The discovery doctrine, or doctrine of discovery, is a disputed interpretation of international law during the Age of Discovery, introduced into United States municipal law by the US Supreme Court Justice John Marshall in Johnson v. McIntosh (1823). In Marshall's formulation of the doctrine, discovery of territory previously unknown to Europeans gave the discovering nation title to that territory against all other European nations, and this title could be perfected by possession. A number of legal scholars have criticized Marshall's interpretation of the relevant international law. In recent decades, advocates for Indigenous rights have campaigned against the doctrine. In 2023, the Vatican formally repudiated the doctrine.

Discovery in international law
The means by which a state can acquire territory in international law are conquest, cession by agreement, occupation of land which belongs to no state (terra nullius), and prescription through the continuous exercise of sovereignty. Discovery of a territory creates a mere inchoate title which must be completed within a reasonable period by effective occupation of that territory.

Robert J. Miller states that by 1493, "The idea that the Doctrine [of discovery] granted European monarchs ownership rights in newly discovered lands and sovereign and commercial rights over Indigenous peoples due to first discovery by European Christians was now established international law, at least to Europeans." Kent McNeil, however, states, "it is not apparent that such a rule was ever part of the European law of nations."

Historical background
Miller and others trace the doctrine of discovery back to papal bulls which authorized various European powers to conquer the lands of non-Christians. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the bull , which authorized King Afonso V of Portugal to "subjugate the Saracens and pagans and any other unbelievers and enemies of Christ", and "reduce their persons to perpetual servitude", to take their belongings, including land,  "to convert them to you, and your use, and your successors the Kings of Portugal." In 1455, Pope Nicholas V issued , which extended Portugal's authority to conquer the lands of infidels and pagans for "the salvation of all" in order to "pardon ... their souls". The document also granted Portugal a specific right to conquest in West Africa and to trade with Saracens and infidels in designated areas. Charles and Rah argue that these bulls were used to justify the Atlantic slave trade.

In 1493, following a dispute between Portugal and Spain over the discovery of non-Christian lands in the Americas, Pope Alexander VI issued  which drew a north-south line 100 leagues West of the Cape Verde Islands and gave the Spanish Crown exclusive rights to travel and trade west of that line, and to "bring under your sway the said mainland and islands with their residents and inhabitants and to bring them to the Catholic faith." In 1494 Portugal and Spain signed the Treaty of Tordesillas which moved the line separating their spheres of influence to 300 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. The treaty was eventually endorsed by Pope Julius II in the 1506 bull .

Throughout the sixteenth century, Spain and Portugal claimed that papal authority had given them exclusive rights of discovery, trade and conquest of non-Christian lands in their respective spheres of influence. These claims were challenged by theorists of natural law such as the Spanish theologians Domingo de Soto and Francisco di Vitoria. In 1539 Vitoria wrote that the Spanish discovery of the Americas provides "no support for possession of these lands, any more than it would if they had discovered us."

France and England also made claims to territories inhabited by non-Christians based on first discovery, but disputed the notion that papal bulls, or discovery by itself, could provide title over lands. In 1541, French plans to establish colonies in Canada drew protests from Spain. In response, France effectively repudiated the papal bulls and claims based on discovery without possession, the French king stating that "Popes hold spiritual jurisdiction, and it does not lie with them to distribute land amongst kings" and that "passing by and discovering with the eye was not taking possession."

Similarly, when in 1580 Spain protested to Elizabeth I about Francis Drake's violation of the Spanish sphere, the English queen replied that popes had no right to grant the world to princes, that she owed no allegiance to the Pope, and that mere symbolic gestures (such as erecting monuments or naming rivers) did not give property rights.

From the sixteenth century, France and England asserted a right to explore and colonize any non-Christian territory not under the actual possession of a Christian sovereign. The stated justifications for this included the spread of Christianity, the duty to bring civilization to barbarian peoples, the natural right to explore and trade freely with other peoples, and the right to settle and cultivate uninhabited or uncultivated land.

Hugo Grotius, writing in 1625, stated that discovery does not give a right to sovereignty over inhabited land, "For discovery applies to those things which belong to no one." Dutch policy was to acquire land in North America by purchase from indigenous peoples.

By the eighteenth century, some leading theorists of international law argued that territorial rights over land could stem from the settlement and cultivation of that land. William Blackstone, in 1756, wrote, "Plantations or colonies, in distant countries, are either such where the lands are claimed by right of occupancy only, by finding them desert and uncultivated, and peopling them from the mother-country; or where, when already cultivated, they have been either gained by conquest, or ceded to us by treaties. And both these rights are founded upon the law of nature, or at least upon that of nations." Two years after Blackstone, Emer de Vattel, in his  (1758), drew a distinction between land that was effectively occupied and cultivated, and the unsettled and uncultivated land of nomads which was open to colonization.

All imperial European states enacted symbolic rituals to give notice of discovery and possession of lands to other states. These rituals included burying plates, raising flags, erecting signs, and naming territories, rivers or other features.  More concrete claims of possession ranged from building forts to establishing settlements. Rituals of a transfer of sovereignty often involved trials, executions and other acts to symbolize that the laws of the colonizing power were in force.

European monarchs often asserted sovereignty over large areas of non-Christian territory based on purported discoveries and symbolic acts of possession. They frequently issued charters and commissions giving the grantees the power to represent the Crown and acquire property. While European states often acknowledged that indigenous peoples inhabiting these lands had property rights which had to be acquired through conquest, treaty or purchase, they sometimes acted as if territories were uninhabited and sovereignty and property rights could be acquired through occupation.

Summarizing the practices European states used to justify their acquisition of territory inhabited by indigenous peoples, McNeil states, "While Spain and Portugal favoured discovery and papal grants because it was generally in their interests to do so, France and Britain relied more on symbolic acts, colonial charters, and occupation." Benton and Strauman argue that European powers often adopted multiple, sometimes contradictory, legal rationales for their acquisition of territory as a deliberate strategy in defending their claims against European rivals.

North American jurisprudence

In 1792, U.S. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson claimed that the doctrine of discovery was international law which was applicable to the new United States government as well.

The discovery doctrine was expounded by the United States Supreme Court in a series of decisions, most notably Johnson v. McIntosh in 1823. In that case, Chief Justice John Marshall held that under generally accepted principles of international law:

 Discovery of lands previously unknown to Europeans gave the discovering nation title to that land against all other European nations, and this title could be perfected by possession.
 The nation discovering that land had "the sole right of acquiring the soil from the natives, and establishing settlements upon it."
 On discovery, the sovereignty of the indigenous peoples and their rights to sell their land were diminished, but their right of occupancy remained.
 The discovering nation, having ultimate title to the land, had the right to sell the land of indigenous peoples, subject to the latter's right of occupancy.
 This ultimate title of the discovering nation (in this case Britain) passed to the individual states after the Declaration of Independence, then to the United States in 1789.

Dunbar-Oritz states that the doctrine outlined in this case continues to influence American imperialism and treatment of indigenous peoples.

Johnson v. McIntosh

Banner and Kades argue that the 1823 case was the result of collusive lawsuits where land speculators worked together to make claims to achieve a desired result. The plaintiff, Johnson, had inherited land originally purchased from the Piankeshaw tribes. Defendant McIntosh claimed the same land, having purchased it under a grant from the United States. In 1775, members of the Piankeshaw tribe sold certain land in the Indiana Territory to Lord Dunmore, Royal Governor of Virginia, and others. In 1805, the Piankeshaw conveyed much of the same land to William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, thus giving rise to conflicting claims of title. The court found, on three grounds, that it should not recognize the land titles obtained from Native Americans prior to American independence. A number of academics and Indigenous rights activists have argued that Chief Justice John Marshall had large real estate holdings that would have been affected if the case were decided in favor of Johnson.

Decision
Marshall found that ultimate title to land comes into existence by virtue of discovery and possession of that land, a rule that had been observed by all European countries with settlements in the New World. The United States had ultimate title of the land, as against other European nations, because it inherited that title from the original discoverers Britain and France, as part of the sovereign rights the U.S. had won from the British crown through war.

Marshall noted:

Marshall noted the 1455 papal bull  approved Portugal's claims to lands discovered along the coast of West Africa, and the 1493  had ratified Spain's right to conquer newly found lands. Marshall stated, however, "Spain did not rest her title solely on the grant of the Pope. Her discussions respecting boundary, with France, with Great Britain, and with the United States, all show that she placed it on the rights given by discovery. Portugal sustained her claim to the  by the same title." Marshall pointed to the exploration charters given to the explorer John Cabot as proof that other nations had accepted the doctrine.

Legal critique
Allison Dussias states that the Piankeshaw were not party to the litigation and therefore, "no Indian voices were heard in a case which had, and continues to have, profound effects on Indian property rights."

McNeil states that the authority for the doctrine of discovery, as formulated by Marshall, was "flimsy". Furthermore, Indigenous nations in North America were factually independent and sovereign prior to the arrival of Europeans and therefore the European powers should not have been able to acquire territorial sovereignty by discovery and settlement, but only by conquest or cession.

Pagden states that Marshall did not sufficiently consider Francisco de Vitoria's critique of the claim that discovery gave a right to possession of inhabited lands. Vitoria, however, stated that the Spanish could claim possession of the Americas by conquest if indigenous populations violated principles of natural law.

Blake Watson states that Marshall overlooked evidence showing that the Dutch and some English settlers acknowledged the right of Indians to their land and favored purchase as a means of acquiring title. Watson and others, such as Robert A. Williams Jr., state that Marshall misinterpreted the "discovery doctrine" as giving exclusive right to lands discovered, rather than the exclusive right to treaty with the inhabitants who owned that land.

Other United States cases
In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the US Supreme Court found that the Cherokee Nation was a "domestic dependent nation" with no standing to take action against the state of Georgia.

