The Great Salt Lake (Shoshone: Ti'tsa-pa "Bad Water") is the largest saltwater lake in the Western Hemisphere and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world. It lies in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah and has a substantial impact upon the local climate, particularly through lake-effect snow. It is a remnant of Lake Bonneville, a prehistoric body of water that covered much of western Utah.

The area of the lake can fluctuate substantially due to its low average depth of . In the 1980s, it reached a historic high of , and the West Desert Pumping Project was established to mitigate flooding by pumping water from the lake into the nearby desert. In 2021, after years of sustained drought and increased water diversion upstream of the lake, it fell to its lowest recorded area at , falling below the previous low set in 1963..|first1=Christopher |last2=Tarnowski |first2=Bryan |date=2022-06-07 |title=As the Great Salt Lake Dries Up, Utah Faces An 'Environmental Nuclear Bomb' |language=en-US | work =The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/07/climate/salt-lake-city-climate-disaster.html |access-date=2022-08-15 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The lake's three major tributaries, the Jordan, Weber, and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the lake per year. Since the lake has no outlet besides evaporation, these minerals accumulate and give the lake high salinity (far saltier than seawater) and density. This density causes swimming in the lake to feel similar to floating.

The lake has been called "America's Dead Sea" and provides a habitat for millions of native birds, brine shrimp, shorebirds, and waterfowl, including the largest staging population of Wilson's phalarope in the world.

Origin

The Great Salt Lake is a remnant of a much larger prehistoric lake called Lake Bonneville. At its greatest extent, Lake Bonneville spanned , nearly as large as present-day Lake Michigan, and roughly ten times the area of the Great Salt Lake today. Bonneville reached  at its deepest point and covered much of present-day Utah and small portions of Idaho and Nevada during the ice ages of the Pleistocene Epoch.

Lake Bonneville existed until about 16,800 years ago, when a large portion of the lake was released through the Red Rock Pass in Idaho, resulting in cataclysmic floods. With the warming climate, the remaining lake began to dry, leaving the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake, and Rush Lake behind.

History

The Shoshone, Ute, and Paiute have lived near the Great Salt Lake for thousands of years. At the time of Salt Lake City's founding, the valley was within the territory of the Northwestern Shoshone; however, occupation was seasonal, near streams emptying from canyons into the Salt Lake Valley. One of the local Shoshone tribes, the Western Goshute tribe, referred to the lake as Pi'a-pa, meaning "big water", or Ti'tsa-pa, meaning "bad water".

There are several maps dating back to 1575 that show the Great Salt Lake at the correct latitude and longitude, within an accuracy of a few degrees. One example is a map by Nicolas Sanson dated 1650. The Great Salt Lake entered written history through the records of Silvestre Vélez de Escalante, who learned of its existence from the Timpanogos Utes in 1776. No European name was given to it at the time, and it was not shown on the map by Bernardo Miera y Pacheco, the cartographer for the expedition. Escalante had been on the shores of Utah Lake, which he named Laguna Timpanogos. It was the larger of the two lakes that appeared on Miera's map. Other cartographers followed his lead and charted Lake Timpanogos as the largest (or larger) lake in the region. As people became aware of the Great Salt Lake, they interpreted the maps to think that "Timpanogos" referred to the Great Salt Lake. On some maps, the two names were used synonymously. In time, "Timpanogos" was dropped from the maps and its original association with Utah Lake was forgotten.

In 1824, it was observed, apparently independently, by Jim Bridger and Etienne Provost. Shortly thereafter, other trappers saw it and walked around it. Most of the trappers, however, were illiterate and did not record their discoveries. As oral reports of their findings made their way to those who did make records, some errors were made. In 1843, John C. Fremont led the first scientific expedition to the lake, but with winter coming on, he did not take the time to survey the entire lake. That happened in 1850 under the leadership of Howard Stansbury (Stansbury discovered and named the Stansbury mountain range and Stansbury island). John Fremont's overly glowing reports of the area were published shortly after his expedition. Stansbury also published a formal report of his survey work which became very popular. His report of the area included a discussion of Mormon religious practices based on Stansbury's interaction with the Mormon community in Great Salt Lake City, which had been established three years earlier in 1847.

Beginning in November 1895, artist and author Alfred Lambourne spent 4 months living on the remote Gunnison Island, where he wrote a book of musing and poetry, Our Inland Sea. From November 1895 to March 1896, he was alone. In March, a few guano sifters arrived to harvest and sell the guano of the nesting birds as fertilizer. Lambourne included musings about these guano sifters in his work. Lambourne left the island early in the winter of 1896 along with the first group of guano sifters.

1930s Fresh Water Project
In the early 1930s, there was a project to dam off a third of the lake with dikes on the east side north of Salt Lake City to make a freshwater reservoir for drinking and irrigation. The project was abandoned before it got beyond the planning stage.

Causeway
The causeway across the lake was built in the 1950s by the Morrison-Knudsen construction company for the Southern Pacific Railroad as a replacement to a previously built wooden trestle, which was the major component of the Lucin Cutoff. The route is now owned and operated by Union Pacific. About 15 trains cross the  causeway each day. Prior to December 2, 2016, the causeway constrained the flow of water between northern and southern arms, which has a significant impact on various industries surrounding the lake. The construction of a  bridge created an opening of the causeway for water to flow between the arms of the lake.

Willard Bay Reservoir

Willard Bay, also known as Willard Bay Reservoir or Arthur V. Watkins Reservoir is a freshwater reservoir completed in 1964, which separated, drained, and subsequently filled with fresh water from the Weber River a portion of the Great Salt Lake's northeastern arm.

West Desert Pumping Project
Record high water levels in the 1980s caused a large amount of property damage for owners on the eastern side of the Great Salt Lake, and the water started to erode the base of Interstate 80. In response, the State of Utah built the West Desert Pumping Project on the western side of the lake. It began operation on April 10, 1987. This project consists of a pumping station () at Hogup Ridge, containing three pumps with a combined capacity of moving , an inlet canal, and an outlet canal. Also, there are  of dikes and a  access road between the town of Lakeside and the pumping station.

This pumping project was designed to increase the surface area of the Great Salt Lake and thus increase the rate of water evaporation. The pumps drove some of the water of the Great Salt Lake into the 320,000-acre (1300-square kilometer) Newfoundland Evaporation Basin in the desert west of the lake. A weir in the dike at the southern end of the Newfoundland Mountains regulated the level of water in the basin and it sometimes returned salty water from the evaporation basin into the main body of the Great Salt Lake.

At the end of their first year of operation, the pumps had removed about  of water from the Great Salt Lake. The project was shut down in June 1989, as the level of the lake had dropped by nearly  since reaching its peak levels during June 1986 and March 1987. The Utah Division of Water Resources credits the project with "over one-third of that decline". In total, the pumps removed  of water while they operated.

Although the pumps are no longer in use, they have been kept in place in case the level of the Great Salt Lake ever rises that high again.

Shrinking
Drought conditions, climate change, and the overuse of snowmelt have caused the Great Salt Lake to shrink considerably. As of July 2022 the Great Salt Lake occupies some 950 square miles. In 1987, it occupied some 3300 square miles. As of March 2023, the lake's highest recorded surface elevation was 4,211.2 feet on April 15, 1987; the lowest recorded surface elevation was 4,188.5 feet on December 17, 2022. In 2023, scientists at Brigham Young University estimated that without policy changes, the lake would dry up in 2028, with local species killed off by overly salty water somewhat before that.

