Arnold Schoenberg or Schönberg (,  ; ; 13 September 187413 July 1951) was an Austrian-American composer, music theorist, teacher, writer, and painter. He is widely considered one of the most influential composers of the 20th century. He was associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, and leader of the Second Viennese School. As a Jewish composer, Schoenberg was targeted by the Nazi Party, which labeled his works as degenerate music and forbade them from being published. He emigrated to the United States in 1933, becoming an American citizen in 1941.

Schoenberg's approach, both in terms of harmony and development, has shaped much of 20th-century musical thought. Many composers from at least three generations have consciously extended his thinking, whereas others have passionately reacted against it.

Schoenberg was known early in his career for simultaneously extending the traditionally opposed German Romantic styles of Brahms and Wagner. Later, his name would come to personify innovations in atonality (although Schoenberg himself detested that term) that would become the most polemical feature of 20th-century classical music. In the 1920s, Schoenberg developed the twelve-tone technique, an influential compositional method of manipulating an ordered series of all twelve notes in the chromatic scale. He also coined the term developing variation and was the first modern composer to embrace ways of developing motifs without resorting to the dominance of a centralized melodic idea.

Schoenberg was also an influential teacher of composition; his students included Alban Berg, Anton Webern, Hanns Eisler, Egon Wellesz, Nikos Skalkottas and later John Cage, Lou Harrison, Earl Kim, Robert Gerhard, Leon Kirchner, Dika Newlin, Oscar Levant, and other prominent musicians. Many of Schoenberg's practices, including the formalization of compositional method and his habit of openly inviting audiences to think analytically, are echoed in avant-garde musical thought throughout the 20th century. His often polemical views of music history and aesthetics were crucial to many significant 20th-century musicologists and critics, including Theodor W. Adorno, Charles Rosen, and Carl Dahlhaus, as well as the pianists Artur Schnabel, Rudolf Serkin, Eduard Steuermann, and Glenn Gould. The avant-garde Korean video artist Nam June Paik, at the University of Tokyo, wrote a thesis on Schoenberg.

Schoenberg's archival legacy is collected at the Arnold Schönberg Center in Vienna.

Biography

Early life

Arnold Schoenberg was born into a lower middle-class Jewish family in the Leopoldstadt district (in earlier times a Jewish ghetto) of Vienna, at Obere Donaustraße 5. His father Samuel, a native of Szécsény, Hungary, later moved to Pozsony (Pressburg, at that time part of the Kingdom of Hungary, now Bratislava, Slovakia) and then to Vienna, was a shoe-shopkeeper, and his mother Pauline Schoenberg (née Nachod), a native of Prague, was a piano teacher. Arnold was largely self-taught. He took only counterpoint lessons with the composer Alexander Zemlinsky, who was to become his first brother-in-law.

In his twenties, Schoenberg earned a living by orchestrating operettas, while composing his own works, such as the string sextet Verklärte Nacht ("Transfigured Night") (1899). He later made an orchestral version of this, which became one of his most popular pieces. Both Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler recognized Schoenberg's significance as a composer; Strauss when he encountered Schoenberg's Gurre-Lieder, and Mahler after hearing several of Schoenberg's early works.

Strauss turned to a more conservative idiom in his own work after 1909, and at that point dismissed Schoenberg. Mahler adopted him as a protégé and continued to support him, even after Schoenberg's style reached a point Mahler could no longer understand. Mahler worried about who would look after him after his death. Schoenberg, who had initially despised and mocked Mahler's music, was converted by the "thunderbolt" of Mahler's Third Symphony, which he considered a work of genius. Afterward he "spoke of Mahler as a saint".

In 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald (2008, 93) this was partly to strengthen his attachment to Western European cultural traditions, and partly as a means of self-defence "in a time of resurgent anti-Semitism". In 1933, after long meditation, he returned to Judaism, because he realised that "his racial and religious heritage was inescapable", and to take up an unmistakable position on the side opposing Nazism. He would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life.

1901–1914: experimenting in atonality

In October 1901, Schoenberg married Mathilde Zemlinsky, the sister of the conductor and composer Alexander von Zemlinsky, with whom Schoenberg had been studying since about 1894. Schoenberg and Mathilde had two children, Gertrud (1902–1947) and Georg (1906–1974). Gertrud would marry Schoenberg's pupil Felix Greissle in 1921.

During the summer of 1908, Schoenberg's wife Mathilde left him for several months for a young Austrian painter, Richard Gerstl (who committed suicide in that November after Mathilde returned to her marriage). This period marked a distinct change in Schoenberg's work. It was during the absence of his wife that he composed "You lean against a silver-willow" (), the thirteenth song in the cycle Das Buch der Hängenden Gärten, Op. 15, based on the collection of the same name by the German mystical poet Stefan George. This was the first composition without any reference at all to a key.

Also in this year, Schoenberg completed one of his most revolutionary compositions, the String Quartet No. 2. The first two movements, though chromatic in color, use traditional key signatures. The final two movements, again using poetry by George, incorporate a soprano vocal line, breaking with previous string-quartet practice, and daringly weaken the links with traditional tonality. Both movements end on tonic chords, and the work is not fully non-tonal.

During the summer of 1910, Schoenberg wrote his Harmonielehre (Theory of Harmony, Schoenberg 1922), which remains one of the most influential music-theory books. From about 1911, Schoenberg belonged to a circle of artists and intellectuals who included Lene Schneider-Kainer, Franz Werfel, Herwarth Walden, and Else Lasker-Schüler.

In 1910 he met Edward Clark, an English music journalist then working in Germany. Clark became his sole English student, and in his later capacity as a producer for the BBC he was responsible for introducing many of Schoenberg's works, and Schoenberg himself, to Britain (as well as Webern, Berg and others).

Another of his most important works from this atonal or pantonal period is the highly influential Pierrot lunaire, Op. 21, of 1912, a novel cycle of expressionist songs set to a German translation of poems by the Belgian-French poet Albert Giraud. Utilizing the technique of Sprechstimme, or melodramatically spoken recitation, the work pairs a female vocalist with a small ensemble of five musicians. The ensemble, which is now commonly referred to as the Pierrot ensemble, consists of flute (doubling on piccolo), clarinet (doubling on bass clarinet), violin (doubling on viola), violoncello, speaker, and piano.

Wilhelm Bopp, director of the Vienna Conservatory from 1907, wanted a break from the stale environment personified for him by Robert Fuchs and Hermann Graedener. Having considered many candidates, he offered teaching positions to Schoenberg and Franz Schreker in 1912. At the time Schoenberg lived in Berlin. He was not completely cut off from the Vienna Conservatory, having taught a private theory course a year earlier. He seriously considered the offer, but he declined. Writing afterward to Alban Berg, he cited his "aversion to Vienna" as the main reason for his decision, while contemplating that it might have been the wrong one financially, but having made it he felt content. A couple of months later he wrote to Schreker suggesting that it might have been a bad idea for him as well to accept the teaching position.

World War I

World War I brought a crisis in his development. Military service disrupted his life when at the age of 42 he was in the army. He was never able to work uninterrupted or over a period of time, and as a result he left many unfinished works and undeveloped "beginnings". On one occasion, a superior officer demanded to know if he was "this notorious Schoenberg, then"; Schoenberg replied: "Beg to report, sir, yes. Nobody wanted to be, someone had to be, so I let it be me". According to Norman, this is a reference to Schoenberg's apparent "destiny" as the "Emancipator of Dissonance".

In what Alex Ross calls an "act of war psychosis", Schoenberg drew comparisons between Germany's assault on France and his assault on decadent bourgeois artistic values. In August 1914, while denouncing the music of Bizet, Stravinsky, and Ravel, he wrote: "Now comes the reckoning! Now we will throw these mediocre kitschmongers into slavery, and teach them to venerate the German spirit and to worship the German God".

The deteriorating relation between contemporary composers and the public led him to found the Society for Private Musical Performances (Verein für musikalische Privataufführungen in German) in Vienna in 1918. He sought to provide a forum in which modern musical compositions could be carefully prepared and rehearsed, and properly performed under conditions protected from the dictates of fashion and pressures of commerce. From its inception through 1921, when it ended because of economic reasons, the Society presented 353 performances to paying members, sometimes at the rate of one per week. During the first year and a half, Schoenberg did not let any of his own works be performed. Instead, audiences at the Society's concerts heard difficult contemporary compositions by Scriabin, Debussy, Mahler, Webern, Berg, Reger, and other leading figures of early 20th-century music.

Development of the twelve-tone method

Later, Schoenberg was to develop the most influential version of the dodecaphonic (also known as twelve-tone) method of composition, which in French and English was given the alternative name serialism by René Leibowitz and Humphrey Searle in 1947. This technique was taken up by many of his students, who constituted the so-called Second Viennese School. They included Anton Webern, Alban Berg, and Hanns Eisler, all of whom were profoundly influenced by Schoenberg. He published a number of books, ranging from his famous Harmonielehre (Theory of Harmony) to Fundamentals of Musical Composition, many of which are still in print and used by musicians and developing composers.

Schoenberg viewed his development as a natural progression, and he did not deprecate his earlier works when he ventured into serialism. In 1923 he wrote to the Swiss philanthropist Werner Reinhart:

For the present, it matters more to me if people understand my older works ... They are the natural forerunners of my later works, and only those who understand and comprehend these will be able to gain an understanding of the later works that goes beyond a fashionable bare minimum. I do not attach so much importance to being a musical bogey-man as to being a natural continuer of properly-understood good old tradition!

His first wife died in October 1923, and in August of the next year Schoenberg married Gertrud Kolisch (1898–1967), sister of his pupil, the violinist Rudolf Kolisch. They had three children: Nuria Dorothea (born 1932), Ronald Rudolf (born 1937), and Lawrence Adam (born 1941). Gertrude Kolisch Schoenberg wrote the libretto for Schoenberg's one-act opera Von heute auf morgen under the pseudonym Max Blonda. At her request Schoenberg's (ultimately unfinished) piece, Die Jakobsleiter was prepared for performance by Schoenberg's student Winfried Zillig. After her husband's death in 1951 she founded Belmont Music Publishers devoted to the publication of his works. Arnold used the notes G and E (German: Es, i.e., "S") for "Gertrud Schoenberg", in the Suite, for septet, Op. 29 (1925). (see musical cryptogram).