In Worcester v Georgia (1832), Marshall re-interpreted the doctrine of discovery. He stated that discovery did not give the discovering nation title to land, but only "the sole right of acquiring the soil and making settlements on it." This was a right of preemption which only applied between the colonizing powers and did not diminish the sovereignty of the indigenous inhabitants. "It regulated the right given by discovery among the European discoverers, but could not affect the rights of those already in possession, either as aboriginal occupants, or as occupants by virtue of a discovery made before the memory of man."

In five further cases decided between 1836 and 1842, Mitchel I, Fernandez, Clark, Mitchel II, and Martin, the Supreme Court restored the rule in Johnson that discovery gave the discovering nation ultimate title to land, subject to a right of occupancy held by indigenous peoples.

In Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe (1979), the Supreme Court held that discovery deprived tribes of the right to prosecute non-Indians. In Duro v. Reina (1990) the court held that tribes could not prosecute Indians who were not a member of the prosecuting tribe. However in November 1990, the Indian Civil Rights Act was amended by Congress to permit inter-tribal prosecutions.

, the most recent time the doctrine was cited by the Supreme Court is in the 2005 case City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York, by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg in the majority decision.

Impact on Canadian law

Johnson v M'Intosh was extensively discussed in St Catharines Milling and Lumber Co v R (1888), the first Canadian case on Indigenous land title. The judge in first instance stated that Marshall had "concisely stated the same law of the mother country". On appeal, however, the Privy Council departed from Johnson in finding that native land rights were derived from the Royal Proclamation of 1763.

In 1973, Calder v British Columbia (Attorney General), the Supreme Court of Canada found that the Indigenous peoples of Canada held an aboriginal title to their land, which was independent of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and was derived from the fact that, "when the settlers came, the Indians were there, organized in societies and occupying the land as their forefathers had done for centuries".

In Tsilhqot'in Nation v British Columbia (2014), the Supreme Court of Canada confirmed that "the doctrine of terra nullius never applied in Canada". Aboriginal title is a beneficial interest in land, although the Crown retains an underlying title. The court set out a number of conditions which must be met in order for the Crown to extinguish Aboriginal title.

Advocacy against the doctrine
In 2007, the United Nations (UN) adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which acknowledges the "rights of Indigenous peoples to their land". The only nations to vote against the declaration were the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. All four would later reverse their positions.

The discovery doctrine has been condemned as socially unjust, racist, and in violation of basic and fundamental human rights.  The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) noted the doctrine of discovery "as the foundation of the violation of their (Indigenous people) human rights". The eleventh session of the UNPFII, held at the UN's New York headquarters from 7–18 May 2012, had the special theme of "The Doctrine of Discovery: its enduring impact on Indigenous peoples and the right to redress for past conquests (articles 28 and 37 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples)". It called for a mechanism to investigate historical land claims, with speakers observing that "The Doctrine of Discovery had been used for centuries to expropriate Indigenous lands and facilitate their transfer to colonizing or dominating nations".

The General Convention of the US Episcopal Church, conducted on 8–17 August 2009, passed a resolution officially repudiating the discovery doctrine.

During the Ninth Session of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues in April 2010, the Holy See addressed the doctrine, saying that it had been abrogated as early as 1494 by subsequent papal bulls, encyclicals, and pronouncements. It said that it considered Inter caetera as "a historic remnant with no juridical, moral or doctrinal value".

At the 2012 Unitarian Universalist Association General Assembly in Phoenix, Arizona, delegates passed a resolution repudiating the doctrine of discovery and calling on Unitarian Universalists to study the doctrine and eliminate its presence from the current-day policies, programs, theologies, and structures of Unitarian Universalism.

In 2013, at its 29th General Synod, the United Church of Christ repudiated the doctrine in a near-unanimous vote.

In 2014, Ruth Hopkins, a tribal attorney and former judge, wrote to Pope Francis asking him to formally revoke the  papal bull of 1493.

At the 2016 Synod, 10–17 June in Grand Rapids, Michigan, delegates to the annual general assembly of the Christian Reformed Church rejected the doctrine of discovery as heresy in response to a study report on the topic.

At the 222nd General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) (2016), commissioners called on members of the church to repudiate the doctrine of discovery. The commissioners directed that a report be written reviewing the history of the doctrine. That report was approved by the 223rd General Assembly (2018), along with recommendations for a variety of additional actions that could be taken by the church at all levels to acknowledge indigenous peoples and to confront racism against them.

In 2016, the Churchwide Assembly of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) adopted Assembly Action CA16.02.04 titled "Repudiation of the Doctrine of Discovery" by a vote of 912–28, describing the doctrine as "an example of the 'improper mixing of the power of the church and the power of the sword.

On November 3, 2016, a group of 524 clergy publicly burned copies of , as part of the Dakota Access Pipeline protests near the Standing Rock Indian Reservation. As part of their demonstration, they invited a number of indigenous elders to authorize the burning.

The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada have repudiated the doctrine and called on governments to remove it from laws and policies.

During Pope Francis's July 2022 penitential pilgrimage to Canada in light of the abuses of Canadian Indigenous children in residential schools, Canadian bishops requested that the Catholic Church issue a new statement on the doctrine of discovery.

On March 30, 2023, the Vatican's Dicasteries for Culture and Education and for Promoting Integral Human Development jointly repudiated the doctrine of discovery as "not part of the teaching of the Catholic Church". The Vatican's statement pointed to the 1537 papal bull, Sublimis Deus, which affirmed the liberty and property rights of indigenous peoples and prohibited their enslavement.

See also
 Aboriginal title
 Americentrism
 Colonialism
 Eurocentrism
 First contact (anthropology)
 Frontier thesis
 Imperialism
 Manifest destiny
 Monroe Doctrine
 Terra nullius

References

Further reading
 Lawlor, Mary. Public Native America: Tribal Self Representation in Casinos, Museums and Powwows, Rutgers University Press, 2006
 Robert J. Miller and Elizabeth Furse, Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2006
 Miler, Robert J., and Jacinta Ruru. "An Indigenous Lens into Comparative Law: The Doctrine of Discovery in the United States and New Zealand". West Virginia Law Review 111 (2008): 849.
 Miller, R. J., Ruru, J., Behrendt, L., & Lindberg, T. (2010). Discovering indigenous lands: The doctrine of discovery in the English colonies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

External links

Aboriginal title
Colonialism
European colonization of the Americas
Human rights in the United States
Imperialism
International law
John Marshall
Legal doctrines and principles
Property law in the United States

Discovery doctrine


{{DISPLAYTITLE:Π01 class}}
In computability theory, a Π01 class is a subset of 2ω of a certain form. These classes are of interest as technical tools within recursion theory and effective descriptive set theory. They are also used in the application of recursion theory to other branches of mathematics (Cenzer 1999, p. 39).

Definition

The set 2<ω consists of all finite sequences of 0s and 1s, while the set 2ω consists of all infinite sequences of 0s and 1s (that is, functions from } to the set }).

A tree on 2<ω is a subset of 2<ω that is closed under taking initial segments.   An element f of 2ω is a path through a tree T on 2<ω if every finite initial segment of f is in T.

A (lightface) Π01 class is a subset C of 2ω for which there is a computable tree T such that C consists of exactly the paths through T.  A boldface Π01 class is a subset D of 2ω for which there is an oracle f in 2ω and a subtree tree T of 2< ω from computable from f such that D is the set of paths through T.

As effectively closed sets

The boldface Π01 classes are exactly the same as the closed sets of 2ω and thus the same as the boldface Π01 subsets of 2ω in the Borel hierarchy.

Lightface Π01 classes in 2ω (that is, Π01 classes whose tree is computable with no oracle) correspond to effectively closed sets. A subset B of 2ω is effectively closed if there is a recursively enumerable sequence 〈σi : i ∈ ω〉 of elements of 2< ω such that each g ∈ 2ω  is in B if and only if  there exists some i such that σi is an initial segment of B.

Relationship with effective theories

For each effectively axiomatized theory T of first-order logic, the set of all completions of T is a  class. Moreover, for each  subset S of  there is an effectively axiomatized theory T such that each element of S computes a completion of T, and each completion of T computes an element of S (Jockusch and Soare 1972b).

See also

Arithmetical hierarchy
Basis theorem (computability)

References

Computability theory

Π01 class


A personal name, full name, or prosoponym (from Ancient Greek prósōpon - person, and onoma - name) is the set of names by which an individual person is known, and that can be recited as a word-group, with the understanding that, taken together, they all relate to that one individual. In many cultures, the term is synonymous with the birth name or legal name of the individual. In linguistic classification, personal names are studied within a specific onomastic discipline, called anthroponymy.

In Western culture, nearly all individuals possess at least one given name (also known as a first name, forename, or Christian name), together with a surname (also known as a last name or family name). In the name "James Smith", for example, James is the first name and Smith is the surname. Surnames in the West generally indicate that the individual belongs to a family, a tribe, or a clan, although the exact relationships vary: they may be given at birth, taken upon adoption, changed upon marriage, and so on. Where there are two or more given names, typically only one (in English-speaking cultures usually the first) is used in normal speech.

Another naming convention that is used mainly in the Arabic culture and in different other areas across Africa and Asia is connecting the person's given name with a chain of names, starting with the name of the person's father and then the father's father and so on, usually ending with the family name (tribe or clan name). However, the legal full name of a person usually contains the first three names (given name, father's name, father's father's name) and the family name at the end, to limit the name in government-issued ID. Men's names and women's names are constructed using the same convention, and a person's name is not altered if they are married.

