Paul I (;  – ) was Emperor of Russia from 1796 until his assassination. Officially, he was the only son of Peter III and Catherine the Great, although Catherine hinted that he was fathered by her lover Sergei Saltykov. Paul remained overshadowed by his mother for most of his life. He adopted the laws of succession to the Russian throne—rules that lasted until the end of the Romanov dynasty and of the Russian Empire. He also intervened in the French Revolutionary Wars and toward the end of his reign, added Kartli and Kakheti in Eastern Georgia into the empire, which was confirmed by his son and successor Alexander I.

He was de facto Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller from 1799 to 1801 and ordered the construction of a number of priories of the Order of Malta. Paul's pro-German sentiments and unpredictable behavior made him unpopular among the Russian nobility, and he was secretly assassinated by his own officers.

Early years
Paul was son of Emperor Peter III of Russia, nephew and anointed heir of the Empress Elizabeth (second-eldest daughter of Tsar Peter the Great), and Catherine II, born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, daughter of a minor German prince, who married into the Russian Romanov dynasty and subsequently deposed Paul's father, Peter III, to take the Russian throne and become Catherine the Great. While Catherine hinted in the first edition of her memoirs published by Herzen that her lover Sergei Saltykov was Paul's biological father, she later recanted and asserted in the final edition that Peter III was Paul's true father.

Paul was taken almost immediately after birth by the Empress Elizabeth, and had limited contact with his mother. As a boy, he was reported to be intelligent and good-looking, but sickly. His pug-nosed facial features in later life are attributed to an attack of typhus, from which he suffered in 1771. Paul was put in the charge of a trustworthy governor, Nikita Ivanovich Panin, and of competent tutors. Panin's nephew went on to become one of Paul's assassins. One of Paul's tutors, Poroshin, complained that he was "always in a hurry", acting and speaking without reflection.

Under Catherine II
Empress Elizabeth died in 1762, when Paul was 8 years old, and he became crown prince with the accession of his father to the throne as Peter III. However, within a matter of months, Paul's mother engineered a coup and not only deposed her husband but, for a long time, was believed to have had him killed by her supporters. It was later found that Peter III probably died due to a fit of apoplexy when exerting himself in a dispute with Prince Feodor, one of his jailers. Some historians believe that he was murdered by a vindictive Alexei Orlov. After the death of Peter III, Catherine then placed herself on the throne in a surpassingly grand and ostentatious coronation ceremony, for which event the Russian Imperial Crown was crafted by court jewellers. The 8-year-old Paul retained his position as Tsesarevich.

In 1772, her son and heir, Paul, turned eighteen. Paul and his adviser, Panin, believed he was the rightful tsar of Russia, as the only son of Peter III. His adviser had also taught him that the rule of women endangered good leadership, which was why he was so interested in gaining the throne. Distracting him, Catherine took trouble to find Paul a wife among the minor princesses of the Holy Roman Empire. She chose Princess Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt, who acquired the Russian name "Natalia Alexeievna", a daughter of Ludwig IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. The bride's older sister, Frederika Louisa, was already married to the Crown Prince of Prussia. Around this time, Catherine allowed Paul to attend the council in order that he might be trained for his work as Emperor. Wilhelmina and their child died in childbirth on 15 April 1776, three years after the wedding. It soon became even clearer to Catherine that Paul wanted power, including his separate court. There was talk of having both Paul and his mother co-rule Russia, but Catherine narrowly avoided it. A fierce rivalry began between them, as Catherine knew she could never truly trust her son, as his claim to her seat was superior to hers. Paul coveted his mother's position, and by the laws of succession prevalent then, it was rightfully his.

After her daughter-in-law's death, Catherine began work forthwith on the project of finding another wife for Paul, and on 7 October 1776, less than six months after the death of his first wife and their child, Paul married again. The bride was the beautiful Sophia Dorothea of Württemberg, who received the new Orthodox name Maria Feodorovna. Their first child, Alexander, was born in 1777, within a year of the wedding, and on this occasion the Empress gave Paul an estate, Pavlovsk. Paul and his wife gained leave to travel through western Europe in 1781–1782. In 1783, the Empress granted him another estate, Gatchina Palace, where he was allowed to maintain a brigade of soldiers whom he drilled on the Prussian model, an unpopular stance at the time.

Relationship with Catherine the Great
Catherine and her son and heir Paul maintained a distant relationship throughout her reign. The aunt of Catherine's husband, Empress Elizabeth, took up the child as a passing fancy. Elizabeth proved an obsessive but incapable caretaker, as she had raised no children of her own. Paul was supervised by a variety of caregivers. Roderick McGrew briefly relates the neglect to which the infant heir was sometimes subject: "On one occasion he fell out of his crib and slept the night away unnoticed on the floor." Even after Elizabeth's death, relations with Catherine hardly improved. Paul was often jealous of the favours she would shower upon her lovers. In one instance, the empress gave to one of her favourites 50,000 rubles on her birthday, while Paul received a cheap watch. Paul's early isolation from his mother created a distance between them that later events would reinforce. She never considered inviting him to share her power in governing Russia. And once Paul's son Alexander was born, it appeared that she had found a more suitable heir. The use made of his name by the rebel Yemelyan Pugachev, who impersonated his father Peter, tended no doubt to render Paul's position more difficult.

Catherine's absolute power and the delicate balance of courtier status greatly influenced the relationship at Court with Paul, who openly disregarded his mother's opinions. Paul adamantly protested his father's policies, writing a veiled criticism in his Reflections, a dissertation on military reform. In it he directly disparaged expansionist warfare in favour of a more defensive military policy. Unenthusiastically received by his mother, Reflections appeared a threat to her authority and added weight to her suspicion of an internal conspiracy with Paul at its centre. For a courtier to have openly supported or shown intimacy towards Paul, especially following this publication, would have meant political suicide.

Paul spent the following years away from the Imperial Court, content to remain at his private estates at Gatchina Palace with his growing family and perform Prussian drill exercises. As Catherine grew older, she became less concerned that her son attend court functions; her attentions focused primarily on the future Emperor Alexander I.

It was not until 1787 that Catherine may have in fact decided to exclude her son from succession. After Alexander and his brother Constantine were born, she had them placed under her charge, just as Elizabeth had done with Paul. That Catherine grew to favour Alexander as sovereign of Russia rather than Paul is unsurprising. She met secretly with Alexander's tutor de La Harpe to discuss his pupil's ascension, and attempted to convince Alexander's mother Maria to sign a proposal authorizing her son's legitimacy. Both efforts proved fruitless, and though Alexander agreed to his grandmother's wishes, he remained respectful of his father's position as immediate successor to the Russian throne.

Accession to the throne
Catherine suffered a stroke on 17 November 1796, and died without regaining consciousness. Paul's first act as Emperor was to inquire about and, if possible, destroy her testament, as he feared it would exclude him from succession and leave the throne to Alexander. These fears may have contributed to Paul's promulgation of the Pauline Laws, which established the strict principle of primogeniture in the House of Romanov, leaving the throne to the next male heir. As emperor, Paul sought revenge for the deposition of his father, and the coup of his mother.

