Rhetoric of science is a body of scholarly literature exploring the notion that the practice of science is a rhetorical activity. It emerged after a number of similarly-oriented topics of research and discussion during the late 20th century, including the sociology of scientific knowledge, history of science, and philosophy of science, but it is practiced most typically by rhetoricians in academic departments of English, speech, and communication.

Overview
Rhetoric is best known as a discipline that studies the means and ends (i.e., methods and goals) of persuasion. Science, meanwhile, is typically considered to be the discovery and recording of knowledge about nature. A major contention of the rhetoric of science is that the practice of science itself is, to varying degrees, persuasive. The study of science from the viewpoint of rhetoric variously examines modes of inquiry, logic, argumentation, the ethos of scientific practitioners, the structures of scientific publications, and the character of scientific discourse and debates.

For instance, scientists must convince their community of scientists that their research is based on sound scientific method. In terms of rhetoric, the scientific method involves problem-solution topoi (the materials of discourse) that demonstrate observational and experimental competence (arrangement or order of discourse or method), and as a means of persuasion, offer explanatory and predictive power. Experimental competence is itself a persuasive topos. Rhetoric of science is a practice of suasion that is an outgrowth of some of the canons of rhetoric.

History
Since its flourishing during the 1970s, rhetoric of science has contributed to a shift of opinions concerning science to include the claim that there is not any single scientific method, but rather a plurality of methods or styles.

The rhetoric of science has included various sub-topics, as indicated by these examples. John Angus Campbell has studied the works of Charles Darwin with the intention of showing Darwin's rhetorical manipulations and strategic use of the social beliefs of his time. Carolyn Miller has emphasized genres within technology and the influence of technology on genre change. Jeanne Fahnestock has identified the use of classical rhetoric in scientific reasoning and argument. Greg Myers has studied how scientific publications, grants, and other scientific texts are the result of social processes and the pragmatics of politeness in scientific discussions.

Charles Bazerman's examination of the evolution of the varieties of writing characterized as experimental report through the first century and a half of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, the formation of social roles and norms concerning the publication of this journal, the Physical Review since its founding in 1893, and the evolution of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, along with scrutiny of works by Newton and Compton, and an analysis of the reading habits of physicists indicate the many social, organizational, ideological, political, theoretical, methodological, evidentiary, intertextual and intellectual factors that have influenced the character of writing and rhetoric. Bazerman's work has built upon these studies to consider the way knowledge is methodically produced and communicatively circulated in various activity systems. His work follows the lead of Ludwik Fleck on Thought Collectives and thought styles, structuration theory and phenomenology.

Other rhetoricians consider the rhetoric of science effectively beginning with Thomas Kuhn'sThe Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). Kuhn first examines "normal" science, that is, practices which he considered routine, patterned and accessible with a specific method of problem-solving. Normal science advances by building on past knowledge, through the accretion of further discoveries in a knowledge base. Kuhn then contrasts normal science with "revolutionary" science (new science marked by a paradigm shift in thought). When Kuhn began to teach Harvard undergraduates historical texts such as Aristotle's writings on motion, he examined case studies, and sought first to understand Aristotle in his own time, and then to locate his problems and solutions within a wider context of contemporary thought and actions.
 That is to say, Kuhn sought first to understand the traditions and established practices of science. In this instance, Michael Polanyi's influence on Kuhn becomes apparent; that is, his acknowledgement of the importance of inherited practices and rejection of absolute objectivity. Observing the changes in scientific thought and practices, Kuhn concluded that revolutionary changes happen through the defining notion of rhetoric: persuasion. The critical work of Herbert W. Simons – "Are Scientists Rhetors in Disguise?" in Rhetoric in Transition (1980) – and subsequent works show that Kuhn's Structure is fully rhetorical.

The work of Thomas Kuhn was extended by Richard Rorty (1979, 1989), and this work was to prove fruitful in defining the means and ends of rhetoric in scientific discourse (Jasinski "Intro" xvi). Rorty, who invented the phrase "rhetorical turn", was also interested in assessing periods of scientific stability and instability.

Another component of the shift in science that occurred during the past concerns the claim that there is no single scientific method, but rather a plurality of methods or styles. Paul Feyerabend in Against Method (1975) contends that science has found no "method that turns ideologically contaminated ideas into true and useful theories", in other words; no special method exists that can guarantee the success of science (302).

As evidenced by the early theory papers after Kuhn's seminal work, the idea that rhetoric is crucial to science became much discussed. Quarterly journals in speech and rhetoric included much discussion of topics such as inquiry, logic, argument fields, ethos of scientific practitioners, argumentation, scientific text, and the character of scientific discourse and debates. Philip Wander (1976) observed, for instance, the phenomenal penetration of science (public science) in modern life. He labelled the obligation of rhetoricians to investigate science's discourse "The Rhetoric of Science" (Harris "Knowing" 164).

As rhetoric of science began to flourish, discussion began of a number of topics, including:
 Epistemic rhetoric and the discourses on the nature of semantics, knowledge, and truth: One example is the Robert L. Scott's work on viewing rhetoric as epistemic (1967). By the 1990s, epistemic rhetoric was a point of contention in the writing of Dilip Gaonkar (see "Critique" below).
 The early 1970s Speech Communication Conference ("Wingspread conference") gave recognition to the fact that rhetoric, in its globalization (multidisciplinary nature), has become a universal hermeneutic (Gross Rhetorical 2-5). Much scholastic output evolved concerning the theory of interpretation (hermeneutics), the knowledge-making and truth-seeking (epistemic) potential of rhetoric of science.
 Argument Fields (part of the Speech Communication Association and American forensic Association program): In this domain the work of Toulmin on argument appeals is exemplary. In addition, Michael Mulkay, Barry Barnes and David Bloor, as pioneers of the "Sociology of Scientific Knowledge" (SSK) movement, fostered a growing sociobiology debate. Others as Greg Myers expressed the benefits of a collaboration between rhetoricians and sociologists. Contributors to discussion pertaining to audience – the way arguments change as they move from the scientific community to the public – include John Lyne and Henry Howe.
 Scientific Giants: The important works that investigate the suasive powers of exemplars in science include those of Alan G. Gross (Newton, Descartes, argument fields in optics), John Angus Campbell (Darwin), and Michael Halloran (Watson and Crick). J. C. Maxwell introduced differentiable vector fields E and B to express Michael Faraday's findings about an electric field E and a magnetic field B. Thomas K. Simpson has described his rhetorical methods, first with a guided study, then a literary appreciation of A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873), and with a book attending to the mathematical rhetoric.

Other major themes in rhetoric of science include the investigation of the accomplishments and suasive abilities of individuals (ethos) who have become influential in their respective sciences as well as an age old concern of rhetoric of science – public science policy. Science policy involves deliberative issues, and the first rhetorical study of science policy was made in 1953 by Richard M. Weaver. Among others, Helen Longino's work on public policy implications of low-level radiation continues this tradition.

The reconstitution of rhetorical theory around the lines of invention (inventio), argumentation and stylistic adaptation is occurring currently (Simons 6). The major question is whether training in rhetoric can in fact help scholars and investigators make intelligent choices between rival theories, methods or data collection, and incommensurate values (Simons 14).

Rhetoric of science is also an important theoretical body for rhetoric and composition studies in higher education. This body of work examines how to best prepare communicators for participation with science, such as in the work of Michael Zerbe, Carl Herndl, and Caroline Gottschalk Druschke. Through rhetorical historiography Madison Jones seeks to unearth the influence of other disciplines, such as ecology, on the ways contemporary rhetoricians theorize and define rhetorical inquiry. Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary collaboration in science also complicates rhetoric and composition pedagogy and provides a new emphasis on collaborative writing across scientific disciplines and with community groups and stakeholds.

Developments and trends

Epistemic rhetoric
Considering science fin terms of texts exhibiting epistemology based on prediction and control offers new comprehensive ways to consider the function of rhetoric of science (Gross "The Origin" 91-92). Epistemic rhetoric of science, in a broader context, confronts issues pertaining to truth, relativism, and knowledge.

Rhetoric of science, as a type of inquiry, does not consider natural science texts as a means of conveying knowledge, but rather it considers these texts as exhibiting persuasive structures. Although the natural sciences and humanities differ in a fundamental manner, the enterprise of science can be considered hermeneutically as a stream of texts which exhibit an epistemology based on understanding (Gross "On the Shoulders 21). Its task then is the rhetorical reconstruction of the means by which scientists convince themselves and others that their knowledge claims and assertions are an integral part of privileged activity of the community of thinkers with which they are allied (Gross "The Origin" 91).

In an article titled "On Viewing Rhetoric as Epistemic" (1967), Robert L. Scott offers "that truth can arise only from cooperative critical inquiry" (Harris "Knowing" 164). Scott's probe of the issues of belief, knowledge and argumentation substantiates that rhetoric is epistemic. This train of thought goes back to Gorgias who noted that truth is a product of discourse, not a substance added to it (Harris "Knowing" 164).

Scientific discourse is built on accountability of empirical fact which is presented to a scientific community. Each form of communication is a type of genre that fosters human interaction and relations. An example is the emerging form of the experimental report (Bazerman "Reporting" 171-176). The suite of genres to which the rhetoric of science comes to bear on health care and scientific communities is legion.

Aristotle could never accept the unavailability of certain knowledge, although most now believe the contrary (Gross "On Shoulders" 20). That is to say, Aristotle would have rejected the main concern of rhetoric of science: knowledge. Knowing itself generates the explanation of knowing, and this is the domain of the theory of knowledge. The knowledge of knowledge compels an attitude of vigilance against the temptation of certainty (Maturana 239-245).

The claim of the epistemic problematic of rhetoric of science concerns:
 truth - property of statements with respect to other statements
 knowledge - configuration of mutually supporting true statements
 arguments - are situational (first principle of rhetoric)
(Harris "Knowing" 180-181).