Some cultures, including Western ones, also add (or once added) patronymics or matronymics, for instance as a middle name as with Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (whose father's given name was Ilya), or as a last name as with Björk Guðmundsdóttir (whose father is named Guðmundur) or Heiðar Helguson (whose mother was named Helga). Similar concepts are present in Eastern cultures. However, in some areas of the world, many people are known by a single name, and so are said to be mononymous. Still other cultures lack the concept of specific, fixed names designating people, either individually or collectively. Certain isolated tribes, such as the Machiguenga of the Amazon, do not use personal names.

A person's personal name is usually their full legal name; however, some people use only part of their full legal name, a title, nickname, pseudonym or other chosen name that is different from their legal name, and reserve their legal name for legal and administrative purposes.

It is nearly universal for people to have names; the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child declares that a child has the right to a name from birth.

Structure

Common components of names given at birth can include:
 Personal name: The given name (or acquired name in some cultures) can precede a family name (as in most European cultures), or it can come after the family name (as in some East Asian cultures and Hungary), or be used without a family name.
 Patronymic: A surname based on the given name of the father.
 Matronymic: A surname based on the given name of the mother.
 Family name: A name used by all members of a family. In China, surnames gradually came into common use beginning in the 3rd century BC (having been common only among the nobility before that). In some areas of East Asia (e.g. Korea and Vietnam), surnames developed in the next several centuries, while in other areas (like Japan), surnames did not become prevalent until the 19th century. In Europe, after the loss of the Roman system, the common use of family names started quite early in some areas (France in the 13th century, and Germany in the 16th century), but it often did not happen until much later in areas that used a patronymic naming custom, such as the Scandinavian countries, Wales, and some areas of Germany, as well as Russia and Ukraine. The compulsory use of surnames varied greatly. France required a priest to write surnames in baptismal records in 1539 (but did not require surnames for Jews, who usually used patronymics, until 1808). On the other hand, surnames were not compulsory in the Scandinavian countries until the 19th or 20th century (1923 in Norway), and Iceland still does not use surnames for its native inhabitants. In most of the cultures of the Middle East and South Asia, surnames were not generally used until European influence took hold in the 19th century.

In Spain and most Latin American countries, two surnames are used, one being the father's family name and the other being the mother's family name. In Spain, the second surname is sometimes informally used alone if the first one is too common to allow an easy identification. For example, former Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called just Zapatero. In Argentina, only the father's last name is used, in most cases.

In Portugal, Brazil and most other Portuguese-speaking countries, at least two surnames are used, often three or four, typically some or none inherited from the mother and some or all inherited from the father, in that order. Co-parental siblings most often share an identical string of surnames. For collation, shortening, and formal addressing, the last of these surnames is typically preferred. A Portuguese person named António de Oliveira Guterres would therefore be known commonly as António Guterres.

In Russia, the first name and family name conform to the usual Western practice, but the middle name is patronymic. Thus, all the children of Ivan Volkov would be named "[first name] Ivanovich Volkov" if male, or "[first name] Ivanovna Volkova" if female (-ovich meaning "son of", -ovna meaning "daughter of", and -a usually being appended to the surnames of girls). However, in formal Russian name order, the surname comes first, followed by the given name and patronymic, such as "Raskolnikov Rodion Romanovich".

In many families, single or multiple middle names are simply alternative names, names honoring an ancestor or relative, or, for married women, sometimes their maiden names. In some traditions, however, the roles of the first and middle given names are reversed, with the first given name being used to honor a family member and the middle name being used as the usual method to address someone informally. Many Catholic families choose a saint's name as their child's middle name or this can be left until the child's confirmation when they choose a saint's name for themselves. Cultures that use patronymics or matronymics will often give middle names to distinguish between two similarly named people: e.g., Einar Karl Stefánsson and Einar Guðmundur Stefánsson. This is especially done in Iceland (as shown in example) where people are known and referred to almost exclusively by their given name/s.

Some people (called anonyms) choose to be anonymous, that is, to hide their true names, for fear of governmental prosecution or social ridicule of their works or actions. Another method to disguise one's identity is to employ a pseudonym.

For some people, their name is a single word, known as a mononym. This can be true from birth, or occur later in life. For example, Teller, of the magician duo Penn and Teller, was named Raymond Joseph Teller at birth, but changed his name both legally and socially to be simply "Teller". In some official government documents, such as his driver's license, his given name is listed as NFN, an initialism for "no first name".

The Inuit believe that the souls of the namesakes are one, so they traditionally refer to the junior namesakes, not just by the names (atiq), but also by kinship title, which applies across gender and generation without implications of disrespect or seniority.

In Judaism, someone's name is considered intimately connected with their fate, and adding a name (e.g. on the sickbed) may avert a particular danger. Among Ashkenazi Jews it is also considered bad luck to take the name of a living ancestor, as the Angel of Death may mistake the younger person for their namesake (although there is no such custom among Sephardi Jews). Jews may also have a Jewish name for intra-community use and use a different name when engaging with the Gentile world.

Chinese and Japanese emperors receive posthumous names.

In some Polynesian cultures, the name of a deceased chief becomes taboo. If he is named after a common object or concept, a different word has to be used for it.

Depending on national convention, additional given names (and sometimes titles) are considered part of the name.

Feudal names

The royalty, nobility, and gentry of Europe traditionally have many names, including phrases for the lands that they own. The French developed the method of putting the term by which the person is referred in small capital letters. It is this habit which transferred to names of Eastern Asia, as seen below. An example is that of Marie-Joseph-Paul-Yves-Roch Gilbert du Motier, who is known as the Marquis de Lafayette. He possessed both the lands of Motier and Lafayette.

The bare place name was used formerly to refer to the person who owned it, rather than the land itself (the word "Gloucester" in "What will Gloucester do?" meant the Duke of Gloucester). As a development, the bare name of a ship in the Royal Navy meant its captain (e.g., "Cressy didn't learn from Aboukir") while the name with an article referred to the ship (e.g., "The Cressy is foundering").

Naming conventions
A personal naming system, or anthroponymic system, is a system describing the choice of personal name in a certain society. Personal names consist of one or more parts, such as given name, surname and patronymic. Personal naming systems are studied within the field of anthroponymy.

In contemporary Western societies (except for Iceland, Hungary, and sometimes Flanders, depending on the occasion), the most common naming convention is that a person must have a given name, which is usually gender-specific, followed by the parents' family name. In onomastic terminology, given names of male persons are called andronyms (from Ancient Greek ἀνήρ / man, and ὄνομα / name), while given names of female persons are called gynonyms (from Ancient Greek γυνή / woman, and ὄνομα / name).

Some given names are bespoke, but most are repeated from earlier generations in the same culture. Many are drawn from mythology, some of which span multiple language areas. This has resulted in related names in different languages (e.g. George, Georg, Jorge), which might be translated or might be maintained as immutable proper nouns.

In earlier times, Scandinavian countries followed patronymic naming, with people effectively called "X's son/daughter"; this is now the case only in Iceland and was recently re-introduced as an option in the Faroe Islands. It is legally possible in Finland as people of Icelandic ethnic naming are specifically named in the name law. When people of this name convert to standards of other cultures, the phrase is often condensed into one word, creating last names like Jacobsen (Jacob's Son).

In Kafirstan (now part of Afghanistan) "Children are named as soon as born. The infant is given to the mother to suckle, while a wise woman rapidly recites the family ancestral names; the name pronounced at the instant the baby begins to feed is that by which it is thereafter known."

There is a range of personal naming systems:

 Binomial systems: apart from their given name, people are described by their surnames, which they obtain from one of their parents. Most modern European personal naming systems are of this type.
 Patronymic systems: apart from their given name, people are described by their patronymics, that is, given names (not surnames) of parents or other ancestors. Such systems were in wide use throughout Europe in the first millennium CE, but were replaced by binomial systems. The Icelandic system is still patronymic.
 More complex systems like Arabic system, consisting of paedonymic (son's name), given name, patronymic and one or two bynames.

Different cultures have different conventions for personal names. This is a list of articles about particular cultures' naming conventions.

Generational designation

When names are repeated across generations, the senior or junior generation (or both) may be designed with the name suffix "Sr." or "Jr.", respectively (in the former case, retrospectively); or, more formally, by a ordinal Roman number such as "I", "II" or "III". In the Catholic tradition, papal names are distinguished in sequence, and may be reused many times, such as John XXIII (the 23th pope assuming the papal name "John").

In the case of the American presidents George H. W. Bush and his son  George W. Bush, distinct middle initials serve this purpose instead, necessitating their more frequent use. The improvised and unofficial "Bush Sr." and "Bush Jr." were nevertheless tossed about in banter on many entertainment journalism opinion panels; alternatively, they became distinguished merely as "W." and "H. W.".

Rank, title, honour, accreditation, and affiliation

In formal address, personal names may be preceded by pre-nominal letters, giving title (e.g. Dr., Captain), or social rank, which is commonly gendered (e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss.) and might additionally convey marital status. Historically, professional titles such as "Doctor" and "Reverend" were largely confined to male professions, so these were implicitly gendered.

In formal address, personal names, inclusive of a generational designation, if any, may be followed by one or more post-nominal letters giving office, honour, decoration, accreditation, or formal affiliation.

Name order

Western name order

The order given name(s), family name is commonly known as the Western name order and is usually used in most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe (e.g. North and South America; North, East, Central and West India; Thailand; Pakistan; Bangladesh; Saudi Arabia; Indonesia (non-traditional); Singapore; Malaysia (most of, non-traditional); Australia; New Zealand; the Philippines and Japan (formerly)).

Within alphabetic lists and catalogs, however, the family name is generally put first, with the given name(s) following and separated by a comma (e.g. Jobs, Steve), representing the "lexical name order". This convention is followed by most Western libraries, as well as on many administrative forms. In some countries, such as France, or countries previously part of the former Soviet Union, the comma may be dropped and the swapped form of the name be uttered as such, perceived as a mark of bureaucratic formality.