The army, then poised to attack Persia in accordance with Catherine's last design, was recalled to the capital within one month of Paul's accession. Upon his death in 1762, Peter III had been buried without any honors in the Annunciation Church at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in St. Petersburg. Immediately after the death of his mother, Paul ordered his father's remains transferred, first to the church in the Winter Palace and then to the Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, the burial site of the Romanovs. 60-year-old Count Alexei Orlov, who had played a role in deposing Peter III and possibly also in his death, was made to walk in the funeral cortege, holding the Imperial Crown of Russia as he walked in front of Peter's coffin. Peter III had never been crowned so at the time of his reburial, Paul personally performed the ritual of coronation on his remains. Paul responded to the rumour of his illegitimacy by parading his descent from Peter the Great. The inscription on the monument to the first Emperor of Russia near the St. Michael's Castle reads in Russian "To the Great-Grandfather from the Great-Grandson". This is an allusion to the Latin "PETRO PRIMO CATHARINA SECUNDA", the dedication by Catherine on the 'Bronze Horseman' statue of Peter the Great.

Purported eccentricities

Paul was idealistic and capable of great generosity, but he was also mercurial and capable of vindictiveness. In spite of doubts of his legitimacy, he greatly resembled his father, Peter III, and other Romanovs as well and shared the same character. During the first year of his reign, Paul emphatically reversed many of his mother's policies. Although he accused many of Jacobinism, he allowed Catherine's best known critic, Radishchev, to return from Siberian exile. Besides Radishchev, he liberated Novikov from Schlüsselburg fortress, and also Tadeusz Kościuszko, yet after liberation both were confined to their own estates under police supervision. He viewed the Russian nobility as decadent and corrupt, and was determined to transform them into a disciplined, principled, loyal caste resembling a medieval chivalric order. To those few who conformed to his view of a modern-day knight (e.g., his favourites Kutuzov, Arakcheyev, and Rostopchin) he granted more serfs during the five years of his reign than his mother had presented to her lovers during her thirty-four years. Those who did not share his chivalric views were dismissed or lost their places at court: seven field marshals and 333 generals fell into this category.

Paul made several idiosyncratic and deeply unpopular attempts to reform the Imperial Russian Army. Under Catherine's reign, Grigori Potemkin introduced new uniforms that were cheap, comfortable, practical and designed in a distinctly Russian style. Paul decided to fulfill his father Peter III's intention of introducing Prussian uniforms. Impractical for active duty, these were deeply unpopular with the men, as was the effort required to maintain them. His love of parades and ceremony was not well-liked either. He ordered that Wachtparad ("Watch parades") take place early every morning in the parade ground of the palace, regardless of the weather conditions. He would personally sentence soldiers to be flogged if they made a mistake, and on one occasion ordered a Guards regiment to march to Siberia after they became disordered during maneuvers, although he changed his mind after they had walked about . He attempted to reform the organization of the army in 1796 by introducing The Infantry Codes, a series of guidelines for the army based largely upon show and glamour. But his greatest commander, Suvorov, completely ignored them, believing them to be worthless. At great expense, he built three palaces in or around the Russian capital. Much was made of his courtly love affair with Anna Lopukhina.

Emperor Paul also ordered the bones of Grigori Potemkin, the famed military commander and one of his mother's lovers, dug out of their grave and scattered.

Foreign affairs
Paul's early foreign policy can largely be seen as reactions against his mother's. In foreign policy, this meant that he opposed the many expansionary wars she fought and instead preferred to pursue a more peaceful, diplomatic path. Immediately upon taking the throne, he recalled all troops outside Russian borders, including the struggling expedition Catherine II had sent to conquer Qajar Iran through the Caucasus and the 60,000 men she had promised to Britain and Austria to help them defeat the French. Paul hated the French before their revolution, and afterwards, with their republican and anti-religious views, he detested them even more. In addition to this, he knew French expansion hurt Russian interests, but he recalled his mother's troops primarily because he firmly opposed wars of expansion. He also believed that Russia needed substantial governmental and military reforms to avoid an economic collapse and a revolution, before Russia could wage war on foreign soil.

Paul offered to mediate between Austria and France through Prussia and pushed Austria to make peace, but the two countries made peace without his assistance, signing the Treaty of Campoformio in October 1797. This treaty, with its affirmation of French control over islands in the Mediterranean and the partitioning of the Republic of Venice, upset Paul, who saw it as creating more instability in the region and displaying France's ambitions in the Mediterranean. In response, he offered asylum to the Prince of Condé and his army, as well as the future Louis XVIII, both of whom had been forced out of Austria by the treaty. By this point, the French Republic had seized Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, establishing republics with constitutions in each, and Paul felt that Russia now needed to play an active role in Europe in order to overthrow what the republic had created and restore traditional authorities. In this goal he found a willing ally in the Austrian chancellor Baron Thugut, who hated the French and loudly criticized revolutionary principles. Britain and the Ottoman Empire joined Austria and Russia to stop French expansion, free territories under their control and re-establish the old monarchies. The only major power in Europe who did not join Paul in his anti-French campaign was Prussia, whose distrust of Austria and the security they got from their current relationship with France prevented them from joining the Second Coalition. Despite the Prussians' reluctance, Paul decided to move ahead with the war, promising 60,000 men to support Austria in Italy and 45,000 men to help Britain in North Germany and the Netherlands.

Another important factor in Paul's decision to go to war with France was the island of Malta, the home of the Knights Hospitaller. In addition to Malta, the Order had priories in the Catholic countries of Europe that held large estates and paid the revenue from them to the Order. In 1796, the Order approached Paul about the Priory of Poland, which had been in a state of neglect and paid no revenue for 100 years, and was now on Russian land. Paul as a child had read the histories of the Order and was impressed by their honor and connection to the old order it represented. He relocated the Priories of Poland to St. Petersburg in January 1797. The knights responded by making him a protector of the Order in August of that same year, an honour he had not expected but, in keeping with his chivalric ideals, he happily accepted.

In June 1798, Napoleon seized Malta; this greatly offended Paul. In September, the Priory of St. Petersburg declared that Grand Master Hompesch had betrayed the Order by selling Malta to Napoleon. A month later the Priory elected Paul Grand Master on 24 November 1798, according to the 1847 edition of the Glossary of Heraldry. This election resulted in the establishment of the Russian tradition of the Knights Hospitaller within the Imperial Orders of Russia. The election of the sovereign of an Orthodox nation as the head of a Catholic order was controversial, and it was some time before the Holy See or any of the Order's other priories approved it. This delay created political issues between Paul, who insisted on defending his legitimacy, and the priories' respective countries. Though recognition of Paul's election would become a more divisive issue later in his reign, the election immediately gave Paul, as Grand Master of the Order, another reason to fight the French Republic: to reclaim the Order's ancestral home.