Following the death in 1924 of composer Ferruccio Busoni, who had served as Director of a Master Class in Composition at the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin, Schoenberg was appointed to this post the next year, but because of health problems was unable to take up his post until 1926. Among his notable students during this period were the composers Robert Gerhard, Nikos Skalkottas, and Josef Rufer.

Along with his twelve-tone works, 1930 marks Schoenberg's return to tonality, with numbers 4 and 6 of the Six Pieces for Male Chorus Op. 35, the other pieces being dodecaphonic.

Third Reich and move to the United States
Schoenberg continued in his post until the Nazi regime Machtergreifung came to power in 1933. While on vacation in France, he was warned that returning to Germany would be dangerous. Schoenberg formally reclaimed membership in the Jewish religion at a Paris synagogue, then traveled with his family to the United States. This happened after his attempts to move to Britain came to nothing.

His first teaching position in the United States was at the Malkin Conservatory (Boston University). He moved to Los Angeles, where he taught at the University of Southern California and the University of California, Los Angeles, both of which later named a music building on their respective campuses Schoenberg Hall. He was appointed visiting professor at UCLA in 1935 on the recommendation of Otto Klemperer, music director and conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra; and the next year was promoted to professor at a salary of $5,100 per year, which enabled him in either May 1936 or 1937 to buy a Spanish Revival house at 116 North Rockingham in Brentwood Park, near the UCLA campus, for $18,000. This address was directly across the street from Shirley Temple's house, and there he befriended fellow composer (and tennis partner) George Gershwin. The Schoenbergs were able to employ domestic help and began holding Sunday afternoon gatherings that were known for excellent coffee and Viennese pastries. Frequent guests included Otto Klemperer (who studied composition privately with Schoenberg beginning in April 1936), Edgard Varèse, Joseph Achron, Louis Gruenberg, Ernst Toch, and, on occasion, well-known actors such as Harpo Marx and Peter Lorre. Composers Leonard Rosenman and George Tremblay and the Hollywood orchestrator Edward B. Powell studied with Schoenberg at this time.

After his move to the United States, where he arrived on 31 October 1933, the composer used the alternative spelling of his surname Schoenberg, rather than Schönberg, in what he called "deference to American practice", though according to one writer he first made the change a year earlier.

He lived there the rest of his life, but at first he was not settled. In around 1934, he applied for a position of teacher of harmony and theory at the New South Wales State Conservatorium in Sydney. The Director, Edgar Bainton, rejected him for being Jewish and for having "modernist ideas and dangerous tendencies." Schoenberg also at one time explored the idea of emigrating to New Zealand. His secretary and student (and nephew of Schoenberg's mother-in-law Henriette Kolisch), was Richard Hoffmann, Viennese-born but who lived in New Zealand in 1935–1947, and Schoenberg had since childhood been fascinated with islands, and with New Zealand in particular, possibly because of the beauty of the postage stamps issued by that country.

During this final period, he composed several notable works, including the difficult Violin Concerto, Op. 36 (1934/36), the Kol Nidre, Op. 39, for chorus and orchestra (1938), the Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte, Op. 41 (1942), the haunting Piano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942), and his memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, A Survivor from Warsaw, Op. 46 (1947). He was unable to complete his opera Moses und Aron (1932/33), which was one of the first works of its genre written completely using dodecaphonic composition. Along with twelve-tone music, Schoenberg also returned to tonality with works during his last period, like the Suite for Strings in G major (1935), the Chamber Symphony No. 2 in E minor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939), the Variations on a Recitative in D minor, Op. 40 (1941). During this period his notable students included John Cage and Lou Harrison.

In 1941, he became a citizen of the United States. Here he was the first composer in residence at the Music Academy of the West summer conservatory.

Superstition and death

Schoenberg's superstitious nature may have triggered his death. The composer had triskaidekaphobia, and according to friend Katia Mann, he feared he would die during a year that was a multiple of 13. This possibly began in 1908 with the composition of the thirteenth song of the song cycle Das Buch der Hängenden Gärten Op. 15. He dreaded his sixty-fifth birthday in 1939 so much that a friend asked the composer and astrologer Dane Rudhyar to prepare Schoenberg's horoscope. Rudhyar did this and told Schoenberg that the year was dangerous, but not fatal.

But in 1950, on his 76th birthday, an astrologer wrote Schoenberg a note warning him that the year was a critical one: 7 + 6 = 13. This stunned and depressed the composer, for up to that point he had only been wary of multiples of 13 and never considered adding the digits of his age. He died on Friday, 13 July 1951, shortly before midnight. Schoenberg had stayed in bed all day, sick, anxious, and depressed. His wife Gertrud reported in a telegram to her sister-in-law Ottilie the next day that Arnold died at 11:45 pm, 15 minutes before midnight. In a letter to Ottilie dated 4 August 1951, Gertrud explained, "About a quarter to twelve I looked at the clock and said to myself: another quarter of an hour and then the worst is over. Then the doctor called me. Arnold's throat rattled twice, his heart gave a powerful beat and that was the end".

Schoenberg's ashes were later interred at the Zentralfriedhof in Vienna on 6 June 1974.

Music

Schoenberg's significant compositions in the repertory of modern art music extend over a period of more than 50 years. Traditionally they are divided into three periods though this division is arguably arbitrary as the music in each of these periods is considerably varied. The idea that his twelve-tone period "represents a stylistically unified body of works is simply not supported by the musical evidence", and important musical characteristics—especially those related to motivic development—transcend these boundaries completely.

The first of these periods, 1894–1907, is identified in the legacy of the high-Romantic composers of the late nineteenth century, as well as with "expressionist" movements in poetry and art. The second, 1908–1922, is typified by the abandonment of key centers, a move often described (though not by Schoenberg) as "free atonality". The third, from 1923 onward, commences with Schoenberg's invention of dodecaphonic, or "twelve-tone" compositional method. Schoenberg's best-known students, Hanns Eisler, Alban Berg, and Anton Webern, followed Schoenberg faithfully through each of these intellectual and aesthetic transitions, though not without considerable experimentation and variety of approach.

First period: Late Romanticism
Beginning with songs and string quartets written around the turn of the century, Schoenberg's concerns as a composer positioned him uniquely among his peers, in that his procedures exhibited characteristics of both Brahms and Wagner, who for most contemporary listeners, were considered polar opposites, representing mutually exclusive directions in the legacy of German music. Schoenberg's Six Songs, Op. 3 (1899–1903), for example, exhibit a conservative clarity of tonal organization typical of Brahms and Mahler, reflecting an interest in balanced phrases and an undisturbed hierarchy of key relationships. However, the songs also explore unusually bold incidental chromaticism and seem to aspire to a Wagnerian "representational" approach to motivic identity.

The synthesis of these approaches reaches an apex in his Verklärte Nacht, Op. 4 (1899), a programmatic work for string sextet that develops several distinctive "leitmotif"-like themes, each one eclipsing and subordinating the last. The only motivic elements that persist throughout the work are those that are perpetually dissolved, varied, and re-combined, in a technique, identified primarily in Brahms's music, that Schoenberg called "developing variation". Schoenberg's procedures in the work are organized in two ways simultaneously; at once suggesting a Wagnerian narrative of motivic ideas, as well as a Brahmsian approach to motivic development and tonal cohesion.

Second period: Free atonality
Schoenberg's music from 1908 onward experiments in a variety of ways with the absence of traditional keys or tonal centers. His first explicitly atonal piece was the second string quartet, Op. 10, with soprano. The last movement of this piece has no key signature, marking Schoenberg's formal divorce from diatonic harmonies. Other important works of the era include his song cycle Das Buch der Hängenden Gärten, Op. 15 (1908–1909), his Five Orchestral Pieces, Op. 16 (1909), the influential Pierrot Lunaire, Op. 21 (1912), as well as his dramatic Erwartung, Op. 17 (1909).

The urgency of musical constructions lacking in tonal centers, or traditional dissonance-consonance relationships, however, can be traced as far back as his Chamber Symphony No. 1, Op. 9 (1906), a work remarkable for its tonal development of whole-tone and quartal harmony, and its initiation of dynamic and unusual ensemble relationships, involving dramatic interruption and unpredictable instrumental allegiances; many of these features would typify the timbre-oriented chamber music aesthetic of the coming century.

Third period: Twelve-tone and tonal works
In the early 1920s, he worked at evolving a means of order that would make his musical texture simpler and clearer. This resulted in the "method of composing with twelve tones which are related only with one another", in which the twelve pitches of the octave (unrealized compositionally) are regarded as equal, and no one note or tonality is given the emphasis it occupied in classical harmony. He regarded it as the equivalent in music of Albert Einstein's discoveries in physics. Schoenberg announced it characteristically, during a walk with his friend Josef Rufer, when he said, "I have made a discovery which will ensure the supremacy of German music for the next hundred years". This period included the Variations for Orchestra, Op. 31 (1928); Begleitungsmusik zu einer Lichtspielscene, Op. 34 (1930); Piano Pieces, Opp. 33a & b (1931), and the Piano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942). Contrary to his reputation for strictness, Schoenberg's use of the technique varied widely according to the demands of each individual composition. Thus the structure of his unfinished opera Moses und Aron is unlike that of his Phantasy for Violin and Piano, Op. 47 (1949).

Ten features of Schoenberg's mature twelve-tone practice are characteristic, interdependent, and interactive:
 Hexachordal inversional combinatoriality
 Aggregates
 Linear set presentation
 Partitioning
 Isomorphic partitioning
 Invariants
 Hexachordal levels
 Harmony, "consistent with and derived from the properties of the referential set"
 Metre, established through "pitch-relational characteristics"
 Multidimensional set presentations

Reception and legacy

First works
After some early difficulties, Schoenberg began to win public acceptance with works such as the tone poem Pelleas und Melisande at a Berlin performance in 1907. At the Vienna première of the Gurre-Lieder in 1913, he received an ovation that lasted a quarter of an hour and culminated with Schoenberg's being presented with a laurel crown.

Nonetheless, much of his work was not well received. His Chamber Symphony No. 1 premièred unremarkably in 1907. However, when it was played again in the Skandalkonzert on 31 March 1913, (which also included works by Berg, Webern and Zemlinsky), "one could hear the shrill sound of door keys among the violent clapping, and in the second gallery the first fight of the evening began." Later in the concert, during a performance of the Altenberg Lieder by Berg, fighting broke out after Schoenberg interrupted the performance to threaten removal by the police of any troublemakers.