Eastern name order
The order family name, given name, commonly known as the Eastern name order, began to be prominently used in Ancient China and subsequently influenced the East Asian cultural sphere (China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam) and particularly among the Chinese communities in Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Malaysia or the Philippines. It is also used in the southern and northeastern parts of India, as well as in Central Europe by Hungarians. In Uganda, the ordering "traditional family name first, Western-origin given name second" is also frequently used.

In the USSR and now Russia, personal initials are often written in eastern order when signing official documents (rus. ФИО "family name - given name - patronymic name"), e.g. "Putin V.V.".

When East Asian names are transliterated into the Latin alphabet, some people prefer to convert them to the Western order, while others leave them in the Eastern order but write the family name in capital letters. To avoid confusion, there is a convention in some language communities, e.g., French, that the family name should be written in all capitals when engaging in formal correspondence or writing for an international audience. In Hungarian, the Eastern order of Japanese names is officially kept and Hungarian transliteration is used (e.g. Mijazaki Hajao in Hungarian), but Western name order is also sometimes used with English transliteration (e.g. Hayao Miyazaki).

Starting from the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Western name order was primarily used among the Japanese nobility when identifying themselves to non-Asians with their romanized names. As a result, in popular Western journalism publications, this order became increasingly used for Japanese names in the subsequent decades. In 2020 the Government of Japan reverted the order of romanized names back to the Eastern name order in official documents (e.g. identity documents, academic certificates, birth certificates, marriage certificates, among others), which means writing family name first in capital letters and has recommended that the same format be used among the general Japanese public.

Japan has also requested Western publications to respect this change, such as not using Shinzo Abe but rather Abe Shinzo, similar to how Chinese leader Xi Jinping is not referred to as Jinping Xi. Its sluggish response by Western publications was met with ire by Japanese politician Taro Kono, which stated that "If you can write Moon Jae-in and Xi Jinping in correct order, you can surely write Abe Shinzo the same way."

China, Korea and East Asia
Chinese, Korean and other East Asian peoples, except for those traveling or living outside of China and areas influenced by China, rarely reverse their Chinese and Korean language names to the Western naming order. Western publications also preserve this Eastern naming order for Chinese, Korean and other East Asian individuals, with the family name first, followed by the given name. In Hong Kong, Cantonese names of Hong Kong people are usually written in the Eastern order with or without a comma (e.g. Wong Yat Sum or Wong, Yat Sum). Outside Hong Kong, they are usually written in Western order. Unlike other East Asian countries, the syllables or logograms of given names are not hyphenated or compounded but instead separated by a space (e.g. Yat Sum). People outside Hong Kong often confuse the second syllables with middle names regardless of name order. Some computer systems could not handle given name inputs with space characters.

Some Hong Kongers and Singaporeans may have an anglicised given name, always written in the Western order. The English and transliterated Chinese full names can be written in various orders. A hybrid order is preferred in official documents including the legislative records in the case for Hong Kong. Examples of the hybrid order goes in the form of Hong Kong actor "Tony Leung Chiu-wai" or Singaporean politician "Lawrence Wong Shyun Tsai", with family names (in the example, Leung and Wong) shared in the middle. Therefore, the anglicised names are written in the Western order (Tony Leung, Lawrence Wong) and the Chinese names are written in the Eastern order (Leung Chiu-wai, 梁朝偉; Wong Shyun Tsai, 黄循财).

Japan
Japanese use the Eastern naming order (family name followed by given name). In contrast to China and Korea, due to familiarity, Japanese names of contemporary people are usually "switched" when people who have such names are mentioned in media in Western countries; for example, Koizumi Jun'ichirō is known as Junichiro Koizumi in English. Japan has requested that Western publications cease this practice of placing their names in the Western name order and revert to the Eastern name order. Hungarian names are also switched; Puskás Ferenc is known as Ferenc Puskás.

Mongolia
Mongols use the Eastern naming order (patronymic followed by given name), which is also used there when rendering the names of other East Asians and Hungarians. Russian and other Western names, however, are still written in Western order.

Southern India

Telugu people from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
Telugu people from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana traditionally use family name, given name order. The family name first format is different from North India where family name typically appears last or other parts of South India where patronymic names are widely used instead of family names.

Tamil names

Tamil people, generally for younger generations caste names are not employed as surnames. This came into common use in India and also the Tamil diaspora in nations like Singapore after the Dravidian movement in 1930s and when the Self respect movement in 1950s and 1960s campaigned against the use of one's caste as part of the name. Patronymic naming system is: apart from their given name, people are described by their patronymic, that is given names (not surnames) of their father. Older generations used the initials system where the father's given name appears as an initial, for eg: Tamil Hindu people's names simply use initials as a prefix instead of Patronymic suffix (father's given name) and the initials is/ are prefixed or listed first and then followed by the son's/ daughter's given name.

One system used for naming, using only given names (without using family name or surname) is as below: for Tamil Hindu son's name using the initials system: S. Rajeev: (initial S for father's given name Suresh  and Rajeev is the son's given name). The same Tamil Hindu name using Patronymic suffix last name system is Rajeev Suresh meaning Rajeev son of Suresh (Rajeev (first is son's given name) followed by Suresh (father's given name)). As a result, unlike surnames, while using patronymic suffix the same last name will not pass down through many generations. For Tamil Hindu daughters, the initials naming system is the same, eg: S. Meena. Using the Patronymic suffix  system it is Meena Suresh: meaning Meena daughter of Suresh; Meena (first is daughter's given name) followed by Suresh (father's given name). As a result, unlike surnames, while using patronymic suffix the same last name will not pass down through many generations. And after marriage the wife may or may not take her husband's given name as her last name instead of her father's. Eg: after marriage, Meena Jagadish: meaning Meena wife of Jagadish: Meena (first is wife's given name) followed by Jagadish (husband's given name).

Mordvins
Mordvins use two names – a Mordvin name and a Russian name. The Mordvin name is written in the Eastern name order. Usually, the Mordvin surname is the same as the Russian surname, for example Sharononj Sandra (Russian: Aleksandr Sharonov), but it can be different at times, for example Yovlan Olo (Russian: Vladimir Romashkin).

Non-human personal names
Apart from the Linnaean taxonomy, some humans give individual non-human animals and plants names, usually of endearment.

In onomastic classification, names of individual animals are called zoonyms, while names of individual plants are called phytonyms.

Names of pets
The practice of naming pets dates back at least to the 23rd century BC; an Egyptian inscription from that period mentions a dog named Abuwtiyuw.

Many pet owners give human names to their pets. This has been shown to reflect the owner having a human-like relationship with the pet. The name given to a pet may refer to its appearance or personality, or be chosen for endearment, or in honor of a favorite celebrity. Pet names often reflect the owner's view of the animal, and the expectations they may have for it.

Dog breeders often choose specific themes for their names, sometimes based on the number of the litter. In some countries, like Germany or Austria, names are chosen alphabetically, with names starting with 'A' for puppies from the first litter, 'B' for the second litter, and so on. A puppy called "Dagmar" would belong to a fourth litter. Dog owners can choose to keep the original name, or rename their pet.

It has been argued that the giving of names to their pets allows researchers to view their pets as ontologically different from unnamed laboratory animals with which they work.

Dolphin names for each other
A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences claims that humans are not the only animals that use personal names. Researchers from the University of North Carolina Wilmington studying bottlenose dolphins in Sarasota Bay, Florida, found that the dolphins had names for each other. A dolphin chooses its name as an infant.

See also

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading
 Matthews, Elaine; Hornblower, Simon; Fraser, Peter Marshall, Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence, Proceedings of the British Academy (104), Oxford University Press, 2000.

External links

 Varying use of first and family names in different countries and cultures
 Falsehoods Programmers Believe About Names
 Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, contains over 35,000 published Greek names.

Names

Personal name


Phil Hardcastle  (1919–1962) was an Australian rugby union footballer and medical practitioner. A state and national representative forward, he played five Test matches for Australia, one as captain.

Early life
Hardcastle was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina and attended The Scots College in Sydney. He undertook medical studies at Sydney University in the years immediately before and during World War II and won university blues for rugby in 1937, 1939 and 1941.

Representative rugby career
His state representative debut was made for New South Wales in 1938. He was still playing for Sydney University and playing well when national representative fixtures restarted at the conclusion of World War II. He was selected on the first Australian post-war tour, the 1946 Wallaby tour of New Zealand  captained by Bill McLean. He played in three Tests and seven tour matches proving his capability as a durable tight forward, formidable in the ruck.

In 1947 he captained New South Wales to a victory over the touring All Blacks and was honoured with national captaincy in one of the Tests of that tour. He was vying against McLean for the tour captaincy of the 1947-48 Wallaby Tour and when Queensland won the interstate selection series that year, McLean was given the honour. Hardcastle played twenty-two matches on the tour including the final UK match against the Barbarians. He did not play in any Tests.

He returned to the Test arena in 1949 playing against the New Zealand Māori in Sydney. His final representative appearance was for New South Wales in 1950 against the British Isles.

Playing style
Though a tall man Hardcastle was not a proficient jumper and often adopted spoiling tactics to prevent opposition locks getting above him in the line-out. The writer Howell toured and played alongside Hardcastle on the 1947-48 Tour and asserts that this habit led to various incidents when opposition forwards would get-square with Hardcastle to warn him off from holding them down in the jump.

Howell also notes that Hardcastle had a lifelong stutter. This affected his ability to communicate quickly on-field but also led to an amusing incident on the 1947-48 tour when Hardcastle was nominated after the Swansea match to give the traditional visitor's response to the after-dinner speech. When tour manager Arnold Tancred called upon "the esteemed Dr Phil Hardcastle" to reply, Hardcastle got to his feet and said "Gee-gee-gee-gentlemen, w-w-words f-f-fail me" and sat down.