The Russian army in Italy played the role of an auxiliary force sent to support the Austrians, though the Austrians offered the position of chief commander over all the allied armies to Alexander Suvorov, a distinguished Russian general. Under Suvorov, the allies managed to push the French out of Italy, though they suffered heavy losses. However, by this point in time, cracks had started to appear in the Russo-Austrian alliance, due to their different goals in Italy. While Paul and Suvorov wanted the liberation and restoration of the Italian monarchies, the Austrians sought territorial acquisitions in Italy, and were willing to sacrifice later Russian support to acquire them. The Austrians, therefore, happily saw Suvorov and his army out of Italy in 1799 to go meet up with the army of Alexander Korsakov, at the time assisting the Austrian Archduke Charles to expel the French armies currently occupying Switzerland. However, the campaign in Switzerland had become a stalemate, without much activity on either side until the Austrians withdrew. Because this happened before Korsakov and Suvorov could unite their forces, the French could attack their armies one at a time, destroying Korsakov's and forcing Suvorov to fight his way out of Switzerland, suffering heavy losses. Suvorov, shamed, blamed the Austrians for the terrible defeat in Switzerland, as did his furious sovereign. This defeat, combined with Austria's refusal to reinstate the old monarchies in Italy and their disrespect of the Russian flag during the taking of Ancona, led to the formal cessation of the alliance in October 1799.

Although by the fall of 1799 the Russo-Austrian alliance had more or less fallen apart, Paul still cooperated willingly with the British. Together, they planned to invade the Netherlands, and through that country attack France proper. Unlike Austria, neither Russia nor Britain appeared to have any secret territorial ambitions: they both simply sought to defeat the French.

The Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland started well, with a British victory - the Battle of Callantsoog (27 August 1799) - in the north, but when the Russian army arrived in September, the allies found themselves faced with bad weather, poor coordination, and unexpectedly fierce resistance from the Dutch and the French, and their success evaporated. As the month wore on, the weather worsened and the allies suffered more and more losses, eventually signing an armistice in October 1799. The Russians suffered three-quarters of allied losses and the British left the Russian troops on the Isle of Wight in the Channel after the retreat, as it was illegal for foreign troops to enter Britain. This defeat and subsequent maltreating of Russian troops strained Russo-British relations, but a definitive break did not occur until later. The reasons for this break are less clear and simple than those of the split with Austria, but several key events occurred over the winter of 1799–1800 that helped: Bonaparte released 7,000 captive Russian troops that Britain had refused to pay the ransom for; Paul grew closer to the Scandinavian countries of Denmark-Norway and Sweden, whose claim to neutral shipping rights offended Britain; Paul had the British ambassador in St. Petersburg (Whitworth) recalled (1800) and Britain did not replace him, without any clear reason given as to why; and Britain, needing to choose between their two allies, chose Austria, who had with certainty committed to fighting the French to the end.

Finally, two events occurred in rapid succession that destroyed the alliance completely: first, in July 1800, the British seized a Danish frigate, prompting Paul to close the British trading factories in St. Petersburg as well as impound British ships and cargo; second, even though the allies resolved this crisis, Paul could not forgive the British for Admiral Nelson's refusal to return Malta to the Order of St. John, and therefore to Paul, when the British captured it from the French in September 1800. In a drastic response, Paul seized all British vessels in Russian ports, sent their crews to detention camps and took British traders hostage until he received satisfaction. Over the next winter, he went further, using his new Armed Neutrality coalition with Sweden, Denmark and Prussia to prepare the Baltic against possible British attack, prevent the British from searching neutral merchant vessels, and freeze all British trade in Northern Europe. As France had already closed all of Western and Southern Europe to British trade, Britain, which relied heavily upon imports (especially for timber, naval products, and grain) felt seriously threatened by Paul's move and reacted fast. In March 1801, Britain sent a fleet to Denmark, bombarding Copenhagen and forcing the Danes to surrender in the beginning of April. Nelson then sailed towards St. Petersburg, reaching Reval (14 May 1801), but after the conspiracy assassinated Paul (23 March 1801), the new Tsar Alexander opened peace-negotiations shortly after taking the throne.

The most original aspect of Paul I's foreign policy was his rapprochement with France after the coalition fell apart. Several scholars have argued that this change in position, radical though it seemed, made sense, as Bonaparte became First Consul and made France a more conservative state, consistent with Paul's view of the world. Paul also decided to send a Cossack army to take British India, as Britain itself was almost impervious to direct attack, being an island nation with a formidable navy, but the British had left India largely unguarded and would have great difficulty staving off a force that came over land to attack it. The British themselves considered this enough of a problem that they signed three treaties with Persia, in 1801, 1809 and 1812, to guard against an army attacking India through Central Asia. Paul sought to attack the British where they were weakest: through their commerce and their colonies. Throughout his reign, his policies focused reestablishing peace and the balance of power in Europe, while supporting autocracy and old monarchies, without seeking to expand Russia's borders.

Irano-Georgian matters

In lieu of Russia's failure to honour the terms of the Treaty of Georgievsk, Qajar Iran reinvaded Georgia. Georgian rulers felt they had nowhere else to turn now as Georgia was again re-subjugated by Iran. Tbilisi was captured and burnt to the ground, and eastern Georgia reconquered. However, Agha Mohammad Khan, Persia's ruler, was assassinated in 1797 in Shusha, after which the Persian grip on Georgia softened again. Erekle, King of Kartli-Kakheti, still dreaming of a united Georgia, died a year later. After his death, a civil war broke out over the succession to the throne of Kartli-Kakheti, and one of the rival candidates called on Russia to intervene and decide matters. On 8 January 1801, Tsar Paul I signed a decree on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was confirmed by Tsar Alexander I on 12 September 1801. The Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg, Garsevan Chavchavadze, reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor Alexander Kurakin. In May 1801, after Paul's death, Russian General Carl Heinrich von Knorring removed the Georgian heir to the throne, David Batonishvili, from power and deployed a provisional government headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lazarev.

Assassination
Paul's premonitions of assassination were well-founded. His attempts to force the nobility to adopt a code of chivalry alienated many of his trusted advisors. The Emperor also discovered outrageous machinations and corruption in the Russian treasury. As he had revoked Catherine's decree allowing corporal punishment of the free classes, and directed reforms that resulted in greater rights for the peasantry and provided for better treatment for serfs on agricultural estates, many of his policies greatly annoyed the nobility and induced his enemies to work out a plan of action.

A conspiracy was organized, some months before it was executed, by Counts Peter Ludwig von der Pahlen, Nikita Petrovich Panin, and Admiral de Ribas, with the alleged support of the British ambassador in Saint Petersburg, Charles Whitworth.

The death of de Ribas in December 1800 delayed the assassination; but, on the night of , a band of dismissed officers murdered Paul at the newly completed palace of Saint Michael's Castle. The assassins included General Bennigsen, a Hanoverian in the Russian service and General Yashvil, a Georgian. They charged into Paul's bedroom, flushed with drink after dining together, and found the emperor hiding behind some drapes in the corner. The conspirators pulled him out, forced him to the table, and tried to compel him to sign his abdication. Paul offered some resistance, and Nikolay Zubov struck him with a sword, after which the assassins strangled and trampled him to death. Paul's successor on the Russian throne, his 23-year-old son Alexander, was actually in the palace at the time of the killing; he had "given his consent to the overthrow of Paul, but had not supposed that this would be carried out by means of assassination". Zubov announced his accession to the heir, accompanied by the admonition, "Time to grow up! Go and rule!" Alexander I did not punish the assassins, and the court physician, James Wylie, declared apoplexy the official cause of death.

Legacy
There is some evidence that Paul I was venerated as a saint among the Russian Orthodox populace, even though he was never officially canonized by any of the Orthodox Churches.