Argument fields
By the 1980s, Stephen Toulmin's work on argument fields published in his book titled The Uses of Argument (1958) came to prominence through rhetorical societies such as the Speech Communication Association which adopted a sociological consideration of science. Toulmin's main contribution is his notion of argument fields that included a reinvention of the rhetorical concept topoi (topics).

Toulmin discusses at length the pattern of an argument – data and warrants to support a claim – and how they tend to vary across argument fields (Toulmin 1417-1422). He delineated two concepts of argumentation, one which relied on universal (field-invariant) appeals and strategies, and one which was field dependent, particular to disciplines, movements, and the like. For Toulmin, audience is important because one speaks to a particular audience at a particular point in time, and thus an argument must be relevant to that audience. In this instance, Toulmin echoes Feyerabend, who in his preoccupation with suasive processes, makes clear the adaptive nature of persuasion.

Toulmin's ideas pertaining to argument were a radical import to argumentation theory because, in part, he contributes a model, and because he contributes greatly to rhetoric and its subfield, rhetoric of science, by providing a model of analysis (data, warrants) to show that what is argued on a subject is in effect a structured arrangement of values that are purposive and lead to a certain line of thought.

Toulmin showed in Human Understanding that the arguments that would support claims as different as the Copernican revolution and the Ptolemaic revolution would not require mediation. On the strength of argument, men of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries converted to Copernican astronomy (Gross "The Rhetoric" 214).

Incommensurability
The rhetorical challenge presently is to find discourse that crosses disciplines without sacrificing the specifics of each discipline. The objective is to render description of these disciplines intact – that is to say, the goal of finding language that would make various scientific topics "commensurable" (Baake 29). In contrast, incommensurability is a situation where two scientific programs are fundamentally at odds. Two important authors who applied incommensurability to historical and philosophical notions of science during the 1960s are Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend. Various strands grew out of this idea that bear on issues of communication and invention. These strands are explicated in Randy Allen Harris's four-part taxonomy that in turn emphasizes his viewpoint that "incommensurability is best understood not as a relation between systems, but as a matter of rhetorical invention and hermeneutics" (Harris "Incommensurability" 1).

Incommensurability of theory at times of radical theory change is the basis of Thomas Samuel Kuhn's theory of paradigms (Bazerman 1). Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions offers a vision of scientific change that involves persuasion, and thus he brought rhetoric to the heart of scientific studies.

Kuhn's Structure provides important accounts related to the concept representation, and the key conceptual changes that occur during a scientific revolution. Kuhn sought to determine ways of representing concepts and taxonomies by frames. Kuhn's work attempts to show that incommensurable paradigms can be rationally compared by revealing the compatibility of attribute lists of say a species outlined in a pre-Darwinian and a post-Darwinian milieu accounted for in two incommensurable taxonomies, and that this compatibility is the platform for rational comparison between rival taxonomies. With a view to comparing normal science to revolutionary science, Kuhn illustrates his theory of paradigms and theory of concepts within the history of electricity, chemistry and other disciplines. He gives attention to the revolutionary changes that came about as a result of the work of Copernicus, Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, Wilhelm Röntgen, and Lavoisier.

Some scholars, like Thomas C. Walker, feel that Kuhn's theory of paradigms implies knowledge that is "gained in small, incremental, and almost unremarkable installments." Walker states that while "normal science is narrow, rigid, esoteric, uncritical, and conservative, Kuhn considers it to be the most efficient way to ensure a cumulation of knowledge." According to Walker, while "ignorance and intolerance toward other theoretical frameworks are regrettable features of Kuhn's normal science...meaningful conversations can only occur within a single paradigm."

Kuhn's work was influential for rhetoricians, sociologists, and historians (and, in a lesser manner, philosophers) for the development of a rhetorical perspective. His opinion concerning perception, concept acquisition and language suggest, according to Paul Hoyningen-Huene's analysis of Kuhn's philosophy, a cognitive perspective.

Ethos
Scientists are not just persuaded by logos or argument. Innovative initiatives in science test scientific authority by invoking the authority of past results (initial section of a scientific paper) and the authority of procedure, which establish the scientist's credibility as an investigator (Gross Starring 26-27).

Examinations of the ethos of scientists (individually and collectively) spawned significant contributions in the topic of rhetoric of science. Michael Halloran notes in "The Birth of Molecular Biology" (Rhetoric Review 3, 1984) – an essay that is a rhetorical analysis of James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick's "A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" – that a large part of what constitutes a scientific paradigm is the ethos of its practitioners. This ethos is about an attitude and a way of attacking problems and propagating claims.

In "The Rhetorical Construction of Scientific Ethos," Lawrence Prelli provides a systematic analysis of ethos as a tool of scientific legitimation. Prelli's work examines the exchange of information in the court of public opinion. His work provides insight into the ways in which scientific argumentation is legitimized, and thus insight into public science policy. One of the domains of rhetoric is civic life. Rhetorical criticism of science offers much in the investigation of scientific matters that impinge directly upon public opinion and policy-making decisions.

Rhetoric and language-games
Rhetoric can also be defined as the strategic use of language: each scientist tries to make those statements that - given the statements made by their colleagues, and the ones the former expects they will do in the future (e.g., accepting or rejecting the claims made by the former) - maximise the chances of the former's attaining the goals he or she has. So, game theory can be applied to study the choice of the claims one scientist makes. Zamora Bonilla argues that, when rhetoric is understood this way, it can be discussed whether the way scientists interact - e.g., through certain scientific institutions like peer review - causes them to make their claims in an efficient or an inefficient way, that is, whether the 'rhetorical games' are more analogous to invisible hand processes, or to prisoner's dilemma games. If the former is the case, then we can assert that scientific 'conversation' is organised in such a manner that the strategic use of language by scientists causes them to attain cognitive progress, and if the opposite is the case, then this would be an argument to reform scientific institutions.

Rhetorical figures in science
Corresponding to distinct lines of reasoning, figures of speech are evident in scientific arguments. The same cognitive and verbal skills that are of service to one line of inquiry – political, economic or popular – are of service to science (Fahnestock 43). This implies that there is less of a division between science and the humanities than anticipated initially. Argumentatively useful figures of speech are found everywhere in scientific writing.

Theodosius Dobzhansky in Genetics and the Origin of Species offers a means of reconciliation between Mendelian mutation and Darwinian natural selection. By remaining sensitive to the interests of naturalists and geneticists, Dobzhansky – through a subtle strategy of polysemy  – allowed a peaceful solution to a battle between two scientific territories. His expressed objective was to review the genetic information bearing on the problem of organic diversity. The building blocks of Dobzhansky's interdisciplinary influence that included much development in two scientific camps were the result of the compositional choices he made. He uses, for instance, prolepsis to make arguments that introduced his research findings, and he provided a metaphoric map as a means to guide his audience. One illustration of metaphor is his use of the term "adaptive landscapes". Considered metaphorically, this term is a way of representing how theorists of two different topics can unite.

Another figure that is important as an aid to understanding and knowledge is antimetabole (refutation by reversal). Antithesis also works toward a similar end.

An example of antimetabole:
 Antimetabole often appears in writing or visuals where the line of inquiry and experiment has been characterized by mirror-image objects, or of complementarity, reversible or equilibrium processes. Louis Pasteur's revelation that many organic compounds come in left-and right-handed versions or isomers as articulated at an 1883 lecture illustrates the use of this figure. He argues in lecture that "life is the germ and the germ is life" because all life contains unsymmetrical/asymmetrical processes (Fahnestock 137-140).

New Materialist Rhetoric of Science
A more recent trend in rhetorical studies involves participation with the broader new materialist ideas concerning philosophy and science and technology studies. This new topic of inquiry investigates the role of rhetoric and discourse as an integral part of the Materialism of scientific practice. This method considers how the methods of natural sciences came into being, and the particular role interaction among scientists and scientific institutions has to play. New materialist rhetoric of science include those proponents who consider the progress of the natural sciences as having been obtained at a high cost, a cost that limits the scope and vision of science. Work in this area often draws on scholarship by Bruno Latour, Steve Woolgar, Annemarie Mol, and other new materialist scholars from science and technology studies. Work in new materialist rhetoric of science tends to be very critical of a perceived over-reliance on language in more conservative variants of rhetoric of science and has significantly criticized long-standing areas of inquiry such as incommensurability studies.

Critique of rhetoric of science

Globalization of rhetoric
Renewed interest today in rhetoric of science is its positioning as a hermeneutic meta-discourse rather than a substantive discourse practice. Exegesis and hermeneutics are the tools around which the idea of scientific production has been forged.

Criticism of rhetoric of science is mainly limited to discussions of the concept of hermeneutics, which can be considered as follows:
 Rhetorical hermeneutics is about a way of reading texts as rhetoric. Rhetoric is both a discipline and a perspective from which disciplines can be viewed. As a discipline, it has a hermeneutic task and generates knowledge; as a perspective, it has the task of generating new points of view (Gross Rhetorical 111). Whether rhetorical theory can function as a general hermeneutic, a key to all texts, including scientific texts, is still today a point of interest to rhetoricians. Although natural sciences and humanities differ in fundamental ways, science as enterprise can be viewed hermeneutically as a suite of texts exhibiting a study of knowledge (epistemology) based on understanding (Gross "On Shoulders" 21).

A recent critique about the rhetoric of science literature asks not if science is understood properly, but rather if rhetoric is understood properly. This dissension concerns the reading of scientific texts rhetorically; it is a quarrel about how rhetorical theory is considered as a global hermeneutic (Gross "Intro" Rhetorical 1-13).

Dilip Gaonkar in "The Idea of Rhetoric in the Rhetoric of Science" examines how critics argue about rhetoric, and he unfolds the global ambitions of rhetorical theory as a general hermeneutic (a master key to all texts), with the rhetoric of science as a perfect site of analysis - a hard and fast case.

