77 with John Barbirolli, London Symphony Orchestra, rec. June 18, 1936;
Grieg Sonata No. 3 in C minor, Op. 45, with Sergei Rachmaninoff, pf. rec. December 14–15, 1928;
Mendelssohn Violin Concerto in E minor, Op. 64, with Leo Blech, Berlin State Opera Orchestra. rec. December 9, 1926;
Mendelssohn Violin Concerto in E minor, Op. 64, with Landon Ronald, London Symphony Orch. rec. April 8, 1935;
Mozart Violin Concerto in D major, K. 218, with Landon Ronald, London Symphony Orchestra, rec. December 1, 1924;
Paganini Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 6 (recomposed by Kreisler), with Eugene Ormandy, Philadelphia Orchestra, rec. December 13, 1936;
Schubert Sonata No. 5 in A major, D. 574, with Sergei Rachmaninoff, pf. rec. December 20, 1928;
attrib. Vivaldi, RV Anh. 62 (composed by Kreisler) Violin Concerto in C major, with Donald Voorhees, RCA Victor Orchestra, rec. May 2, 1945.

Broadway

Apple Blossoms (1919) – operetta – co-composer;
Continental Varieties (1934) – revue – featured composer for "Caprice Viennois" and "La Gitana";
Reunion in New York (1940) – revue – featured composer for "Stars in Your Eyes";
Rhapsody (1944) – operetta – composer.

Autobiography

Notes

References

Further sources

External links

 Fritz Kreisler's page at Carl Fischer

 An assembled edition of original pieces and arrangements for violin and piano by Fritz Kreisler. From Sibley Music Library Digital Scores Collection
 Fritz Kreisler String Quartet in a minor Soundbites & discussion of work
 Fritz Kreisler recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
 Recordings of Fritz Kreisler on the Library of Congress jukebox
 The International Fritz Kreisler Violin Competition

1875 births
1962 deaths
19th-century American composers
19th-century Austrian people
19th-century classical composers
19th-century classical violinists
19th-century male musicians
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century Austrian people
20th-century classical composers
20th-century classical violinists
American classical violinists
American male classical composers
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
American Roman Catholics
American Romantic composers
Austrian classical violinists
Austrian Jews
Austrian male classical composers
American male violinists
Austrian Romantic composers
Emigrants from Austria-Hungary to the United States
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Jewish classical composers
Jewish classical violinists
Male classical violinists
Music & Arts artists
People from Leopoldstadt
Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists
20th-century American violinists

Fritz Kreisler


Danses concertantes is a work for chamber orchestra by Igor Stravinsky, composed in 1942. A performance lasts about twenty minutes. Although written as an abstract ballet for concert performance, it has been choreographed numerous times.

History
The Danses concertantes were commissioned by the Werner Janssen Orchestra of Los Angeles, and was intended not for the stage but for concert performance. Stravinsky nevertheless cast it in the form of an abstract ballet, composing it in Hollywood beginning in 1941. The score was completed on 13 January 1942, and it was published later that same year by Associate Music Publishers in New York. The composer conducted the first performance, with the Werner Janssen Orchestra, in Los Angeles on 8 February 1942. The French premiere, in February 1945 on the second of an extended series of concerts devoted to Stravinsky's work, was met by vocal protests from a group of students from Olivier Messiaen's class, including Serge Nigg and Pierre Boulez, who found Stravinsky's neoclassicism to be intolerably old-fashioned. Although this action has been interpreted as a championing of post-war serialism, in fact at this early date it was the exoticism and mysticism of Messiaen's music that fired the young composers' imagination, and not Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique.

Instrumentation
Stravinsky scored the Danses concertantes for a chamber orchestra consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, two horns, trumpet, trombone, timpani, and a string section specified as six violins, four violas, three cellos, and two double basses.

Analysis
The work is divided into five movements:

The music is closely related to several of Stravinsky's immediately preceding works. The variations  of the third movement, for example, follow a plan of ascending semitones: theme in G, and four variations in A, A, A (again), and B. This is the reverse of the variations in Jeu de cartes (1937), which are arranged in a chromatic descent. The concertante style strongly resembles the Dumbarton Oaks Concerto (1938), and the thematic material generally, but particularly the opening of the second movement, recalls the Symphony in C of 1939.

Ballet productions

George Balanchine choreographed Danses concertantes for a 1944 production by the Ballet Russe de Monte-Carlo, with sets and costumes by Eugène Berman. A second choreography was created by Kenneth MacMillan in 1955 for the Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet in London, with scenery and costumes by Nicholas Georgiadis. A third ballet production was created in 1959 for the San Francisco Ballet, with choreography by Lew Christensen and designs by Tony Duquette. Since then, numerous other choreographers have set dancers to Stravinsky's cheerful score.

References

Sources

External links

Compositions by Igor Stravinsky
1942 compositions
Compositions for chamber orchestra

Danses concertantes (Stravinsky)


Army Emergency Relief (AER), often referred to by the longer title Army Emergency Relief Fund, is a non-profit, charitable organization independent of, but closely associated with the United States Army, founded in 1942.  The organization is headquartered in Arlington, VA.