Published references
 Howell, Max (2005) Born to Lead - Wallaby Test Captains, Celebrity Books, Auckland NZ

Footnotes

External links
 Phil Hardcastle record at StatsGuru

1919 births
1962 deaths
Australian rugby union captains
Australian rugby union players
Australia international rugby union players
People educated at Scots College (Sydney)
Rugby union locks
Rugby union players from Buenos Aires
Eastern Suburbs players

Phil Hardcastle


St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral (, Hram-pametnik "Sveti Aleksandar Nevski") is a Bulgarian Orthodox cathedral in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria. Built in Neo-Byzantine style, it serves as the cathedral church of the Patriarch of Bulgaria and it is one of the 50 largest Christian church buildings by volume in the world. It is one of Sofia's symbols and primary tourist attractions. St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia occupies an area of  and can hold 5,000 people inside. It is among the 10 largest Eastern Orthodox church buildings. It is the largest cathedral in the Balkans. It is believed that up until the year 2000 it was the largest finished Orthodox cathedral.

History, architecture and construction

The construction of the St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral started in 1882 (having been planned since 19 February 1879), when the foundation stone was laid, but most of it was built between 1904 and 1912. Saint Alexander Nevsky was a Russian prince. The cathedral was created in honour to the Russian soldiers who died during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, as a result of which Bulgaria was liberated from Ottoman rule.

The cathedral was designed by Alexander Pomerantsev, aided by Alexander Smirnov and Alexander Yakovlev, as the initial 1884–1885 project of Ivan Bogomolov was radically changed by Pomerantsev. The final design was finished in 1898, and the construction and decoration were done by a team of Bulgarian, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and other European artists, architects and workers, including the aforementioned architects, as well as Petko Momchilov, Yordan Milanov, Haralampi Tachev, Ivan Mrkvička, Vasily Bolotnov, Nikolay Bruni, Alexander Kiselyov, Anton Mitov and many others.

The marble parts and the lighting fixtures were created in Munich, the metal elements for the gates in Berlin, while the gates themselves were manufactured in Karl Bamberg's factory in Vienna, and the mosaics were shipped from Venice.

The Alexander Nevsky Cathedral is a cross-domed basilica featuring an emphasized central dome. The cathedral's gold-plated dome is  ( with the cross), with the bell tower reaching . The roof span of the central nave is  The temple has 12 bells with total weight of 23 tons, the heaviest weighing 12 tons and the lightest . The interior is decorated with Italian marble in various colours, Brazilian onyx, alabaster, and other luxurious materials. The central dome has the Lord's Prayer inscribed around it, with thin gold letters.

There are many churches in Bulgaria which are smaller copies of St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral like the temples in the following towns: Valchedram,
Sandanski,
Dolna Mitropoliya,
Kyustendil,
Kaspichan,
Breznik, Dorkovo village.

Name changes
The name of the cathedral was briefly changed to the Sts. Cyril and Methodius Cathedral between 1916 and 1920 (since Bulgaria and Russia belonged to opposing alliances in World War I), but then the initial name was restored. The St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral was consecrated on 12 September 1924 and in 1955 was declared a cultural monument.

Relics
To the left of the altar is a case displaying relics of Alexander Nevsky, given by the Russian Orthodox Church.  Although the accompanying Bulgarian-language plaque refers simply to "relics" (мощи), the item on display appears to be a piece of a rib.

Museum and market

There is a museum of Bulgarian icons inside the cathedral crypt, part of the National Art Gallery. The church claims that the museum contains the largest collection of Orthodox icons in Europe.

Nearby locations
The cathedral is adjacent to St. Sofia Church, the church for which the city of Sofia is named.  Other notable landmarks in the immediate vicinity of the cathedral are the Monument to the Unknown Soldier, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the National Gallery of Foreign Art, the National Art Academy, the Bulgarian Parliament, a park honoring Ivan Vazov with his monument and gravestone, the Sofia Opera and Ballet, and a park where one can buy handmade textiles, icons, and antiques in a small flea market.

Gallery

See also

List of churches in Sofia
List of large Orthodox cathedrals
List of tallest domes

References

External links

 Old photographs of the Nevsky Cathedral
 Three dimensional rendering of Alexander Nevsky Cathedral (without plugin; in English, Spanish, German)
 3D Laser scanning of Alexander Nevsky Cathedral

20th-century churches in Bulgaria
Cathedrals in Sofia
Bulgarian Orthodox cathedrals
Tourist attractions in Sofia
Churches completed in 1912
20th-century Eastern Orthodox church buildings
Church buildings with domes
Byzantine Revival architecture in Bulgaria
Sofia
1912 establishments in Bulgaria
Religious museums in Bulgaria
Bulgarian Orthodox churches in Sofia

Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia


Christopher Scott Petersen (born October 13, 1964) is a former American football coach who was most recently the head coach at the University of Washington. Previously the head coach for eight seasons at Boise State University, Petersen guided the Broncos to two BCS bowl wins: the (2006 Season) 2007 and (2009 Season) 2010 Fiesta Bowls. He is the first two-time winner of the Paul "Bear" Bryant Award, which he won in 2006 and 2009. Petersen also won the Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award in 2010. At Washington, Petersen led the Huskies to the College Football Playoff in 2016, but fell to Alabama in the Peach Bowl. Petersen announced his resignation on December 2, 2019, to be effective after the team's bowl game.

Early life
Born and raised in Yuba City, California, Petersen played safety and quarterback for the Honkers at Yuba City High School. After graduation in 1983, he played quarterback for the Sacramento City College Panthers for two seasons, then transferred to non-scholarship UC Davis,
then in Division II. He earned a bachelor's degree in psychology in 1988 and a master's degree in education from UC Davis.

Coaching career

Early coaching career
Petersen began his coaching career in 1987 as the head freshman coach at UC Davis under Hall of Fame coach Jim Sochor. In 1989, he became the receivers coach for the varsity, departing in 1992 to become the quarterbacks coach at Pittsburgh. While at Pittsburgh, he coached QB Alex Van Pelt to a season where he threw for over 3,100 yards with twenty touchdowns.

He moved back west in 1993 to coach the quarterbacks at Portland State under Tim Walsh; the Vikings advanced to the Division II playoffs in both 1993 and 1994. Petersen moved over to Oregon in 1995 as the receivers coach, and spent six years as an assistant for the Ducks under head coach Mike Bellotti. In 1996, WR Cristin McLeMore topped 1,000 yards receiving. In 1997, WR Pat Johnson topped 1,000 yards.  In 1998, WRs Damon Griffin and Tony Hartley both topped 1,000 yards on the year.

In January 2001, Petersen was hired as the offensive coordinator at Boise State by newly-promoted head coach  The offense peaked in 2003, scoring a school-best 602 points en route to a 13-1 season: QB Ryan Dinwiddie threw for 4,356 yards and 31 TD, RB David Mikell ran for 1,142 yards and 13 TD, and WR Tim Gilligan had 1,192 yards and 6 TD.

Boise State
Hawkins left Boise State for Colorado after the 2005 season, and Petersen was promoted to head coach on  Sophomore tailback Ian Johnson said about the transition, "We trusted him and knew he was going to take care of us. We knew he was a great person. He was going to recruit people just like himself. We waited for him to get everybody here and he got in the perfect people." Petersen had served as offensive coordinator at Boise State for five seasons and was twice nominated for the Broyles Award, given to the nation's best assistant coach.

2007 Fiesta Bowl
In his first year as head coach, Petersen led the Broncos to an undefeated regular season in 2006 and the program's first ever BCS bowl game berth. He became the fourth rookie head coach to lead a team to a BCS bowl game; Boise State was the only undefeated team in Division I FBS for the 2006 season.

The Broncos defeated Big 12 champion Oklahoma in the Fiesta Bowl as only the second BCS non-AQ conference school to play in a BCS bowl, after Utah in 2004. Petersen drew particular attention for his bold play calling after the Broncos, who were leading most of the game, trailed the Sooners by a touchdown late in the contest. A 50-yard hook-and-lateral play on 4th-and-18 described as "stunning" tied the game with seven seconds left. An option pass (off a direct snap to a wide receiver) on 4th-and-2 on Boise State's possession in overtime pulled the Broncos within one point after Oklahoma scored on their possession. Petersen then decided to forgo an extra point kick and go for the victory with a two-point conversion attempt, calling a successful "Statue of Liberty" misdirection play for a 43-42 win. Petersen stated, "We were trying to get to it earlier, to tell you the truth. We needed a play like that to get it over with."

Improved contracts
After the undefeated season of 2006, the Idaho State Board of Education approved a new contract for Petersen on February 22, 2007, paying him $4.25 million for five years, or $850,000   was paid mostly by revenue from the Football Coaches Club, the Bronco Athletic Association booster club, and media and public appearances; state-appropriated funds covered $150,000

After leading Boise State to another undefeated regular season in 2009, Petersen was rewarded with a new five-year contract extension on January 1, 2010. The state board of education approved the new contract on April 22, which paid $8 million over five years, or $1.6 million per year. The contract also included automatic one-year extensions to the contract each time Petersen won at least eight regular

Petersen's last contract in Boise was agreed to on January 3, 2012. The five-year, $18 million deal called for a base salary of $2 million for the 2012 season, with $200,000 raises in each subsequent season. It also included retention bonuses of $100,000 after two years and $200,000 in each of the final three years

Washington
On December 6, 2013, Petersen agreed to a five-year, $18 million contract to become the new head coach at Washington. He replaced Steve Sarkisian, who announced that he was leaving Washington to take the same position at USC three days after the 2013 Apple Cup.

In Petersen's first season in 2014, Washington went 8–6 and lost in the Cactus Bowl to Oklahoma State. During the season, Petersen became the quickest active FBS coach to reach 100 wins, achieving the mark in just 117 games as a head coach.