Twelve-tone period
According to Ethan Haimo, understanding of Schoenberg's twelve-tone work has been difficult to achieve owing in part to the "truly revolutionary nature" of his new system, misinformation disseminated by some early writers about the system's "rules" and "exceptions" that bear "little relation to the most significant features of Schoenberg's music", the composer's secretiveness, and the widespread unavailability of his sketches and manuscripts until the late 1970s. During his life, he was "subjected to a range of criticism and abuse that is shocking even in hindsight".

Schoenberg criticized Igor Stravinsky's new neoclassical trend in the poem "Der neue Klassizismus" (in which he derogates Neoclassicism, and obliquely refers to Stravinsky as "Der kleine Modernsky"), which he used as text for the third of his Drei Satiren, Op. 28.

Schoenberg's serial technique of composition with twelve notes became one of the most central and polemical issues among American and European musicians during the mid- to late-twentieth century. Beginning in the 1940s and continuing to the present day, composers such as Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luigi Nono and Milton Babbitt have extended Schoenberg's legacy in increasingly radical directions. The major cities of the United States (e.g., Los Angeles, New York, and Boston) have had historically significant performances of Schoenberg's music, with advocates such as Babbitt in New York and the Franco-American conductor-pianist Jacques-Louis Monod. Schoenberg's students have been influential teachers at major American universities: Leonard Stein at USC, UCLA and CalArts; Richard Hoffmann at Oberlin; Patricia Carpenter at Columbia; and Leon Kirchner and Earl Kim at Harvard. Musicians associated with Schoenberg have had a profound influence upon contemporary music performance practice in the US (e.g., Louis Krasner, Eugene Lehner and Rudolf Kolisch at the New England Conservatory of Music; Eduard Steuermann and Felix Galimir at the Juilliard School). In Europe, the work of Hans Keller, , and René Leibowitz has had a measurable influence in spreading Schoenberg's musical legacy outside of Germany and Austria. His pupil and assistant Max Deutsch, who later became a professor of music, was also a conductor. who made a recording of three "master works" Schoenberg with the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, released posthumously in late 2013. This recording includes short lectures by Deutsch on each of the pieces.

Criticism
In the 1920s, Ernst Krenek criticized a certain unnamed brand of contemporary music (presumably Schoenberg and his disciples) as "the self-gratification of an individual who sits in his studio and invents rules according to which he then writes down his notes". Schoenberg took offense at this remark and answered that Krenek "wishes for only whores as listeners".

Allen Shawn has noted that, given Schoenberg's living circumstances, his work is usually defended rather than listened to, and that it is difficult to experience it apart from the ideology that surrounds it. Richard Taruskin asserted that Schoenberg committed what he terms a "poietic fallacy", the conviction that what matters most (or all that matters) in a work of art is the making of it, the maker's input, and that the listener's pleasure must not be the composer's primary objective. Taruskin also criticizes the ideas of measuring Schoenberg's value as a composer in terms of his influence on other artists, the overrating of technical innovation, and the restriction of criticism to matters of structure and craft while derogating other approaches as vulgarian.

Relationship with the general public

Writing in 1977, Christopher Small observed, "Many music lovers, even today, find difficulty with Schoenberg's music". Small wrote his short biography a quarter of a century after the composer's death. According to Nicholas Cook, writing some twenty years after Small, Schoenberg had thought that this lack of comprehension

Ben Earle (2003) found that Schoenberg, while revered by experts and taught to "generations of students" on degree courses, remained unloved by the public. Despite more than forty years of advocacy and the production of "books devoted to the explanation of this difficult repertory to non-specialist audiences", it would seem that in particular, "British attempts to popularize music of this kind  ... can now safely be said to have failed".

In his 2018 biography of Schoenberg's near contemporary and similarly pioneering composer, Debussy, Stephen Walsh takes issue with the idea that it is not possible "for a creative artist to be both radical and popular". Walsh concludes, "Schoenberg may be the first 'great' composer in modern history whose music has not entered the repertoire almost a century and a half after his birth".

Thomas Mann's novel Doctor Faustus
Adrian Leverkühn, the protagonist of Thomas Mann's novel Doctor Faustus (1947), is a composer whose use of twelve-tone technique parallels the innovations of Arnold Schoenberg. Schoenberg was unhappy about this and initiated an exchange of letters with Mann following the novel's publication.

Leverkühn, who may be based on Nietzsche, sells his soul to the Devil. Writer Sean O'Brien comments that "written in the shadow of Hitler, Doktor Faustus observes the rise of Nazism, but its relationship to political history is oblique".

Personality and extramusical interests

Schoenberg was a painter of considerable ability, whose works were considered good enough to exhibit alongside those of Franz Marc and Wassily Kandinsky. as fellow members of the expressionist group Der Blaue Reiter. From about 1908 to 1910, he would execute approximately two-thirds of a total oeuvre comprising about sixty-five oils.

He was interested in Hopalong Cassidy films, which Paul Buhle and David Wagner (2002, v–vii) attribute to the films' left-wing screenwriters—a rather odd claim in light of Schoenberg's statement that he was a "bourgeois" turned monarchist.

Textbooks
 1922. Harmonielehre, third edition. Vienna: Universal Edition. (Originally published 1911).
 1943. Models for Beginners in Composition, New York: G. Schirmer, Inc.
 1954. Structural Functions of Harmony. New York: W. W. Norton; London: Williams and Norgate. Revised edition, New York, London: W. W. Norton and Company 1969.
 1964. Preliminary Exercises in Counterpoint, edited with a foreword by Leonard Stein. New York, St. Martin's Press. Reprinted, Los Angeles: Belmont Music Publishers 2003.
 1967. Fundamentals of Musical Composition, edited by Gerald Strang, with an introduction by Leonard Stein. New York: St. Martin's Press. Reprinted 1985, London: Faber and Faber.
 1978. Theory of Harmony, English edition, translated by Roy E. Carter, based on Harmonielehre 1922. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.
 1979. Die Grundlagen der musikalischen Komposition, translated into German by Rudolf Kolisch; edited by Rudolf Stephan. Vienna: Universal Edition (German translation of Fundamentals of Musical Composition).
 2003. Preliminary Exercises in Counterpoint, Reprinted, Los Angeles: Belmont Music Publishers.
 2010. Theory of Harmony, 100th Anniversary Edition. Berkeley: California University Press. 2nd edition.
 2016. Models for Beginners in Composition, Reprinted, London: Oxford University Press.

Writings
 1947. "The Musician". In The Works of the Mind, edited by Robert B. Heywood,  Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
 1950. Style and Idea: Selected Writings of Arnold Schoenberg, edited and translated by Dika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library.
 1958. Ausgewählte Briefe, by B. Schott's Söhne, Mainz.
 1964. Arnold Schoenberg Letters, selected and edited by Erwin Stein, translated from the original German by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser. London: Faber and Faber Ltd.
 1965. Arnold Schoenberg Letters, selected and edited by Erwin Stein, translated from the original German by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser. New York: St.Martin's Press.
 1975. Style and Idea: Selected Writings of Arnold Schoenberg, edited by Leonard Stein, with translations by Leo Black. New York: St. Martins Press; London: Faber & Faber.  Expanded from the 1950 Philosophical Library (New York) publication edited by Dika Newlin (559 pages from 231). The volume carries the note "Several of the essays ... were originally written in German (translated by Dika Newlin)" in both editions.
 1984. Style and Idea: Selected Writings, translated by Leo Black. Berkeley: California University Press.
 1984. Arnold Schoenberg Wassily Kandinsky: Letters, Pictures and Documents, edited by Jelena Hahl-Koch, translated by John C. Crawford. London: Faber and Faber. ,
 1987. Arnold Schoenberg Letters, selected and edited by Erwin Stein, translated from the original German by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
 2006. The Musical Idea and the Logic, Technique, and Art of Its Presentation, new paperback English edition. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.
 2010. Style and Idea: Selected Writings, 60th anniversary (second) edition, translated by Leonard Stein and Leo Black. Berkeley: California University Press.
 2020. Kathryn Puffet and Barbara Schingnitz: Three Men of Letters. Arnold Schönberg, Alban Berg and Anton Webern, 1906–1921. Vienna: Hollitzer, 2020.

See also
 Arnold Schönberg Complete Edition
 Arnold Schönberg Prize
List of refugees

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

  (Reprint of .)

  (Reissued in The Danger of Music and Other Anti-Utopian Essays. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007, pp. 301–329. ).

Further reading

 Adams, John (July 28, 2023). "Make It New and Difficult: The Music of Arnold Schoenberg" (review of Sachs, Harvey, Schoenberg: Why He Matters)
 Adorno, Theodor. 1967. Prisms, translated from the German by Samuel and Shierry Weber London: Spearman; Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
 Anon. 1997–2013. "'Degenerate' Music". In A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust. The Florida Center for Instructional Technology, College of Education, University of South Florida (accessed 16 June 2014).
 Auner, Joseph. 1993. A Schoenberg Reader. New Haven: Yale University Press.

 Berry, Mark. 2019. Arnold Schoenberg. London: Reaktion Books.
 Boulez, Pierre. 1991. "Schoenberg is Dead" (1952). In his Stocktakings from an Apprenticeship, collected and presented by Paule Thévenin, translated by Stephen Walsh, with an introduction by Robert Piencikowski, 209–14. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press.
 Brand, Julianne, Christopher Hailey, and Donald Harris (editors). 1987. The Berg-Schoenberg Correspondence: Selected Letters. New York, London: W. W. Norton and Company.
 Buhle, Paul, and David Wagner. 2002. Radical Hollywood: The Untold Story Behind America's Favorite Movies. New York: The New Press.
 Clausen, Detlev. 2008. Theodor W. Adorno: One Last Genius, translated by Rodney Livingstone. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
 Byron, Avior. 2006. "The Test Pressings of Schoenberg Conducting Pierrot lunaire: Sprechstimme Reconsidered". Music Theory Online 12, no. 1 (February).
 Cohen, Mitchell, "A Dissonant Schoenberg in Berlin and Paris," "Jewish Review of Books," April 2016.
 da Costa Meyer, Esther. 2003. "Schoenberg's Echo: The Composer as Painter". In Schoenberg, Kandinsky, and the Blue Rider, edited by Fred Wasserman and Esther da Costa Meyer, foreword by Joan Rosenbaum, preface by Christian Meyer. London and New York: Scala.
 Everdell, William R. 1998 The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth-Century Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
 Eybl, Martin. 2004. Die Befreiung des Augenblicks: Schönbergs Skandalkonzerte von 1907 und 1908: eine Dokumentation. Wiener Veröffentlichungen zur Musikgeschichte 4. Vienna, Cologne, Weimar: Böhlau.
 Floirat, Bernard. 2001. Les Fonctions structurelles de l'harmonie d'Arnold Schoenberg. Eska, Musurgia.
 Frisch, Walter (ed.). 1999. Schoenberg and His World. Bard Music Festival Series. Princeton: Princeton University Press.  (cloth);  (pbk).
 Genette, Gérard. 1997. Immanence and Transcendence, translated by G. M. Goshgarian. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
 Gur, Golan. 2009. "Arnold Schoenberg and the Ideology of Progress in Twentieth-Century Musical Thinking". Search: Journal for New Music and Culture 5 (Summer). Online journal (Accessed 17 October 2011).
 Greissle-Schönberg, Arnold, and Nancy Bogen. [n.d.] Arnold Schönberg's European Family (e-book). The Lark Ascending, Inc. (accessed 2 May 2010)
 Hyde, Martha M. 1982. Schoenberg's Twelve-Tone Harmony: The Suite Op. 29 and the Compositional Sketches. Studies in Musicology, series edited by George Buelow. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press.
 Kallir, Jane. 1984. Arnold Schoenberg's Vienna. New York: Galerie St. Etienne and Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.
 Kandinsky, Wassily. 2000. "Arnold Schönberg als Maler/Arnold Schönberg as Painter". Journal of the Arnold Schönberg Center, no. 1:131–76.
 Mahler, Alma. 1960. Mein Leben, with a foreword by Willy Haas. Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer, My Life, My Loves: The Memoirs of Alma Mahler, St. Martin's Griffin (1958) Paperback