Geography

The Great Salt Lake lends its name to Salt Lake City, originally named "Great Salt Lake City" by the president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), Brigham Young, who led a group of Mormon pioneers to the Salt Lake Valley southeast of the lake on July 24, 1847.

The lake lies in parts of five counties: Box Elder, Davis, Tooele, Weber, and Salt Lake. Salt Lake City and its suburbs are located to the south-east and east of the lake, between the lake and the Wasatch Mountains, but land around the north and west shores is almost uninhabited. The Bonneville Salt Flats are to the west, and the Oquirrh and Stansbury Mountains rise to the south.

The Great Salt Lake is fed by three major rivers and several minor streams. The three major rivers are each fed directly or indirectly from the Uinta Mountain range in northeastern Utah. The Bear River starts on the north slope of the Uintas and flows north past Bear Lake, into which some of Bear River's waters have been diverted via a man-made canal into the lake, but later empty back into the river by means of the Bear Lake Outlet. The river then turns south in southern Idaho and eventually flows into the northeast arm of the Great Salt Lake. The Weber River also starts on the north slope of the Uinta Mountains and flows into the east edge of the lake. The Jordan River does not receive its water directly from the Uintas; rather, it flows from freshwater Utah Lake, which itself is fed primarily by the Provo River. The Provo River does originate in the Uintas, a few miles from the Weber and Bear. The Jordan flows from the north part of Utah Lake into the south-east corner of the Great Salt Lake.

Due to the lake's shallowness, the water level can fall and rise dramatically during dry years or high-precipitation years, thereby reflecting prolonged drought or wet periods. The change in the level of lake level is strongly modulated by the Pacific Ocean through atmospheric circulations that fluctuate at low frequency. By capturing these climate oscillations while using tree-ring reconstruction of lake level, scientists can predict the lake level fluctuation onward for 5–8 years. The Utah Climate Center provides prediction of the Great Salt Lake's annual lake level. This forecast uses central tropical Pacific Ocean temperature, watershed precipitation, tree-ring data of 750+ years, and the lake level itself.

A railroad line – the Lucin Cutoff – runs across the lake, crossing the southern end of Promontory Peninsula. The mostly solid causeway supporting the railway divides the lake into three portions: the north-east arm, north-west arm, and southern. The causeway obstructed the normal mixing of the waters of the lake, because there were only three  breaches. Because no rivers, except a few minor streams, flow directly into the north-west arm, Gunnison Bay, it is substantially saltier than the rest of the lake. This saltier environment promotes different types of algae from those growing in the southern part of the lake, leading to a marked color difference on the two sides of the causeway. On December 1, 2016, the opening of a new  bridge allowed water to flow from the southern arm of the lake into the north-west arm. At the time of opening of the causeway, the north-west arm was nearly  lower than the southern arm. By April 2017, the levels of both arms of the lake had risen due to spring runoff, and the north-western arm was within  of the southern arm.

Islands
Categorically stating the number of islands is difficult, as the method used to determine what is an island is not necessarily the same in each source. Since the water level of the lake can vary greatly between years, what may be considered an island in a high water year may be considered a peninsula in another, or an island in a low water year may be covered during another year. According to the U.S. Department of the Interior and the U.S. Geological Survey, "there are eight named islands in the lake that have never been totally submerged during historic time. All have been connected to the mainland by exposed shoals during periods of low water." In addition to these eight islands, the lake also contains a number of rocks, reefs, or shoals that become fully or partially submerged at high water levels.

The Utah Geological Survey, on the other hand, states "the lake contains 11 recognized islands, although this number varies depending on the level of the lake. Seven islands are in the southern portion of the lake and four in the northwestern portion."

The size and whether they are counted as islands during any particular year depends mostly on the level of the lake. From largest to smallest, they are Antelope Island, Stansbury Island, Fremont Island, Carrington Island, Dolphin Island, Cub Island, and Badger Island, and various named rocks, reefs, or shoals such as Strongs Knob, Gunnison Island, Goose, Browns, Hat (Bird), Egg Island, Black Rock, and White Rock. Dolphin Island, Cub Island, and Strongs Knob are in the northwestern arm. The rest are in the southern portion of the Great Salt Lake.

Black Rock, Antelope Island, White Rock, Egg Island, Fremont Island, and the Promontory mountain range are each extensions of the Oquirrh Mountain Range, which dips beneath the lake at its southeastern shore. Stansbury, Carrington, and Hat Islands are extensions of the Stansbury mountain range, and Strongs Knob is an extension of the Lakeside Mountains which run along the lake's western shore. The lake is deepest in the area between these island chains, measured by Howard Stansbury in 1850 at about  deep, and an average depth of 13 feet (four meters). When the water levels are low, Antelope Island becomes connected to the shore as a peninsula, as do Goose Islands, Browns Island, and some of the other islands. Stansbury Island and Strongs Knob remain peninsulas unless the water level rises well-above the average.

Lake-effect precipitation

Due to the warm waters of the Great Salt Lake, lake-effect snowfalls are frequent phenomena in the surrounding area. Cold north, north-west, or west winds generally blow across the lake following the passage of a cold front, and the temperature difference between the warm lake and the cool air can form clouds that lead to precipitation downwind of the lake. It is typically heaviest in Tooele County to the east, and north into central Davis County, and can deposit excessive snowfall amounts, generally within a narrow band which is highly-dependent on the direction the wind is blowing.

The lake-effect snowfalls are more likely to occur in late fall, early winter and spring, due to the higher temperature differences between the lake and the air above it. During summer, the temperature differences can cause thunderstorms to form over the lake and drift eastward along the northern Wasatch Front. Some rainstorms may also be partially attributed to the lake effect in fall and spring. It is estimated that approximately six to eight lake effect snowstorms occur in a year, and that 10% of the average precipitation of Salt Lake City can be attributed to the lake effect.

Hydrology

Because of its high salt concentration, the lake water is unusually dense, and most people can float more easily than in other bodies of water, particularly in Gunnison Bay, the saltier north arm of the lake.

Water levels have been recorded since 1875, averaging about  above sea level. Since the Great Salt Lake is a shallow lake with gently sloping shores around all edges except on the south side, small variations in the water level greatly affect the extent of the shoreline. The water level can rise dramatically in wet years and fall during dry years. The water level is also affected by the amount of water flow diverted for agricultural and urban uses. The Jordan and Weber rivers, in particular, are diverted for other uses. In the 1880s, Grove Karl Gilbert predicted that the lake – then in the middle of many years of recession – would virtually disappear except for a small remnant between the islands.

A 2014 study used tree rings collected in the watershed of the Great Salt Lake to create a 576-year record of lake level reconstruction. The lake level change is strongly modulated by Pacific Ocean-coupled ocean/atmospheric oscillations at low frequency and therefore reflects the decadal-scale wet/dry cycles that characterize the region. By capturing these climate oscillations as well as utilizing the tree-ring reconstruction of lake level change, researchers were able to predict the lake level fluctuation onward for as long as 5–8 years.