Portrayals in popular culture
 In 1906, Dmitry Merezhkovsky published his tragedy Paul I; the most prominent performance of which was made on the Soviet Army Theatre's stage in 1989, with Oleg Borisov as Paul.
 The Patriot (1928 film), directed by Ernst Lubitsch, is a biopic starring Emil Jannings as Paul. It won the Best Writing Oscar at the 2nd Academy Awards. It is now mostly lost, with about one-third of the film preserved in archives.
 The Soviet film Lieutenant Kijé (1937), directed by Aleksandr Faintsimmer and based on a novella of the same name by Yury Tynyanov, satirizes Paul's obsession with rigid drill, instant obedience, and martinet discipline.
 In Sartre's novel Nausea (1938), Marquis de Rollebon, a fictional character being studied by the protagonist Antoine Roquentin, is implicit in Paul I's assassination.
 The Soviet experimental film Assa (1987) has a subplot revolving around Paul's murder; Paul is portrayed by Dmitry Dolinin.
 Poor Poor Paul (2003; Бе́дный бе́дный Па́вел) is a film about Paul's rule produced by Lenfilm, directed by Vitaliy Mel'nikov, and starring Viktor Sukhorukov as Paul and Oleg Yankovsky as Count Pahlen, who headed the conspiracy against him. The film portrays Paul more compassionately than the long-existing stories about him. The movie won the Michael Tariverdiev Prize for best music to a film at the Open Russian Film Festival Kinotavr, in 2003.
 The young Paul appears in the 2014 Russia-1 television series Ekaterina and features heavily as a main character in its second and third seasons.
 The young Paul is portrayed by Joseph Quinn in the 2019 HBO mini-series Catherine the Great.

Archives
Paul's letters to his first mother-in-law, Countess Palatine Caroline of Zweibrücken, (together with letters from his first wife to her mother) are preserved in the Hessian State Archive (Hessisches Staatsarchiv Darmstadt) in Darmstadt, Germany. In addition, Paul's letters to his first father-in-law, Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, (together with letters from his first wife to her father) are also preserved in the Hessian State Archive in Darmstadt.

Paul's correspondence with his brother-in-law, King Frederick I of Württemberg (Maria Feodorovna's brother), written between 1776 and 1801, is preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart (Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart) in Stuttgart, Germany. Paul's correspondence with his parents-in-law, Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, and Friederike of Brandenburg-Schwedt, written between 1776 and 1797, is also preserved in the State Archive of Stuttgart.

Issue
Paul and Sophie had ten children; nine survived to adulthood (and from whom can be traced 19 grandchildren):

Mistresses and illegitimate children
Sophia Razumovskaya  (1746–1803), lady in waiting of Catherine the Great.
Semyon Afanasyevich Velikiy (1772 – 13 August 1794)– became a naval officer and died in ship wreck in the Caribbean.
Mavra Yuryeva (1760–1828), spouse of Aleksey Vakar
Marfa Pavlovna Musina-Yuryeva (1801–1803) – died prematurely

Ancestry

See also
 Manifesto of three-day corvee
 Tsars of Russia family tree

Notes

References

Attribution

Bibliography

  online review

External links

 Paul I of Russia at AlexanderPalace.org

18th-century Russian monarchs
19th-century murdered monarchs
19th-century Russian monarchs
1754 births
1801 deaths
Assassinated politicians of the Russian Empire
Burials at Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg
Children of Catherine the Great
Deaths by strangulation
Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller
House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Knights of Malta
Male murder victims
Murdered Russian monarchs
Royalty from Saint Petersburg
People of the Russo-Persian Wars
Emperors of Russia
Grand dukes of Russia
Tsesarevichs of Russia
Sons of emperors
1801 murders in the Russian Empire
Murder in the Russian Empire
1800s assassinated politicians

Paul I of Russia


Bromo-DragonFLY (or 3C-Bromo-Dragonfly, DOB-Dragonfly)  is a substance related to the phenethylamine family. It acts as a potent full agonist for the 5-HT2A receptor.

History
Bromo-DragonFLY was first synthesized by Matthew Parker in the laboratory of David E. Nichols in 1998. As with the earlier and less potent dihydrofuran series of compounds nicknamed FLY, Bromo-DragonFLY was named after its superficial structural resemblance to a dragonfly.

Pharmacology
Bromo-DragonFLY demonstrates potent affinity at the 5-HT2A receptor (Ki 0.04 nM), similarly potent affinity at the 5-HT2C receptor (Ki 0.02 nM), and moderate affinity for the 5-HT2B receptor (Ki 0.19 nM). Bromo-DragonFLY is also a MAO-A inhibitor, and thus strongly inhibits oxidative deamination of 5-HT, increasing its risk profile.

Chemistry
The first synthesis of racemic Bromo-DragonFLY was reported by David E. Nichols in 1998 and was an expansion upon earlier research into the tetrahydrobenzodifuran analogue of DOB. The 1998 synthesis of racemic Bromo-DragonFLY starts from hydroquinone, which is dialkylated with 1-bromo-2-chloroethane, brominated, and treated with n-butyllithium to yield the tetrahydrobenzodifuran ring system. After formylation of the ring system, the nitropropene derivative was obtained by condensation with nitroethane under ammonium acetate catalysis. The nitropropene derivative was then reduced with lithium aluminium hydride to yield the amine intermediate, which was protected with trifluoroacetic anhydride. Following para-bromination with elemental bromine and oxidation of the tetrahydrobenzodifuran ring system with DDQ, the trifluoroacetyl protecting group of the amine was removed to give Bromo-DragonFLY as a racemic mixture of the R and S enantiomers.

In 2001, David E. Nichols reported an enantiospecific synthesis of Bromo-DragonFLY which allowed the individual R and S enantiomers to be studied. Further research determined that (R)-(-)-Bromo-DragonFLY possessed greater binding affinity at the 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors than (S)-(-)-Bromo-DragonFLY. To synthesize the more active R enantiomer, a derivative of D-alanine was reacted with 2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzodifuran in a Friedel–Crafts acylation, yielding an intermediate containing a β-keto moiety which was removed by treatment with triethylsilane in trifluoroacetic acid. After para-bromination and oxidation of the ring system with DDQ, the amine was deprotected yielding (R)-(-)-Bromo-DragonFLY.

Dosage
Data on toxicological significance and dosage of Bromo-DragonFLY remains elusive due to lack of human consumption, however commonly reported recreational dose of this substance is in the range of 500-1000μg. However, a death have been reported at approximately 700μg Bromo-DragonFLY.

Toxicity

The toxicity of Bromo-DragonFLY appears to be fairly high for humans, with reports of at least five deaths believed to have resulted from Bromo-DragonFLY in Norway, Sweden,
Denmark,
Finland
and the United States.
Laboratory testing has confirmed that in October 2009, a batch of Bromo-Dragonfly was distributed, mislabeled as the related compound 2C-B-FLY, which is around 20x less potent than BDF by weight. This mistake is believed to have contributed to several lethal overdoses and additional hospitalizations. The batch implicated in these deaths also contained significant synthesis impurities, which may have contributed to the toxicity.

Vasoconstrictive action resulting from severe overdose of Bromo-DragonFLY is known to have caused tissue necrosis of the extremities in at least one case.  In September 2007, a 35-year-old Swedish male required amputation of the front part of his feet and several fingers on one hand after taking a massive (but unknown) overdose; reportedly, the compound acted as a long-acting efficacious vasoconstrictor, leading to necrosis and gangrene which became apparent several weeks after the overdose occurred.  Treatment was of limited efficacy in this case, although tolazoline is reportedly an effective treatment where available.