 Orenstein, Arbie. 1975. Ravel: Man and Musician. London: Columbia University Press.

 Petropoulos, Jonathan. 2014. Artists Under Hitler. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
 Ringer, Alexander. 1990. "Arnold Schoenberg: The Composer as Jew". Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press.
 Rollet, Philippe (ed.). 2010. Arnold Schönberg: Visions et regards, with a preface by Frédéric Chambert and Alain Mousseigne. Montreuil-sous-Bois: Liénart.
 Sachs, Harvey. 2023. Schoenberg: Why He Matters. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. .
 Schoenberg, Arnold. 1922. Harmonielehre, third edition. Vienna: Universal Edition. (Originally published 1911). Translation by Roy E. Carter, based on the third edition, as Theory of Harmony. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978. . Second edition (100th Anniversary) published in 2010. .
 Schoenberg, Arnold. 1959. Structural Functions of Harmony. Translated by Leonard Stein. London: Williams and Norgate; Revised edition, New York, London: W. W. Norton 1969.
 Shawn, Allen. 2002. Arnold Schoenberg's Journey. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
 Stegemann, Benedikt. 2013. Theory of Tonality: Theoretical Studies. Wilhelmshaven: Noetzel.
 Weiss, Adolph. 1932. "The Lyceum of Schonberg", Modern Music 9, no. 3 (March–April): 99–107.
 Wright, James K. 2007. Schoenberg, Wittgenstein, and the Vienna Circle. Bern: Verlag Peter Lang.
 Wright, James K. and Alan M. Gillmor (eds.). 2009. Schoenberg's Chamber Music, Schoenberg's World. New York: Pendragon Press.

External links

 Arnold Schoenberg Center in Vienna
 Archival records: Arnold Schoenberg collection, 1900–1951, Library of Congress
 Schönberg. Linking two continents in sound. a web-based exhibition of Arnold Schönberg curated by Österreichische Mediathek in cooperation with the Arnold Schönberg Center
 Recordings at Internet Archive
 Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) videos compiled by Randol Schoenberg on YouTube
 Arnold Schönberg and His God Exhibition, 3 May – 13 September 2002, at  Arnold Schönberg Center in Vienna.

1874 births
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20th-century American composers
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20th-century Austrian male musicians
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Arnold Schoenberg


Arthur Bonnell Schirmer Jr. was the fifty-ninth mayor of Charleston, South Carolina, completing the final four months of J. Palmer Gaillard, after Gaillard's resignation. He did not run for election for a full term.

Schirmer was born on February 24, 1933, and died on July 17, 2008; he is buried at Magnolia Cemetery.

Schirmer was sworn in on August 19, 1975. Although Schirmer served for only four months, he did not want to be thought of as a mere interim mayor, once saying, "When my accomplishments are considered, people will realize that I have been anything but an interim mayor." During his brief tenure, he directed the city to begin sharing its pools with the school district and also began planning for the sale of the municipal airport. His mayorship ended on December 15, 1975, with the inauguration of Joseph P. Riley Jr. At that time, he returned to his job running paving and landscaping companies and operating a limestone quarry.

Schirmer was raised in downtown Charleston on Bull Street, but during his time in office, he lived in West Ashley, making him one of the few mayors of Charleston to have lived there. A set of tennis courts at Bees Landing Recreation Center is named in his honor.

References

American people of German descent
Mayors of Charleston, South Carolina
1933 births
2008 deaths
20th-century American politicians

Arthur B. Schirmer Jr.


Luciopercinae is a subfamily of ray-finned fish, classified within the family Percidae. It includes the pike-perches and zingels.

Characteristics
The species within the Luciopercinae have a number of morphological characteristics in common. These are the possession weak spines in the anal fin, the lateral line extends as far as the margin of the caudal fin and there are additional lines over and under the main lateral line. They have a cleithrum which doesn't have serrations on the pectoral girdle and they have a vertebrae count of 41–50.

Distribution
They have a Holarctic distribution. The pike-perches of the genus Sander are found in Eurasia and North America and includes such commercially important species as the zander (Sander lucioperca) and the walleye (Sander vitreus). They are largely freshwater species but some can be found in brackish water.

Systematics

 Tribe Luciopercini Jordan & Evermann 1896
 Genus Sander Oken, 1817
 Tribe Romanichthyini Dumitrescu, Bănărescu & Stoica 1957
 Genus Romanichthys Dumitrescu, Bănărescu & Stoica 1957
 Genus Zingel Cloquet, 1817

References

 Richard van der Laan; William N. Eschmeyer & Ronald Fricke (2014). "Family-group names of Recent fishes". Zootaxa. 3882 (2): 001–230.
 Carol A. Stepien & Amanda Haponski (2015). "Taxonomy, Distribution, and Evolution of the Percidae". In Patrick Kestemont; Konrad Dabrowski & Robert C. Summerfelt (eds.). Biology and Culture of Percid Fishes. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 3–60. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7227-3_1. ISBN 978-94-017-7227-3.

Other websites

 Luciopercinae on English Wikipedia
 Luciopercinae on Wikispecies
 Esquemas que incluyen a Luciopercinae
 What does stizostedion mean?
Perciformes

Luciopercinae


The Government of Kerala (abbreviated as GoK), also known as the Kerala Government, is the administrative body responsible for governing Indian state of Kerala. The government is led by a chief minister, who selects all the other ministers. The chief minister and their most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, known as the cabinet.

Ministers of the Kerala government are responsible to the Kerala Legislative Assembly; they make statements in the assembly and take questions from members of the assembly. The government is dependent on Kerala Legislative Assembly to make primary legislation. Legislative assembly elections are held every five years to elect a new assembly, unless there is a successful vote of no confidence in the government or a two-thirds vote for a snap election in the assembly, in which case an election may be held sooner. After an election, the governor selects as chief minister the leader of the party most likely to command the confidence of the assembly, usually by possessing a majority of MLAs.

Under the Indian constitution, executive authority lies with the governor, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the chief minister and the cabinet. In most cases, the cabinet members exercise power directly as leaders of the government departments, though some cabinet positions are sinecures to a greater or lesser degree.

Executive branch

Kerala Council of Ministers

Like in other Indian states, the executive arm of the state is responsible for the day-to-day management of the state. It consists of the governor, the chief minister and the Council of Ministers. The chief minister and the council of ministers also have been appointed by the governor. The governor summons prorogues and dissolves the legislature. He can close the legislative assembly on the recommendation of the chief minister. Judiciary has been separated from the executive in Kerala like other Indian states.

The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the de facto head of state and is vested with most of the executive powers; the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to this position by the Governor. The present Chief Minister is Pinarayi Vijayan, who took office on 25 May 2016. Generally, the winning party decides the chief minister. In many cases, the party focuses a chief ministerial candidate during the election.

The Council of Ministers, which answers to the Legislative Assembly, has its members appointed by the Governor; the appointments receive input from the Chief Minister. They are collectively responsible to the legislative assembly of the State. Generally, the winning party and its chief minister chooses the ministers list and submit the list for the Governor's approval.

Governor

The governor is appointed by the President for a term of five years. The executive and legislative powers lie with the Chief Minister and his council of ministers, who are appointed by the governor. The governors of the states and territories of India have similar powers and functions at the state level as that of the president of India at the national level. Only Indian citizens above 35 years of age are eligible for appointment. Governors discharge all constitutional functions, such as the appointment of the chief minister, sending reports to the president about failure of constitutional machinery in a state, or with respect to issues relating to the assent to a bill passed by legislature, exercise or their own opinion.

Arif Mohammad Khan is the present governor.

The governor enjoys many different types of powers:
Executive powers related to administration, appointments, and removals
Legislative powers related to lawmaking and the state legislature
Discretionary powers to be carried out according to the discretion of the governor

Council of Ministers

Legislative branch

The legislature comprises the governor and the legislative assembly, which is the highest political organ in the state. The governor has the power to summon the assembly or to close the same. All members of the legislative assembly are directly elected, normally once in every five years by the eligible voters who are above 18 years of age. The current assembly consists of 140 elected members and one member nominated by the governor from the Anglo-Indian community. The elected members select one of its own members as its chairman who is called the speaker. The speaker is assisted by the deputy speaker who is also elected by the members. The conduct of a meeting in the house is the responsibility of the speaker.

The main function of the assembly is to pass laws and rules. Every bill passed by the house has to be finally approved by the governor before it becomes applicable.

The normal term of the legislative assembly is five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. But while a proclamation of state of emergency is in operation, the said period will be extended by Parliament by Laws for a period not exceeding one year at a time.

Administrative divisions

Kerala State has been divided into 14 districts, 27 revenue divisions, 14 district panchayats, 75 taluks, 152 CD blocks, 1453 revenue villages, 941 Gram panchayats, 6 corporations and 87 municipalities.  The business of the state government is transacted through the various secretariat departments based on the rules of business. Each department consists of secretary to the government, who is the official head of the department and such other deputy secretaries, under secretaries, junior secretaries, officers, and staffs subordinate to him/her. The Chief secretary superintending control over the whole secretariat and staff attached to the ministers.