The Great Salt Lake differs in elevation between the south and north parts. The causeway for the Lucin Cutoff divides the lake into two parts. The water-surface elevation of the south part of the lake is usually  higher than that of the north part because most of the inflow to the lake occurs from the south.

Salinity
Most of the salts dissolved in the lake and deposited in the desert flats around it reflect the concentration of solutes by evaporation; Lake Bonneville itself was fresh enough to support populations of fish. More salt is added yearly via rivers and streams, though the amount is much less than the relict salt from Bonneville.

The salinity of the lake's main basin, Gilbert Bay, is highly variable and depends on the lake's level; it ranges from 5 to 27% (50 to 270 parts per thousand). For comparison, the average salinity of the world ocean is 3.5% (35 parts per thousand) and 33.7% in the Dead Sea. The ionic composition is similar to seawater, much more so than the Dead Sea's water; compared to the ocean, the Great Salt Lake's waters are slightly enriched in potassium and depleted in calcium. Dissolved ions do not necessarily increase or decrease in step with changes of total dissolved solids. For example, in October 1903, dissolved solids tallied 27.72% and by February 1910 they were down to 17.68%, with chlorine, sodium and sulfate levels substantially lower, but over the same time calcium, magnesium and potassium increased, with the increase of magnesium especially pronounced.

Ecosystem

The high salinity in parts of the lake makes them uninhabitable for all but a few species, including brine shrimp, brine flies, and several forms of algae. The brine flies have an estimated population of over one hundred billion and serve as the main source of food for many of the birds which migrate to the lake. However, the fresh- and salt-water wetlands along the eastern and northern edges of the Great Salt Lake provide critical habitat for millions of migratory shorebirds and waterfowl in western North America. These marshes account for approximately 75% of the wetlands in Utah. Some of the birds that depend on these marshes include: Wilson's phalarope, red-necked phalarope, American avocet, black-necked stilt, marbled godwit, snowy plover, western sandpiper, long-billed dowitcher, tundra swan, American white pelican, white-faced ibis, California gull, eared grebe, peregrine falcon, bald eagle, plus large populations of various ducks and geese.

There are twenty-seven private duck clubs, seven state waterfowl management areas, and a large federal bird refuge on the Great Salt Lake's shores. Wetland/wildlife management areas include the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge; Gillmor Sanctuary; Great Salt Lake Shore lands Preserve; Salt Creek, Public Shooting Grounds, Harold Crane, Locomotive Springs, Ogden Bay, Timpie Springs, and Farmington Bay Waterfowl Management Areas.

Several islands in the lake provide critical nesting areas for various birds. Access to Hat, Gunnison, and Cub islands is strictly limited by the State of Utah in an effort to protect nesting colonies of American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos). The islands within the Great Salt Lake also provide habitat for lizard and mammalian wildlife and a variety of plant species. Some species may have been extirpated from the islands. For example, a number of explorers who visited the area in the mid-1800s (e.g. Emmanuel Domenech, Howard Stansbury, Jules Rémy) noted an abundance of yellow-flowered "onions" on several of the islands, which they identified as Calochortus luteus. This species today occurs only in California; however, at that time the name C. luteus was applied to plants that later were named C. nuttallii A yellow-flowered Calochortus was first named as a variety of C. nuttallii but was later separated into a new species, C. aureus. This species occurs in Utah today, though apparently no longer on the islands of the Great Salt Lake.

Because of the Great Salt Lake's high salinity, it has few fish, but they do occur in Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay when spring runoff brings fresh water into the lake. A few aquatic animals live in the lake's main basin, including centimeter-long brine shrimp (Artemia franciscana). Their tiny, hard-walled eggs or cysts (diameter about 200 micrometers) are harvested in quantity during the fall and early winter. They are fed to prawns in Asia, sold as novelty "Sea-Monkeys," sold either live or dehydrated in pet stores as a fish food, and used in testing of toxins, drugs, and other chemicals. There are also two species of brine fly, as well as protozoa, rotifers, bacteria and algae.

Salinity differences between the sections of the lake separated by the railroad causeway result in significantly different biota. A phytoplankton community dominated by green algae or cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) tint the water south of the causeway a greenish color. North of the causeway, the lake is dominated by Dunaliella salina, a species of algae which releases beta-carotene, and the bacteria-like haloarchaea, which together give the water an unusual reddish or purplish color. The dense, high-salinity water of the North Arm flows back through the causeway into the Southern portion of the lake, creating a deep brine layer there.

Although brine shrimp can be found in the arm of the lake north of the causeway, studies conducted by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources indicate that these are likely transient. Populations of brine shrimp are mostly restricted to the lake's south arm.

In the two bays that receive most of the lake's freshwater inflows, Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay, the diversity of organisms is much higher. Salinities in these bays can approach that of fresh water when the spring snow melt occurs, and this allows a variety of bacteria, algae and invertebrates to proliferate in the nutrient-rich water. The abundance of invertebrates such as gnat larvae (chironomids) and back swimmers (Trichocorixa) are fed upon extensively by the huge shorebird and waterfowl populations that utilize the lake. Fish in these bays are fed upon by diving terns and pelicans.

Pink Floyd the flamingo
A solitary Chilean flamingo, named Pink Floyd after the English rock band, wintered at the Great Salt Lake. He escaped from Salt Lake City's Tracy Aviary in 1987 and lived in the wild, eating brine shrimp and socializing with gulls and swans. A group of Utah residents suggested petitioning the state to release more flamingos in an effort to keep Floyd company and as a possible tourist attraction. Pink Floyd was last seen in Idaho, in the area of Camas National Wildlife Refuge in 2005.

Elevated mercury levels

During a survey in the mid-1990s, U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service researchers discovered a high level of methylmercury in the Great Salt Lake with 25 nanograms per liter of water. For comparison, a fish consumption advisory was issued at the Florida Everglades after water there was found to contain 1 nanogram per liter. The extremely high methylmercury concentrations have been only in the lake's anoxic deep brine layer (monimolimnion) below a depth of , but concentrations are also moderately high up in the water column where there is oxygen to support brine shrimp and brine flies.

The toxic metal shows up throughout the lake's food chain, from brine shrimp to eared grebes and cinnamon teal.

The finding of high mercury levels prompted further studies, and a health advisory warning hunters not to eat common goldeneye or northern shoveler, two species of duck found in the lake. It has been stated that this does not pose a risk to other recreational users of the lake.

After later studies were conducted with a larger number of birds, the advisories were revised and another was added for cinnamon teal. Seven other species of duck were studied and found to have levels of mercury below EPA guidelines, thus being determined safe to eat.

A study in 2010 suggested that the main source of the mercury is from atmospheric deposition from worldwide industry, rather than local sources. As water levels rise and fall, mercury accumulation does as well. About 16% of the mercury is from rivers, and 84% is from the atmosphere as an inorganic form, which is converted into more toxic methyl mercury by bacteria which thrive in the more saline water of the North arm affected by the causeway.  A 2020 study found high concentrations of mercury in the lake's sediments, a consequence from smelting and mining activities in the surrounding mountains. The mercury and other metals can contaminate the overlying water, and in turn, move into brine shrimp and other organisms.

Commerce

Great Salt Lake contributes an estimated $1.3 billion annually to Utah's economy, including $1.1 billion from industry (primarily mineral extraction), $136 million from recreation, and $57 million from the harvest of brine shrimp.