Overdose-associated disturbing experiences and health problems have been described. One case in 2008 in England involved inhalation of vomit, causing nearly fatal asphyxia. Seizures have also been reported.

On October 3, 2009, a 22-year-old male from Copenhagen died after ingesting Bromo-DragonFLY. His friend described the trip saying, "It was like being dragged to hell and back again. Many times. It is the most evil [thing] I've ever tried. It lasted an eternity."

On May 7, 2011, in the United States, two young adults died after overdosing on Bromo-DragonFLY, which they thought was 2C-E, and several others were hospitalized during the same incident. Because they took a dosage appropriate for 2C-E, those who took the drug received, in some cases, 100x the normal dose. Both deaths followed seizures, vomiting blood, and terrifying hallucinations.

Drug prohibition laws

United States
Bromo-DragonFLY is unscheduled at federal level in the United States but could be prosecuted if it is sold for human consumption, Bromo Dragonfly is listed as a Schedule I in Oklahoma.

Canada
As of Oct 12, 2016, Bromo-DragonFLY is listed in Schedule III of the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act: "2C-phenethylamines and their salts, derivatives, isomers and salts of derivatives and isomers", a broad definition which corresponds to anything with a 2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine core, including (but not limited to) the 2C family (including e.g. βk-2C-B), the DOx chemical class, the TMA family, Aleph aka DOT, NBOMe, the 25x-NBx series, and of course, Bromo-DragonFLY itself (see this article).

United Kingdom

Bromo-DragonFLY is  widely reported by the media as being a Class A drug. However, as of 2014, it remains unclear to what extent it is covered by the UK phenylethylamine catch-all clause, with commentators noting both the structural similarities and differences to the phenylethylamine class. If the prosecution could demonstrate structural similarity in court, it would be considered a Class A substance but as a benzodifuran it is significantly different to this class. It is not explicitly named in the misuse of drugs act. It would be covered by the UK Psychoactive Substances Act 2016  but only if is sold or traded for human consumption.

Sweden
Sveriges riksdag added Bromo-Dragonfly to schedule IV ("substances, plant materials and fungi that hasn't any or without nothing medical use") as narcotics in Sweden as of Jan 3, 2008,  published by Medical Products Agency in their regulation LVFS 2007:14 listed as Bromo-Dragonfly, brombensodifuranyl-isopropylamin. Bromo-DragonFLY was first classified as "health hazard" by Sveriges riksdags health ministry  under the act  (translated Act on the Prohibition of Certain Goods Dangerous to Health) as of Jul 15, 2007,  in their regulation SFS 2007:600 listed as brombensodifuranylisopropylamin (Bromo-Dragonfly), making it illegal to sell, purchase, buy, retail or possess.

Denmark
On December 3, 2007, the drug was banned in Denmark. The substance has been declared illegal by health minister Jakob Axel Nielsen, following recommendations from the Danish Health Ministry. It is currently classified as a dangerous narcotic and therefore its possession, manufacture, importation, supply or usage is strictly prohibited. Anyone involved in such activities can face legal action.

Norway
Bromo-DragonFLY is currently on the Norwegian narcotics list.

Poland

Currently, Bromo-DragonFLY is an uncontrolled substance in Poland.

Romania
The chemical compound has been added as an illegal substance under the Law 143/2000 on February 10, 2010.

Australia
As of 9 September 2011, Bromo-DragonFLY was added to Schedule 2 of the Queensland Drugs Misuse Regulation 1987.

Nationally, the drug is listed under Schedule 9 (Prohibited) of the Poisons Standard. Accordingly, the drug is prohibited in all states and territories.

Finland
As of 12 March 2012, Bromo-DragonFLY is an illegal designer drug.

See also
 2C-B
 DOB
 DOB-FLY
 2C-B-FLY
 PiHKAL

Notes

References

 Bromo-dragonfly – livsfarlig missbruksdrog
 Per, 35, blev stympad av dödsdrogen - Vårdades i respirator i tio dygn efter att ha tagit Bromo-Dragonfly

Bromoarenes
Designer drugs
Entheogens
Psychedelic phenethylamines
Serotonin receptor agonists
Substituted amphetamines
Heterocyclic compounds with 3 rings
Benzofurans

Bromo-DragonFLY


Dion and the Belmonts were an American vocal quartet prominent throughout the 1950s. All of its members were from the Bronx, New York City. In 1957, Dion DiMucci joined the vocal group the Belmonts. The established trio of Angelo D'Aleo, Carlo Mastrangelo and Fred Milano formed a quartet with DiMucci.

Dion and the Belmonts released four studio albums and one live album, with multiple Billboard Hot 100 songs. The Belmonts have yet to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, even though Dion was in 1989. In 2000, the group was inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame.

Background and history
The name the Belmonts was derived from two of the four singers having lived on Belmont Avenue in the Bronx; the other two lived near Belmont Avenue.

After unsuccessful singles on Mohawk Records in 1957 ("We Went Away" b/w "Tag Along" by Dion "with" The Belmonts), and then on Jubilee Records (including "The Chosen Few" b/w "Out In Colorado" by Dion & the Timberlanes, not the Belmonts), Dion was paired with the Belmonts. The group signed with Laurie Records in early 1958. The breakthrough came when their first Laurie release, "I Wonder Why", reached No. 22 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and they appeared for the first time on the nationally televised American Bandstand show, hosted by Dick Clark.  Dion said of the Belmonts:  Dion and the Belmonts were the sound of the city.  Their roots were doo-wop groups like the Flamingos, the Five Satins and the Dells, acts who developed their sound in urban settings on street corners, mimicking instruments with their voices and even complex jazz arrangements.

They followed the hit with the ballads "No One Knows" (No. 19) and "Don't Pity Me" (No. 40), which they also performed on Bandstand. This early success brought them their first major tour in late 1958, with the Coasters, Buddy Holly and Bobby Darin, followed by the historic and tragic Winter Dance Party tour featuring Holly, Ritchie Valens and the Big Bopper. On February 2, 1959, after playing the Surf Ballroom, Holly arranged to charter a plane. Dion decided he could not afford the $36 cost to fly to the next venue. According to Dion, $36 was the price his parents paid for monthly rent. He told Holly no. Shortly after midnight, on February 3, 1959, the plane crashed near Clear Lake, Iowa. Holly, Valens, The Big Bopper, and the pilot Roger Peterson were all killed. Bobby Vee, then an unknown artist, performed in Holly's place at the next concert. Later, Jimmy Clanton, Frankie Avalon, and Fabian were hired to finish the tour in place of the three deceased headliners.  As of January 11, 2017, with the death of Holly's tour guitarist Tommy Allsup, Dion is the lone surviving member of the original Winter Dance Party lineup.  (The lone surviving Belmont, Angelo D'Aleo, was not on the tour, as he was in the US Navy at the time.)