The department is further divided into sections, each of which is under the charge of a section officer. Apart from these sections, dealing with the subjects allotted to them, there are other offices sections, assigned with specific duties. When there is more than one secretary in a department, there shall be a clear separation of work.

At present there are 44 Secretariat Departments as below:

Secretariat Departments
 Agricultural Development and Farmers Welfare Department
 Animal Husbandry Department
 Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH) Department
 Archaeology Department
 Backward Communities Development Department
 Department of Coastal Shipping and Inland Navigation
 Co-operation Department
 Department of Consumer Affairs
 Department of Cultural Affairs
 Department of Diary Development
 Department of Environment
 Department of Election
 Department of Electronics and Information Technology
 Excise Department
 Finance Department
 Fisheries and Ports Department
 Forests and Wildlife Department
 Food and Civil Supplies Department
 General Education Department
 General Administration Department
 Higher Education Department

 Home Department
 Health and Family Welfare Department
 Housing Department
 Industries and Commerce Department
 Information & Public Relations Department
 Labour and Skills Department

 Law Department
 Local Self-Government Department
 Minority Welfare Department
 Non Resident Keralites Affairs (NORKA) Department
 Planning and Economic Affairs Department
 Personnel & Administrative Reforms Department
 Parliamentary Affairs Department
 Power Department
 Public Works Department
 Registration Department
 Revenue Department
 Sainik Welfare Department
 Science & Technology Department

 Social Justice Department
 Sports & Youth Affairs Department
 Scheduled Castes Development Department
 Scheduled Tribes Development Department
 Stores Purchase Department
 Taxes Department
 Tourism Department
 Transport Department
 Vigilance Department
 Water Resources Department
 Women and Child Development Department
 Western Ghats Cell
Out of these 44 Secretariat Departments, 42 (aside from the Finance and Law Departments) are commonly referred to as Administrative Departments and are referred to as Administrative Secretariat collectively for administrative convenience and in light of the functions that are distributed among them.
The Secretaries in charge of various departments are typically All India Service officers who are members of the Indian Administrative Service and may have the rank of Additional Chief Secretary, Principal Secretary, or Secretary.

In addition to the Secretariat department, the State Government operates various field departments that function under the purview of their respective Secretariat department. These field departments form an integral part of the administrative structure, working in conjunction with the Secretariat to effectively implement government policies and initiatives at the grassroots level.

State insignias

The Kerala State Emblem is a derivative version of the royal coat of arms of the Kingdom of Travancore. The state emblem symbolises two elephants guarding the Imperial Shanku, or conch, in its imperial crest. This crest was the insignia of Lord Sree Padmanabha (a form of Lord Vishnu) - the national deity of Travancore. Shanku was considered one of the common emblems of a majority of the Kerala feudal kingdoms. The Kingdom of Cochin and Zamorin's Malabar also had conch as state emblems.  When the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore merged in 1949, for a brief period, the crest carried a wheel or chakra in the centre with Shanku on top of it. With the accession of Malabar into Travancore-Cochin, the state of Kerala was formed in 1957. During this time, the royal coat of arms of the Travancore kingdom was modified by placing the "Lion Capital of Ashoka" on top of the imperial conch. The Travancore Royal Family uses the erstwhile Royal Coat of Arms of Travancore today, whereas Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple of Trivandrum uses only the imperial conch crest as its coat of arms.

The state animal of Kerala is the elephant, and the government emblem has two elephants in it. The state bird is the great Indian hornbill (ML:മലമ്പുഴക്കി വേഴാമ്പല്).  The state flower is the golden shower (ML:കണിക്കൊന്ന), and the state tree is the coconut.  The state fish is the pearlspot or karimeen (കരിമീന്).

Elections

Elections to the state assembly are held every five years. Elections are generally held for Parliament, State assembly and regional panchayats. Due to the large numbers of eligible voters, over 21 million, elections are usually held on several dates. Like all other Indian states, the minimum age of registration of a voter is 18 years.

Politics

Kerala has a unique position in India as one of the most politicised states. It has the nation's largest politically aware population, which actively participates in state politics.

Politics in Kerala is dominated by two political fronts: the Communist Party of India (Marxist)-led Left Democratic Front (LDF) and the Indian National Congress-led United Democratic Front (UDF) since late 1970s. These two coalitions have alternated in power since 1982, although this pattern was broken in 2021. According to the 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election, the LDF has a majority in the state assembly (99/140).

The political alliance has strongly stabilised and, with rare exceptions, most of the coalition partners maintain loyalty to the alliance. As a result of this, power has alternated between these two fronts since 1979.

In terms of individual parties, the state has strong leanings towards socialism and thus Communist parties have made strong inroads in Kerala. The Malabar region, particularly Kannur and Palakkad, are considered the heartland of the Communist parties. The Kollam and Alapuzha districts, where trade unions have a strong presence, are generally inclined to Left parties, though several times the UDF has won. The CPI(M) led LDF did a clean sweep of 11–0 over UDF and NDA in Kollam district during 2016 Local body election. The largest Communist party is the CPIM and the second largest is the CPI.

The Indian National Congress, which leads the UDF coalition, has had a very strong presence in Kerala since pre-Independence days. The Congress party has great popularity in the Thrissur, Ernakulam, Kottayam, Pathanamthitta and Thiruvananthapuram regions, whereas it has a strong influence in some parts of Idukki regions.

The Bharatiya Janata Party (the Party that currently leads the Government of India) is also active in Kerala, but is not part of either coalition. It does not have any elected Parliament member, and has lost its one Legislative Assembly member in the 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election and selected members in all the Corporations, several Municipal Councils and a large number of Local Panchayats. The party enjoys popularity in the districts of Thiruvananthapuram and Kasaragod.

Other popular regional parties are:
 The Kerala Congress, which has more than four denominations after breaking away from the original party. It has strong influence among settlement populations in hilly regions. The various Kerala Congress denominations are primarily patronized by the Syrian Christian community and Nair populations, mostly in Central Travancore areas like Kottayam, Idukki and Pathanamthitta. Today, most of Kerala Congress parties are with the UDF.
 The Indian Union Muslim League is a powerful pro-Muslim community-oriented party, which was started as the Muslim League prior to Independence, yet decided to transfer their allegiance to the Indian Union after Independence, when the original Muslim League went to Pakistan. The IUML-Kerala unit is the only Muslim League group to declare its allegiance and loyalty to India and hence become a state party in post-Independence India. The party has strongholds mostly in Muslim-dominated districts like Kozhikode, Malappuram and Kasargod. They form the second largest party within the UDF.
 Socialist groups, consisting of several small fragmented parties like the NCP, SJD-S, JDS, and Congress-S, are mainly centre-left socialist parties having very limited influence in a few pocket areas. Most of the socialist groups are with the LDF, though in a few instances, some of them changed their loyalties to the UDF.
 Communist parties consist of various groups which have broken away from the CPIM. They are mostly centre-left parties, though a few are extreme-left. While a few centre-left parties like the RSP have joined with the UDF, those that broke away from the CPIM, like the CMP and JSS, led by erstwhile CPIM veterans who were expelled from CPIM, have joined with the UDF.
 The Bharath Dharma Jana Sena or BDJS is a new political party formed in 2015 led by Thushar Vellapally. The party's primary vote base is among Ezhava and Thiyya community. It is politically and ideologically aligned towards the BJP and is a part of National Democratic Alliance.

Awards and honours
Kerala was declared as the first complete digitally administered state of India on 27 February 2016. The India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International declared Kerala the least-corrupt state in India. The state topped in the country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals according to the annual report of NITI Aayog published in 2019. The Public Affairs Index-2020 released by the Public Affairs Centre, India, designated Kerala as the best governed Indian state.

References

Further reading

External links

Government of Kerala

Government of Kerala


Classified advertising is a form of advertising which is particularly common in newspapers, online and other periodicals, e.g. free ads papers or Pennysavers. Classified advertising allows private individuals (not simply companies or corporate entities) to try to sell products or services.

Classified advertising is called that because it is generally grouped within the publication under headings classifying the product or service being offered (headings such as Accounting, Automobiles, Clothing, Farm Produce, For Sale, For Rent, etc.) and is grouped entirely in a distinct section of the periodical, which makes it distinct from display advertising, which often contains graphics or other art work and which is placed near to editorial content.

Newspapers are continuing to make less and less money from classified advertising because more and more people are using the Internet now and fewer people are reading newspapers. Classified advertising at some of the larger newspaper chains has dropped 14% to 20% in 2007 while traffic to classified sites has grown 23%.

As the online classified advertising sector develops, there is an increasing emphasis toward specialization.

Key Characteristics of Classified Advertising:
 Categorization: Classified ads are organized into specific categories or sections, such as "For Sale," "Jobs," "Real Estate," and "Services." This categorization helps readers quickly locate relevant ads.
 Conciseness: Classified ads are brief and to the point. They typically consist of a headline, a concise description, contact information, and sometimes pricing details.
 Contact Information: Classified ads provide contact details, allowing interested parties to get in touch with the advertiser. This often includes phone numbers, email addresses, or links to websites.
 Geographic Targeting: In newspapers and magazines, classified ads are often grouped by region or city, making it easy for readers to find local offerings.

Evolution of Classified Advertising:

Classified advertising has evolved significantly over the years:

 Print Media: In the per-digital era, classified ads were predominantly found in print newspapers and magazines. These ads played a crucial role in connecting buyers and sellers in local and regional markets.
 Online Platforms: With the advent of the internet, classified advertising transitioned to online platforms. Websites and apps dedicated to classifieds, such as Craigslist, Gumtree, and OLX, gained popularity. These platforms expanded the reach of classified ads globally.
 Enhanced Features: Online classified platforms introduced advanced features, including the ability to include images and videos, user reviews, and location-based search options. This made online classifieds more interactive and user-friendly.
 Social Media Integration: Some classified platforms integrated with social media networks, allowing users to share their ads with a wider audience.

Benefits of Classified Advertising:

 Cost-Effective: Classified ads are often more affordable than other forms of advertising, making them accessible to individuals and small businesses.
 Targeted Audience: Advertisers can target specific audiences by choosing the appropriate category and geographic location for their ads.
 Quick Results: Classified ads can yield quick results, especially for items or services in high demand.
 User-Friendly: Online classified platforms are generally easy to use, allowing users to create and manage ads with minimal effort.