In his analysis of this 'case', Gaonkar looks at rhetoric's essential character first in traditional sense (Aristotilean and Ciceronian). Then he examined at the practice of rhetoric and the model of persuasive speech from the point of agency (productive orientation) or who controls the speech (means of communication). The rhetorical tradition is one of practice, while the theory evinces practice and teaching (Gross "Intro" Rhetorical 6-11). Gaonkar asserts that rhetoric considered as a tradition (Aristotilean and Ciceronia), and from the point of view of interpretation (not production or agency), rhetorical theory is "thin." He argues that rhetoric appears as a slightly disguised language of criticism in such a way that it is applicable to almost any discourse.

Gaonkar believes that this type of globalization of rhetoric undermines rhetoric's self-representation as a situated practical art, and in so doing, it runs counter to a humanist tradition. It runs counter to the interpretative function of a critical metadiscourse. If there is no more substance, no anchor, no reference to which rhetoric is attached, rhetoric itself is the substance, or the supplement, and thus becomes substantial, giving rise to the question how well rhetoric functions as interpretative discourse.

Dilip Gaonkar's provocations have begun a broad reaching discussion that resulted in the defense of rhetoric analyses of scientific discourse. Responses to Gaonkar's provocations are many, of which two examples follow.
 When Gaonkar asks if a theory grounded in practice can be translated into a theory of interpretation, Michael Leff in "The Idea of Rhetoric as Interpretative Practice: A Humanist's Response to Gaonkar" see his views as too extreme, treating as opposites two positions that are in dialectic tension (rhetoric as production and rhetoric as interpretation), and separating interpretation from practice in order to establish a causal, rather than accidental, relationship between rhetoric and the globalalization of rhetoric (Gross "Intro" Rhetorical 11).
 John Angus Campbell in "Strategic Readings: Rhetoric, Intention, and Interpretation" also found in Rhetorical Hermeneutics is a verification of Leff's analysis (113). He argues, however, against Gaonkar's notion of invention and the mediation between producer or writer and the audience of a text(114). The differences between Campbell and Gaonkar is one of theory, and not whether agency figures in criticism (115).

New Materialist Rhetoric of Science
The new materialist method of rhetoric of science has endorsed Goankar's criticisms of rhetoric of science more generally and seeks to overcome them through interdisciplinary engagement with science and technology studies. However, the new materialist approach, itself, has been subjected to significant criticism within the field, and identified as a radical variant. The question as to the adequacy of rhetoric in its encounter with scientific texts (natural sciences) is problematic for two reasons. The first concerns traditional rhetoric and its capacity to analyze scientific texts. Secondly, the answer to the question relies on an attack of the epistomological presuppositions of a classical rhetoric of science. For this reason, the radical critique is a demand for the renewal of rhetorical theory.

See also
Contingency
Demarcation problem
Epistemology
Falsifiability
Rhetoric of health and medicine

References

Works cited
Baake, Ken. Metaphor and Knowledge: The Challenges of Writing Science. Albany: The State University of New York Press, 2003.
Bazerman, Charles and René Agustin De los Santos. "Measuring Incommensurability: Are toxicology and ecotoxicology blind to what the other sees?" 9 January 2006. .
Bazerman, Charles. "Reporting the Experiment: The Changing Account of Scientific Doings in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1800." In Landmark Essays on Rhetoric of Science: Case Studies. Ed. Randy Allen Harris. Mahwah: Hermagoras Press, 1997.
Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
Campbell, John Angus. "Scientific Discovery and Rhetorical Invention." In The Rhetorical Turn: Inventions and Persuasion in the Conduct of Inquiry. Ed. Herbert W. Simons. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1989.
Fahnestock, Jeanne. Rhetorical Figures in Science. New York: Oxford UP, 1999.
Feyerabend, Paul. Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge. London: Verso, 1975.
Gross, Alan G. "On the Shoulders of Giants: Seventeenth-Century Optics as an Argument Field." In Landmark Essays on Rhetoric of Science: Case Studies. Ed. Randy Allen Harris. Mahwah: Hermagoras Press, 1997.
Gross, Alan G., Starring The Text: The Place of Rhetoric in Science Studies. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 2006.
Gross, Alan G. "The Origin of Species: Evolutionary Taxonomy as an Example of the Rhetoric of Science". In The Rhetorical Turn: Invention and Persuasion in the Conduct of Inquiry. Ed. Herbert W. Simons. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Gross A., and William M. Keith. Eds. "Introduction." Rhetorical Hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997.
Harris, Randy Allen. "Knowing, Rhetoric, Science." In Visions and Revisions: Continuity and Change in Rhetoric and Composition. Ed. James D. Williams. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 2002.
Jasinski, James. "Introduction." Sourcebook on Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2001.
Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
Maturana, Humberto R., and Varela, Francisco J. The Tree of Knowledge: The Biological Roots of Human Understanding. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc., 1987.
Toulmin, S. "The Uses of Argument." In The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present. 2nd ed. Eds. Bizzell, Patricia and Bruce Herzberg. Boston: Bedford, 1990.

Further reading
 Bazerman, Charles. Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988.  (online version). "Reporting the Experiment: The Changing Account of Scientific Doings in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1800" by Charles Bazerman in Landmark Essays on Rhetoric of Science is found in chapter 3 of that text.
 Campbell, John Angus. "Scientific Revolution and the Grammar of Culture: The Case of Darwin's Origin." Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986):351-376.
 Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar. "Rhetoric and Its Double: Reflections on the Rhetorical Turn in the Human Sciences." In The Rhetorical Turn: Invention and Persuasion in the Conduct of Inquiry. Ed. Herbert W. Simons. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.
 Halloran, S. Michael and Annette Norris Bradford. "Figures of Speech in the Rhetoric of Science and Technology." Essays on Classical Rhetoric and Modern Discourse. Ed. Robert J. Connors et al. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984.
 Harris, Randy Allen. Ed. Rhetoric and Incommensurability. West Lafayette: Parlor Press, 2005.
 Latour, Bruno and Steve Woolgar. Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979.
 Leff, Michael. "The Idea of Rhetoric as Interpretative Practice: A Humanist Response to Gaonkar." The Southern Communication Journal 58 (1993): 296-300.
 Miller, Carolyn. "Genre as Social Action." Quarterly Journal of Speech 70: 151-57.
 Schryer, Catherine F. "Genre Theory, Health-Care Discourse, and Professional Identity Formation." Journal of Business and Technical Communication 19.3 (2005):249-278.
 Scott, R. L. "On Viewing Rhetoric as Epistemic." Central States Speech Journal (1967) 18:9-16.
 Simpson, Thomas K. Figures of Thought: A Literary Appreciation of Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 2005, Green Lion Press,
 Stark, Ryan. Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2009.
 Waddell, Craig. "The Role of Pathos in the Decision-Making Process: A Study in the Rhetoric of Science Policy." Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 381-400.
 Wander, Philip C. and Dennis Jaehne. "Prospects for 'a rhetoric of science.'" Social Epistemology 14.2/3 (2000): 211-233. 30 December. 2005.  (PDF file)
 Ziman, John (2000). Real Science: what it is, and what it means. Cambridge, Uk:  Cambridge University Press.

Rhetoric
Metatheory of science
Social epistemology
Philosophy of language

Rhetoric of science


Savage 2: A Tortured Soul is a fantasy and science fiction themed video game that combines elements of the first-person shooter, real-time strategy, and action role-playing game genres. It is developed and published by S2 Games. It is the sequel to Savage: The Battle for Newerth and was officially released on January 16, 2008. On December 9, 2008 S2 Games announced that the game was officially freeware, with a paid "Premium Account" option that expanded certain aspects of the game.

The game was released through Steam on July 13, 2008 and went free-to-play in December 2008. On January 12, 2012, it was released on Desura.

Gameplay
Savage 2: A Tortured Soul combines Real-time strategy (RTS), First-person shooter (FPS) and Action role-playing game (RPG) aspects into its gameplay. The game is played with 2 teams (The Legion of Man and The Beast Horde) fighting against each other on a large playing field in an attempt to eventually destroy the durable command center of the enemy team, thereby winning the game. The game is played in rounds, and no benefits carry over from each match, despite the RPG elements present in each match.

Most of the players on each team are "action players", fighting the other teams action players on the field, using powerful third person melee and weaker first person ranged combat. The action players can choose from a selection of unique units to play as, and may earn gold from their actions on the field, which in turn may be either donated to the team, spent on useful items in an RPG fashion, or used to buy more powerful units.

On each team, there is one "commander" player, seeing the game from a top-down RTS perspective. From there the commander can issue orders to the action players, cast spells on both teams action players and build structures for the team. Different structures act as spawnpoints, gold mines and technology buildings which unlock more units, abilities and items for the action players. Buildings require gold to be built, which, in addition to being donated by the action players, can be extracted from gold nodes across the map by constructing gold mines on them. Normal buildings may be attacked and destroyed by action players, though the loss of these is normally only a setback whereas the destruction of the command centre results in the loss of the match.

In addition to the commander and the action players, there are "officers". Officers are action players who are the leaders of a small group of other action players; known as "squads". A team may have several squads depending on the number of players in the match. Squad officers have improved statistics, and also offers some of those bonuses to its squad if they are near him. The squad officer may also issue orders to its squad, much like the commander can to the whole team. In addition, the squad officer is able to instantly place small, temporary and fragile spawnpoints for his squad.

In addition to the Beast and Human units, a third, very powerful and special kind of units called the "Hellbourne" exist. These units are significantly more powerful and equally harder to gain access to. Action players gain "souls" by killing enemy units, and these souls may be spent at a "hellshrine" for one lifetime of the selected hellbourne unit. Hellshrines must be built by the commander; They are expensive and may only be placed on specific locations on the map, making them a risky structure to construct. Hellbourne units are common gamebreakers later on in a match, where action players may have accumulated a plethora of souls.