In 2015, a young Huskies team finished 7–6, including an upset at USC against Sarkisian. Washington defeated Southern Miss in the Heart of Dallas Bowl. Petersen signed a two-year contract extension near the end of the 2015 season.

The 2016 Huskies had one of the best seasons in Washington history, winning the Pac-12 championship and earning a berth to the program's first-ever College Football Playoff. In the Pac-12 Championship, No. 4 Washington defeated No. 9 Colorado 41–10 at Levi's Stadium. On December 31, 2016, Alabama beat Washington 24–7 in the Peach Bowl, ending the Huskies' season. After the season, Petersen's contract was extended through 2023 with an average salary of $4.875 million per year. This new contract made Petersen the highest paid coach in the Pac-12 at the time.

Washington posted back-to-back 10-win seasons for the first time since 1990–91 after going 10–3 in 2017. The Huskies played in a New Year's Six bowl, losing to Penn State in the Fiesta Bowl.

Petersen led the Huskies to another Pac-12 title in 2018. UW defeated Utah 10–3 in the title game to clinch a berth in the Rose Bowl against Ohio State. During the season, Washington beat No. 7 Washington State in the Apple Cup, marking the Huskies' sixth straight rivalry win over the Cougars under Petersen.

After losing numerous key starters to the NFL Draft, the 2019 Huskies regressed from previous seasons, finishing the regular season 7–5. Petersen and the Huskies did win their seventh straight Apple Cup in 2019, beating Washington State, 31–13. On December 2, Petersen announced he would step down as Washington's head coach at the end of the season and assume a leadership advisory role with the athletics program. In his final game as coach, Washington beat his former team, Boise State, in the
Las Vegas Bowl, 38–7.

Personal life
Petersen and his wife, Barbara, have two sons, Jack and Sam. His father, Ron Petersen, is a Seattle native who grew up watching University of Washington football games on television as a boy.

Honors

 Paul "Bear" Bryant Award in 2006 and 2009
 Western Athletic Conference Coach of the Year in 2008
 Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award in 2010

Head coaching record

* Petersen resigned before bowl game

References

External links
 Washington profile

1964 births
Living people
American football quarterbacks
Boise State Broncos football coaches
Oregon Ducks football coaches
Pittsburgh Panthers football coaches
Portland State Vikings football coaches
UC Davis Aggies football coaches
UC Davis Aggies football players
Washington Huskies football coaches
Sacramento City Panthers football players
Sportspeople from Greater Sacramento
People from Yuba City, California
Coaches of American football from California
Players of American football from California

Chris Petersen


Abraham Saba (1440–1508) was a preacher in Castile who became a pupil of Isaac de Leon. At the time of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain he took refuge in Portugal, where he met with further misfortune; for scarcely had he settled in Oporto when King Manuel I of Portugal ordered all Jews to be expelled from Portugal, all Jewish children to become Christians, and all Hebrew books to be burned (December 24, 1496). Saba's two sons were forcibly taken from him, and he fled from Oporto, abandoning his entire library and succeeding only at the risk of his life in saving his own works in manuscript.

He fled to Lisbon, but before reaching there was told of a new order of the king decreeing the death of any Jew with whom a Hebrew book or tefillin (phylacteries) were found. He hid his manuscripts and tefillin under an olive-tree and entered the city. Upon leaving Lisbon he attempted to recover his hidden treasure, but being discovered by the king's guards, he was thrown into prison, and after a six months' confinement was sent across the frontier. He went to Fez, Morocco, where he resided for ten years. Soon after his arrival he fell ill; his great privations and terrible sufferings having undermined his health.

Works
On his recovery he recommitted to paper from memory the following works, the original manuscripts of which had been lost in Portugal:
Eshkol ha-Kofer (A Cluster of Camphire), a commentary on the Book of Ruth and Book of Esther
Ẓeror ha-Ḥayyim (Bundle of Life), commentaries on the Song of Songs and the treatise Berakot
Ẓeror ha-Mor (Bundle of Myrrh), a commentary on the Pentateuch, containing interpretations according to both the ordinary sense and the mystical method of the Zohar
Ẓeror ha-Kesef (Bundle of Silver), legal decisions
A manuscript of his commentary on the Book of Job was in Jellinek's library. Saba wrote also a commentary on Pirkei Avot, mentioned in his commentary on Genesis, pp. 3 and 5.

According to Chida, who read the anecdote in a work entitled Divrei Yosef, Abraham in journeying from Fez to Verona became sick on the ship in mid-ocean during a great storm. The captain, unable to control the ship, had given up all hope, and implored Rabbi Abraham to pray for divine assistance. Abraham stipulated that in case of his death his body should be delivered to the Jewish community of Verona, and then prayed for the safety of the vessel. His prayer was heard, the storm abated, and the ship went safely on. Two days later Abraham died, and the captain, keeping his promise, brought the body to Verona, where it was buried with great honors.

Abraham Saba is not to be confounded with R. Abraham Saba of Adrianpolou, who is mentioned in the responsa of R. Elijah Mizraḥi, No. 52.

References

 Its bibliography:
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 4301;
H. Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, 2nd ed., viii.219, 379;
H.J. Michael, Or ha-Ḥayyim, No. 199.

1440 births
1508 deaths
15th-century Castilian rabbis
Jews expelled from Spain in 1492

Abraham Saba


Half These Songs Are About You is the first album released by the band Nizlopi in August 2004. It includes the number one single, "JCB". Despite the duo nature of Nizlopi, this album is largely populated by full band tracks with real drums (instead of John Parker's human beatbox) and many other instruments. The songs therefore sound quite different live.

Track listing
 "Fine Story" – 3:35
 "Girls" – 3:55
 "Call It Up" – 3:36
 "Faith" – 3:03
 "Long Distance" – 3:37
 "JCB" – 3:47
 "Love Rage On" – 3:13
 "Freedom" – 4:12
 "Wash Away" – 3:50
 "Sing Around It" – 4:21
 "Worry" – 6:24

There is also a hidden track, "Intro Song", after "Worry".

Certifications

References

Nizlopi albums
2004 debut albums

Half These Songs Are About You


The Palazzo Giugni, also called the Palazzo Firenzuola, is a late-Renaissance or Mannerist architecture palace designed by Bartolomeo Ammanati, and located on Via degli Alfani #48 in the quartiere San Giovanni of Florence, region of Tuscany, Italy. It is located down the street from the Brunelleschi's church of Santa Maria degli Angeli.

History
The palace was erected on land once occupied by the Camaldolese monastery of Santa Margherita delle Romite di Cafaggiolo (no longer extant). It was commissioned by Simone da Firenzuola from Ammanati in 1570 and completed in 1577. Ammanati also completed the building on Alfani #32. Simone had forbidden his children from selling the palace; however, lacking male descendants, in 1640, the palace came into the Giugni family with the marriage of Niccolò Giugni and Luisa Giraldi.

At this time it was enlarged and two wings were added. A gallery was decorated using designs of Massimiliano Soldani Benzi, with stuccoes by Giovanni Martino Portogalli and ceiling frescoes by Alessandro Gherardini celebrating Medici support of the arts. The marchese Giugni served as Guardaroba Maggiore to the Grand-Duke of Tuscany.

In 1830, the Giugni family sold the palace to the Della Porta family, and between 1829 and 1839, the English painter and writer Walter Savage Landor, resided with the family. Federico Fantozzi in his guide of Florence from 1842: described the palace as Beautiful, simple, and balanced in the facade, but more importantly, exceeding beautiful in the doric portal. The portal, with rusticated borders, is decorated with classical and other zoomorphic touches. Landor did criticize as a design flaw that the height of the portal exceeds the pediments above the windows. On the second floor in the center of the facade is the coat of arms of the Firenzuola made by the Opificio delle Pietre Dure in 1950. The original shield is now  located under the porch. The ground floor windows perch on Mannerist brackets.
Beyond the courtyard is a small garden on the back wall characterized by the fountain of Giant overwhelmed by Boulders or Fall of Titan (1690) attributed to the sculptor Lorenzo Migliorini.

The palace underwent restoration complete by 1871 under the guidance of Emilio De Fabris, and in the 1970s by Lando Bartoli. In 2015, the palace housed offices of both industry and from a high school for girls.

References

Buildings and structures completed in 1577
Houses completed in the 16th century
Giugni
Renaissance architecture in Florence

Palazzo Giugni


Human Garbage is a 1984 live album by the UK underground artist Mick Farren and friends, released under the name The Deviants.

Farren had relocated to New York but a return visit to London gave him the opportunity for this one-off performance with Larry Wallis' Previously Unreleased group at Dingwalls on 3 February 1984. In addition, former MC5 guitarist Wayne Kramer, a long-standing collaborator with Farren, flew in for this performance.

Track listing
"Outrageous Contagious" (Mick Farren, Larry Wallis) – originally on Mick Farren and the Deviants Screwed Up EP
"Broken Statue" (Farren, Wallis) – originally a Mick Farren 1978 single A-side, later on Pink Fairies Kill 'Em and Eat 'Em LP
"Ramblin' Rose" (Fred Burch, Marijohn Wilkin) – originally on MC5's Kick Out the Jams LP
"Hey Thanks" (Wayne Kramer) – originally on Johnny Thunders and Wayne Kramer's Gang War
"Screwed Up" (Farren, Paul Rudolph) – originally on Mick Farren and the Deviants Screwed Up EP
"I Wanna Drink" (Farren, Wallis) – originally on Mick Farren's Vampires Stole My Lunch Money LP
"Taking LSD" (Wallis, Duncan Sanderson) – originally on Pink Fairies Kill 'Em and Eat 'Em LP
"Police Car" (Wallis) – originally a Larry Wallis 1978 single A-side
"Trouble Coming Every Day" (Frank Zappa) – originally on The Mothers of Invention's Freak Out! LP

Personnel
The Deviants
Mick Farren – vocals
Larry Wallis – guitar, vocals
Wayne Kramer – guitar
Duncan Sanderson – bass
George Butler – drums

References

Sounds reviews: Gig, 18 February 1984; LP, 12 May 1984

The Deviants (band) albums
1984 live albums

Human Garbage


Michael Alfred Noble (10 March 1935 – 12 March 1983) was a British Labour Party politician.