Challenges in Classified Advertising:

 Competition: The sheer volume of classified ads on online platforms can make it challenging for individual ads to stand out.
 Scams and Fraud: Online classifieds can be susceptible to scams and fraudulent listings, necessitating user caution.
 Privacy Concerns: Posting personal contact information in classified ads can raise privacy concerns for both advertisers and respondents.

Related pages
 Craigslist

References
2. How Free Classifieds Website Advertising Help to Grow Your Business

Advertising

Classified advertising


The Háttatal (Old Norse: 'Tally of Metres'; c. 20,000 words; Old Norse: , Modern Icelandic: ) is the last section of the Prose Edda composed by the Icelandic poet, politician, and historian Snorri Sturluson. Using, for the most part, his own compositions, it exemplifies the types of verse forms used in Old Norse poetry.  Snorri took a prescriptive as well as descriptive approach; he has systematized the material, and often notes that "the older poets did not always" follow his rules.

Most of the forms depend on number of syllables per line, as well as assonance, consonance, and alliteration.  Although end rhyme is represented, it does not function in the ways most modern English speakers expect (forms include AAAAAAAA, and AAAABBBB), and plays a very minor role.  Understanding this work will be much easier if the First Grammatical Treatise is also available to hand.

Many scholars have suggested that the form of Háttatal suggests a classical influence deriving from the traditions of Christian learning to which Snorri was doubtlessly exposed.  Others have argued that this is a result of using a logical approach, within the framework of a dialog, and that some aspects of the work prove that it was not directly influenced by classical writings.

References

Bibliography

External links

Snorri Sturluson's Háttatal in the original language
Háttatal, Old Norse

See also
 Alliterative verse
 Old Norse poetry
 Skald

Skaldic poems
Works by Snorri Sturluson

Háttatal


The Fergus Devils were a Junior ice hockey team based in Fergus, Ontario, Canada.  They played in the former Georgian Mid-Ontario Junior C Hockey League (now a part of the PJHL),. Took a "Leave of Absence for the 2015/16 season and have not returned.

History
The Fergus Green Machine were founded in 1971 in the South-Central Junior D Hockey League.  In 1973, the league was promoted to the Central Ontario Junior C Hockey League.  In 1974, the team seemed to have dropped off the map, but it turns out they had probably dropped to the fairly local Northern Junior D Hockey League.  In 1979-80, while in the Northern, the Green Machine picked up a 16-year-old Scottish defenseman named James Stephen Smith.  Smith led the team to a league championship, and all the way to the Ontario Hockey Association Cup final against the Belmont Bombers of the Western Ontario Junior D Hockey League.  The Bombers knocked off the Machine 2-games-to-none in a best-of-3 series to win the All-Ontario championship.  Smith went on to play three seasons of Ontario Hockey League hockey with the London Knights before eventually winning three Stanley Cups with the National Hockey League's Edmonton Oilers.

In 1983, the Green Machine returned to their old Junior "C" loop, now known as the Mid-Ontario Junior C Hockey League.  The Northern Junior D Hockey League folded two seasons later without the Fergus franchise.  In 1987 the Green Machine folded.

In 1990, the town of Fergus resurrected the team as the Fergus Devils.  Still in the Mid-Ontario Junior C Hockey League, the Devils played two seasons of interlock with the Western Junior C Hockey League.  Two years later, the Mid-Ontario merged with the Georgian Bay Junior C Hockey League to form the Georgian Mid-Ontario Junior C Hockey League.  It is unknown if the Devils won any Mid-Ontario championships.  The Devils found their niche in the new league and won the league title in 1995, 1999, 2000, and 2001.  The Devils have never reached the Clarence Schmalz Cup finals.

The 2005-06 season saw the Devils finish in second play in the Georgian Mid-Ontario.  In the league quarter-final, the Devils laid out the seventh-seeded Bradford Bulls 4 games to none.  With a head of steam, the Devils played the fourth seeded Erin Shamrocks in the semi-final.  The result was a 4-games-to-1 series win for the Devils.  In the finals, the Devils locked horns with the first seed Penetang Kings.  The Devils were no match for the Kings as Penetang swept the series 4-games-to-none to win the league championship.  The Kings went on to win the Clarence Schmalz Cup.

In 2006-07, a late season surge saw the Fergus Devils surpass the Alliston Hornets and Penetang Kings to gain the top seed in the league.  As the Bradford Bulls had left the league to try their chances on an Independent Junior A league, the Devils received a bye in the league quarter-finals.  The well rested Devils took on the fifth seeded Stayner Siskins in the league semi-final and beat them 4-games-to-1.  Again in the finals, the Devils again faced the Penetang Kings.  The Kings went up 2-games-to-none on the Devils with a pair of double overtime victories.  The Devils came back ane won game 3 and 4 just to lose game 5 and 6.  For the second straight year the Penetang Kings beat the Devils for the league title and again went on to win the Clarence Schmalz Cup.

Folded following the 2014/15 season.

Season-by-season standings

2000-2004
2004–Present

Notable alumni
James Stephen Smith
Chris Driscoll (NLL Pro lacrosse player)
Greg Jacina

References

External links
Devils' Webpage

Georgian Mid-Ontario Junior C Hockey League teams
Centre Wellington
1971 establishments in Ontario
Ice hockey clubs established in 1971

Fergus Devils


Sir Hugh John Macdonald,  (March 13, 1850 – March 29, 1929) was the only surviving son of the first prime minister of Canada, John A. Macdonald. He too was a politician, serving as a member of the House of Commons of Canada and a federal cabinet minister, and briefly as the eighth premier of Manitoba.

Early life
Macdonald was born in Kingston, Canada West (now Ontario) to Canada's first Prime Minister, John A. Macdonald and his first wife Isabella Clark Macdonald (1809–1857). After Isabella died leaving Macdonald a widower with a seven-year-old son, Hugh John Macdonald would be principally raised by his paternal aunt and her husband. In 1869, he received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Toronto and then studied law in Toronto and Ottawa. He was called to the Bar in 1872, and became a member of his father's firm. Grieved by the death of his first wife, Macdonald moved to Winnipeg in 1882 and set up his own law practice.

Military service
Macdonald served with the 14th Battalion Volunteer Militia Rifles during the summer of 1866 near Cornwall, in anticipation of a Fenian invasion. While at the University of Toronto, he enrolled in The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada on 13 October 1868 as a Rifleman and rose to the rank of Sergeant before being commissioned as an Ensign on 22 April 1870.

Macdonald then joined the expedition of Colonel Garnet Joseph Wolseley as an Ensign in the 16th Company of the 1st (Ontario) Battalion of Rifles and made the trek to the Red River settlement in Manitoba. The Wolseley Expedition was formed to put down Louis Riel's Red River Rebellion. After taking part in the bloodless capture of Upper Fort Garry (after Riel's departure) he returned to Toronto, but would take part in putting down Riel's second rebellion.

He retired from the QOR on 26 April 1882 and moved to Winnipeg. During the North-West rebellion in 1885, Macdonald served as a lieutenant in the 90th (Winnipeg) Battalion of Rifles, a unit which he helped to organize. He later fought at Fish Creek in Saskatchewan.

Marriage
In 1876, Hugh John Macdonald married Jean Murray King, a Roman Catholic. Their daughter, Isabella Mary "Daisy" Macdonald, was born in 1877. Jean King Macdonald later died in 1881 as a result of fragile health due to Daisy's birth.

In 1883, he married Gertrude Agnes VanKoughnet. She was the daughter of a close friend and political ally of his father, Salter Jehosaphat VanKoughnet (1833–1888) QC, of Toronto, a brother of Philip Michael Matthew Scott VanKoughnet. Gertrude's mother, Agnes, was a daughter of Senator Benjamin Seymour, of Port Hope, Ontario, and the sister of Emily Seymour who was married to Lt. Colonel Arthur Trefusis Heneage Williams. They had a son, John Alexander "Jack" Macdonald (1884–1905) and Daisy Macdonald (1877-1959). The Macdonalds are buried at St John's Cathedral Cemetery.

Politics

Macdonald was elected to the House of Commons in the 1891 federal election, representing Winnipeg City for the Conservative Party.  He was sworn into parliament at the side of his father, to the applause of members from both sides. After the older Macdonald died later in the year, however, Hugh John showed little enthusiasm for life in Ottawa.  Despite efforts by John Abbott and John S.D. Thompson to keep him in federal politics, he resigned his seat in 1893 and returned to Winnipeg.

In 1896, Prime Minister Charles Tupper convinced him to return to Ottawa and serve as Minister of the Interior and Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs. This occurred at a time when the Conservative Party was suffering from internal divisions, and was due to face the public in a general election. Tupper probably hoped that the Macdonald name would win back some wayward voters.

The 1896 election was won by Wilfrid Laurier's Liberals, and while Macdonald was again elected for Winnipeg City (narrowly defeating former provincial minister Joseph Martin), his election was declared void in early 1897. He once again returned to Winnipeg, and did not contest the subsequent by-election.

In March 1897, Macdonald was approached to take the leadership of Manitoba's Conservative Party.  The party had suffered severe losses to Thomas Greenway's Liberals in the elections of 1888, 1892 and 1896, and had lacked direction since the death of former Premier John Norquay in 1889.  By 1897, however, there was a recognition that the provincial situation was susceptible to change.  Greenway's second and third majorities were based almost entirely on popular support for his education reforms; with the education issue resolved in 1896, the Conservatives had a viable chance to form government. Macdonald accepted the leadership position, and (though without seat in the legislature) spent the next two years touring the province in anticipation of the next election.

Premiership

The Conservative Party of Manitoba became a legally recognized entity in 1899, and drew up its first election platform shortly thereafter.  This was a progressive document by the standards of its age, calling for an independent board of education, new agricultural and technical colleges, a Workmen's Compensation Act, prohibition, and the nationalization of railways. On a less progressive note, the party also tapped into popular resentment toward new Eastern European immigrants. Both of these factors contributed to an upset victory in the 1899 provincial election, with Conservatives taking 22 seats out of 40.  Macdonald narrowly defeated incumbent Liberal John D. Cameron in Winnipeg South, and was sworn in as Premier on January 10, 1900.  He also took the position of Municipal Commissioner.

His term in office was brief. Macdonald succeeded in passing a prohibition bill (known as the "Macdonald Act"), but was again prevailed upon to run for the federal Conservatives in the 1900 federal election. It is possible that he intended to replace Charles Tupper as national party leader.