Mission
The mission of the AER is to help US Army soldiers and their dependents, by providing emergency aid, in the form of either a direct grant (a cash gift, not to be repaid) or an interest-free loan, and by giving college scholarships to children of soldiers. Under Army regulations, officers must recommend whether their soldiers deserve aid.

Loans up to $1000 do not require command recommendation, and there is no limit to the amount of funds Army Emergency Relief may authorize. Officers are responsible for ensuring that their soldiers repay AER loans.

Assets, aid, and expenses
In February 2009, the Associated Press reported that the AER had, between 2003 and 2007, distributed a total of $64 million in aid, an average of $13 million per year, while adding $117 million to its reserves, and reaching total assets of $345 million.  AER ended 2007 with a $296 million in its investment portfolio of stocks and bonds. During that five-year period of 2003-2007, AER's emergency assistance consisted of 91 percent repayable loans and 9 percent direct grants. In 2008, AER gave out $5.5 million in emergency grants, $65 million in loans, and $12 million in scholarships, to a total of 72,000 people.  For 2009, AER plans to reduce its total scholarships to $8 million.

As of early 2009, AER was paying for a staff of 21 people, all at its headquarters at the Army Human Resources Command in Alexandria, Virginia, with the Army paying 300 or so other civilians, located at ninety Army sites worldwide, who worked full-time for the AER. The Army also provides AER its office space at no charge.

Armed Forces Relief Trust

In 2003, a new nonprofit organization, the Armed Forces Relief Trust, was formed with assistance from the National Association of Broadcasters.
The mission of the trust is to assist the four military aid societies - AER, the Air Force Aid Society, the Navy-Marine Corps Relief Society, and the Coast Guard Mutual Assistance, by providing a single place to receive donations for the entire U.S. Armed Services.

References

External links
Official AER site

Charities based in Virginia
United States Army associations
United States military support organizations

Army Emergency Relief


Cambridge Seven Associates, Inc. (stylized as CambridgeSeven, and sometimes as C7A) is an American architecture firm based in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Buildings designed by the firm have included academic, museum, exhibit, hospitality, transportation, retail, office, and aquarium facilities, and have been built in North America, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Besides architecture, it operates in the areas of urban design, planning, exhibitions, graphic, and interior design.

The company was founded in 1962. The original seven partners were Lou Bakanowsky, Ivan Chermayeff, Peter Chermayeff, Alden Christie, Paul Dietrich, Tom Geismar, and Terry Rankine.

CambridgeSeven won the American Institute of Architects Architecture Firm Award in 1993, and was described by the AIA Committee on Design as "an influential and stimulating example, demonstrating new directions of professional practice."

In 2016, the company's revenue was $26 million.

Notable projects

Academic
 College of Business, Kuwait University, Sabah Al-Salem University City, Kuwait
 College of Engineering and Petroleum, Kuwait University, Sabah Al-Salem University City, Kuwait
 College for Life Sciences, Kuwait University, Sabah Al-Salem University City, Kuwait
 Edwards Center for Art and Dance, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine
 Health and Social Sciences Building, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, Massachusetts
 Kanbar Hall, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine
 Learning Laboratory for Complex Systems, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts
 Marine Technology & Life Sciences Seawater Research Complex, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida
 Marine Science Center at Fintas, Kuwait University, Fintas, Kuwait
 Nettie M. Stevens Science and Innovation Center, Westfield State University, Westfield, Massachusetts
 Peter Buck Center for Health and Fitness, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine
 Pulichino Tong Business Center, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, Massachusetts
 Roux Center for the Environment, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine
 Williams College Bookstore, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts

Aquariums
 MOTE Aquarium, Sarasota, Florida
 National Aquarium, Baltimore, Maryland
 National Aquarium of Saudi Arabia, King Abdullah Financial District, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
 New England Giant Ocean Tank, New England Aquarium, Boston, Massachusetts
 New England Aquarium, Boston, Massachusetts, United States, the firm's first major commission
 North Carolina Aquarium at Roanoke Island, Manteo, North Carolina
 Oceanário de Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
 Ring of Fire Aquarium, Osaka, Japan
 Roundhouse Aquarium, Manhattan Beach, California
 Tennessee Aquarium, Chattanooga, Tennessee
 The Scientific Center of Kuwait, Salmiya, Kuwait
 Virginia Aquarium & Marine Science Center, Virginia Beach, Virginia
 World Alive Exhibits, Discovery Place Science, Charlotte, North Carolina

Civic
 Elevated Walkways, Logan International Airport, Boston, Massachusetts
 Gloucester Harborwalk, Gloucester, Massachusetts
 Howard Ulfelder, Maryland, Healing Garden, Yawkey Center for Outpatient Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
 Kuwait Ministry of Education Headquarters Building, South Surra District, Kuwait
 Kuwait National Petroleum Company Headquarters, Ahmadi, Kuwait
 MBTA Design Guidelines, Boston, Massachusetts

 WBUR CitySpace, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
 West Cambridge Youth Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts
 Yawkey Center for Outpatient Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts

Hospitality
 Ames Hotel, Boston, Massachusetts
 Brookline Hilton Garden Inn, Brookline, Massachusetts
 Charles Hotel, Cambridge, Massachusetts
 Four Seasons Hotel & Private Residences One Dalton Street (with collaborating architects Pei Cobb Freed & Partners), Boston, Massachusetts
 Four Seasons Hotel & Private Residences New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana
 Hanover Inn at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire
 Hilton Boston Logan Airport, Boston, Massachusetts
 PINE Restaurant at the Hanover Inn, Hanover, New Hampshire
 Revere Hotel Renovations, Boston, Massachusetts
 The Liberty Hotel, Boston, Massachusetts
 Williams Inn, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts

Museums
 Boston Children's Museum, Boston, Massachusetts
 Canada Sports Hall of Fame, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
 Detroit Red Wings & Pistons Heritage Exhibit, Detroit, Michigan
 Discovery Museum of Acton, Acton, Massachusetts
 Children's Discovery Museum, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China
 KAFD Science Museum & Geo-Climate Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
 Knock Knock Children's Museum, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
 Murphy Keller Education Center, Heifer International Headquarters, Little Rock, Arkansas
 Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, Springfield, Massachusetts
 San Francisco 49ers Museum & Exhibits, Levi's Stadium, Santa Clara, California
 The Hall at Patriot Place, Gillette Stadium, Foxborough, Massachusetts
 World of Little League Museum Renovation and Exhibits, Williamsport, Pennsylvania

Notes

References
'Cambridge Seven Names Johnson President,' High Profile.com Article on New President of Cambridge Seven, January 2017
'The People's Architect,' Boston Globe article on Peter Kuttner, President of CambridgeSeven

External links

Design companies established in 1962
Companies based in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Architecture firms based in Massachusetts
1962 establishments in Massachusetts

CambridgeSeven


Władysław Zygmunt Belina-Prażmowski (3 May 1888 in Ruszkowiec – 13 October 1938 in Venice), was a Polish cavalryman, colonel and politician.

He was a member of Związek Walki Czynnej since 1909, later Związek Strzelecki. Student of Lwów Politechnic in 1919–1913.

Serving under Józef Piłsudski, he became one of the first Polish soldiers - formally under Austrian command - who entered Russian-held Polish territory during the First World War. Member of Polish Legions, organizer and commander of 1st Regiment of Polish Uhlans and later 1st Brigade of Polish Uhlans. Later he fought in the Polish-Ukrainian War (1918–1919) and Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921). In April 1919 his troops were instrumental in taking Wilno. Piłsudski would declare Belina's cavalry action a most exquisite military action carried out by Polish cavalry in this war.

From 1929 he lived in Kraków and retired from the military. In 1931-1933 he was a mayor of Kraków and from 1933 to 1937, voivode of Lwów. In 1938 he retired from public work due to worsening health; he died later that year, aged fifty.

Honours and awards
 Gold Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari
 Commander's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta
 Cross of Valour - five times
 Officers' badge "Parasol"
 Order of the Cross of the Eagle, Class II (Estonia, 1935)

See also
 The Seven Lancers of Belina

1888 births
1928 deaths
People from Opatów County
Polish soldiers
Polish people of the Polish–Soviet War
Polish people of the Polish–Ukrainian War
Recipients of the Gold Cross of the Virtuti Militari
Commanders of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)
Recipients of the Military Order of the Cross of the Eagle, Class II
Mayors of Kraków

Władysław Belina-Prażmowski


Oluf Vilhelm Falck-Ytter (6 March 1832 – 24 October 1914) was a Norwegian  jurist, civil servant, author, editor and publisher.

Biography
He was born at Stange  in Hedmark, Norway. He was a son of bailiff (fogt) Nils Ytter (1788–1868) and his wife Marie Dorothea Falck (1786–1867). After taking the cand.jur. degree in 1857 he spent his career in two civil jobs, as a civil servant in the Ministry of Finance from 1857 to 1884, and then as stipendiary magistrate in Sarpsborg city from 1884 to 1914.

He was active in the fledgling sports movement, predecessor of the present Norwegian Olympic Committee, and co-founded the skiing club Christiania SK and the shooting club Kristiania SL.

He wrote the gymnastics textbook Ude og inde. Om Legemsøvelser og Leg in 1867, and became involved in the production of children's magazines. He was asked to be an editorial board member of the magazine Børnenes Blad in 1864, and although he left in 1867, he started his own magazine For Ungdommen in 1868. It existed for three years, and in 1872 he took over Børnenes Blad and amalgamated his own magazine into it.
The name of the new magazine was Børnenes Blad until 1884, except for the years 1875 to 1883 when the name For Ungdommen was used. The magazine went defunct in 1884 when Falck-Ytter moved to Sarpsborg.

Falck-Ytter also ran a publishing firm, Falck Ytters Forlag, which was established 1868.  According to the work Norsk presses historie 1660–2010, he was the first editor-in-chief of the liberal newspaper Glommen, started in Sarpsborg in 1888, although he edited anonymously.

Falck-Ytter also wrote several books in the genres children's literature and young adult fiction. The best known book today is 1873's Haakon Haakonsen: En norsk Robinson ("Haakon Haakonsen: A Norwegian Robinson"), which was made into the 1990 Walt Disney Pictures film Shipwrecked. He also released books in 1871 and 1874, one in 1896 and three in 1913–1914.