In March 1959, Dion and the Belmonts' next single, "A Teenager in Love", broke the Top Ten, reaching No. 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 28 on the UK Singles Chart. Written by Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman, it's considered one of the greatest songs in rock and roll history. It was followed by their first album, Presenting Dion and the Belmonts. Their biggest hit, "Where or When", was released in November 1959, and reached No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 with the group making another national appearance on American Bandstand. Although publicity photos show the group as a trio without Angelo D'Aleo, he performed on all of their recorded material; these photos were presented for promotional reasons owing to his departure to serve in the U.S. Navy.

Other singles released for the group that year continued to chart on Billboard, but were less successful. In early 1960, Dion checked into a hospital for heroin addiction, a problem he had since his mid-teens.  At the height of the group's success his drug dependency worsened.  When "Where or When" peaked, he was in a hospital detoxing. In addition, there were financial and musical differences between Dion and members of the Belmonts. "They wanted to get into their harmony thing, and I wanted to rock and roll," said Dion. "The label wanted me doing standards. I got bored with it quickly. I said, I can't do this. I gotta play my guitar. So we split up and I did 'Runaround Sue', 'The Wanderer' and 'Ruby Baby'."  In October 1960, DiMucci quit for a solo career.  Now simply known as Dion, his first major hit, "Lonely Teenager", was backed by a female chorus. He eventually chose to work with the Del-Satins, who backed him (uncredited) on all his early Laurie and Columbia Records hits, which, besides the three aforementioned hits Dion quoted, also included "Donna the Prima Donna" ,"Drip Drop", "Lovers Who Wander", and "Little Diane".  Later reissues of these songs would often be erroneously attributed to Dion and the Belmonts. The Belmonts also continued to release records on their own label, Sabina Records, but with less success. However, songs like "Such a Long Way", "Tell Me Why", "I Need Someone", "I Confess" and "Come On Little Angel" all received significant radio play in the New York City area.

Dion and the Belmonts reunited in late 1966 for the album Together Again on ABC Records. Produced by DiMont Music, two singles were released from the LP: "My Girl The Month of May" / "Berimbau" and "Movin' Man" / "For Bobbie". Neither charted in the United States, but fared better in England. "My Girl The Month of May" broke the "Radio London Fab 40" Top Ten at No. 9 the week of December 25, 1966. One reviewer stated: "some British radio DJ's gave it a lot of airplay at the time." The follow-up, "Movin Man", reached No. 17 on the "Radio London" chart on March 26, 1967. "My Girl The Month of May" was later covered by English artists Alan Bown in 1967, and by The Bunch (featuring Sandy Denny of Fairport Convention) in April 1972. During their brief mid-1960s reunion, Dion and the Belmonts appeared on The Clay Cole Show performing "Berimbau" and "My Girl The Month of May". They occasionally performed at local New York City nightclubs, such as "The Mardi Gras" on Staten Island (April 29, 1967), before disbanding.

In 1968, as a solo performer, Dion recorded "Abraham, Martin and John", written by Dick Holler. It is a tribute to social change icons Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., John F. Kennedy and Robert F. Kennedy. It was written as a response to the assassination of King in April and the assassination of Robert in June. When producer Phil Gernhard initially presented the song to DiMucci, the latter did not care for it. With the persistence of Gernhard, and Dion's wife Susan, he flew to New York that summer. He recorded the song in just one take. Laurie Records released the single in September of that year and it quickly raced up the chart, peaking at number four in December. DiMucci, now a star again, was invited to sing this comeback hit on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, as well as many other top shows.

The original group reunited once again on June 2, 1972, for a show at Madison Square Garden, which was recorded and released as a live album for Warner Brothers. In 1973, DiMucci, Mastrangelo, Milano and D'Aleo performed once more, doing a sold-out concert at the Nassau Coliseum on Long Island, New York. However, no recording of the 1973 reunion was ever released.

Including Billboard Hot 100 singles, Dion and the Belmonts charted 856 radio station surveys across the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. In 2000, the group was inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame. Dion (without The Belmonts) was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989.

Rock Hall omission
In 2012, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame did a mass induction of six deserving pioneering groups that were left out in error when their lead singers were inducted in the Hall of Fame's early years of inductions: the Miracles (Smokey Robinson), the Crickets (Buddy Holly), the Midnighters (Hank Ballard), the Famous Flames (James Brown), the Comets (Bill Haley) and the Blue Caps (Gene Vincent) . Because of the timeline when these groups were successful, it was believed that the Belmonts would be included in this induction, but none was forthcoming. Because the Belmonts scored chart hits for an additional three years after Dion left the group, coupled with the fact that the entire group (including Dion) were inducted intact into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2000 (11 years after Dion's solo induction into the Rock Hall), their omission was even more puzzling. In January 2012, the year of that mass vocal group induction, Fred Milano of the Belmonts died (January 1, 2012). A Billboard magazine article dated January 3, 2012 stated: "There was strife between DiMucci and Belmonts members, who were not pleased when DiMucci was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame without them in 1989." Carlo Mastrangelo died on April 4, 2016.

Discography

Albums
Dion and the Belmonts released four studio albums and one live album:
 Presenting Dion & The Belmonts (October 1959) Laurie Records
 Wish Upon a Star (June 1960) Laurie/Capitol Records
 By Special Request: Together with the Belmonts (1963)
 Together Again (January 1967) ABC Records
 Reunion: Live at Madison Square Garden (June 2, 1972) Rhino Records (released by Warner Bros. Records in 1973)

The two Laurie Records LPs are the most collectible, especially the first pressings of Presenting Dion & the Belmonts, issued as Laurie LLP-1002 (later reissued as LLP-2002).  There were also later compilation albums, some of which included the separate hits of the Belmonts, and some that included the hits of Dion, and Dion and the Belmonts.

Singles

References

External links

 Dion & The Belmonts II
 VIDEO: Induct The Belmonts into The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with Dion

American vocal groups
Laurie Records artists
Musical groups established in 1957
Musical groups from the Bronx
Doo-wop groups
1957 establishments in New York City

Dion and the Belmonts


Tentacle rape or shokushu goukan (触手強姦) is illustrated pornography involving the rape of (often quite young) women. This animation is different from other animation methods due to use of tentacles to portray the rape. This was done to get around Japanese censorship laws that made it illegal to portray male genitalia being used for sexual penetration. Since tentacles are technically not genitals, they do not need to be censored.

Anime
Pornography

Tentacle rape


Shiroka Polyana () is a reservoir lake situated in the Western Rhodopes mountains in Bulgaria.

The lake is situated 30 km south of Batak, on the road to Dospat. It is located 1500 meters above sea level amidst a forest of old pine trees. Different legends are told about the lake.
The shape of Shiroka Poliana reservoir is unique. Viewed from the ring-road it seems that the lake is composed of numerous small lakes with separate walls. This illusion is due to the indented relief of the lake bed that consists of several mountain gullies.

Although the banks of the lake are far from the road and comparatively hard to access, it attracts many visitors and sports fishermen because of the abundance of fish, including grey mullet, European perch, and trout.

Reservoirs in Bulgaria
Landforms of Pazardzhik Province
Rhodope Mountains
Tourist attractions in Pazardzhik Province

Shiroka Polyana


Filthy Lucre: Economics for People Who Hate Capitalism is a 2009 book by Canadian philosopher Joseph Heath.