Macdonald resigned as Premier on October 29, 1900, and challenged Minister of the Interior Clifford Sifton in the riding of Brandon. Sifton was the most powerful cabinet minister in western Canada, but the Conservatives believed that Hugh John's personal popularity would be enough to defeat him. They were mistaken. Despite a spirited challenge, Sifton won the election with 5,011 votes to Macdonald's 4,342.

Macdonald abandoned electoral politics after this loss, and returned to his law practice. He continued to be involved in the Conservative Party organization within Manitoba, serving as President of the Manitoba Conservative Association from 1905 to 1908. He was appointed Police Magistrate for Winnipeg in 1911, and was made a Knight Bachelor in June 1913. There were rumours that he would return to lead the Conservative Party in 1915, but this did not come to pass.

Macdonald was Winnipeg's Magistrate during the Winnipeg General Strike in 1919. Immigrants arrested during the strike appeared before him and he ordered them sent to an internment camp at Kapuskasing from where they were eventually deported without the right to formal hearings.

Macdonald's last home in downtown Winnipeg, called Dalnavert, is now a museum. It was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1990.

See also

Canadian peers and baronets concerning his stepmother Agnes Macdonald, 1st Baroness Macdonald of Earnscliffe

References

 Biography from the Manitoba Historical Society

External links

Premiers of Manitoba
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Manitoba
Hugh John
Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Leaders of the Manitoba Conservative Party
Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba MLAs
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Canadian Knights Bachelor
Lawyers in Ontario
Lawyers in Manitoba
Children of prime ministers of Canada
John A. Macdonald
Politicians from Kingston, Ontario
University of Toronto alumni
Canadian people of Scottish descent
1850 births
Canadian Militia officers
1929 deaths
Queen's Own Rifles of Canada soldiers
Queen's Own Rifles of Canada officers
Royal Winnipeg Rifles officers

Hugh John Macdonald


The Volcae () were a Gallic tribal confederation constituted before the raid of combined Gauls that invaded Macedonia c. 270 BC and fought the assembled Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae in 279 BC. Tribes known by the name Volcae were found simultaneously in southern Gaul, Moravia, the Ebro valley of the Iberian Peninsula, and Galatia in Anatolia. The Volcae appear to have been part of the late La Tène material culture, and a Celtic identity has been attributed to the Volcae, based on mentions in Greek and Latin sources as well as onomastic evidence. Driven by highly mobile groups operating outside the tribal system and comprising diverse elements, the Volcae were one of the new ethnic entities formed during the Celtic military expansion at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Collecting in the famous excursion into the Balkans, ostensibly, from the Greek point of view, to raid Delphi, a branch of the Volcae split from the main group on the way into the Balkans and joined two other tribes, the Tolistobogii and the Trocmi, to settle in central Anatolia and establish a new identity as the Galatians.

The Tectosagii were a group of the Volcae who moved through Macedonia into Anatolia c. 277 BC. Strabo says the Tectosagii came originally from the region near modern Toulouse, in France.

Name
They are mentioned as Volcis and Volcarum by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), as Ou̓ólkai (Οὐόλκαι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD) and Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Volce on the Tabula Peutingeriana (4–5th c. AD).

Most modern Celtologists regard the tribal name Uolcae (sing. Uolcos) as stemming from a Gaulish noun uolcos, uolca ('hawk, falcon'), which can be compared with the Welsh gwalch ('hawk, rascal' > 'fighter'). In particular, the Gaulish personal name Catu-uolcos has an exact parallel in the Welsh cadwalch ('hero, champion, warrior'), itself from an earlier Old Brittonic *katu-wealkos ('battle-hawk'). The Gaulish stem uolc- can also be found in the personal names Uolcius, Uolcenius, Uolcenia, Uolcinius, Uolcacius, Uolciani, and Uolcanus. The Old English wealc- ('hawk'), which has no known cognate in other Germanic languages, was most likely borrowed from Old Brittonic *wealkos. The etymology of those forms remains obscure. Xavier Delamarre has proposed to derive Gaulish uolcos – alongside Latin falcō ('falcon') and falx, falcis ('hook, sickle') – from a stem *ǵhwol-k-, itself based on the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *ǵʷhel- ('bend, curve'). In this view, the animal may have been named after the shape of his beak, just like the Ancient Greek harpē designates both a sickle and a bird of prey.

Alternatively, the name Uolcae has been derived by some scholars from the PIE name of the wolf, *wḷkʷos. According to Ranko Matasović, however, this is unlikely since the Gaulish form would have preserved the o-grade *wolkʷo-; he argues that descendants of Proto-Celtic *ulkʷos ('bad, evil' < PIE *wḷkʷos 'wolf') rather include Lepontic Ulkos and Old Irish olc ('bad, evil'). Delamarre finds it doubtful since *wḷkʷos would have given **flech (rather than olc) in Old Irish and **ulipos in Gaulish (after the P-Celtic sound shift). John T. Koch derives Old Irish olc from a Proto-Celtic form *elko- ~ *olko-, which may be compared with Old Norse illr (from Proto-Germanic *elhja- < Pre-Germanic *elkyo-; cf. the Finnish loanword elkiä 'mean, malicious'); he proposes that reflexes of PIE *wḷkʷos ('wolf') include Old Irish foilc (from a 9th-century poem) and Old Welsh gueilc[h] (from the poem Y Gododdin).

After Volcae Tectosages settled in the Hercynian forest (Central Europe), neighbouring Germanic tribes designated them by the name *walhaz, a loanword from Gaulish uolcos that came to refer more generally to Celtic and Romance speakers in medieval Germanic languages (e.g. Welsh, Waals, Vlachs).

Volcae of the Danube

Julius Caesar was convinced that the Volcae had originally been settled east of the Rhine, for he mentioned the Volcae Tectosages as a Gaulish tribe which still remained in western Germany in his day (Gallic War 6.24):

Caesar related a tradition associating the Celtic tribe of the Volcae to the vast Hercynian Forest, although they were possibly located in the eastern range of the České Středohoří; yet, Volcae of his time were settled in Moravia, east of the Boii.  Their apparent movement may indicate that the Volcae were newcomers to the region.  Caesar's remark  about the wealth of this region may have referred not only to agriculture but also to the mineral deposits there, while the renown attributed to the Volcae "in peace and in war" resulted from their metallurgical skills and the quality of their weapons, both attracting the attention of their northern neighbors.  Together with the Boii in the upper basin of the Elbe river to the west and the Cotini in Slovakia to the east, this area of Celtic settlement in oppida led to the exploitation of natural resources on a grand scale and the concentration of skilled craftsmen under the patronage of strong and wealthy chieftains.  This culture flourished from the mid second to the mid-1st century BCE, until it buckled under the combined pressure of the Germanic peoples from the North and the Dacians from the East.

Allowance must be made for Julius Caesar's usual equation of primitive poverty with admirable hardihood and military prowess and his connection of luxurious imports and the proximity of "civilization", meaning his own, with softness and decadence. In fact, long-established trading connections furnished Gaulish elites with Baltic amber and Greek and Etruscan wares.

Caesar took it as a given that the Celts in the Hercynian Forest were emigrant settlers from Gaul who had "seized" the land, but modern archeology identifies the region as part of the La Tène homeland. As Henry Howarth noted a century ago, "The Tectosages reported by Caesar as still being around the Hercynian forest were in fact living in the old homes of their race, whence a portion of them set out on their great expedition against Greece, and eventually settled in Galatia, in Asia Minor, where one of the tribes was called Tectosages."

Volcae of Gaul

Volcae Arecomici
The Volcae Arecomici ( of Ptolemy's Geography ii), according to Strabo, dwelt on the western side of the lower Rhône, with their metropolis at Narbo (Narbonne): "Narbo is spoken of as the naval-station of these people alone, though it would be fairer to add 'and of the rest of Celtica', so greatly has it surpassed the others in the number of people who use it as a trade-centre." They were not alone in occupying their territory, with its capital at Nemausus (Nîmes).

The Volcae Arecomici of their own accord surrendered to the Roman Republic in 121 BC. They occupied the district between the Garonne (Garumna), the Cévennes (Cebenna mons), and the Rhône. This area covered most of the western part of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. They held their assemblies in the sacred wood of Nemausus, the site of modern Nîmes.

In Gaul they were divided into two tribes in widely separated regions, the Arecomici on the east, living among the Ligures, and the Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) on the west, living among the Aquitani; the territories were separated by the Hérault (Arauris) or a line between the Hérault and the Orb (Orbis).

Volcae Tectosages

West of the Arecomici the Volcae Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) lived among the Aquitani; the territories were separated by the Hérault (Arauris) or a line between the Hérault River and the Orb (Orbis). Strabo says the Volcae Tectosages came originally from the region near modern Toulouse and were part of the Volcae.

The territory of the Volcae Tectosages (Οὐόλκαι Τεκτόσαγες of Ptolemy's Geography ii) in Gaul lay outside the Roman Republic, to the southwest of the Volcae Arecomici. From the 3rd century BC, the capital city of the Volcae Tectosages was Tolosa (Toulouse). When the Cimbri and Teutones invaded Gaul, the Tectosages allied themselves with them, and their town Tolosa was sacked in retribution by Quintus Servilius Caepio in 106 BC. Tolosa was incorporated into the Roman Republic as part of the province of Gallia Aquitania with the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar in 52 BC. The Roman conquest of Tolosa ended the cultural identity of the Volcae Tectosages.

According to Ptolemy's Geography, their inland towns were Illiberis, Ruscino, Tolosa colonia, Cessero, Carcaso, Baetirae, and Narbo colonia.

The Volcae Tectosages were among the successful raiders of the Delphi expedition and were said to have transported their booty to Tolosa. A significant part of these raiders however did not return and crossed the Bosporus instead. As a result, Tectosages was also the name of one of the three great communities of Gauls who invaded and settled in Anatolia in the country called after them "Galatia".

Venceslas Kruta suggests that their movement into this region was probably motivated by a Carthaginian recruiting post situated close by, a main attraction of the region for Celtic mercenaries eager for more campaigning. Indeed, after crossing the Pyrenees in 218 BC, Hannibal in travelling through southern Gaul was greeted by warlike tribes: the Volcae, the Arverni, the Allobroges, and the Gaesatae of the Rhône Valley, who rose to prominence around the middle of the 3rd century BC.  From around that time, this part of Gaul underwent a process of stabilization buttressed by the formation of new and powerful tribal confederations as well as the development of new-style settlements, such as Tolosa and Nemausus (Nîmes), resembling the urban centers of the Mediterranean world.