Falck-Ytter was decorated with HM The King's Medal of Merit in gold in 1910. He was married to Gleny Louise Anziøn (1838–1925) from October 1860. He died in October 1914 in Kristiania.

References

1832 births
1914 deaths
People from Stange
Norwegian jurists
Norwegian civil servants
Norwegian publishers (people)
Norwegian magazine editors
Norwegian newspaper editors
19th-century Norwegian novelists
20th-century Norwegian novelists
Norwegian children's writers
Recipients of the King's Medal of Merit in gold

Oluf Falck-Ytter


Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole-systems thinking. It applies these principles in fields such as regenerative agriculture, town planning, rewilding, and community resilience. The term was coined in 1978 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods, instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture.

Permaculture has been criticised as being poorly defined and unscientific. Critics have pushed for less reliance on anecdote and extrapolation from ecological first principles, in favor of peer-reviewed research to substantiate productivity claims and to clarify methodology. Peter Harper from the Centre for Alternative Technology suggests that most of what passes for permaculture has no relevance to real problems.

Background

History

In 1911, Franklin Hiram King wrote Farmers of Forty Centuries: Or Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and Japan, describing farming practices of East Asia designed for "permanent agriculture". In 1929, Joseph Russell Smith appended King's term as the subtitle for Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture, which he wrote in response to widespread deforestation, plow agriculture, and erosion in the eastern mountains and hill regions of the USA. He proposed the planting of tree fruits and nuts as human and animal food crops that could stabilize watersheds and restore soil health. Smith saw the world as an inter-related whole and suggested mixed systems of trees with understory crops. This book inspired individuals such as Toyohiko Kagawa who pioneered forest farming in Japan in the 1930s.

George Washington Carver advocated what can now be called traditional permaculture practices, such as the rotation of particular crops to restore nitrogen to the soil and repair damaged Southern farm land, in his work at Tuskegee Institute, beginning 1896 until his death in 1947.

In his 1964 book Water for Every Farm, the Australian agronomist and engineer P. A. Yeomans advanced a definition of permanent agriculture as one that can be sustained indefinitely. Yeomans introduced both an observation-based approach to land use in Australia in the 1940s and in the 1950s the Keyline Design as a way of managing the supply and distribution of water in semi-arid regions. Other early influences include Stewart Brand's works, Ruth Stout and Esther Deans, who pioneered no-dig gardening, and Masanobu Fukuoka who, in the late 1930s in Japan, began advocating no-till orchards and gardens and natural farming.

In the late 1960s, Bill Mollison, senior lecturer in Environmental Psychology at University of Tasmania, and David Holmgren, graduate student at the then Tasmanian College of Advanced Education started developing ideas about stable agricultural systems on the southern Australian island of Tasmania. Their recognition of the unsustainable nature of modern industrialized methods and their inspiration from Tasmanian Aboriginal and other traditional practises were critical to their formulation of permaculture. In their view, industrialized methods were highly dependent on non-renewable resources, and were additionally poisoning land and water, reducing biodiversity, and removing billions of tons of topsoil from previously fertile landscapes. They responded with permaculture. This term was first made public with the publication of their 1978 book Permaculture One.

Following the publication of Permaculture One, Mollison responded to widespread enthusiasm for the work by traveling and teaching a three-week program that became known as the Permaculture Design Course. It addressed the application of permaculture design to growing in major climatic and soil conditions, to the use of renewable energy and natural building methods, and to "invisible structures" of human society. He found ready audiences in Australia, New Zealand, the USA, Britain, and Europe, and from 1985 also reached the Indian subcontinent and southern Africa. By the early 1980s, the concept had broadened from agricultural systems towards sustainable human habitats and at the 1st Intl. Permaculture Convergence, a gathering of graduates of the PDC held in Australia, the curriculum was formalized and its format shortened to two weeks. After Permaculture One, Mollison further refined and developed the ideas while designing hundreds of properties. This led to the 1988 publication of his global reference work, Permaculture: A Designers Manual. Mollison encouraged graduates to become teachers and set up their own institutes and demonstration sites. Critics suggest that this success weakened permaculture's social aspirations of moving away from industrial social forms. They argue that the self-help model (akin to franchising) has had the effect of creating market-focused social relationships that the originators initially opposed.

Foundational ethics

The ethics on which permaculture builds are:

 "Care of the Earth: Provision for all life systems to continue and multiply".
 "Care of people: Provision for people to access those resources necessary for their existence".
 "Setting limits to population and consumption: By governing our own needs, we can set resources aside to further the above principles".

Mollison's 1988 formulation of the third ethic was restated by Holmgren in 2002 as "Set limits to consumption and reproduction, and redistribute surplus" and is elsewhere condensed to "share the surplus".

Permaculture emphasizes patterns of landscape, function, and species assemblies. It determines where these elements should be placed so they can provide maximum benefit to the local environment. Permaculture maximizes synergy of the final design. The focus of permaculture, therefore, is not on individual elements, but rather on the relationships among them. The aim is for the whole to become greater than the sum of its parts, minimizing waste, human labour, and energy input, and to and maximize benefits through synergy.