Solar evaporation ponds at the edges of the lake produce salts and brine (water with high salt quantity). Minerals extracted from the lake include: sodium chloride (common salt), used in water softeners, salt lick blocks for livestock, and to melt ice on local roadways (food-grade salt is not produced from the lake, as it would require costly processing to ensure its purity); potassium sulfate, used as a commercial fertilizer; and magnesium-chloride brine, used in the production of magnesium metal, chlorine gas, and as a dust suppressant. US Magnesium operates a plant on the southwest shore of the lake, which produces 14% of the worldwide supply of magnesium, more than any other North American magnesium operation. Mineral-extraction companies operating on the lake pay royalties on their products to the State of Utah, which owns the lake.

Brine shrimp
The harvest of brine shrimp cysts during fall and early winter has developed into a significant local industry, with the lake providing 35% to 45% of the worldwide supply of brine shrimp, and cysts selling for as high as . Brine shrimp were first harvested during the 1950s and sold as commercial fish food. In the 1970s, the focus changed to their eggs, known as cysts, which were sold primarily outside the US as food for shrimp, prawns, and some fish. Today, these are mostly sold in East Asia and South America. The amount of cysts and the quality are affected by several factors, but salinity is most important. The cysts will hatch at 2 to 3% salinity, but the greatest productivity is at salinities above about 10%. If the salinity drops near 5% to 6%, the cysts will lose buoyancy and sink, making them more difficult to harvest.

The causeway across the lake was built in the 1950s as a replacement to a wooden trestle. Prior to December 2, 2016, the causeway constrained the flow of water between northern and southern arms, which has a significant impact on various industries surrounding the lake. The construction of a  bridge created an opening of the causeway for water to flow between the arms of the lake.

The northern arm of the lake has a much higher salinity, to the point that the native brine shrimp cannot survive in its waters. In the southern portion of the lake, where the vast majority of the fresh water inlets are found, the salt level can dip below what is necessary for the brine shrimp to survive. With the opening of the bridge, the salinity of the northern arm of the lake will likely drop as less saline water from the southern arm of the lake flows into the northern arm. The brine shrimp harvesting industry could benefit from the freer flow of water. There were concerns from the brine shrimp harvesting industry that the conditions in the southern arm of the lake were becoming too saline for the brine shrimp, following several years of lower precipitation in the lake's watershed. The precipitation in the watershed was above normal for the water year beginning on October 1, 2016. The additional water allowed the levels of both arms of the lake to rise, creating better conditions for a healthy brine shrimp population.

Oil and minerals
Great Salt Lake Minerals Company (a subsidiary of Compass Minerals) extracts minerals from the northern bay. The company potentially benefited from the higher salinity of the north-west arm of the lake but had difficulty accessing water from the lake because of lower water level. Prior to the opening of the causeway, the intake channels had to be extended to reach the water.

Morton Salt, Cargill Salt, Broken Arrow Salt and the Renco Group's U.S. Magnesium each extract minerals from the southern bay and could benefit from a more natural mixture of water between the two sides of the lake.

The lake's north arm contains deposits of oil, but it is of poor quality and it is not economically feasible to extract and purify it. As of 1993, approximately  of crude oil had been produced from shallow wells along the shore. The oil field at Rozel Point produced an estimated  of oil from 30 to 50 wells, but has been inactive since the mid-1980s. Oil seeps in the area had been known since the late 19th century, and attempts at production began in 1904. Industrial debris from this field remained in place near Spiral Jetty until a cleanup effort by the Division of Oil, Gas and Mining and the Division of Forestry, Fire, and State Lands was completed in December 2005.

Recreation
The lake is one of Utah's largest tourist attractions. Antelope Island State Park is a popular tourist destination that offers panoramic views of the lake, hiking and biking trails, wildlife viewing and access to beaches.

The State of Utah operates a marina on the south shore of the lake at Great Salt Lake State Park and another in Antelope Island State Park. With its sudden storms and expansive spread, the lake is a great test of sailing
skills. Single mast, simple sloops are the most popular boats. Sudden storms and lack of experience on the part of boaters are the two most dangerous elements in boating and sailing on the Great Salt Lake.

Dramatically fluctuating lake levels have inhibited the creation and success of tourist-related developments. There is also a problem with pollution from industrial and urban effluent, as well as a natural "lake stink" caused by the decay of insects and other wildlife, particularly when the shallow water is disturbed.

Saltair

Three resorts have operated under the name Saltair on the southern shore of the lake since 1893. Rising and lowering water levels have affected each iteration.

The first Saltair pavilion was destroyed by fire on April 22, 1925. A new pavilion was built and the resort was expanded at the same location by new investors, but after being closed for several years, it was destroyed by arson in 1970. The second Saltair included a fun house and a dancing venue.

The current Saltair serves as a concert venue. The new resort was completed in 1981, approximately a mile (1600 m) west of the original.

Garfield Beach Resort

The Garfield Beach Resort was established by Captain Thomas Douris in 1881 and was originally called Garfield Landing. The resort was located near Black Rock outside of the town of Corinne, and patrons traveled to it via the steamboat General Garfield. After the expansion of the resort, the General Garfield was replaced by two steamers, the Susie Riter and the Whirlwind. The iconic General Garfield was moored to the dock as a landmark. The main attraction of the resort was a massive pavilion 400 feet from shore. It covered  and included  of covered deck. The success of Garfield Beach eventually overtook the neighboring Black Rock resort.In 1887, the resort was purchased by the Utah and Nevada railroad. They improved the site by adding an array of bathhouses, a restaurant, and other amenities, including a bowling alley. The resort was the Salt Lake's first to have an electric generator, which powered its many concerts, and parties held atop the pavilion tower. Garfield Beach was the most popular Salt Lake resort until Saltair was built in 1893. The resort was put out of service by a fire in 1904.

Arts and culture

 Spiral Jetty The northwest arm of the lake, near Rozel Point, is the location for Robert Smithson's work of land art, Spiral Jetty (1970), which is only visible when the level of Great Salt Lake drops below  above sea level.
 Oolitic sand The lake and its shores contain oolitic sand, small, rounded, or spherical grains of sand that are made up of a nucleus (generally a small mineral grain) and concentric layers of calcium carbonate and look similar to very small pearls.
 Whales in the Great Salt Lake Local legend maintains that in 1875, entrepreneur James Wickham had two whales released into the Great Salt Lake, with the intent of using them as a tourist attraction. The whales are said to have disappeared into the lake and been subsequently sighted multiple times over a number of months, but there have never been any confirmed sightings of the whales since the time of their supposed release. Scientists believe they could not have survived due to the high salinity of the lake.
 Lake monster In mid-1877, J. H. McNeil was with many other Barnes and Co. Salt Works employees on the lake's north shore in the evening. They claimed to have seen a large monster with a body like a crocodile and a horse's head in the lake. They claimed this monster attacked the men, who quickly ran away and hid until morning. This creature is regarded by some to have simply been a buffalo in the lake. Thirty years prior, "Brother Bainbridge" claimed to have sighted a creature that looked like a dolphin in the lake near Antelope Island. This monster is called by some the North Shore Monster.