The book is organized around what Heath claims are twelve fallacies or myths associated with economics, six of which are common on the left, and six of which are common on the right. It considers ideas like that the government should get out of the way of markets; that competition and Adam Smith's invisible hand improve efficiency; the 'psychopathic' nature of corporations; and the inevitability of capitalism's collapse.

A United States edition of the book was released in 2010 under the title Economics without Illusions: Debunking the Myths of Modern Capitalism.

The book is one of an increased number on the topics of capitalism and finance that were published in the wake of global economic downturn beginning in 2008.

Overview
The book is intended to clarify core ideas in economics which he feels are systematically misunderstood.  As in his previous bestseller The Efficient Society, Heath argues that the government should operate only in markets where a collective action problem occurs and not in markets where this problem is absent (where it is a race to the bottom not a race to the top).  In these good-competition markets Heath defends price gouging, outsourcing and free trade (criticizing price-fixing,  trade protectionism and fair trade).  In bad-competition markets Heath argues that by risk-pooling the government provides a natural and optimal solution for everyone.  He defends the free market against the lump of labour argument, arguing that increases in efficiency are win-win situations despite job loss and other consequences.  Likewise he describes international trade as non-exploitative.  Trade specialization increases efficiency thereby increasing the price value of one's labour.  This is because the price value of labour is a function of the efficiency of an economy.

In the book Heath criticizes the idea that tax-paying is inherently different from consumption, and that the idea of a tax freedom day is flawed:
It would make just as much sense to declare an annual "mortgage freedom day", in order to let mortgage owners know what day they "stop working for the bank and start working for themselves". ...But who cares? Homeowners are not really "working for the bank"; they're merely financing their own consumption. After all, they're the ones living in the house, not the bank manager.

See also
Freakonomics
Predictably Irrational

References

2009 non-fiction books
Books about capitalism


Li Fuchun (; May 22, 1900 – January 9, 1975) was a Chinese Communist revolutionary and politician. He served as a Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China.

Biography
Li Fuchun was born in Changsha, Hunan Province. After completing middle school in his home province, in 1919 he traveled to France to attend a work-study program and here he started his political activity. Fascinated by Marxism, in 1921 he joined the Socialist Youth of China and, in 1922, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The following year he married Cai Chang, Cai Hesen's sister. In 1925 he went to study in the Soviet Union, but he returned in China to take part at the Northern Expedition, serving as head of the political division of the National Revolutionary Army's 2nd Army and acting CCP secretary of Jiangxi Province. It was in this period that he met Mao Zedong, working with him at the Peasant Movement Training Institute.

Li Fuchun took part at all the Communist Party's major campaigns, including the Long March, during which he was vice-director of the General Political Department of the Red Army and political commissar. He later served as secretary of the CCP Committee for Shaanxi–Gansu–Ningxia. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, he held a number of jobs, including deputy head of the CCP Central Organization Department, head of the CCP Central Economic and Financial Department, and director of the General Office. In 1945 he was elected member of the CCP Central Committee.

During the 1945–1949 Liberation War (the final showdown between Communists and Nationalists), he had an important role in ruling Northern China, serving simultaneously as secretary of the CCP Manchuria Sub-Bureau, standing committee member and deputy secretary of the CCP Northeast Bureau, vice-chairman of the Northeast People's Government and deputy political commissar of the Northeast Military Region.

With the establishment of the People's Republic of China, both Li Fuchun and Cai Chang were transferred to Beijing. While she served as chairwoman of the All-China Women's Federation (a post she held until 1978), Li Fuchun was appointed deputy head of the Central Economic and Financial Commission under Chen Yun and Minister of Heavy Industry. In 1954 he was promoted to vice-premier and chairman of the State Planning Commission, with the task of overseeing socialist economy planning in China. In 1956 he was also appointed member of the CCP Politburo, and co-opted in the CCP Secretariat in 1958.

In 1964, Li and Bo Yibo traveled to southwest China to convey Mao's selection of Panzhihua as the future basis for steel industry development during China's Third Front construction. Li Fuchun became director of the Planning Commission and in this role he set design rules stating that Third Front projects should not attempt to be "big and complete" or incorporate major administrative, social service, or other buildings not involved in production. Instead, project leaders were directed to make do with what was available, including building rammed earth housing so that more resources could be directed to production. This policy came to be expressed through the slogan, "First build the factory and afterward housing."

At the start of the Cultural Revolution, during a reshuffle of the Party's central authority at the 11th Plenary Session of the 8th CCP Central Committee in August 1966, Li Fuchun was elected to the top Politburo Standing Committee. However, he started to manifest his intolerance towards the course of the Cultural Revolution. During a "general report conference of the Centre's political work" in October 1966, Mao Zedong said of him: "Li Fuchun has been asked to rest for a year. Even I do not know who is in charge of the Planning Commission. Fuchun respects the Party discipline. He told some things to the Secretariat which were not reported to me." Later, in February 1967 he openly attacked the Cultural Revolution during a meeting along with other top leaders like Chen Yi, Li Xiannian and Nie Rongzhen; as a result, they were labeled as the February Countercurrent and thoroughly criticized as revisionists.

Despite being part of the "February Countercurrent", Li Fuchun was elected to the 9th CCP Central Committee in 1969. After the fall of Lin Biao in 1971, Mao Zedong declared that the "February Countercurrent" was a closed chapter, and so Li Fuchun was completely rehabilitated. He was elected to the 10th CCP Central Committee in 1973 and also to the 4th National People's Congress in 1974, but he could not attend it as he died on January 9, 1975, just 4 days before its first session. He is still regarded as one of the main founders of China's socialist economy.

See also
 Historical Museum of French-Chinese Friendship

References

|-

|-

|-

1900 births
1975 deaths
Politicians from Changsha
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Hunan
People of the Cultural Revolution
Republic of China politicians from Hunan
People's Republic of China politicians from Hunan
Members of the 8th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party
Communist University of the Toilers of the East alumni
Burials at Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery

Li Fuchun


Mario Adorf (; born 8 September 1930) is a German  actor, considered to be one of the great veteran character actors of European cinema.  Since 1954, he has played both leading and supporting roles in over 200 film and television productions, among them the 1979 Oscar-winning film The Tin Drum. He is also the author of several successful mostly autobiographical books.

Biography
Adorf was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the illegitimate child of Matteo Menniti, an Italian surgeon and Alice Adorf, a German medical assistant. He grew up in his maternal grandfather's hometown, Mayen, where he was raised by his unmarried mother. He rose to fame in Europe, and particularly Germany, and also made appearances in international films, including Ten Little Indians and Smilla's Sense of Snow. He also played a small role in the BBC adaptation of John le Carré's Smiley's People as a German club owner. In Italy he also played in a number of movies.

In the 1960s, he married Lis Verhoeven. The couple had a child, Stella, prior to their divorce. He starred with Barbara Bouchet in Milano Calibro 9 in 1972. In 1985, he married Monique Faye.

Adorf has expressed regret that he declined roles in Francis Ford Coppola's The Godfather (1972) and Billy Wilder's One, Two, Three (1961). He also turned down the role of General Mapache in Sam Peckinpah's The Wild Bunch (1969), because he felt the character was too violent. In 1996, he provided the German dubbing voice for the character Draco in Dragonheart, a role performed by Sean Connery.