Permaculture design is founded in replicating or imitating natural patterns found in ecosystems because these solutions have emerged through evolution over thousands of years and have proven to be effective. As a result, the implementation of permaculture design will vary widely depending on the region of the Earth it is located in. Because permaculture's implementation is so localized and place specific, scientific literature for the field is lacking or not always applicable. Design principles derive from the science of systems ecology and the study of pre-industrial examples of sustainable land use.

A core theme of permaculture is the idea of "people care". Seeking prosperity begins within a local community or culture that can apply the tenets of permaculture to sustain an environment that supports them and vice versa. This is in contrast to typical modern industrialized societies, where locality and generational knowledge is often overlooked in the pursuit of wealth or other forms of societal leverage.

Theory

Design principles

Holmgren articulated twelve permaculture design principles in his Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability:

 Observe and interact: Take time to engage with nature to design solutions that suit a particular situation.
 Catch and store energy: Develop systems that collect resources at peak abundance for use in times of need.
 Obtain a yield: Emphasize projects that generate meaningful rewards.
 Apply self-regulation and accept feedback: Discourage inappropriate activity to ensure that systems function well.
 Use and value renewable resources and services: Make the best use of nature's abundance: reduce consumption and dependence on non-renewable resources.
 Produce no waste: Value and employ all available resources: waste nothing.
 Design from patterns to details: Observe patterns in nature and society and use them to inform designs, later adding details.
 Integrate rather than segregate: Proper designs allow relationships to develop between design elements, allowing them to work together to support each other.
 Use small and slow solutions: Small and slow systems are easier to maintain, make better use of local resources, and produce more sustainable outcomes.
 Use and value diversity: Diversity reduces system-level vulnerability to threats and fully exploits its environment.
 Use edges and value the marginal: The border between things is where the most interesting events take place. These are often the system's most valuable, diverse, and productive elements.
 Creatively use and respond to change: A positive impact on inevitable change comes from careful observation, followed by well-timed intervention.

Guilds

A guild is a mutually beneficial group of species that form a part of the larger ecosystem. Within a guild each species of insect or plant provides a unique set of diverse services that work in harmony. Plants may be grown for food production, drawing nutrients from deep in the soil through tap roots, balancing nitrogen levels in the soil (legumes), for attracting beneficial insects to the garden, and repelling undesirable insects or pests. There are several types of guilds, such as community function guilds, mutual support guilds, and resource partitioning guilds.

 Community function guilds group species based on a specific function or niche that they fill in the garden. Examples of this type of guild include plants that attract a particular beneficial insect or plants that restore nitrogen to the soil. These types of guilds are aimed at solving specific problems which may arise in a garden, such as infestations of harmful insects and poor nutrition in the soil.
 Establishment guilds are commonly used when working to establish target species (the primary vegetables, fruits, herbs, etc. you want to be established in your garden) with the support of pioneer species (plants that will help the target species succeed). For example, in temperate climates, plants such as comfrey (as a weed barrier and dynamic accumulator), lupine (as a nitrogen fixer), and daffodil (as a gopher deterrent) can together form a guild for a fruit tree. As the tree matures, the support plants will likely eventually be shaded out and can be used as compost.
 Mature guilds form once your target species are established. For example, if the tree layer of your landscape closes its canopy, sun-loving support plants will be shaded out and die. Shade loving medicinal herbs such as ginseng, Black Cohosh, and goldenseal can be planted as an understory.
 Mutual support guilds group species together that are complementary by working together and supporting each other. This guild may include a plant that fixes nitrogen, a plant that hosts insects that are predators to pests, and another plant that attracts pollinators.
 Resource partitioning guilds group species based on their abilities to share essential resources with one another through a process of niche differentiation. An example of this type of guild includes placing a fibrous- or shallow-rooted plant next to a tap-rooted plant so that they draw from different levels of soil nutrients.

Zones

Zones intelligently organize design elements in a human environment based on the frequency of human use and plant or animal needs. Frequently manipulated or harvested elements of the design are located close to the house in zones 1 and 2. Manipulated elements located further away are used less frequently. Zones are numbered from 0 to 5 based on positioning.
 Zone 0
 The house, or home center. Here permaculture principles aim to reduce energy and water needs harnessing natural resources such as sunlight, to create a harmonious, sustainable environment in which to live and work. Zone 0 is an informal designation, not specifically defined in Mollison's book.
 Zone 1
 The zone nearest to the house, the location for those elements in the system that require frequent attention, or that need to be visited often, such as salad crops, herb plants, soft fruit like strawberries or raspberries, greenhouse and cold frames, propagation area, worm compost bin for kitchen waste, etc. Raised beds are often used in Zone 1 in urban areas.
 Zone 2
 This area is used for siting perennial plants that require less frequent maintenance, such as occasional weed control or pruning, including currant bushes and orchards, pumpkins, sweet potato, etc. Also, a good place for beehives, larger-scale composting bins, etc.
 Zone 3
 The area where main crops are grown, both for domestic use and for trade purposes. After establishment, care and maintenance required are fairly minimal (provided mulches and similar things are used), such as watering or weed control maybe once a week.
 Zone 4
 A semi-wild area, mainly used for forage and collecting wild plants as well as production of timber for construction or firewood.
 Zone 5
 A wilderness area. Humans do not intervene in zone 5 apart from observing natural ecosystems and cycles. This zone hosts a natural reserve of bacteria, molds, and insects that can aid the zones above it.