Modding

A map editor is available, which allows for scripts, events and all sorts of things so players can create their own game types, similar to Warcraft III. Mods from Capture the Flag to Soccer have been created.

Reception

See also
Savage: The Battle for Newerth
Heroes of Newerth
Strife

References

External links

 Newerth - The official Savage XR Community

2008 video games
First-person strategy video games
Indie games
Linux games
MacOS games
Real-time strategy video games
S2 Games
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Multiplayer video games

Savage 2: A Tortured Soul


Dong Phaya Yen or Dong Phya Yen (, , lit. "jungle of the cold lord") is a mountain range in Phetchabun, Chaiyaphum, Lopburi, Saraburi, and Nakhon Ratchasima Provinces, Thailand.

As the Dong Phaya Yen is less compact and lower in height than the mountain ranges to the north and to the south, the first roads and railroads connecting the region of Isan with the capital Bangkok were built across these mountains. Before the construction of the railroad at the beginning of the 20th century, communication between these two parts of Thailand was difficult. The survey for the building of the Northeastern Line of the State Railway of Thailand began in 1887.

Geography
The Dong Phaya Yen Mountains consist mainly of a range of scattered medium-height hills stretching southwards of the Phetchabun Mountains in an arch until reaching the northern side of the Sankamphaeng Range. The mountain chain has a length of about 170 km and reaches a maximum elevation of 1,167 m at Phu Khing at the northern end. Other peaks are 900 m high Khao Phang Yai, 767 m high Khao Kheuan Lan, 782 m high Khao Cham Dot, 718 m high Khao Chalong Tong, 745 m high Khao Chan Luang, 722 m high Khao Lom, 722 m high Khao Sawong, 721 m high Khao Wong Chan Daeng, 689 m high Khao Phrik, 695 m high Khao Somphot, 657 m high Khao Kradon, 676 m high Khao Inthaya, 683 m high Khao Mot Ngam, 655 m high Khao Plai Khlong Kum, and 575 m high Khao Sadao.

The northern limit of the Phetchabun massif is not clearly defined, roughly beginning south of the 16th parallel north where the ranges forming the Phetchabun system become a group of scattered mountains of lesser height, rarely surpassing 800 m, extending southwards. The eastern mountain chain of the Phetchabun Range is mentioned as the "Phang Hoei Range" in some geographical works, a name that encompasses the whole northern section of the Dong Phaya Yen mountain system, for Khao Phang Hoei is a 1,008 m high summit west of Chaiyaphum town, beyond the southern end of the Phetchabun Range proper in the northern half of the Dong Phaya Yen.

The Dong Phaya Yen range divides the Chao Phraya river valley of central Thailand and the Khorat Plateau of the northeast. The mountains are drained to the east by several tributaries to the Chi and the Mun and to the west by tributaries of the Pa Sak River.

History
This whole mountainous region was covered by thick forest and was formerly known as Dong Phaya Fai or "jungle of the fire lord". There were no roads, hence it was not possible to use a cart. Travel across the forest had to be on foot or using palanquins. The whole area was reputed to be unhealthy and travelers who dared to pass through the woods exposed themselves to malaria and other illnesses. By the mid-19th century, when the clearing of the area began, Vice King (Uparaja) Pinklao changed the name of the forest from Dong Phaya Fai to Dong Phaya Yen to imply that "the wild forest had been tamed".

By 1887 the Siamese government decided to build a railway line from Bangkok to Korat through Ayutthaya and commissioned British Railway contractors to make a survey. The first section of what is now the Northeastern Line, the railway line to Korat across the mountains opened in 1900.
Much of the original forest cover of the mountains was destroyed since the beginning of 20th century. Following the completion of the line settlements were built in the area and trees were cut and land converted to agricultural use.

Until quite recently only the railroad from Bangkok to Nakhon Ratchasima and one highway crossed the system. Deforestation increased as the building of more roads connecting central Thailand and Isan began in earnest. Thailand Route 2, also known as "Mittraphap Road", the main road crossing the range between Saraburi and Nakhon Ratchasima, was built in 1950.

Protected areas
These mountains, together with the Sankamphaeng Range at their southern limit, form the Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex, which includes several national parks. This area was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2005. Altogether 6,155 km2 are protected in the complex. In mid-2016 UNESCO briefly considered placing the Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest on a list of endangered World Heritage sites because Thailand had not done enough to stop illegal logging of phayung (Siamese rosewood) trees.

Other protected areas in the Dong Phaya Yen mountains are:
Pa Hin Ngam National Park
Sai Thong National Park
Phu Khiao Wildlife Sanctuary
Tat Ton National Park
Nam Phong National Park
Phu Lan Ka National Park,
Sap Langka Wildlife Sanctuary
Khao Somphot Non-hunting Area.

Gallery

See also
Sankamphaeng Range

References

External links

New Liphistius species (Araneae, Mesothelae) from western and eastern Thailand
The Northeast
Royal State Railways of Siam - History

Mountain ranges of Thailand
Geography of Nakhon Ratchasima province
Geography of Phetchabun province
Geography of Chaiyaphum province
Geography of Lopburi province
Geography of Saraburi province

Dong Phaya Yen Mountains


The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) or pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPT or PPTg) is a collection of neurons located in the upper pons in the brainstem. It lies caudal to the substantia nigra and adjacent to the superior cerebellar peduncle. It has two divisions of subnuclei; the pars compacta containing mainly cholinergic neurons, and the pars dissipata containing mainly glutamatergic neurons and some non-cholinergic neurons. The pedunculopontine nucleus is one of the main components of the reticular activating system. It was first described in 1909 by Louis Jacobsohn-Lask, a German neuroanatomist.

Projections
Pedunculopontine nucleus neurons project axons to a wide range of areas in the brain, particularly parts of the basal ganglia such as the subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra pars compacta, and globus pallidus internus. It also sends them to targets in the thalamus, cerebellum, basal forebrain, and lower brainstem, and in the cerebral cortex, the supplementary motor area and somatosensory and motor cortices.

It receives inputs from many areas of the brain. It both projects to and receives input from most parts of the basal ganglia, with the exception of the substantia nigra pars compacta (which it projects to but does not receive input from), and the substantia nigra pars reticulata (which it receives input from but does not project to).

Functions
The pedunculopontine nucleus is involved in many functions, including arousal, attention, learning, reward, and voluntary limb movements and locomotion. While once thought important to the initiation of movement, recent research suggests a role in providing sensory feedback to the cerebral cortex. It is also implicated in the generation and maintenance of REM sleep.

Recent research has discovered that the pedunculopontine nucleus is involved in the planning of movement, and that different networks of neurons in the pedunculopontine nucleus are switched on during real and imagined movement.

Parkinson's disease

Research is being done on whether deep brain stimulation of the pedunculopontine nucleus might be used to improve the gait and postural difficulties found in Parkinson's disease.

References

External links

Pons

Pedunculopontine nucleus


Canadian Cemetery No. 2  is a Commonwealth War Graves Commission burial ground for the dead of World War I situated on the grounds of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial Park near the French town of Neuville-Saint-Vaast.

The cemetery was originally named CD 5 and established as a battlefield cemetery of the Canadian 4th Division for Canadian troops killed in the Battle of Vimy Ridge. Battlefield clearances of the surrounding area in 1919 significantly increased the size of the cemetery. The cemetery was again reopened for burials in 1931, receiving its last Canadian burial in 1947. Despite the cemetery's name, the large majority of the dead are British.

The cemetery now contains the graves of 2,966 Commonwealth soldiers, a large portion of which are unidentified. The cemetery covers an area of 10,869 square metres and is enclosed by low walls of coursed stone.

Commemoration
Twenty-nine Canadian soldiers buried in 11th Canadian Infantry Brigade Cemetery and near Gunner's Crater, both in Givenchy-en-Gohelle, but whose graves are now lost are commemorated by special memorial headstones, inscribed to this effect.

Notable graves

Private Charles Milligan, 10th Bn Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) was executed for desertion June 3, 1917. He is now buried in plot 19. A. 14.

References

External links

 Canadian Cemetery No. 2, Neuville-Saint Vaast at Find a Grave

Canadian military memorials and cemeteries
Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries in France
World War I in the Pas-de-Calais
1917 establishments in France
Cemeteries in Pas-de-Calais
Funerary and memory sites of the First World War (Western Front)

Canadian Cemetery No. 2


Mallku is a title roughly translating as "prince" or "leader" in the Aymara language of South America. They recognise an Apu Mallku as their "supreme leader" or "king". There is also an institution called the Council of Mallkus and Amautas which acts rather like an upper house of the indigenous parliament of the Andes region and consists of four delegates from each of the modern Latin American states that comprise the Greater Collasuyu region.

References

Aymara
Titles

Mallku


David Green was a key adviser to Illinois Governor Dan Walker.  He was also known as a successful businessman and philanthropist.

Green grew up on the West and South Sides of Chicago.  After graduating from Hyde Park High School, Green went to the University of Chicago for college.  He returned to the school for a master's degree in social science after serving with the Army Signal Corps in the South Pacific during World War II.

A long-time resident of Chicago's Hyde Park neighborhood, Green became active in 5th Ward politics and the Democratic Federation of Illinois.  He participated in the 1960 presidential campaign of John F. Kennedy and was a special adviser to Kennedy on the Trade Expansion Act of 1962.

Green died March 26, 2007.

Sources
"David Green: 1922-2007; Key adviser to Dan Walker"  Chicago Tribune, Mar 31, 2007.

2007 deaths
Businesspeople from Chicago
University of Chicago alumni
20th-century American businesspeople

David Green (political adviser)


Jonathan Battishill (May 1738 – 10 December 1801) was an English composer, keyboard player, and concert tenor. He began his career as a composer writing theatre music but later devoted himself to working as an organist and composer for the Church of England. He is considered one of the outstanding 18th century English composers of church music and is best remembered today for his seven-part anthem Call to Remembrance, which has long survived in the repertoires of cathedral choirs.