See also

 List of lakes by area
 Mono Lake
 Neopluvial
 Pyramid Lake
 Salar de Uyuni

References

Works cited

Endorheic lakes of Utah
Lakes of Box Elder County, Utah
Lakes of Davis County, Utah
Lakes of Salt Lake County, Utah
Lakes of the Great Basin
Lakes of Tooele County, Utah
Lakes of Utah
Lakes of Weber County, Utah
Saline lakes of the United States

Great Salt Lake


The Harrier Jump Jet, usually called the Harrier, is a British-designed military aeroplane. It was designed during the 1960s. The Harrier is well known as it can take off vertically.  It can do this by changing the direction of thrust from its engines. It is sometimes called V/STOL, which means "Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing". It can carry heavier loads with a short takeoff than with a vertical one.

Development
In 1967, the Bristol Engine Company proposed the radical idea of a directed thrust engine. Next, Hawker Aircraft designed an aeroplane that could meet the NATO specification for a "light tactical support fighter". There was no financial support for the development from HM Treasury, but support was found from NATO.

A prototype flew in 1960. Various changes were made and several preliminary versions flew including the "Kestrel" and the first Harriers flew for the RAF and Royal Navy in 1969. The planes were built in both Britain and the United States. They were redeveloped and manufactured by British Aerospace and Macdonald Douglas, companies which are now owned by BAE Systems and Boeing, respectively. At present the Boeing/BAE Systems AV-8B Harrier II is used by NATO countries such as the United States, Spain and Italy. A modified version, the BAE Systems/Boeing Harrier II is used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy.

Between 1969 and 2003, 824 Harrier variants were delivered. Manufacture of new Harriers ended in 1997. The last remanufactured aircraft (Harrier II Plus configuration) was delivered in December 2003. This ended the Harrier production line.

Users
The Harrier is used by many military forces. The United States Marine Corps and the Royal Air Force (RAF) use versions which are specially designed for taking off and landing on aircraft carriers. Other countries which use the Harrier include Thailand and India.

In 2006, the RAF introduced a new version of the Harrier, the GR/9.  This is an updated version of the previous version, the GR/7.  It has a top speed of 574 knots.

The Harrier was used a lot during the Falklands War. Harriers flew a total of 1,561 sorties, shot down 20 enemy planes (+ 3 probables) with 10 Harriers lost. Of the ten lost, six were shot down; the others were damaged in accidents on the carrier. The Sea Harriers made the Argentine Air Force much less effective than they hoped to be.

Equipment
The Harrier can carry different equipment for each mission.  It can carry missiles and bombs.  It can also carry cameras to take pictures of the ground.

References

Royal Air Force aircraft

Harrier Jump Jet


Fausto Brizzi (born 15 November 1968, in Rome) is an Italian screenwriter, producer and film director.

Biography
Fausto Brizzi got a Degree in directing at the "Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia" in July 1994. After several theatrical experience and some rewarded shorts, from 1994 he dedicated in writing television and film plots.

He wrote for numerous TV fictions (among others: Il mio amico Babbo Natale (My friend Santa Claus), with Lino Banfi and Gerry Scotti, Valeria medico legale with Claudia Koll, Non ho l'età, with Marco Columbro, Sei forte maestro, with Emilio Solfrizzi, Onora il padre with Leo Gullotta; Lui e lei with Vittoria Belvedere, Benedetti dal Signore, with Ezio Greggio and Enzo Iacchetti, Due imbroglioni e mezzo (Two cheaters and a half), with Claudio Bisio and Sabrina Ferilli.

He also wrote a dozen of films with great success (among others:Bodyguards, Merry Christmas, Natale sul Nilo, Natale in India, Christmas in love, Natale a Miami, Natale a New York e Natale in crociera, all directed by Neri Parenti).

Notte prima degli esami (The Night Before The Exams), his debut as director, was rewarded at about fifty Italian and international film festivals. Among the prizes the most important David di Donatello, the Ciak d'oro, the Telegatto, the Sky Award and the award of public at the Festival of Annecy. The film was the Italian phenomenon of 2006, collecting more than 15 million Euro and creating a series of side initiatives including a successful novel, an academic journal, a Disney cartoon (written by Brizzi with Riccardo Secchi), a musical directed by Saverio Marconi and a "new-quel", a transposition in modern times titled Notte prima degli esami – Oggi (The Night Before the Exams: Today, film that has exceeded the success of the first (among the record established that the Italian film with the largest collection in the first day of programming, about one million euros). A novel of great success was taken from this film. In January 2008 he won his second Telegatto as "Best Film of the Year".

In the summer of 2008 a remake of "The Night Before The Exams" was published with Michel Blanc in the role of Professor Martineau (in the Italian version "Martinelli", that was interpreted by Giorgio Faletti).

In December 2008, during the Professional Film Days in Sorrento, he has been awarded the "Golden Ticket" (the 9th consecutive) for the screenplay of Natale in crociera (The Christmas Cruise).

In 2008 he wrote the film Amici miei 400 directed by Neri Parenti, Oggi sposi directed by Luca Lucini and a new work to Marco Martani, The thriller La notte di Peter Pan (The night of Peter Pan).

His third project as director, the ensemble comedy Many Kisses Later, dedicated to the finished love, was released on 6 February 2009. Among the cast: Silvio Orlando, Claudia Gerini, Claudio Bisio, Flavio Insinna, Cristiana Capotondi, Gianmarco Tognazzi, Elena Sofia Ricci, Fabio De Luigi, Nancy Brilli, Alessandro Gassman, Claudia Gerini, Cécile Cassel, Malik Zidi, Vincenzo Salemme and Giorgia Wurth.

In November 2017, he has been accused of sexual harassment.
The charges were dropped in January 2019.

Director
 Notte prima degli esami (2006)
 Notte prima degli esami – Oggi (2007)
 Many Kisses Later (2009)
 Men vs. Women (2010)
 Women vs. Men (2011)
 Love Is in the Air (2012)
 Pazze di me (2013)
 Indovina chi viene a Natale? (2013)
 Forever Young (2016)
 Poveri ma ricchi (2016)
 Poveri ma ricchissimi (2017)
 Modalità aereo (2019)
 Se mi vuoi bene (2019)
 La mia banda suona il pop (2020)
 Bla Bla Baby (2022)
 Da grandi (2023)

Screenwriter
 Lui e lei (1998)
 Tutti gli uomini sono uguali (1998)
 Lezione di guai (1999)
 Baldini e Simoni (1999)
 Tifosi (1999)
 Sei forte, Maestro (2000)
 Valeria medico legale	(2000)
 Bodyguards - Guardie del corpo (2000)
 Non ho l'età	(2001)
 Merry Christmas (2001)
 Onora il padre (2001)
 Benedetti dal Signore	(2002)
 Non ho l'età 2 (2002)
 Natale sul Nilo (2002)
 Natale in India (2003)
 O la va, o la spacca (2004)
 Christmas in Love (2004)
 The Clan (2005)
 Natale a Miami (2005)
 Il mio amico Babbo Natale (2005)
 Natale a New York (2006)
 Notte prima degli esami (2006)
 Il mio amico Babbo Natale 2 (2006)
 Notte prima degli esami – Oggi (2007)
 Due imbroglioni e... mezzo! (2007)
 Concrete Romance (2007)
 Natale in crociera	(2007)
 This Night Is Still Ours (2008)
 Many Kisses Later (2009)
 La valle delle ombre (2009)
 Oggi sposi (2009)
 Agata e Ulisse (2010)
 Men vs. Women (2010)
 Love Is in the Air (2012)
 Indovina chi viene a Natale? (2013)
 Forever Young (2016)

Videoclip
 Vuoto a perdere of Noemi

References

External links

Italian male actors
1968 births
Living people
Italian film directors
David di Donatello winners

Fausto Brizzi


Robert Johnson (1911–1938) was an American blues singer and guitarist.