Edge effect

The edge effect in ecology is the increased diversity that results when two habitats meet. Permaculturists argue that these places can be highly productive. An example of this is a coast. Where land and sea meet is a rich area that meets a disproportionate percentage of human and animal needs. This idea is reflected in permacultural designs by using spirals in herb gardens, or creating ponds that have wavy undulating shorelines rather than a simple circle or oval (thereby increasing the amount of edge for a given area). On the other hand, in a keyhole bed, edges are minimized to avoid wasting space and effort.

Common practices

Hügelkultur

Hügelkultur is the practice of burying wood to increase soil water retention. The porous structure of wood acts like a sponge when decomposing underground. During the rainy season, sufficient buried wood can absorb enough water to sustain crops through the dry season. This technique is a traditional practice that has been developed over centuries in Europe and has been recently adopted by permaculturalists. The Hügelkultur technique can be implemented through building mounds on the ground as well as in raised garden beds. In raised beds, the practice "imitates natural nutrient cycling found in wood decomposition and the high water-holding capacities of organic detritus, while also improving bed structure and drainage properties." This is done by placing wood material (e.g. logs and sticks) in the bottom of the bed before piling organic soil and compost on top. A study comparing the water retention capacities of Hügel raised beds to non-Hügel beds determined that Hügel beds are both lower maintenance and more efficient in the long term by requiring less irrigation.

Sheet mulching

Mulch is a protective cover placed over soil. Mulch material includes leaves, cardboard, and wood chips. These absorb rain, reduce evaporation, provide nutrients, increase soil organic matter, create habitat for soil organisms, suppress weed growth and seed germination, moderate diurnal temperature swings, protect against frost, and reduce erosion. Sheet mulching or lasagna gardening is a gardening technique that attempts to mimic the leaf cover that is found on forest floors.

No-till gardening

Edward Faulkner's 1943 book Plowman's Folly, King's 1946 pamphlet "Is Digging Necessary?", A. Guest's 1948 book "Gardening without Digging", and Fukuoka's "Do Nothing Farming" all advocated forms of no-till or no-dig gardening. No-till gardening seeks to minimise disturbance to the soil community so as to maintain soil structure and organic matter.

Annual crops

Low-effort permaculture favours perennial crops which do not require tilling and planting every year. Annual crops inevitably require more cultivation. They can be incorporated into permaculture by using traditional techniques such as crop rotation, intercropping, and companion planting so that pests and weeds of individual annual crop species do not build up, and minerals used by specific crop plants do not become successively depleted.

Companion planting aims to make use of beneficial interactions between species of cultivated plants. Such interactions include pest control, pollination, providing habitat for beneficial insects, and maximizing use of space; all of these may help to increase productivity.

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse before it runs off or reaches the aquifer. It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, and water for irrigation, as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses and local institutions can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water. It can supplement the water table and increase urban greenery. Water collected from the ground, sometimes from areas which are specially prepared for this purpose, is called stormwater harvesting.

Greywater is wastewater generated from domestic activities such as laundry, dishwashing, and bathing, which can be recycled for uses such as landscape irrigation and constructed wetlands. Greywater is largely sterile, but not potable (drinkable).

Keyline design is a technique for maximizing the beneficial use of water resources. It was developed in Australia by farmer and engineer P. A. Yeomans. Keyline refers to a contour line extending in both directions from a keypoint. Plowing above and below the keyline provides a watercourse that directs water away from a purely downhill course to reduce erosion and encourage infiltration. It is used in designing drainage systems.

Compost production

Vermicomposting is a common practice in permaculture. The practice involves using earthworms, such as red wigglers, to break down green and brown waste. The worms produce worm castings, which can be used to organically fertilize the garden. Worms are also introduced to garden beds, helping to aerate the soil and improve water retention. Worms may multiply quickly if provided conditions are ideal. For example, a permaculture farm in Cuba began with 9 tiger worms in 2001 and 15 years later had a population of over 500,000. The worm castings are particularly useful as part of a seed starting mix and regular fertilizer. Worm castings are reportedly more successful than conventional compost for seed starting.

Sewage or blackwater contains human or animal waste. It can be composted, producing biogas and manure. Human waste can be sourced from a composting toilet, outhouse or dry bog (rather than a plumbed toilet).

Economising on space

Space can be saved in permaculture gardens with techniques such as herb spirals which group plants closely together. A herb spiral, invented by Mollison, is a round cairn of stones packed with earth at the base and sand higher up; sometimes there is a small pond on the south side (in the northern hemisphere). The result is a series of microclimate zones, wetter at the base, drier at the top, warmer and sunnier on the south side, cooler and drier to the north. Each herb is planted in the zone best suited to it.

Domesticated animals

Domesticated animals are often incorporated into site design. Activities that contribute to the system include: foraging to cycle nutrients, clearing fallen fruit, weed maintenance, spreading seeds, and pest maintenance. Nutrients are cycled by animals, transformed from their less digestible form (such as grass or twigs) into more nutrient-dense manure.