Biography
Battishill was born in London.  Beginning at the age of nine, he sang as a chorister at St. Paul's Cathedral initially under the direction of composer Charles King. After his voice broke he studied organ, music composition, and singing under William Savage, almoner and master of the choristers. He became a highly skilled organist and was particularly talented at extempore playing; a skill that soon attracted attention and led to his appointment as William Boyce's deputy at the Chapel Royal.

During the mid-1750s he began appearing as a tenor soloist in London concerts. One of his earliest engagements was on 16 March 1756 in a concert of Handel's Alexander's Feast at the Great Room, Dean Street, where he was described as 'Mr Batichel'. That same year he became the conductor and harpsichordist at the Covent Garden Theatre. While there he composed incidental songs and choruses for plays and pantomime music for both Covent Garden and the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. In 1758 he became a member of the Madrigal Society and in 1761 a member of the Royal Society of Musicians. He was also a  of the Noblemen and Gentlemen's Catch Club from c1762, but lost his membership twice for not attending meetings. In 1771 his glee Come bind my hair, ye wood nymphs fair won the club's gold medal.

In 1764 Battishill was appointed organist of St Clement Eastcheap, which had recently united with the parish at St Martin Orgar. Three years later he became organist at Christ Church, Newgate Street as well and served at both St Clement and Christ Church until his death in 1801. During this time he periodically gave organ concerts and he particularly became known for his performances of Handel's keyboard works. He also would still occasionally perform in concerts as a singer. He possessed an exceptional memory which was displayed in one concert where he played and sang from memory several airs from Samuel Arnold's oratorio The Prodigal Son without the sheet music, and after not hearing the work for more than 20 years.

While working at Covent Garden, Battishill met singing actress Elizabeth Davies who had originated the role of Margery in Thomas Arne's Love in a Village. The two became romantically involved and on 19 December 1765 they married. However the marriage was unsuccessful, and Elizabeth had a publicly known affair with actor Anthony Webster, with whom she eventually moved to Ireland in 1776. Elizabeth died in Cork in October 1777. Battishill also had an affair with a woman who called herself Ann Battishill at the time of his death. They apparently lived together from about 1775 until the end of Battishill's life. Although Battishill was involved with another woman, his wife's desertion caused a deep depression from which he never recovered. He declined into alcoholism and his compositional output became minimal for the rest of his life. His alcoholism also resulted in his not being appointed organist of St Paul's on the death of John Jones in 1796.

From 1777 on Battishill devoted himself mainly to his book collection. From the time he was a boy he was an avid reader, and throughout his life he had collected some 6000 to 7000 volumes in his personal library. He was mostly interested in theological works and the works of classical authors. In 1801 Battishill was buried in St Paul's near the grave of William Boyce in keeping with his own wishes.

Works
Most of Battishill's compositions date from the period 1760–1775, and reflect his diverse employments during this time. He began his career primarily as a composer of theatre music; writing mostly incidental music for plays. He composed the music for one pantomime, The Rites of Hecate, which used a text by poet James Love. It premiered at Drury Lane on 26 December 1763. He also notably co-composed the music to the three-act opera Almena with Michael Arne, the son of Thomas Arne, which premiered in 1764 at Drury Lane. The opera was a theatrical failure, but critics of the day attributed its lack of success to dramatic faults on the part of the librettist Rolt, rather than to problems with the music. He also wrote several songs for London's pleasure gardens, of which Kate of Aberdeen is probably his best known.

Upon taking his first organist post in 1764, Battishill composed chiefly church music, glees, catches, madrigals, and part-songs. He was particularly prolific in his output of Anglican chant (used for the psalms and canticles), hymns, and anthems. His anthems are considered his most exemplary work and are admired for employing rich blends in a multi-voiced arrangement. His anthems included O Lord, Look Down from Heaven and Call to Remembrance, the latter of which was sung at his own funeral and is still performed in cathedrals today. Of his glees, I Loved Thee Beautiful and Kind is probably his best known work. His chants also remain in use.

References

Sources

External links

1738 births
English classical composers
English opera composers
Male opera composers
Glee composers
English classical organists
British male organists
English tenors
1801 deaths
Members of the Royal Society of Musicians
Burials at St Paul's Cathedral
Classical composers of church music
People educated at St. Paul's Cathedral School
English male classical composers
18th-century British composers
18th-century British male musicians
Male classical organists

Jonathan Battishill


Hohensalzburg Fortress () is a large medieval fortress in the city of Salzburg, Austria. It sits atop the Festungsberg mountain at an altitude of 506 m. It was erected at the behest of the prince-archbishops of Salzburg. The fortress is  long and  wide making it one of the largest medieval castles in Europe.

History

Early history

Archaeological excavations have shown that a Roman fort existed at the highest point of the site. This should not be confused with the more significant Roman castrum superius on the Nonnberg terrace.

Construction of the current fortress began in 1077 under Archbishop Gebhard von Helfenstein. The original design was a basic bailey with a wooden wall. In the Holy Roman Empire, the archbishops of Salzburg were already powerful political figures and they expanded the fortress to protect their interests. Helfenstein's conflict with Emperor Henry IV during the Investiture Controversy influenced the expansion of the fortress, with the Archbishop taking the side of Pope Gregory VII and the German anti-king Rudolf of Rheinfelden. The fortress was gradually expanded during the following centuries. The ring walls and towers were built in 1462 under Prince-Archbishop Burkhard II von Weißpriach.

Prince-Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach further expanded the fortress during his term from 1495 until 1519. His coadjutor Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg, who was later to succeed Leonhard, in 1515 wrote a description of the Reisszug, a very early and primitive funicular railway that provided freight access to the upper courtyard of the fortress. The line still exists, albeit in updated form, and is probably the oldest operational railway in the world. The current external bastions, begun in the 16th century and completed in the 17th, were added as a precaution because of fears of Turkish invasion.

The only time that the fortress actually came under siege was during the German Peasants' War in 1525, when a group of miners, farmers and townspeople tried to oust Prince-Archbishop Matthäus Lang, but failed to take the fortress. In 1617 the deposed Archbishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau died in the fortress prison. During the Thirty Years' War, Archbishop Count Paris of Lodron strengthened the town's defenses, including Hohensalzburg. He added various parts to the fortress, such as the gunpowder stores and additional gatehouses. The fortress was surrendered without a fight to French troops under General Jean Victor Marie Moreau during the Napoleonic War of the Second Coalition in 1800 and the last Prince-Archbishop Count Hieronymus von Colloredo fled to Vienna. In the 19th century, it was used as barracks, storage depot and dungeon before being abandoned as a military outpost in 1861.

Recent history

Hohensalzburg Fortress was refurbished from the late 19th century onwards and became a major tourist attraction with the Festungsbahn funicular railway, opened in 1892, leading up from the town to the Hasengrabenbastei; It stands today as one of the best preserved castles in Europe.

During the early 20th century it was used as a prison, holding Italian prisoners of war during World War I and Nazi activists before Germany's annexation of Austria in March 1938.

German ceramicist, sculptor and painter Arno Lehmann lived and created in Hohensalzburg Fortress from 1949 until his death in 1973.

Hohensalzburg Fortress was selected as main motif for the Austrian Nonnberg Abbey commemorative coin minted on April 5, 2006. This was the first coin of the series "Great Abbeys of Austria".  It shows the Benedictine convent of Nonnberg Abbey. In the hilltop on the background, the  fortress and the Kajetaner church can be seen. Also in 1977 the Austrian Mint issued a coin for the 900th anniversary of Hohensalzburg Fortress.

Interior

The fortress consists of various wings and courtyard. The Prince-Bishop's apartments are located in the so-called "Hoher Stock" (high floor).

Salzburg Bull
The Krautturm houses a large aerophon of more than 200 pipes which is called the "Salzburg Bull" (Salzburger Stier). This huge mechanical organ was built in 1502 by Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach. It was renewed by Rochus Egedacher in 1735.

From Palm Sunday to 31 October the "Salzburg Bull" is played daily at 7, 11 and 18 o'clock. The aerophone thus initiated the playing of the carillon at the Residenzplatz and ended it again.

One of Austria's most famous cabaret groups is named after it.

Golden Hall
Starting in 1498, Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach had the magnificent state apartments installed on the third floor. The rooms in which the archbishops would normally have lived were one floor below. The state apartments were primarily used for representative purposes and for festivities. The Golden Hall was richly decorated and indicates that the fortress served the archbishops not only as a refuge in times of crisis, but frequently also as a residence up to the 16th century.

In order to gain more space, Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach had four massive marble pillars constructed on the right-hand outer wall and had a loggia added on. As in the other rooms the ceiling is coffered, each coffer being adorned with gold buttons symbolising the stars in the sky.

The 17-metre-long beam, supporting the ceiling, is particularly worth mentioning. The coat of arms of Leonhard von Keutschach together with those of the Holy Roman Empire, the most powerful German towns and the bishoprics that were connected to Salzburg, are painted on it.

Chapel of Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach

Archbishop Leonhard von Keutschach (1495-1519) had the chapel built at a later time. One of the figure consoles in the beam ceiling had to be removed to make room for it. A richly ornamented star vault decorates the ceiling of the chapel. The inner part of the door at the entrance is covered with stucco. The painted frame shows red columns on a high plinth with grey capitals. The coat of arms of Salzburg and of Leonhard von Keutschach is reproduced in the tympanum beneath the mitre, legate cross and sword. A special feature of the coat of arms is the turnip and in many places in the fortress this can be found as an indication of prince-archbishop Keutschach's building activity. In the north wall of the chapel there are two openings which made it possible to attend the church service from the side room.