Early life
Noble was the son of Alfred "Bunny" Noble and Olive Noble (née Earle), a bricklayer and a school cook respectively. He was born in a small village near Hull. He was the first child in his school to pass the 11+ exam, and to celebrate his achievement the whole school got a day off. He attended Hull Grammar School and was a keen athlete, winning the Victor Ludorum in his senior years. He was always proud of his background, particularly of the fact that his mother insisted he continue at school beyond the minimum leaving age and worked extra hours to ensure the family could afford this, as she did for both of his younger brothers, who also followed him to the grammar school. He went to the University of Sheffield, initially intending to read geography. However, his colour blindness forced him into a change of subject, and he switched to economics.

Teaching career
For his National Service, Noble chose to become a teacher and pursued this course subsequently by becoming a lecturer for the Workers' Educational Association, for whom he lectured in industrial relations. As a consequence of this career he moved from Yorkshire to Burnley in Lancashire, where his two younger children were born. He was always a supporter of the Labour Party and was elected to the local council, becoming the Chair of the Education Committee.

Parliamentary career
He first stood for parliament in 1970 when he contested the Withington constituency, but was unsuccessful. He was then selected for the Rossendale constituency and, despite narrowly being defeated in the February 1974 general election, Noble was elected Member of Parliament in the October 1974 general election. He lost the seat to the Conservative candidate David Trippier in 1979.

While a Member of Parliament, Noble served as Parliamentary Private Secretary to Roy Hattersley (now Lord Hattersley), in his position as Secretary of State for Prices and Consumer Protection.

Back to teaching
After losing his seat in the Conservative victory of 1979, Noble returned to his roots as an educationalist, working first for Blackburn College and then for Burnley College.

Personal life
He married Brenda Peak in December 1956; their first child, Julie, was born the following December, followed in November 1963 by Gary and in January 1970 by Michelle (Shelley).

He was fanatical about sport, namely cricket and football—both of which he was qualified to coach—and it was whilst watching Burnley playing Sheffield at Turf Moor that he had his fatal heart attack, aged only 48. There had been no warnings or symptoms of any heart problems.

References
Times Guide to the House of Commons 1979

External links

1935 births
1983 deaths
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1974–1979
Alumni of the University of Sheffield

Michael Noble (Labour politician)


The Lycée Saint-Louis is a post-secondary school located in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, in the Latin Quarter. It is the only public French lycée exclusively dedicated to providing classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles (CPGE; preparatory classes for the Grandes Écoles such as École Polytechnique, CentraleSupélec in engineering and ESSEC Business School, ESCP Business School, and HEC Paris in commerce).

Saint-Louis has graduated many notable alumni, including five Nobel laureates, one Fields laureate, one President of France, as well as major intellectual figures such as Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Émile Zola or Louis Pasteur.

History

Collège d'Harcourt

The lycée Saint-Louis was formerly known as the Collège d'Harcourt (). The Collège d'Harcourt was founded in 1280 by Robert and Raoul d'Harcourt to offer food and housing for around forty students from underprivileged backgrounds. Starting from its beginning, it was not only a simple student residence but also a place of teaching, this activity took more and more importance over time. During the Wars of Religion, it was a Catholic stronghold. As a result, Henri IV confiscated the college's property and dismissed its director. Once peace returned, the king reformed the teaching of the colleges: initially intended to train clerics and academics through theological studies, the college was transformed into an institution where the children of the gentry, Parisian bourgeoisie and scholarship holders from Normandy studied.

The college started to become famous in the 16th century, and great historical figures such as Racine, Boileau and Perrault attended it in the 17th and 18th centuries.

In the 18th century, it was a stronghold of Jansenists and graduated several of the philosophes and Encyclopédistes of the Enlightenment and therefore opposed the influence of the Jesuits in education, whose stronghold was located couples meter away, at the college of Clermont.

The original building was demolished in 1795 and the present one was built on its site in 1814.

In the course of the tumultuous 19th century, the lycée was successively turned by force into a prison, barracks and reformatory.

Lycée Saint-Louis

In 1812, a decree of Napoleon I ordered the reopening of the Collège d'Harcourt according to the plans of J.-B. Guynet, in order to accommodate an imperial lycée. However, it was not until October 1820 that the "Collège Royal Saint-Louis" took over from the former Collège d'Harcourt, and welcomed again boarders in 1823. In 1848, following the French Revolution of 1830, it changed its name to "Lycée Saint-Louis", after being called "Lycée Monge " for several months.

The lycée is primarily devoted to the instruction of science (since 1885, the boarding school only welcomed scientific students) and in scientific classes préparatoires aux Grandes Écoles (established in 1866, the only ones present at the school since the closing of the last high school class in 1969). In 1843, a student from the school won the first prize in mathematics for the first time in the concours général. The classes préparatoires aux Grandes Écoles opened in 1866 and allowed students to take the competitive exams for the École polytechnique, the École normale supérieure (in science), Centrale, the École forestière and Saint-Cyr, and were expanded in 1885 to include preparation for the École navale.

A statue of Saint Louis stands in the middle of the central courtyard. According to an old tradition now fully integrated to the school's folklore, students that have succeeded in getting in Polytechnique have to thank their alma mater by splashing the statue with red or yellow paint depending on whether the year is even or odd. Few days later, the statue is simply painted back white explaining why its traits have become a little bit faded over the years.

Academics

The school offers mainly scientific courses including MPSI (Mathematics, Physics, Engineering), PCSI (Physics, Chemistry and Engineering) for the freshmen, and MP (Mathematics, Physics), PC (Physics, Chemistry), PSI (Physics, Engineering) for seniors as well as BCPST (Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Geology). The lycée has also courses relying heavily on Mathematics and preparing students for the highly selective French Business Schools, they are only intended for students who have completed a scientific Baccalauréat.
The lycée Saint-Louis, as its neighbors the lycées Louis-le-Grand and Henri IV, commonly known as "the three Lycées of the Sainte-Geneviève hill", is renowned for its selectivity, the quality of its teaching and its results in the various competitive examinations.

Campus
The school has a  library (open until 10:15 p.m. for boarders and day students), a mixed dormitory with 356 beds (234 single rooms, 61 double rooms) and a chapel. It also has a cafeteria, in addition to the dining hall, and classrooms are available to students outside of their normal hours of use.

The campus also has sports facilities: a sports field and two multi-sports gymnasiums (ultimate, basketball, volleyball, badminton, etc.), a gym, a billiard room and a climbing wall. Students have two mandatory hours of sports per week and the sports association allows access to its facilities at noon and in the evening.

Notable alumni

 Claude Allègre - (b. 1937), former Minister, geochemist
 Charles Baudelaire - (1821–1867), writer
 Joseph Bertrand - (1822–1900), mathematician, Academician
 Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux - (1636–1711), writer, Academician
 Cahit Arf - (1910-1997), mathematician, (founder of Arf Rings)
 Paul Lévy - (1886-1971), mathematician, (founder of martingale process in probability)
 Patrice de Mac Mahon - (1808-1893), French President
 Fortuné du Boisgobey - (1821–1891), writer
 Georges Charpak - (1924–2010), physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics 1992
 Emmanuel Chabrier - (1841-1894), composer
  Abraham De Moivre - (1667-1754), mathematician, founder of De Moivre's formula
 Hubert Curien - (1924–2005), physicist, former Minister of Research
 Denis Diderot - (1713–1784), writer and philosopher
 Charles-François Dupuis - (1742–1809), author
 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes - (1932–2007), physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics 1991
 Charles Gounod - (1818–1893), composer
 Jean-Martin Charcot - (1825–1893), neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology
 Joris-Karl Huysmans - (1848–1907), novelist and art critic
 Eugène Marin Labiche - (1815–1888), dramatist
 Henri Lebesgue - (1875–1941), mathematician
 Montesquieu - (1689–1755), writer and philosopher
 Louis Néel - (1904–2000), physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics 1970
 Louis Pasteur - (1822–1895), chemist and microbiologist, Academician
 Charles Perrault - (1628–1703), writer, Academician
 Jean Racine - (1639–1699), dramatist, Academician
 Alain Robbe-Grillet - (1922–2008), writer and cinematographer, Academician
 Alexandre Rousselin de Saint-Albin - (1773–1847), politician
 Charles de Saint-Évremond - (1613–1703), writer
 Antoine de Saint-Exupéry - (1900–1944), writer and aviator
 Claude Simon - (1913–2005), writer, Nobel Prize in Literature 1985
 Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord - (1754–1838), statesman
 Yves Tanguy - (1900–1955), surrealist painter
 René Thom - (1923–2002), mathematician, Fields Medal 1958
 Ahmed Vefik Pasha - (1823–1891), Ottoman statesman, diplomat, and playwright
 André Weil - (1906–1998), mathematician
 Émile Zola - (1840–1902), writer
 Jules Massenet - (1842–1912), composer
 Jean-Luc Lagardère - (1928-2003), businessman and founder of Lagardère

Notable teachers
 Maurice Goldring, English professor
 Octave Gréard, academic
 Jacques Hadamard, mathematician
 Léopold Lacour, rhetoric professor, lecturer and playwright

Notes

References
L'ancien collège d'Harcourt et le lycée Saint-Louis, Bouquet, H.L., Paris, Delalin frères, 1891.
Du collège d'Harcourt, 1280, au lycée Saint-Louis, 1980, Fusellier, E., Euvrard, M., Paris, A.P.E. du lycée Saint-Louis, 1980.
Septième centenaire !, Humblot, H., in Bulletin d'information de L'association des parents d'élèves du lycée Saint-Louis. 1978/1979.