Multiple animals can contribute, including cows, goats, chickens, geese, turkey, rabbits, and worms. An example is chickens who can be used to scratch over the soil, thus breaking down the topsoil and using fecal matter as manure. Factors such as timing and habits are critical. For example, animals require much more daily attention than plants.

Fruit trees

Masanobu Fukuoka experimented with no-pruning methods on his family farm in Japan, finding that trees which were never pruned could grow well, whereas previously-pruned trees often died when allowed to grow without further pruning. He felt that this reflected the Tao-philosophy of Wú wéi, meaning no action against nature or "do-nothing" farming. He claimed yields comparable to intensive arboriculture with pruning and chemical fertilisation.

Applications

Agroforestry

Agroforestry uses the interactive benefits from combining trees and shrubs with crops or livestock. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems. Trees or shrubs are intentionally used within agricultural systems, or non-timber forest products are cultured in forest settings.

Forest gardens

Forest gardens or food forests are permaculture systems designed to mimic natural forests. Forest gardens incorporate processes and relationships that the designers understand to be valuable in natural ecosystems. A mature forest ecosystem is organised into layers with constituents such as trees, understory, ground cover, soil, fungi, insects, and other animals. Because plants grow to different heights, a diverse community of organisms can occupy a relatively small space, each at a different layer.

 Rhizosphere: Root layers within the soil. The major components of this layer are the soil and the organisms that live within it such as plant roots and zomes (including root crops such as potatoes and other edible tubers), fungi, insects, nematodes, and earthworms.
 Soil surface/groundcover: Overlaps with the herbaceous layer and the groundcover layer; however plants in this layer grow much closer to the ground, densely fill bare patches, and typically can tolerate some foot traffic. Cover crops retain soil and lessen erosion, along with green manures that add nutrients and organic matter, especially nitrogen.
 Herbaceous layer: Plants that die back to the ground every winter, if cold enough. No woody stems. Many beneficial plants such as culinary and medicinal herbs are in this layer; whether annuals, biennials, orperennials.
 Shrub layer: woody perennials of limited height. Includes most berry bushes.
 Understory layer: trees that flourish under the canopy.
 The canopy: the tallest trees. Large trees dominate, but typically do not saturate the area, i.e., some patches are devoid of trees.
 Vertical layer: climbers or vines, such as runner beans and lima beans (vine varieties).

Suburban and urban permaculture

The fundamental element of suburban and urban permaculture is the efficient utilization of space. Wildfire journal suggests using methods such as the keyhole garden which require little space. Neighbors can collaborate to increase the scale of transformation, using sites such as recreation centers, neighborhood associations, city programs, faith groups, and schools. Columbia, an ecovillage in Portland, Oregon, consisting of 37 apartment condominiums, influenced its neighbors to implement permaculture principles, including in front-yard gardens. Suburban permaculture sites such as one in Eugene, Oregon, include rainwater catchment, edible landscaping, removing paved driveways, turning a garage into living space, and changing a south side patio into passive solar.

Vacant lot farms are community-managed farm sites, but are often seen by authorities as temporary rather than permanent. For example, Los Angeles' South Central Farm (1994–2006), one of the largest urban gardens in the United States, was bulldozed with approval from property owner Ralph Horowitz, despite community protest.

The possibilities and challenges for suburban or urban permaculture vary with the built environment around the world. For example, land is used more ecologically in Jaisalmer, India than in  American planned cities such as Los Angeles:

Marine systems

Permaculture derives its origin from agriculture, although the same principles, especially its foundational ethics, can also be applied to mariculture, particularly seaweed farming. In Marine Permaculture,  artificial upwelling of cold, deep ocean water is induced. When an attachment substrate is provided in association with such an upwelling, and kelp sporophytes are present, a kelp forest ecosystem can be established (since kelp needs the cool temperatures and abundant dissolved macronutrients present in such an environment). Microalgae proliferate as well. Marine forest habitat is beneficial for many fish species, and the kelp is a renewable resource for food, animal feed, medicines and various other commercial products. It is also a powerful tool for carbon fixation.

The upwelling can be powered by renewable energy on location. Vertical mixing has been reduced due to ocean stratification effects associated with climate change. Reduced vertical mixing and marine heatwaves have decimated seaweed ecosystems in many areas. Marine permaculture mitigates this by restoring some vertical mixing and preserves these important ecosystems. By preserving and regenerating habitat offshore on a platform, marine permaculture employs natural processes to regenerate marine life.

Grazing

Grazing is blamed for much destruction. However, when grazing is modeled after nature, it can have the opposite effect. Cell grazing is a system of grazing in which herds or flocks are regularly and systematically moved to fresh range with the intent to maximize forage quality and quantity. Sepp Holzer and Joel Salatin have shown how grazing can start ecological succession or prepare ground for planting. Allan Savory's holistic management technique has been likened to "a permaculture approach to rangeland management". One variation is conservation grazing, where the primary purpose of the animals is to benefit the environment and the animals are not necessarily used for meat, milk or fiber. Sheep can replace lawn mowers. Goats and sheep can eat invasive plants.