Golden Chamber
The Golden Chamber is the most magnificently furnished room of the princely chambers. The two long walls are taken up by benches that are richly decorated with vines, grapes, foliage and animals. These benches used to be covered with cloth or leather, but the upholstery has not survived into the modern age. The walls also used to be covered in gold-embossed leather tapestry which adorned the lower part of the wall.

Bedchamber
The bedchamber is the most intimate room of the princely chambers. The original furniture and precious textiles, such as tapestry, were in the course of time replaced by more "modern" ones. The elaborate wainscoting to keep out the cold still bears witness to the splendour of the past. The upper part of the panels is decorated with gilded buttons and rosettes, whereas the lower part, which is bare today, was probably covered with leather or velvet tapestry. The door conceals a toilet, which is basically a hole in the floor with a wooden frame. Back in the past this was a highly modern sanitary facility and was accessible from each floor.

Gallery

See also
 Alte Residenz
 Hohenwerfen Castle
 Salzburg Cathedral

References

External links

 Hohensalzburg Fortress
 Hohensalzburg Castle 900th anniversary coin
 Salzburg Tourist Office

 Digital reconstruction of the castle through time
 Fortress Hohensalzburg In Views

Castles in Salzburg
11th-century establishments in Austria
Tourist attractions in Salzburg
Museums in Salzburg
Historic house museums in Austria
Military and war museums in Austria
Establishments in the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg

Hohensalzburg Fortress


Philippe Vander Putten (born 1959) is a Belgian businessman. He is the former chief executive officer of Brussels Airlines and the CEO of the Belgian Olympic Committee.

Education
Vander Putten earned a master's degree in management at the IAG (now Louvain School of Management) of the University of Louvain (UCLouvain, Belgium). He obtained an MBA at the University of South Carolina.

Career
In 1982 he started his career as assistant brand manager at Procter & Gamble Benelux. In 1984 he began working for L'Oréal Belgilux. From 1986 until 1998 he worked for Kraft and Kraft Jacobs Suchard, where he became vice-president for Europe. In 1994 he was elected Marketeer of the Year. On 1 September 1998, he became the CEO of Proximus, where he succeeded Jan Neels. He then became the CEO of Brussels Airlines, resulting of the merger between SN Brussels Airlines and Virgin Express. He resigned in 2008 as CEO of Brussels Airlines. After that he worked for smaller companies, such as Cleverphone (temporary phone numbers) and Distec (distributor of scientific equipment). On 1 September 2013, he became CEO of the Belgian Olympic and Interfederal Committee. He is a director of the Fountain group and of Viangros.

Family
Philippe Vander Putten is married and father of three children.

References

Sources
 Philippe Vander Putten
 Philippe Vander Putten, CEO Brussels Airlines
 Philippe Vander Putten Photo

1959 births
Living people
Belgian businesspeople
Université catholique de Louvain alumni

Philippe Vander Putten


Elaine Brown (born March 2, 1943) is an American prison activist, writer, singer, and former Black Panther Party chairwoman who is based in Oakland, California. Brown briefly ran for the Green Party presidential nomination in 2008.

Early life

Elaine Brown grew up in the inner city of North Philadelphia with her mother Dorothy Clark and an absent father. Despite being in desperate poverty, Brown's mother worked hard to provide for Elaine. She was enrolled in private schooling, took music lessons, and had nice clothing. During her childhood, she studied classical piano and ballet for many years at a predominantly white experimental elementary school. As a young Black woman, Elaine had very few African-American friends and spent most of her time with white people. After graduating from Philadelphia High School for Girls, a public preparatory school for gifted young women, she studied at Temple University for less than a semester. She withdrew from Temple because of her desire to work in the music industry.  Brown moved to Los Angeles, California, to become a professional songwriter.
While in Los Angeles, Brown enrolled in the University of California Los Angeles. She later went on to briefly attend Mills College and Southwestern University School of Law.

Upon arriving in California with little money and few contacts, Brown got work as a cocktail waitress at the strip club The Pink Pussycat. While working at the Pink Pussycat, she met Jay Richard Kennedy, a music executive who taught her about the intricacies of social justice. They became lovers. Brown learnt about political radicalisation first hand while in a relationship with Kennedy. Because of the thorough education on the Civil Rights Movement, Capitalism, and Communism which Kennedy provided to her, Brown later became involved with the Black Liberation Movement. After living together for a brief time in the Hollywood Hills Hotel, the pair parted ways. After this pivotal relationship, Brown's involvement in politics grew and she began working for the radical newspaper Harambee. Soon after, Brown became the first representative of the Black Student Alliance at the Black Congress in California. In April 1968, after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., she attended her first meeting of the Los Angeles chapter of the Black Panther Party.

Involvement with the Black Panther Party

In 1968, Brown joined the Black Panther Party as a rank-and-file member, studying revolutionary literature, and selling Black Panther Party newspapers. She soon helped the party set up its first Free Breakfast for Children program in Los Angeles, as well as the Party's initial Free Busing to Prisons Program and Free Legal Aid Program.

In 1968, Brown was commissioned by David Hilliard, the Party chief of staff, to record her songs, a request resulting in the album Seize the Time. She eventually assumed the role of editor of the Black Panther publication in the Southern California Branch of the Party. In 1971, Brown became a member of the Party's Central Committee as Minister of Information, replacing the expelled Eldridge Cleaver. In 1973, Brown was commissioned to record more songs by Black Panther Party founder and Minister of Defense Huey P. Newton. These songs resulted in the album Until We're Free.

As part of a directive by Newton, Brown unsuccessfully ran for the Oakland city council in 1973, getting 30 percent of the vote. She ran again in 1975, losing again with 44 percent of the vote.  When Newton fled to Cuba in 1974 to avoid criminal charges, he appointed Brown to lead the Black Panther Party. Brown was the only woman to do so. She chaired the Black Panther Party from 1974 until 1977. She dealt with regular sexism because the men were angered by the thought of taking orders from a woman.

During Brown's leadership of the Black Panther Party, she focused on electoral politics and community service. In 1977, she managed Lionel Wilson's victorious campaign to become Oakland's first black mayor. Also, Brown founded the Panther's Liberation School, which was recognized by the state of California as a model school.

Brown stepped down from chairing the Black Panther Party less than a year after Newton's return from Cuba in 1977, when Newton refused to condemn the beating of Regina Davis, an administrator of the Panther Liberation School. Other male members of the party beat Davis and broke her jaw because she reprimanded a coworker when he did not do an assignment. Newton opted for solidarity with the men. This incident was the point at which Brown could no longer tolerate the sexism and patriarchy of the Black Panther Party. For many, Brown's leaving was seen as a turning point for the Party. She left Oakland with her daughter, Ericka, and moved to Los Angeles.

Brown recorded two albums, Seize the Time (Vault, 1969) and Until We're Free (Motown Records, 1973). Seize the Time includes "The Meeting," the anthem of the Black Panther Party.

Later activism

After leaving the Black Panther Party, also in order to raise her daughter Ericka, Brown worked on her memoir, A Taste of Power. She eventually returned to the struggle for black liberation, especially espousing the need for radical prison reform. From 1980 to 1983, she attended Southwestern University School of Law in Los Angeles.
From 1990 to 1996, she lived in France. In 1996, Brown moved to Atlanta, Georgia, and founded Fields of Flowers, Inc., a non-profit organization committed to providing educational opportunities for impoverished African-American children. In 1998, she co-founded the grassroots group Mothers Advocating Juvenile Justice to advocate for children being prosecuted as adults in the state of Georgia. Around the same time, she continued her advocacy for incarcerated youth by founding and leading the Michael Lewis Legal Defense Committee. Michael Lewis, also known as "Little B", was sentenced to life in prison at the age of 14 for a murder that Brown believes he did not commit. Brown would eventually write a non-fiction novel, The Condemnation of Little B, which analyzes the prosecution of Lewis as part of the greater problem of the increased imprisonment of black youth.

In 2003, Brown co-founded the National Alliance for Radical Prison Reform, which helps thousands of prisoners find housing after they are released on parole, facilitates transportation for family visits to prisons, helps prisoners find employment, and raises money for prisoner phone calls and gifts.
In 2005, while protesting a G-8 Summit in Sea Island, Georgia, Brown learned of the massive poverty in the nearby city of Brunswick, Georgia. Brown then attempted to run for mayor of Brunswick against Bryan Thompson. Running on the Green Party ticket, Brown hoped to become mayor in order to use her influence to bring the Michael Lewis case to prominence, as well as to empower blacks in Brunswick by using her elected office to create a base of economic power for the city's majority black and poor population through redistribution of the city's revenues. Though Brown was eventually disqualified from running and voting in Brunswick because she failed to establish residency in the city, her efforts brought widespread attention to Michael Lewis's case. She later became a co-founder of the Brunswick Women's Association for a People's Blueprint.

Brown has continued her prison reform advocacy by lecturing frequently at colleges and universities in the US. Since 1995, she has lectured at more than forty colleges and universities, as well as numerous conferences.

2007 Green Party role
In March 2007, Brown announced her bid to be the 2008 Green Party presidential nominee. Brown felt that a campaign was necessary to promote the interests of those not represented by the major political parties, especially the interests of women under 30 and African Americans. Her platform focused on the needs of working-class families, promoting living wages for all, free health care, more funding for public education, more affordable housing, removal of troops from Iraq, improving the environment, and promoting equality. Brown intended on using her campaign to bring many minorities to the Green Party in the hope that it would better represent a revolutionary force for social justice. In late 2007, she resigned from the Green Party, as she found that the Party remained dominated by whites who had "no intention of using the ballot to actualize real social progress, and will aggressively repel attempts to do so."

In 2010, inmates in more than seven Georgia prisons used contraband cellphones to organize a nonviolent strike for better prison conditions, Brown became their "closest adviser outside prison walls." She "helped distill the inmate complaints into a list of demands. She held a conference call... to develop a strategy with various groups, including the Georgia chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Nation of Islam."