External links
 Site of Lycée Saint-Louis (in French)
 History of the lycée (in French)

Colleges of the University of Paris
Saint-Louis
Buildings and structures in the 6th arrondissement of Paris

Lycée Saint-Louis


The Jaunsari are a small community found in Uttarakhand, northern India, more specifically in the Jaunsar-Bawar region of the western portion of the state in Garhwal Division. They speak the Jaunsari language which is an Indo-Aryan language.

Jaunsari is a generic term for many communities.

Culture
Jaunsari community reveres  'Mahasu Devta' which is principal deity of Jaunsari community.
Dance and music are integral part of Jaunsari culture. During festivals both men and women dance under the intoxication of the folk music. Local people perform folk dances such as Harul, Ghundiya Raso, Jhenta Raso, Jangbazi, Thoude, and many more. Fair like Moroj and Bissu are held which mark the harvesting period.

Clothing
As a society which resides in the harsh climate of the Himalayas, their clothing is primarily woollen oriented which would keep them warm. Their attire stands out from the rest of Uttarakhand.

Men's Clothing: Jaunsari men wear a woolen pyjama/churidar known as Jhangel (झंगेल) and on top of that they wear a woollen coat known as Chora (चोड़ा), both made up of sheep wool. The Chora's texture is that of a karate uniform, it can be kept loose, or it can be tucked in both of the sides and can be bound with a woollen belt known as Majan (मँजण). It can also be draped over the shoulders without tucking in the arms. As for headwear, traditionally men have been wearing Diguwa (डिगुवा) or popularly known as Gandhi Cap for a very long time, but in modern fashion men can be seen sporting a Himachali cap. Judo (जुडो) is an archaic white dress which covers the entire body like a gown, it reaches just above the ankles and has folds. The sleeves, shoulders, chest and back portion of the dress are embroidered whereas the rest of the region remains white. It is accompanied by a cotton/silk Majan(मँजण), i.e., a belt. It was to be worn by everyone attending the darbar of the Sirmaur King in its capital Nahan in old times. Nowadays, it is worn during festivals for performing folk dances. During winters when it snows a lot people wear woollen shoes known as Khurshe (खुर्शे) which keeps the wearer's feet warm.

Women's Clothing: Jaunsari women wear Ghagra which is unique due to its sharp folds known as Luria (लुड़िया). The portion which divides the Ghagra from the fall of the Ghagra is embroidered with floral patterns which forms a strip which is known as Phita (फिता). The Ghahra is paired with a Jhagga (झअगा) which is like a Kameez. It can be paired with a Waistcoat or a Kurti (कुर्ति) - which is an overcoat especially made for women. Women's version of Chora is known as Cholori (चोलोड़ी). Women cover their head with a scarf known as Dhantu (ढाँटु) which can be tied in various styles. For jewellery women wear Tungal (तुंगल), Bulak (बुलाक), Naath (नाथ), Uttrainyan (उतरैइयाँ), etc. A smaller Ghagra for younger girls is known as Ghaguti (घागुटि).

References

Scheduled Tribes of Uttarakhand

Jaunsari people


The Portland Daily Sun was a free newspaper that was distributed to retail and business locations in Portland, Maine between 2009 and 2014.

The paper was founded in 2009 by Mark Guerringue and Adam Hirshan of Country News Club, in partnership with Curtis Robinson, who served as founding editor. Its first edition was printed February 3, 2009. Circulation, which started at 3,000 copies, quickly rose to 15,000. It published five days a week, Tuesday through Saturday.

In 2012, the newspaper moved its offices to the Time and Temperature Building in downtown Portland. At the time, publisher Mark Guerringue said The Portland Daily Sun was not yet profitable, but "We're poised for it, the pieces are in place".

In 2013, the newspaper decreased its publication days from five to only two per week (Tuesdays and Fridays), citing a lack of advertisers. The Portland Daily Sun published its final issue on December 23, 2014.

Columnists and contributors
The Sun featured local columnists Natalie Ladd, Cliff Gallant, Telly Halkias, Karen Vaschon, Curtis Robinson, and Bob Higgins. Tim Gillis contributed to features.

Sisters and competitors
The Portland Daily Sun was the third free daily newspaper to follow the model of The Conway Daily Sun, launched by Mark Guerringue and Adam Hirshan in 1989 in Conway, New Hampshire. Its sister papers owned by Country News Club and its affiliates also included The Berlin Daily Sun and The Laconia Daily Sun, both in New Hampshire, and a weekly, The Northern Light, in western Maine.

The Sun competed head-to-head with the Portland Press Herald, the largest newspaper in the state of Maine.

References

External links
Official website

2009 establishments in Maine
Free daily newspapers
Newspapers published in Portland, Maine
Newspapers established in 2009
2014 disestablishments in Maine

The Portland Daily Sun


The Geographical Names Board of Canada (GNBC) is a national committee with a secretariat in Natural Resources Canada, part of the Government of Canada, which authorizes the names used and name changes on official federal government maps of Canada.

History
It was created in December 1897, by Order in Council, as the Geographic Board of Canada. It consisted of one Board member from each of four Government of Canada departments, as well as the Surveyor General of Dominion Lands, while a secretariat was provided by the then-extant Department of the Interior. In December 1899, the Order in Council was amended to give the Canadian provinces and territories the right to nominate one official, each, to be a Board member.

Structure
, the Board consists of 27 members, one from each of the provinces and territories, and others from departments of the Government of Canada. The board also is involved with names of areas in the Antarctic through the Antarctic Treaty. The secretariat is provided by Natural Resources Canada.

In addition to the provincial and territorial members are members from the following federal government departments: Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Canada Post Corporation, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Elections Canada, Library and Archives Canada, Department of National Defence, Natural Resources Canada (including Geological Survey of Canada and Canada Centre for Mapping and Earth Observation), Parks Canada, Statistics Canada, and the Translation Bureau. The Chair of the Geographical Names Board of Canada is Connie Wyatt Anderson from The Pas, Manitoba.

Process
In a two year period of 2019-2020, 750 names were added to the database with roughly 100 changes to names of already existing places. Citizens and government officials have the ability to write in with a form that is able to be filled out.  The local naming authority then becomes involved on the place in question gathering suggestions from the local and indigenous communities. This can include the revival of indigenous names, notable examples include qathet, Haida Gwaii, and the Salish Sea. Provincial governments have also taken liberty to change names, including Nunavut, Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec. Certain laws may apply such as for regional districts which typically have to include a distinguish geographic feature of the area in its name.

See also
Federal Information Processing Standard
GeoBase
Geographic Names Information System
GPS·C

External links
Canadian Geographical Names at Natural Resources Canada

References

1897 establishments in Canada
Federal departments and agencies of Canada
Geocodes
Government agencies established in 1897
Names of places in Canada
Natural Resources Canada
Geographical naming agencies

Geographical Names Board of Canada


Stephen Kontostephanos (,  – 1149) was a Byzantine aristocrat and military commander.

Stephen was born in , the son of the sebastos Isaac Kontostephanos, a military commander for most of the reign of Alexios I Komnenos (), culminating in his unsuccessful service as admiral (thalassokrator) against the Italo-Normans in 1107/8. He was the third member of the family to bear the name "Stephen" after the family's progenitor and a rather obscure paternal uncle. In , he married Anna, the second-born daughter of Emperor John II Komnenos () and Irene of Hungary, and received the title panhypersebastos. The couple had four children: the sons John, Alexios, and Andronikos, as well as a daughter, Irene, who married Nikephoros Bryennios.

Stephen's career under John II is unknown, but he enjoyed the favour of John's youngest son and eventual successor, Manuel I Komnenos () and is likely to have been among those who supported Manuel's accession over the rights of his elder brother Isaac Komnenos. Thus when Manuel I decided to depose the Patriarch of Constantinople Cosmas II Atticus due to the latter's sympathies with Isaac, Stephen was among the imperial relatives who participated in the synod that tried and deposed Cosmas in February 1147, with the pretext of his support for the Bogomil monk Nephon. When Cosmas, enraged at his dismissal, cursed the empress never to bear a male child, Stephen, a nervous and impetuous man, according to Niketas Choniates, tried to attack the patriarch, but at the last moment reined himself in. This made a bad impression among all the attendants, but Cosmas reportedly prophesied that he would soon receive his due blow as punishment.

In early 1148, Manuel launched a large campaign against Roger II of Sicily, whose Normans had captured Corfu. The megas domestikos John Axouch assumed command of the land forces, and Stephen was entrusted with the fleet as the megas doux. The campaign was originally to have been led by Manuel in person, but the arrival of the German emperor Conrad III in Constantinople obliged Manuel to remain there. The Byzantine expedition reached Corfu in November 1148 and laid siege to the island's main town. The siege went on for three months, when a stone thrown by a catapult hit Stephen while he was supervising the construction of a siege machine; mortally wounded, he was carried by his son Andronikos and a few Varangian Guardsmen to his flagship, where he died.

The court poet Theodore Prodromos and the so-called "Manganeios Prodromos" both describe him as a giant, whose own grave was too small to fit him, and laud his bravery and warlike achievements against the Normans, the Seljuk Turks, the Cumans and Pechenegs, and the Slavs of the western Balkans ("Illyrians and Dalmatians"). His wife survived him for several years, but it is unknown when she died; certainly it was before 1176.

References

Sources

1100s births
1149 deaths
12th-century Byzantine military personnel
Byzantines killed in battle
Deaths by projectile weapons
Generals of Manuel I Komnenos
Stephen
Megaloi doukes
Panhypersebastoi

Stephen Kontostephanos