Robert Johnson may also refer to:

Arts
Robert Johnson (artist) (1770–1796), English artist, pupil of Thomas Bewick
Robert Barbour Johnson (1907–1987), artist and writer of weird fiction
Robert Flynn Johnson, curator emeritus at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
Bob Johnson (actor) (1920–1993), voice actor noted for Mission: Impossible mission messages
Bob J, Robert Kwame Johnson (died 2010), Ghanaian cinematographer
Robert Johnson (born 1948), British comic entertainer known under the stage name Bob Carolgees

Musicians
Robert Johnson (Scottish composer) (c. 1470–after 1554), Scottish renaissance composer and priest
Robert Johnson (English composer) (c. 1583–1633), English lutenist and composer
Robert Sherlaw Johnson (1932–2000), British composer, pianist and music scholar
Robert A. Johnson (musician) (born 1950s), Memphis-based guitarist
Robert Johnson (drummer), former drummer for KC and the Sunshine Band
Robert White Johnson (born 1950s), Nashville songwriter

Business
Bob Johnson (butcher) (Robert Alan Johnson, 1940–2001), English businessman
Robert E. Johnson (editor) (1922–1996), publisher and editor of JET magazine
Robert L. Johnson (born 1946), American media entrepreneur, founder of Black Entertainment Television (BET)
Robert M. Johnson (born 1945), publisher of Newsday
Robert Wood Johnson I (1845–1910), founded Johnson & Johnson
Robert Wood Johnson II (1893–1968), 3rd president of Johnson & Johnson
Robert Wood Johnson III (1920–1970), 3rd generation president of Johnson & Johnson
Woody Johnson (Robert Wood Johnson IV, born 1947), American businessman

Military
Robert Johnson (Tennessee) (1834–1869), Civil War colonel; the son and private secretary of US president Andrew Johnson
Robert S. Johnson (1920–1998), American World War II flying ace
Robert Lee Johnson (spy) (1922–1972), American spy for the Soviet Union
Robert Gibbon Johnson (1771–1850), New Jersey colonel, farmer, historian and politician

Politics and law

U.S.
Robert Johnson (governor) (1682–1735), governor of South Carolina
Robert Johnson (Louisiana politician) (born 1975), Louisiana House of Representatives
Robert Johnson III (born 1958), Mississippi House of Representatives
Robert A. Johnson (South Dakota politician) (1921–2014), South Dakota State Senate
Robert Davis Johnson (1883–1961), U.S. congressman from Missouri
Robert E. Johnson (New York politician) (1909–1995), New York State Senate
Robert E. Johnson (Colorado politician), state legislator
Robert George Johnson (1925–1969), Minnesota state senator
Robert H. Johnson (1916–2011), Wyoming state senator; see University of Wyoming College of Law
Robert I. Johnson (born 1928), Wisconsin State Assembly
Robert M. Johnson (politician), Florida House of Representatives
Robert T. Johnson (politician) (born 1945), Missouri House of Representatives
Robert Underwood Johnson (1853–1937), U.S. writer and diplomat
Robert W. Johnson (Minnesota politician) (1924–2013), Minnesota House of Representatives
Robert Ward Johnson (1814–1879), U.S. representative, U.S. senator, and Confederate States senator from Arkansas
Robert T. Johnson (lawyer) (born 1948), justice of the New York State Supreme Court
Robert Johnson (Judge) Circuit court judge for Douglas County, Oregon.

Elsewhere
Robert Johnson (English politician) (c. 1537–1622), English politician who sat in the House of Commons, 1597–1614
Robert Johnson (died 1730), Irish MP for Trim and Athboy
Robert Johnson (died 1721), Irish MP for Athboy and Harristown
Robert Johnson (1745–1833), Irish MP for Hillsborough and Philipstown
Robert Johnson (Australian politician) (1812–1866), New South Wales politician
Robert Milton Johnson (1879–1943), Progressive party member of the Canadian House of Commons

Religion
Robert Johnson (martyr) (died 1582), Catholic priest
Robert Johnson (Archdeacon of Leicester) (1540–1625), Puritan rector
Robert Johnson (bishop) (died 1767), Anglican bishop of Cloyne, 1759–1767
Robert Carroll Johnson Jr. (1938–2014), bishop of North Carolina in The Episcopal Church
Robert Hodges Johnson (fl 1989), bishop of Western North Carolina in The Episcopal Church
Robert J. Johnson (priest) (died 1916), American Roman Catholic priest

Science and academia
Robert Johnson (economist) (born 1950s), American economist
Robert Johnson (historian), professor at the University of Toronto
Robert A. Johnson (psychotherapist) (1921–2018), American author and Jungian analyst
Robert David Johnson (born 1967), known as KC Johnson, professor of history
Robert E. Johnson (scientist), American mathematician, engineer and physicist
Robert Erwin Johnson (1923–2008), University of Alabama professor, historian of the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard
Robert Livingston Johnson (1894–1966), Temple University president and former vice president of Time Inc.
Robert Royce Johnson (1928–2016), engineer, computer pioneer, and professor; inventor of the Johnson counter
Robert Walter Johnson (1899–1971), American physician

Sports
Robert Johnson (handballer) (born 1951), Canadian handball player who competed at the 1976 Summer Olympics
Robert Johnson (tight end) (born 1980), American football player (NFL tight end)
Robert Johnson (safety) (born 1987), American football player (NFL safety for the Tennessee Titans)
Robert Johnson (wide receiver) (born 1982), American football player
Robert Johnson (runner), 1981 USA marathon champion
Robert Johnson (basketball) (born 1995), American basketball player

Others
Sir Robert Johnson (civil servant) (1874–1938), British civil servant, Deputy Master of the Royal Mint, 1922–1938
Robert Johnson (prison officer) (born 1953), American air force veteran and former prison guard
Robert Crawford Johnson (1882–1937), English inventor of the Cube teapot
Robert R. Johnson (1928–2010), co-owner of the racehorse Timoleon

Other uses
"Robert Johnson", a song by Alexis Korner from The Party Album

See also

First name variations
Bert Johnson (disambiguation)
Bob Johnson (disambiguation)
Bobby Johnson (born 1951), college football coach
Rob Johnson (disambiguation)
Robb Johnson (born 1955), British musician

Surname variations
Robert Johnston (disambiguation)

Other
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation
Robert Wood Johnson Medical School
Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital
The Robert Johnson Songbook, a 1998 album by the Peter Green Splinter Group

Robert Johnson (disambiguation)


William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie, 4th Lord of Ruthven (c. 1541May 1584) was a Scottish peer known for devising the Raid of Ruthven.

Life and career
William Ruthven was born in 1541 in Ruthven Castle, in Perthshire, Scotland, the son of Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven and Janet Douglas.  On 23 August 1581, he was named Earl of Gowrie by James VI of Scotland.