Personal life

Brown has one daughter, Ericka Abram, fathered by Black Panther member Raymond Hewitt, but Hewitt was mostly absent from his daughter's life. At Hewitt's funeral, Elaine Brown was in attendance.

Bibliography
 Brown, Elaine. The Condemnation of Little B: New Age Racism in America (Boston: Beacon, 2002).
 Brown, Elaine. A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Doubleday, 1992).

References

External links

 Elaine Brown, Brown's website.
 "Black Panther Party long victimized by campaign of lies", an article by Brown in the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, March 25, 2000.
 Elaine Brown on Georgia Prison Strike: "Repression Breeds Resistance" - video interview by Democracy Now!
Elaine Brown Papers at Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, & Rare Book Library, Emory University

1943 births
Activists for African-American civil rights
African-American candidates for President of the United States
African-American women writers
American Marxists
Women Marxists
American women writers
African-American writers
African-American Marxists
Members of the Black Panther Party
Black Panther Party
American community activists
Female candidates for President of the United States
Georgia (U.S. state) Greens
Living people
Philadelphia High School for Girls alumni
Writers from Atlanta
Writers from Philadelphia
Candidates in the 2008 United States presidential election
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians

Elaine Brown


CAESAR (Comet Astrobiology Exploration Sample Return) is a sample-return mission concept to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. The mission was proposed in 2017 to NASA's New Frontiers program mission 4, and on 20 December 2017 it was one of two finalists selected for further concept development. On 27 June 2019, the other finalist, the Dragonfly mission, was chosen instead.

Had it been selected in June 2019, it would have launched between 2024 and 2025, with a capsule delivering a sample back to Earth in 2038. The Principal Investigator is Steve Squyres of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. CAESAR would be managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. Curation of the returned sample would take place at NASA's Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate, based at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.

The CAESAR team chose comet 67P over other cometary targets in part because the data collected by the Rosetta mission, which studied the comet from 2014 to 2016, allows the spacecraft to be designed to the conditions there, increasing the mission's chance of success. The Rosetta mission also provides a vast geologic context for this mission's sample-return analysis.

Overview

The two New Frontiers program Mission 4 finalists, announced on 20 December 2017, were Dragonfly to Titan, and CAESAR. Comet 67P was previously explored by the European Space Agency's Rosetta probe and its lander Philae during 2014-2016 to determine its origin and history. Squyres explained that knowing the existing conditions at the comet allows them to design systems that would dramatically improve the chances for success.

The CAESAR and Dragonfly missions received  funding each through the end of 2018 to further develop and mature their concepts. NASA selected the Dragonfly mission on 27 June 2019 to build and launch in 2026.

Background
A comet sample-return mission was one of the goals in a list of options for a New Frontiers mission in both the 2003 and the 2011 Planetary Science Decadal Survey, which were guiding surveys among those in the scientific community of what and where NASA should prioritize. Another comet mission proposal, Comet Hopper, was one of three Discovery Program finalists that received  in May 2011 to develop a detailed concept study; however, it was not selected. NASA has launched several missions to comets in the late 1990s and 2000s; these missions include Deep Space 1 (launched 1998), Stardust (launched 1999), CONTOUR (launched 2002 but failed after launch), and Deep Impact (launched 2005), as well as some participation on the Rosetta mission.

Astrobiology
CAESAR objectives were to understand the formation of the Solar System and how these components came together to form planets and give rise to life. Some researchers have hypothesized that Earth may have been seeded with organic compounds early in its development by tholin-rich comets, providing the raw material necessary for life to emerge. Tholins were detected by the Rosetta mission to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko.

Spacecraft
The spacecraft would be built by Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems and it would inherit technology used by the successful Dawn mission. Navigation, sample site selection, and sample documentation are enabled by the camera suite, provided by Malin Space Science Systems. This camera suite consists of six cameras of varying fields of view and focal ranges: narrow angle camera (NAC), medium angle camera (MAC), touch-and-go camera (TAGCAM), two navigation cameras (NAVCAMs), and a sample container camera (CANCAM).

The robotic arm (TAG) and the Sample Acquisition System would be provided by Honeybee Robotics. The sample return capsule and heatshield are provided by the Japanese space agency JAXA.

Propulsion

The propulsion system on CAESAR would be NASA's Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT), a type of solar electric propulsion.  It would employ three NEXT thrusters, with one used as a spare. The propellant is xenon.

Sample return
The spacecraft would not land on the comet, but would momentarily contact the surface with its TAG (Touch-And-Go) robotic arm, as done by OSIRIS-REx on an asteroid, including raising the solar arrays into a Y-shaped configuration to minimize the chance of dust accumulation during contact and provide more ground clearance. The sampler mechanism on the arm would produce a burst of nitrogen gas to blow regolith particles into the sampler head located at the end of the arm. CAESAR would collect between  of regolith from the comet. The maximum pebble size would be . The system has enough compressed nitrogen gas for three samplings.

The system would separate the volatiles from the solid substances into separate containers and preserve the samples cold for the return trip. The spacecraft would head back to Earth and drop off the sample in a capsule, which would re-enter Earth's atmosphere and parachute down to the surface in 2038. The sample-return capsule (SRC) would be provided by JAXA and its design is based upon the SRC flown on the Hayabusa and Hayabusa2 spacecraft. The capsule would parachute down at the Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR), and it would be transported to NASA's Johnson Space Center for curation and analyses at the laboratory called Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate (ARES). A small portion of the sample will also be curated at Japan's Extraterrestrial Sample Curation Center. Most of the sample (≥75% of the total) would be preserved for analysis by future generations of scientists.

See also

References

Missions to comets
New Frontiers program proposals
Origin of life
Proposed NASA space probes
Proposed astrobiology space missions
Sample return missions

CAESAR (spacecraft)


Chrissie Maher, OBE (born 1938) is a British advocate for the use of plain English. She is a co-founder of the Plain English Campaign. This organisation promotes the clear use of English, especially by businesses and official bodies. Her campaign began in 1971 when she founded the United Kingdom's first community newspaper, the Tuebrook Bugle. That gave her the chance to write articles saying that organisations should start using plain English. In 1974, Maher went on to start The Liverpool News. It was the UK's first newspaper for adults with reading difficulties. She was also a member of the UK's National Consumer Council. Later, she founded the Plain English Campaign at a demonstration in London in 1979.

As an example of the language issues Maher found objectionable: in 1994, she pointed out that Britain's National Health Service published a definition of the term "bed" that used 229 words.

For her efforts, Maher was awarded the OBE in 1993. In 1995, she was awarded an honorary MA degree by Manchester University. In 1997 she received an honorary doctorate from the Open University. In 2000, Maher was named "Information Pioneer of the Century" by the UK's National Information Forum. In 2010, Maher received an Honorary Fellowship from Liverpool John Moores University for her services to communication.

Also in 2010 Maher was selected Public Affairs Achiever of the Year and Outstanding Achiever of the Year for the 'Women in Public Life' awards.

Tom McArthur, editor of the Oxford Companion to the English Language said, "In all the history of the language, there has never been such a powerful grassroots movement to influence it as the Plain English Campaign."

References

Other websites
 Plain English Campaign Homepage

1938 births
Living people
People from Merseyside
English language

Chrissie Maher


TheMarker () is a Hebrew-language daily business newspaper published by the Haaretz group in Israel.

TheMarker was founded in 1999 by journalist and entrepreneur Guy Rolnik along with Haaretz group and U.S.-based investors. Five years after TheMarker launched, Haaretz newspaper group decided to terminate its long-standing business section and relaunch it as a daily print newspapers called "TheMarker", the brand that was created online.

The chief editor of TheMarker is Sami Peretz. The editor of the monthly magazine is Eytan Avriel. TheMarker alone has about 250 employees. It operates from Haaretz newspaper building in Tel Aviv.

In 2006 and 2007 TheMarker and Rolnik won the 2 most important awards in marketing and business strategy for creating TheMarker, turning it into the leading brand in financial media and using an internet brand to launch a print newspaper (see "Awards").

Currently TheMarker produces a website, a daily print newspaper, a monthly print magazine and holds events on business-related issues. Some of TheMarkers articles are translated to English and appear in the English version of Haaretz in cooperation with the International New York Times.

History
TheMarker, founded by Rolnik and Haaretz group, was incorporated in 1999 and launched in March 2000. Joined by his two friends and co-founders – Avriel and Ido Pollak – Rolnik launched what would become the first business news website and the first online newsroom in Israel.

In December 1999, the American business news site TheStreet, entered into an agreement with Haaretz, to invest $2.25 million in
exchange for a 25% stake in TheMarker. According to the investment agreement, TheStreet.com published selected news and articles on Israeli technology companies from the TheMarker site, and in exchange TheMarker published selected news and articles from TheStreet.com. Following the bursting of the Dot-com bubble the investment in TheMarker was fully impaired by TheStreet.

In 2001 TheMarker started publishing a monthly print magazine, TheMarker Magazine. The magazine publishes yearly lists of "Israel's 100 most influential people" and "Israel's 500 richest people", which draw considerable attention. In 2003 started organizing business-related events under its own brand.

In 2005 Haaretz daily newspaper's economic section was terminated and Haaretz launched "TheMarker" as a daily newspaper.

Following the relaunch, the number of Haaretz's paid subscribers increased significantly: by the end of 2006, the number of paid subscribers rose to all-time high of over 60,000 and ad revenues from TheMarker's print edition grew by 50% compared to the pre-rebranding Period.

In 2008 the print edition of TheMarker became available as a stand-alone product as well.

In 2007 TheMarker launched "TheMarker Café", Israel's first social network for grown-ups and the first launched by a news organization.