Natural building

Natural building involves using a range of building systems and materials that apply permaculture principles. The focus is on durability and the use of minimally processed, plentiful, or renewable resources, as well as those that, while recycled or salvaged, produce healthy living environments and maintain indoor air quality. For example, cement, a common building material, emits carbon dioxide and is harmful to the environment while natural building works with the environment, using materials that are biodegradable, such as cob, adobe, rammed earth (unburnt clay), and straw bale (which insulates as well as modern synthetic materials).

Issues

Intellectual property

Trademark and copyright disputes surround the word permaculture. Mollison's books claimed on the copyright page, "The contents of this book and the word PERMACULTURE are copyright." Eventually Mollison acknowledged that he was mistaken and that no copyright protection existed.

In 2000, Mollison's U.S.-based Permaculture Institute sought a service mark for the word permaculture when used in educational services such as conducting classes, seminars, or workshops. The service mark would have allowed Mollison and his two institutes to set enforceable guidelines regarding how permaculture could be taught and who could teach it, particularly with relation to the PDC, despite the fact that he had been certifying teachers since 1993. This attempt failed and was abandoned in 2001. Mollison's application for trademarks in Australia for the terms "Permaculture Design Course" and "Permaculture Design" was withdrawn in 2003. In 2009 he sought a trademark for "Permaculture: A Designers' Manual" and "Introduction to Permaculture", the names of two of his books. These applications were withdrawn in 2011. Australia has never authorized a trademark for the word permaculture.

Methodology

Permaculture has been criticised as being poorly defined and unscientific. Critics have pushed for less reliance on anecdote and extrapolation from ecological first principles, in favor of peer-reviewed research to substantiate productivity claims and to clarify methodology. Peter Harper from the Centre for Alternative Technology suggests that most of what passes for permaculture has no relevance to real problems. Harper notes that British organic farmers are "embarrassed or openly derisive" of permaculture, while the permaculture expert Robert Kourik found the supposed advantages of "less- or no-work gardening, bountiful yields, and the soft fuzzy glow of knowing that the garden will ... live on without you" were often illusory. Harper found "many permacultures" are based on ideas ranging from practical farming techniques to "bullshit ... no more than charming cultural graces."

Defenders respond that permaculture is not yet a mainstream scientific tradition and lacks the resources of mainstream industrial agriculture. Rafter Ferguson and Sarah Lovell point out that permaculturalists rarely engage with mainstream research in agroecology, agroforestry, or ecological engineering, and claim that mainstream science has an elitist or pro-corporate bias. Julius Krebs and Sonja Bach argue in Sustainability that there is "scientific evidence for all twelve [of Holmgren's] principles".

In 2017, Ferguson and Lovell presented sociological and demographic data from 36 American farms that described themselves as practising permaculture. The farms were well diversified, with a median effective number of enterprises per farm of 3.6 (out of a maximum of 6 in the analysis method used). The farms used a variety of business strategies: they clustered into small mixed farms, integrated producers of perennial and animal crops, mixes of production and services, livestock, and service-based businesses. Median household income ($38,750) was less than either national median household income ($51,017) or national median farm household income ($68,680).

See also

References

Sources

  – The first systematic review of the permaculture literature, from the perspective of agroecology.

 ;

 Jacke, Dave with Eric Toensmeier. Edible Forest Gardens. Volume I: Ecological Vision and Theory for Temperate-Climate Permaculture, Volume II: Ecological Design and Practice for Temperate-Climate Permaculture. Edible Forest Gardens (US) 2005

 Loofs, Mona. Permaculture, Ecology and Agriculture: An investigation into Permaculture theory and practice using two case studies in northern New South Wales Honours thesis, Human Ecology Program, Department of Geography, Australian National University 1993
 Macnamara, Looby. People and Permaculture: caring and designing for ourselves, each other and the planet. [Permanent Publications] (UK) (2012)

 Odum, H. T., Jorgensen, S.E. and Brown, M.T. 'Energy hierarchy and transformity in the universe', in Ecological Modelling, 178, pp. 17–28 (2004).
 Paull, J. "Permanent Agriculture: Precursor to Organic Farming", Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, no.83, pp. 19–21, 2006. Organic eprints.

 Shepard, Mark: Restoration Agriculture – Redesigning Agriculture in Nature's Image, Acres US, 2013,

 Woodrow, Linda. The Permaculture Home Garden. Penguin Books (Australia).
 Yeomans, P.A. Water for Every Farm: A practical irrigation plan for every Australian property, KG Murray, Sydney, NSW, Australia (1973).

External links

 Ethics and principles of permaculture (Holmgren's)
 Permaculture Commons – collection of permaculture material under free licenses
 The 15 pamphlets based on the 1981 Permaculture Design Course given by Bill Mollison (co-founder of permaculture) all in 1 PDF file
 The Permaculture Research Institute – Permaculture Forums, Courses, Information, News and Worldwide Reports
 The Worldwide Permaculture Network – Database of permaculture people and projects worldwide

Australian inventions
Environmental design
Environmental social science concepts
Horticulture
Landscape architecture
Rural community development
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable design
Sustainable food system
Sustainable gardening
Systems ecology

Permaculture