In 107, the Volcae, allies of the Tigurini, a branch of the Helvetii who belonged to a coalition that formed around the Cimbri and the Teutons, defeated a Roman army at Tolosa.  In 106-5, Q. Servilius Caepio was sent with an army to put down the revolt, and as a result, Tolosa was sacked, and thereafter the town and its territory were absorbed into Gallia Narbonensis, thereby establishing firm control over the western Gallic trade corridor along the Carcassonne Gap and the Garonne.

The Volcae were highly influential in Moravia, and together with the Boii and the Cotini and other Danubian tribes, they controlled a highly active network of trade routes connected to the Mediterranean and the German lands.

Notes

References

Further reading
John King, Celt Kingdoms
Ptolemy, Geography at Lacus Curtius site
 William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854)

Historical Celtic peoples
Tribes in pre-Roman Gaul
Gauls
Ancient Galatia
History of Toulouse
Tribes conquered by Rome

Volcae


Whitehouse is a village within the Toledo Metropolitan Area in Lucas County, Ohio, United States. The population was 4,990 at the 2020 census.

History
The area now known as the Village of Whitehouse was originally occupied by various Native American tribes, such as the Miami, Ottawa, Shawnee, Wyandot, and Delaware. Settlers of European descent began travelling through the Northwestern Territory after "Mad" Anthony Wayne's victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Many settlers were of German or Dutch descent in search of farmland. Canal access also attracted many settlers to this particular area. A post office was established as Whitehouse in 1856. Whitehouse was platted in 1864. The village was named for Edward Whitehouse, a railroad official and treasurer of the Wabash Railroad.

Geography
Whitehouse is located at  (41.521102, -83.801208).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of , all land.

Demographics

2010 census
At the 2010 census, there were 4,149 people, 1,524 households, and 1,145 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 1,591 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 96.4% White, 0.9% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.3% of the population.

Of the 1,524 households 38.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.2% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 24.9% were non-families. 21.4% of households were one person and 9.3% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.11.

The median age in the village was 39 years. 27.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.6% were from 25 to 44; 29.6% were from 45 to 64; and 12% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.6% male and 51.4% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,733 people, 1,036 households, and 762 families living in the village. The population density was . There were 1,063 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 98.46% White, 0.11% African American, 0.11% Native American, 0.26% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.62% from other races, and 0.40% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.21% of the population.

Of the 1,036 households 35.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.8% were married couples living together, 9.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.4% were non-families. 23.4% of households were one person and 9.4% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.07.

The age distribution was 26.5% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 26.7% from 25 to 44, 27.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% 65 or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.8 males.

The median household income was $52,037 and the median family income  was $66,050. Males had a median income of $43,438 versus $30,882 for females. The per capita income for the village was $22,964. About 2.1% of families and 2.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.9% of those under age 18 and 8.2% of those age 65 or over.

References

External links
 more Whitehouse, Ohio info from Toledo.com
 Anthony Wayne Schools

Villages in Lucas County, Ohio
Villages in Ohio
1856 establishments in Ohio
Populated places established in 1856

Whitehouse, Ohio


Industriales is a professional baseball team in the Cuban National Series. Located in Cerro, La Habana, it is known as the only team representing the country's capital, Havana. Industriales is historically the most successful team in the National Series, although they have played under other names throughout their history. The Super Classic of Cuban National Series takes place six times per season between Industriales and Santiago de Cuba, the Cuban equivalent of the New York Yankees–Boston Red Sox rivalry. The matchup also represents the rivalry between the two cities (La Habana and Santiago de Cuba), dating back to the era when Cuba was a colony of Spain more than two centuries ago. They are known as  the Lions (los leones), "The Blues" (los azules) or "The Blue Lions" (los Leones Azules). Royal blue is their color, though teams like Camagüey and Ciego de Ávila also have blue uniforms (navy blue and sky blue, respectively.)

History
The team was founded in 1962, as representatives of all the workers from all the industries of Cuba. Industriales is the perceived successor to the Almendares baseball team from the professional Cuban League. They won the Cuban National Series in 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1973, 1986, 1992, 1996, 2003, 2004, 2006 and 2010. Today the team holds the record of victories in a season (96 games in Cuba) with 66 games and more National Series won in a row with 4 straight national championships (1963-1966).

Current roster

Season 2017-2018
Catchers: Frank C. Morejón, Lázaro Ponce, Roberto Loredo, Randy Montenegro
Infielders: Alexander Malleta, Yordanis Samón, Juan C. Torriente, Wilfredo Aroche, Yolbert Sánchez, Joel Mestre, Osmel Cordero, Jorge L. Barcelán, Andrés Hernández, Edwin Y. Caballero, Walter Pacheco
Outfielders: Víctor V. Mesa, Stayler Hernández, Yohandri Urgellés, Yoasán Guillén, Javier Camero, Jorge Tartabull, Asnier Fonseca
Pitchers: Frank Montieth, Noelvis Entenza, Ian Rendón, Alexander Rodríguez, Dairon Durán, Adrián Sosa, José A. Pérez, Yoel D. Paula, Michel Reinoso, Julio R. Montesinos, David Mena, Pavel Hernández, Eddy A. García, Andy Valdés, Javier del Pino, Denis Castillo, Raymond Figueredo, Yasmany Robert,

National Series MVPs
The following Industriales players have been named the National Series' most valuable player.
1965 Urbano González
1967 Pedro Chávez
1971 Antonio Jiménez
1972 Agustín Marquetti
1986 Lázaro Vargas
1987 Javier Méndez
1996 Jorge Fumero
2003 Javier Méndez
2020 Lisbán Correa

Other notable players
 Rey Vicente Anglada (second base)
 Juan Carlos Barrutia (pitcher)
 Armando Capiró (outfield)
 Gerardo Concepción (pitcher)
 José Modesto Darcourt (pitcher)
 Ángel Leocadio Díaz (pitcher)
 Yasser Gomez (outfielder)
 Antonio González (baseball) (shortstop)
 Orlando "El Duque" Hernández (pitcher)
 Ricardo Lazo (catcher)
 Raúl López (pitcher)
 Reinaldo Linares (outfield)
 Agustin Marqueti (first baseman)
 Yadel Martí (pitcher)
 Santiago "Changa Mederos" Mederos (pitcher)
 Pedro Medina (catcher)
 Javier Mendez (outfielder)
 Germán Mesa (shortstop)
 Kendrys Morales (pitcher-outfielder-infielder)
 Eulogio Osorio (outfield)
 Juan Padilla (second base)
 Rodolfo Puente (shortstop)
 Amauri Sanit (pitcher)
 Carlos Tabares (centerfielder)
 Lázaro de la Torre (pitcher)
 Yoandry Urgelles (outfielder)
 Lázaro Valle (pitcher)

Emigrants
A number of Industriales players have defected from Cuba, often to pursue professional baseball in other countries. These include the following:
 Jesus Ametller
 Ivan Alvarez
 Luis Alvarez Estrada
 Juan Chavez Álvarez
 Leonardo Fariñas
 René Arocha
 Evel Bastida
 Bárbaro Cañizares
 Alexis Cabrejas
 Roberto Colina
 Gerardo Concepción
 Yunel Escobar
 Osvaldo Fernandez Guerra
 Bárbaro Garbey
 Mario González
 Yamel Guevara
 Adrian Hernández
 Michel Hernández
 Orlando Hernández
 Manuel Hurtado
 Yoan Limonta-Zayas
 Donell Linares
 Agustin Marquetti, Jr..
 Ángel Leocadio Díaz
 Kendrys Morales
 Vladimir Núñez
 Rey Ordóñez
 William Ortega
 Hassan Peña
 Rolando Pastor
 Mayque Quintero
 Euclides Rojas
 Rolando Viera
 Omar Yapur
 Yadel Martí
 Yasser Gomez
 Odrisamer Despaigne
 Yulieski Gurriel
 Lourdes Gurriel Jr.
 Andy Rodríguez
 Bryan Chi

Television broadcasts
Beginning 2016-2017, alongside the nationally aired games on Tele Rebelde, several Industriales games at home are aired currently on local TV channel Canal Habana.

External links

  Official Site

Industriales (Havana)
Baseball in Havana
Baseball teams established in 1962
1962 establishments in Cuba

Industriales


Steephill is a hamlet near Ventnor, Isle of Wight, England, previously the location of a Victorian country estate with a castle-style mansion, Steephill Castle, which was demolished to build bungalows in the 1960s. Steephill itself now forms part of the suburban development westward from Ventnor.

Steephill Cove, on the coast some 400 yards to the south, has several kiosks and self-catering cottages. Fish can be bought beneath a sign which states "Wheeler and Sons; Fishermen since the 1500s". The cove is accessible only on foot; it is about 200 yards from Undercliff Drive, and is on the Isle of Wight Coastal Path directly adjacent to Ventnor Botanic Garden.

Steephill was the location of a country estate since the time of Hans Stanley, governor of the Isle of Wight, who built there in landscaped surroundings a rustic-style house called The Cottage during his first term of office 1764–1768. After his death the estate was purchased by Wilbraham Tollemache. It was his favourite residence until his death in 1821, after which the estate was sold in 1828 to John Hambrough, who built Steephill Castle in 1835 on the site of The Cottage.  In 1836 Hambrough paid for the construction of St Catherine's Church, Ventnor's parish church.

His descendant Windsor Dudley Cecil Hambrough was the victim in the Ardlamont House Murder of 1893 and is buried in the churchyard of St Catherine's Church.

Its next owner was John Morgan Richards, an American businessman who bought it in 1903. His daughter, the novelist Pearl Mary Teresa Craigie (pseudonym "John Oliver Hobbes") lived near the Castle from 1900 to 1906, writing a number of her works there.

The Castle was auctioned after Richards' death after World War I. It then saw service as a hotel with the Holiday Friendship Association (with a period as a school during World War II) until 1959, when upkeep and fire safety issues made this use increasingly unviable. Ethel Garton my grandmother was the manager of Steep Hill Castle in that last year of 1959. Aged 5 I distinctly remember the austere and baronial grand architecture in that warm sunny summer of 59, it had a very church like character. Adder snakes were common in the undergrowth and the path through the woods to the cove was overgrown and wild in that year. Unused, its condition deteriorated thereafter, until a demolition order was obtained in 1963.

References

Villages on the Isle of Wight

Steephill