He and his father had both been involved in the murder of David Rizzio in 1566; and both took an active part on the side of the Kirk in the constant intrigues and factions among the Scottish nobility of the period. William had been the custodian of Mary, Queen of Scots, during her imprisonment in Loch Leven Castle, where, according to the queen, he had pestered her with amorous attentions.

Ruthven wrote a friendly letter to his "great aunt" Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox in June 1571 during the Marian Civil War. He asked about the health of her son Charles Stuart, 1st Earl of Lennox and hoped for peaceful times in which she could visit Scotland. He said the young James VI was growing tall.

In 1582 Ruthven devised and undertook the Raid of Ruthven, a successful plot to seize the 15-year-old King James during a visit to his castle near Perth, now known as Huntingtower Castle. James was held captive from 23 August until finally escaping on 27 June.

Ruthven remained at the head of the government for several months during the detention. Ruthven continued to plot against the king, and was the last-known custodian of the silver casket that contained the Casket Letters; letters said to have been written by Mary, Queen of Scots, implicating her in the murder of her husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley.

Ruthven was arrested at his house in Dundee by Colonel William Stewart. Stewart surrounded the house with 100 soldiers from 3 o'clock in the morning to 3' o'clock in the afternoon before Ruthven surrendered, when the town of Dundee was ordered received an order from James VI to take arms against him. Ruthven was shipped to Leith and brought to Holyrood Palace. He was taken to Kinneil House and then to Stirling Castle. His trial was held in Mar's Wark or "Lady Mar's house" at Stirling. The judges included John Graham, Lord Hallyards The charges, recorded by Roger Aston, included "witchcraft in conferring with sorcerers".

He was beheaded at Stirling on 3 May 1584 because of his leading involvement in the Raid of Ruthven and all of his honours were forfeited.

Following his execution, his lands were divided among the king's favourites, but the honours were restored to his son James in 1586.

His widow, Dorothea Stewart came to the opening of Parliament on 22 August 1584 and kneeled on the Royal Mile crying to the king for grace for her children. James Stewart, Earl of Arran pushed her away, and she fainted and was left on the street.

A letter produced in the posthumous trial of Robert Logan of Restalrig in 1609 referred to William Ruthven as Greysteil, a character in a popular poem of his time noted for his strength and sinister powers, enthralled to a powerful woman.

Marriage and children
William Ruthven was married to Dorothea Stewart, the oldest daughter of Henry Stewart, 1st Lord Methven and Janet Stewart, daughter of John Stewart, 2nd Earl of Atholl.

Scots Peerage lists 14 children of William and Dorothea, ten daughters and four sons:
 James Ruthven, 2nd Earl of Gowrie (died 1588)
 John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie (c. 15775 August 1600)
 Alexander Ruthven (12 January 15805 August 1600)
 William Ruthven, died in France prior to 1622
 Patrick Ruthven, imprisoned for 19 years in the Tower of London. Father of Mary Ruthven, who married the painter Anthony van Dyck.
 Mary Ruthven, married to John Stewart, 5th Earl of Atholl, and then after his death married John Stewart, 1st Earl of Atholl (1566–1603)
 Margaret Ruthven, married to John Graham, 4th Earl of Montrose, mother of James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose
 Sophia Ruthven (died May 1592), first wife of Ludovic Stewart, 2nd Duke of Lennox
 Jean Ruthven, mother of James Ogilvy, 1st Earl of Airlie
 Elizabeth "Isabel" Ruthven, who married Robert Gordon of Lochinvar, and was mother of John Gordon, 1st Viscount of Kenmure
 Beatrix Ruthven, lady in waiting to Anne of Denmark, wife of John Home of Cowdenknowes
 Lilias, about whom little is known, the English ambassador wrote she was "dead also with sorrow" after her father's execution in May 1584.
 Dorothea, who married John Wemyss of Pittencrieff
 Barbara Ruthven, lady in waiting to Anne of Denmark

Another source, Paterson's History of the Counties of Ayr and Wigton lists another daughter named Elizabeth, explicitly called "Elizabeth (Not Isabel)":

 Elizabeth Ruthven (died 1617), second wife of Sir Hugh Campbell of Loudon (died 1622).

There were plans in 1591 for Dorothea Stewart, Countess of Gowrie to marry William Keith of Delny but James VI forbade it.

John and Alexander Ruthven were killed on 5 August 1600 as the main characters in The Gowrie Conspiracy, a failed attempt to kidnap or murder James VI.

References

Sources

External links

1540s births
1584 deaths
16th-century Scottish people
William
Executed Scottish people
People executed for treason against Scotland
16th-century executions by Scotland
Treasurers of Scotland
People executed by the Kingdom of Scotland by decapitation
Scottish politicians convicted of crimes
William
Raid of Ruthven

William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie


Tami Lane (born June 16, 1974) is an American prosthetic makeup artist who won the Academy Award for Best Makeup for the 2005 film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe.  She received an additional Academy Award nomination for the 2012 film The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey.

Life and career
Lane is a native of Peoria, Illinois, graduated from Woodruff High School, and graduated from Bradley University in 1996 with a Bachelor of Arts with a major in Art and emphasis in Graphic Design.

As a college student, she had the opportunity to visit makeup effects company KNB EFX Group in Los Angeles; after graduation she worked for KNB EFX with part-owner Howard Berger for four years before heading out on her own in 2000.  She also worked on The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, The Green Mile, and Superman Returns.

In 2004, she was the lead prosthetic artist for The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, leading a team of 42 makeup and prosthetic experts.  For this movie, she and Howard Berger won the 2005 Academy Award for Best Makeup.  In 2013, she, Peter Swords King, and Rick Findlater, were nominated for another Academy Award for Makeup, for The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey.

She appeared on the first episode of the NBC show Identity with the identity of "Academy Award winner", but the contestant incorrectly identified Eve Plumb as the winner. Lane's identity was not revealed until the end of the show.

References

External links

Behind the Scenes in Hollywood — short interview with Tami Lane by Dara Nai, August 31, 2008
 (Windows Media Video format)

American make-up artists
Best Makeup Academy Award winners
Bradley University alumni
Living people
Artists from Peoria, Illinois
American LGBT artists
1974 births

Tami Lane


Lopp Lagoon is a tidal lake on Cape Prince of Wales (the westernmost tip of the Seward Peninsula) in the U.S. state of Alaska. Many creeks empty into it, but the most water comes from the Mint River. Some salt water from the Pacific Ocean also enters the lagoon through several channels between it and the Bering Strait.

It was named in 1900 for William Thomas "W.T." Lopp, the civilian leader of the 1897–8 Overland Expedition.

Historically, Lopp Lagoon has been an important source of food (salmon and waterfowl) for people living in the Wales, Alaska area.

References
 USGS (no permanent link available)
 Smith, Kathleen Lopp, Ed. Ice Window: Letters from a Bering Strait Village, 1892-1902. Juneau, Alaska: University of Alaska Press, 2002.
 Northwest Arctic Subarea Contingency Plan from the Alaska Regional Response Team  (PDF file)

Lakes of the United States
Geography of Alaska
Lagoons

Lopp Lagoon


George LaVance "Vance" "Dutch" Maree (December 20, 1909 – November 20, 1976) was an American football and basketball player for the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets of the Georgia Institute of Technology.