Editorial views and opinions
In late 2011, TheMarker published a series of articles on three Nordic states – Finland, Sweden and Denmark – and their brand of economic order, mostly known as The Nordic Model, which is based on a combination of pro-market capitalism, welfare state policies and inclusive collective bargaining. The articles portrayed the countries that are characterized by competition along with a deep regard of humanistic values, whose citizens seem happy with the way things are and enjoy a high standard of living. The series was among the most-read in TheMarker's history.

TheMarker argued that the stability clause unconstitutional as it prevented future governments from governing by creating laws. TheMarker also argued that the price was not competitive, pointing to the falling global prices of natural gas.

Awards and recognition
Four of the awards were related to the January 2005 launch of TheMarker as a daily paid for newspaper:

Guy Rolnik won the Israel's Marketing Association's "Marketing person of the month" for July 2005. The judges wrote: "Rolnik is the person behind TheMarker's latest move – the launch of the daily newspaper under TheMarker's brand – a move that is a unique success. The launch of the new newspaper brought a dramatic change in the newspaper's position in the economic arena, a renewal in subscriber additions in Haaretz, a decrease in churning and a strengthening of the loyalty of the readers to the newspaper". Later that year he also won the association's "Marketing person of the year" award.

In 2006 TheMarker won the Israeli EFFIE Award in the media category for that year.
 In 2007 TheMarker won the EFFIE Platinum award for "Building the strongest economic brand in Israel", which is awarded to multi-year marketing efforts and is considered the "Oscar" of marketing awards.

Some of the personal awards Rolnik won for his journalistic achievements include:
 June 2005: The Movement for Quality Government in Israel's "Knight of Quality Government" award. The Movement said that it was awarded Rolnik "in gratitude for a unique contribution in the media for uncovering faults and in the public service, for a struggle against corruption and for the improvement of the quality of public sector. In his commentary, Rolnik raises the level of public criticism on the government's behavior and underscores its importance to the improvement of the quality of government. By doing so he sets an example of quality to his colleagues in the media and to Israeli society".

The Sokolov Prize for "Lifetime Achievement" (The Israeli Pulitzer). In its decision to grant the prize to Rolnik, the jury wrote: "Guy Rolnik untiringly shed light on problems in the structure of the Israeli economy, the judges commented in granting him the award. Notably, Rolnik demonstrated the concentration of capital in the hands of a small number of financial organizations connected to the holders of political and governing power. He exposed grave flaws in the current structure and demanded they be corrected to ensure the existence of a more resilient, just and egalitarian economic system".

Press mentions
In May 2004, HaAyin HaShevi'it interviewed journalists, business people and media experts in Israel who cited Rolnik as an influential columnist: "Rolnik writes the most important economic column in Israel, he has no competition. As a member of boards and committees I hear very often people talking about what Rolnik wrote this morning. People read his daily column avidly and with fear. There is no other journalist in Israel that has such position in his field – he is the master of the domain… When he mentions a person or a phenomenon in his column – its value will go up". A senior executive in the media industry was quoted: "Rolnik is the most influential economics journalist in Israel, I read every word he writes. Unlike other journalists he manages to surprise me time and again because his position is so unpredictable".

In February 2011, The New Yorker'''s editor, David Remnick, published a story about Haaretz and Schocken, saying "Under the leadership of a young, hyper-ambitious editor named Guy Rolnik, TheMarker brought a new, more youthful audience to Haaretz — one at least as interested in the high-tech industry as it is in the Palestinian issue — just as the worldwide newspaper crisis hit. TheMarker, which can be bought separately, has helped save the paper. Rolnik has been especially good at publishing investigative pieces on what he calls the 'Israeli oligarchs,' a small group of billionaires and their families who control much of the national economy".

In March 2015, journalist and media critic Michael Massing highlighted the work of TheMarker and Rolnik in an essay "How to fix American Journalism" that appeared in the special issue of The Nation magazine for its 150th anniversary. According to Massing, the unique campaign that waged Rolnik as editor-in-chief of TheMarker is the model for fixing American journalism: "TheMarker, an Israeli financial newspaper distributed as a supplement to Haaretz, waged an unflagging campaign beginning in the mid-2000s against the extraordinary concentration of economic power in Israel and the dangers that this development posed to Israeli society and democracy. Led by its founding editor, Guy Rolnik, the paper ran periodic stories and columns that paid special attention to the "Israeli oligarchs," a small group of billionaires and their families who controlled much of the Israeli economy. When the campaign began, the subject of economic concentration was barely discussed in Israel. The stories fed growing outrage over inequality, leading to a series of mass demonstrations in 2011. Those protests, in turn, spurred the Knesset to pass a bill to break up the Israeli conglomerates. It was a remarkable display of how one news organization, through tenacious and unflinching reporting over a period of years, can help spur systemic change ... Remarkably, of the many high-profile digital-journalism sites—the Huffington Post, The Daily Beast, BuzzFeed, Business Insider—not one scrutinizes America's oligarchs the way TheMarker'' did Israel's. ProPublica, the prime investigative site on the web, has done impressive reporting on a number of important subjects, including fracking and the secret Fed tapes, but in general it remains wedded to a traditional narrow-focus approach".

See also
 List of newspapers in Israel

References

External links

Daily newspapers published in Israel
Hebrew-language newspapers
Haaretz Group
Israeli brands

TheMarker


József Antall Jr. (Hungarian: Ifj. Antall József, ; 8 April 1932 – 12 December 1993) was a Hungarian historian and politician who served as the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Hungary after the fall of communism. He was instrumental in Hungary's transition to democracy and is considered a key figure in the country's modern history.

Antall was born on April 8, 1932, in Budapest, Hungary. He studied history and Hungarian literature at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest and later earned a doctorate in philosophy. Antall began his academic career as a researcher at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, where he specialized in Hungarian and European history.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Antall became involved in the opposition movement against the Communist government. He was a founding member of the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF), a political party that advocated for democracy and free markets in Hungary. Antall was elected as the president of the MDF in 1989.

After the fall of communism in Hungary, Antall became the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Hungary in 1990. He led the country during a crucial period of transition from communism to democracy and oversaw significant economic and political reforms.

One of Antall's most significant achievements was his role in negotiating the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Hungary. Under Antall's leadership, Hungary also became the first country in the Soviet bloc to recognize the independence of the Baltic states.

Antall's government implemented a series of economic reforms aimed at transitioning Hungary from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented one. These reforms included privatization of state-owned enterprises and the introduction of a new tax system. Antall also established diplomatic relations with Israel and initiated talks with the European Union.

Antall's time in office was not without challenges. His government faced criticism from some quarters for not moving quickly enough to reform the economy and for failing to address social issues. There were also tensions between the MDF and its coalition partners, which ultimately led to the collapse of Antall's government in 1993.

Antall continued to serve as the president of the MDF until his death in December 1993. His legacy as a key figure in Hungary's transition to democracy is widely recognized, and he is remembered as a respected historian and politician who played a vital role in shaping Hungary's modern history.

In recognition of his contributions to Hungary, Antall was posthumously awarded the Order of the Cross of Liberty, the highest civilian honor in Hungary. The József Antall Scholarship Program, established in 1996, is also named in his honor and provides opportunities for young Hungarian scholars to study abroad.

Early life and education
József Antall was born on April 8, 1932, in Budapest, Hungary. He was the son of a prominent historian, Gyula Antall, who was imprisoned for his anti-Nazi views during World War II. After the war, József Antall's family faced persecution under the Communist regime, which forced them into hiding. Despite this, Antall was able to attend the University of Budapest, where he studied history and earned his PhD in 1956, the same year as the Hungarian Revolution. Antall's experiences under Nazi and Communist rule had a profound impact on his political views, and he became a leading figure in Hungary's democratic movement in the 1980s.

Early career
After completing his PhD, József Antall worked as a historian and teacher. He also became involved in politics, joining the Independent Smallholders' Party, which had been a dominant political force in Hungary before the Communist takeover. In 1979, Antall was elected to the Hungarian Parliament, where he served until 1990. During his time in parliament, he was a vocal critic of the Communist regime and became known for his advocacy of democracy and human rights. Following the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Antall played a key role in the creation of the first non-Communist government in Hungary since 1947, serving as the country's first post-Communist Prime Minister from 1990 until his death in 1993.

Prime Minister
József Antall served as the Prime Minister of Hungary from 1990 until his death in 1993. He led the first non-Communist government in Hungary since 1947, and his tenure was marked by significant reforms aimed at transitioning the country to a market-based economy and a democratic political system. Antall's government oversaw the privatization of state-owned enterprises, the introduction of a new constitution, and the establishment of diplomatic relations with several Western countries. He was also a strong advocate for Hungary's integration into European institutions and oversaw the country's accession to the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Despite his accomplishments, Antall's time in office was cut short by his untimely death due to cancer at the age of 61.

Illness and Death
József Antall was diagnosed with cancer in 1992, just two years after he became the first post-Communist Prime Minister of Hungary. Despite undergoing treatment, his health continued to decline, and he became increasingly weak and frail. On December 12, 1993, Antall died at the age of 61 due to complications from cancer. His death was mourned throughout Hungary and the international community, with many recognizing his contributions to the country's transition to democracy and his efforts to strengthen Hungary's ties with Europe. He was succeeded by Péter Boross as Prime Minister of Hungary.

Legacy
József Antall is widely recognized as a key figure in Hungary's transition to democracy and market economy in the post-Communist era. His government oversaw significant reforms that paved the way for Hungary's integration into European institutions. He was a strong advocate for the protection of human rights, the rule of law, and the strengthening of civil society. Antall's legacy includes the establishment of diplomatic relations with Western countries and the development of Hungary's foreign policy aimed at fostering closer ties with Europe. His premature death cut short his tenure as Prime Minister, but his vision and legacy continue to inspire generations of Hungarians.

References

1932 births
1993 deaths
Prime Ministers of Hungary
Hungarian academics
Hungarian historians
Politicians from Budapest
Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma

József Antall