Early years
Vance Maree was born on December 20, 1909 in Savannah, Georgia to Andrew Morgan Maree and Frances Ann Johstoneaux.

Georgia Tech

Football
He was a prominent tackle on William Alexander's football teams. Maree is a member of the Georgia Tech Athletics Hall of Fame.

1928
Maree was a member of the 1928 team which was national champion. Maree blocked the punt in the 1929 Rose Bowl which led to an 8 to 7 Tech victory over Cal after Roy Riegels ran 65 yards in the wrong direction.

1930
One writer in 1930 said Vance Maree and Frank Speer had the reputation as "the toughest pair of tackles in the south." Maree was selected All-Southern.  He was selected as a third-team All-American by the International News Service in 1930.

References

External links

1909 births
1976 deaths
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football players
Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets men's basketball players
American football tackles
Basketball players from Savannah, Georgia
All-Southern college football players
Players of American football from Savannah, Georgia
American men's basketball players

Vance Maree


Ralph Kerwineo (April 1876 - 1932) was an American who became notable after a 1914 incident in which Mamie White, the woman who had lived as Kerwineo's wife for over ten years, revealed to the local police Kerwineo's "true sex" (female). It was supposedly in retaliation to a legal marriage of Kerwineo and twenty-one-year-old Dorothy Kleinowski, and resulted in a police arrest and trial for disorderly conduct. The Milwaukee press followed the case with keen interest, however this local coverage did not pathologize Kerwineo, but preferred to describe a story of an upstanding citizen who donned male dress to support female partners. All charges were ultimately dropped.

Life
Kerwineo was born (as Cora Anderson) in April 1876 in Kendallville, Indiana. The Andersons were the only people of color living in a small town of 2164 people, with Kerwineo's father being African American, and mother, Frances Anderson, being at least part Native American according to some reports (according to Mamie White, Potawatomie-Cherokee).

By 1900, Kerwineo (then twenty-four and still living as Cora Anderson) had moved to Chicago. Living in a boardinghouse on the city's South Side, Kerwineo met an African American woman Mamie White, and they were living together as a pair in 1904. Around 1906, they decided to move out of Chicago and begin a new life together in Milwaukee, living like husband and wife (with Kerwineo as the husband).

In Milwaukee, Kerwineo consistently presented as being South American (often Bolivian) of Spanish ancestry. It appears claiming an identity as an immigrant was deliberate and enabled Kerwineo to use racial ambiguity to blend into Milwaukee racial makeup consisting of a very small black population, but with a large portion of immigrants who were considered "not quite white" but were better positioned socioeconomically than the city's African Americans. This can be traced in censuses - the 1880 and 1900 federal censuses marked Kerwineo (as Cora Anderson) as black, the 1910 federal census marks "Ralph Kerwinies" (reportedly born in Spain) as white. Kerwineo was able to rent a home in the city's tenth ward — a neighborhood populated by mostly native whites — and work as a clerk for the Cutler-Hammer company, at a time when the majority of the city's black men worked as domestic servants.

The 1914 trial
Five months prior to Kerwineo's arrest, Wisconsin's "Eugenic Marriage Law" had gone into effect, requiring all males to undergo a medical examination for venereal diseases prior to obtaining a marriage license, and Kerwineo passed the examination to legally marry twenty-one-year-old Dorothy Kleinowski, daughter of Polish immigrants, on March 24, 1914. In May 1914, Mamie White, who had lived as Kerwineo's wife for over ten years, revealed to the local police Kerwineo's "true sex". It was supposedly in retaliation to the marriage with Kleinowski, and resulted in a police arrest and trial for disorderly conduct.

The Milwaukee press followed the case with keen interest, publishing interviews with Kerwineo, White, Kleinowski, former employers, neighbors, and coworkers. They initially focused on establishing Kerwineo's "true" identity, involving "true sex", nationality and racial identity. As the arrest happened during the Mexican Revolution and American occupation of Vera Cruz, White and Kerwineo were both quick to disavow Kerwineo's previous claims to a South American identity and even later attempted to retain their distance from blackness by focusing on the Native American heritage.

The Milwaukee Journal,  Sentinel and Evening Wisconsin each accepted White's explanation that with racism and sexism finding a job for a woman of color was hard, and it justified Kerwineo's decision to dress as a man to find gainful employment. Moreover, the local press did not pathologize Kerwineo, but followed this explanation and continued to write about an upstanding citizen happening to don the male dress. The Journal, Sentinel, and Evening Wisconsin each published extensive testimony from Kerwineo and individuals speaking on Kerwineo's behalf. The Sentinel described Kerwineo's testimony: "Answering questions put to her quietly and with the dignity of a refined, well-bred woman, the girl-man told the judge why she donned male attire. She said it was for the purpose of leading a clean life and to better herself financially." The newspaper quoted Kerwineo's view on their own gender and identity: "I had really become a man and imagined that the woman in me had perished with my years of change. . . . We will pass over that part of my life where I became infatuated with another woman and married her. But in that raising let me state that I had come to love this woman as only a man can. Please remember now that I was harsh and hardened, that I took my adopted sex's view of life utterly and without question. My woman's soul had died and the man's had taken its place."

Milwaukee police captain Sullivan told the Milwaukee Journal: "No woman ever came into my office who could use better English, or was apparently more refined than 'Mrs. Kerwineo,' and from my investigation, I believe that they are stating the truth when they say the only reason they set out upon this adventure was an economical one. They are not morally perverted in any way. I am convinced." Having satisfied dominant expectations for leading a "good life," Judge G. E. Page suspended the sentence and allowed Kerwineo to leave free of charge.

When the charges were ultimately dropped, the Evening Wisconsin stated that Judge Page was convinced that Kerwineo "adopted the disguise for moral and financial reasons and led an exemplary life while posing as a man, had never made overtures to others to do wrong and had innocently induced Miss Klienowski into a mock marriage."

In the national lens, Kerwineo was not portrayed as a productive citizen, but rather as a social outcast. Reporters of national newspapers preferred to report told Kerwineo's story not in relation to the Milwaukee community and its reactions, but in relation to national debates, such as the one brewing over eugenics.

In academia
Kerwineo's story has been a subject of analysis in modern academia, particularly via a gender theory and queer theory lens. Before that, many scholars have followed Jonathan Katz's lead in characterizing Kerwineo as a "passing woman," as Katz did in his landmark 1976 text Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A. The anthropologist and trans studies scholar Jason Cromwell, who categorizes historical women who lived as men into three categories ("(1) those who did so for a short-term gain or adventure; (2) those who did so for love; and (3) those who identified as men."), lists Kerwineo under category 2, based on the explanations found in the period Milwaukee press.

Kerwineo has been a subject of Emily Skidmore's paper "Ralph Kerwineo's Queer Body: Narrating The Scales of Social Membership in the Early Twentieth Century", published in GLQ in 2014, and was one of the historical figures analyzed in her book, True Sex: The Lives of Trans Men at the Turn of the Twentieth Century.

References

1876 births
1932 deaths
Transgender men
American transgender people
People from Kendallville, Indiana
People from Chicago
People from Milwaukee
LGBT people from Indiana
African-American LGBT people
19th-century American LGBT people
20th-century American LGBT people

Ralph Kerwineo