Awards
Among many others:
 2000 Bavarian Film Awards Honorary Award
 2011 Best Human Brand Award

Selected filmography

 08/15 (1954), as Wagner
  (1955), as Unteroffizier Stamm
 Fruit in the Neighbour's Garden (1956), as Landstreicher
 The Girl and the Legend (1957), as Bertie
 Sand, Love and Salt (1957, directed by František Čáp), as Coco
  (1957)
 The Devil Strikes at Night (1957, directed by Robert Siodmak), as Bruno Luedke
 The Doctor of Stalingrad (1958, directed by Géza von Radványi), as Pelz, Sanitäter
 Rosemary (1958, directed by Rolf Thiele), as Horst
 The Death Ship (1959, directed by Georg Tressler), as Lawski, Polnischer Kohlenschlepper
 The Day the Rains Came (1959, directed by Gerd Oswald), as Werner Maurer
 Boomerang (1960, directed by Alfred Weidenmann), as Georg Kugler
 My Schoolfriend (1960), as Niedermoser
 Brainwashed (1960, directed by Gerd Oswald), as Mirko Centowic
 Who Are You, Mr. Sorge? (1961), as Max Klausen
 Le goût de la violence (1961), as Chamaco
 On the Tiger's Back (1961, directed by Luigi Comencini), as Mario Tagliabue
 Lulu (1962, directed by Rolf Thiele), as Rodrigo Quast
 Freddy and the Song of the South Pacific (1962), as Cameo during brawl at harbour pub (uncredited)
 The Last Charge (1962), as Nardone
 Street of Temptation (1962), as Joe
 Station Six-Sahara (1963, directed by Seth Holt), as Santos
 Die endlose Nacht (1963), as Juanitas Bekannter
  (1963), as Axel Rottmann, Reporter
  (1963, TV film), as Juror 7
 Apache Gold (1963, directed by Harald Reinl), as Frederick Santer
 La visita (1963, directed by Antonio Pietrangeli), as Cucaracha
 A Mission for Mr. Dodd (1964), as Buddy Herman
 The Last Ride to Santa Cruz (1964, directed by Rolf Olsen), as Pedro Ortiz
 Massacre at Marble City (1964, directed by Paul Martin), as Matt Ellis
 Major Dundee (1965, directed by Sam Peckinpah), as Sgt. Gomez
 The Dirty Game (1965, directed by Terence Young, Christian-Jaque, Carlo Lizzani, Werner Klingler), as Callaghan
 The Camp Followers (1965, directed by Valerio Zurlini), as Sergeant Castagnoli
 That Man in Istanbul (1965, directed by Antonio Isasi-Isasmendi), as Bill
 The Gentlemen (1965, directed by Rolf Thiele, Alfred Weidenmann, Franz Seitz), as Verleger Blech – episode 'Die Intellektuellen'
 Ten Little Indians (1965, directed by George Pollock), as Herr Grohmann
 Tierra de fuego (1965), as Abel Dragna
 I Knew Her Well (1965, directed by Antonio Pietrangeli), as Emilio Ricci, aka Bietolone
  (1966, directed by Wolfgang Staudte), as Orje
 The Treasure of San Gennaro (1966, directed by Dino Risi), as Sciascillo
 A Rose for Everyone (1967, directed by Franco Rossi), as Paolo
 Zärtliche Haie (1967, directed by Michel Deville), as Spion SB 3
 Ghosts – Italian Style (1967, directed by Renato Castellani), as Alfredo Mariano
 Anyone Can Play (1968, directed by Luigi Zampa), as Traffic cop
 A Sky Full of Stars for a Roof (1968, directed by Giulio Petroni), as Harry
 Up the Establishment (1969, directed by Michael Verhoeven), as Augustin 'Gustl' Wohlfahrt
 Gli specialisti (1969, directed by Sergio Corbucci), as El Diablo
 The Red Tent (1969, directed by Mikhail Kalatozov), as Biagi
 Safety Catch (1970), as Le sadique aux cheveux longs
 The Bird with the Crystal Plumage (1970, directed by Dario Argento), as Berto Consalvi
 Gentlemen in White Vests (1970, directed by Wolfgang Staudte), as Bruno 'Dandy' Stiegler
 Deadlock (1970, directed by Roland Klick), as Charles Dump
 Long Live Robin Hood (1971), as Brother Tuck
 Million Dollar Eel (1971), as Nane Mora – the Guardiapesca
 Short Night of Glass Dolls (1971, directed by Aldo Lado), as Jacques Versain
 The Sicilian Checkmate (1972, directed by Florestano Vancini), as Amedeo Barrese
 Caliber 9 (1972, directed by Fernando Di Leo), as Rocco Musco
 When Women Lost Their Tails (1972), as Pap
 Execution Squad (1972, directed by Steno), as District Attorney Ricciuti
 King, Queen, Knave (1972, directed by Jerzy Skolimowski), as Prof. Ritter
 The Italian Connection (La mala ordina) (1972, directed by Fernando Di Leo), as Luca Canali
 The Adventures of Pinocchio (1972, TV miniseries, directed by Luigi Comencini), as Circus Director
  (1973, directed by Bruno Gantillon), as L'ex-commandant Pierre Capra
 The Assassination of Matteotti (1973, directed by Florestano Vancini), as Benito Mussolini
 Trip to Vienna (1973, directed by Edgar Reitz), as Fred Scheuermann – Ortsgruppenleiter
 Brigitte, Laura, Ursula, Monica, Raquel, Litz, Florinda, Barbara, Claudia, e Sofia le chiamo tutte... anima mia (1974), as Il commissario Marzoli
 What Have They Done to Your Daughters? (1974, directed by Massimo Dallamano), as Insp. Valentini
 Processo per direttissima (1974, directed by Lucio De Caro), as Procuratore Benedikter
 Weak Spot (1975, directed by Peter Fleischmann), as Manager
 The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum (1975, directed by Volker Schlöndorff), as Kommissar Beizmenne
  (1976, directed by Michael Verhoeven), as Edgar Burgmann
 Dog's Heart (1976, directed by Alberto Lattuada), as Bormenthàl
 Bomber & Paganini (1976), as Bomber
  (1977), as Police Officer Erwin
 I Am Afraid (1977, directed by Damiano Damiani), as Judge Moser
  (1977, directed by Wolf Gremm), as Max
  (1977, directed by Reinhard Hauff), as Schikowski – der Vater
 Difficile morire (1977)
  (1978), as Drunken Poet
 Germany in Autumn (1978, directed by Volker Schlöndorff, Rainer Werner Fassbinder), as Member of the board of TV producers
 Fedora (1978, directed by Billy Wilder), as Hotel Manager
 The Tin Drum (1979, directed by Volker Schlöndorff), as Alfred Matzerath
  (1979), as Thanasis
 L'empreinte des géants (1980), as Meru
 The Little World of Don Camillo (1981, TV miniseries, directed by Peter Hammond), as Don Camillo
 La disubbidienza (1981, directed by Aldo Lado), as Mr. Manzi
 Lola (1981, directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder), as Schuckert
 Invitation au voyage (1982, directed by Peter Del Monte), as Timour
 Smiley's People (1982, TV miniseries, directed by Simon Langton), as Claus Kretzschmar
 La côte d'amour (1982), as Louis Zannella
 Marco Polo (1982–1983, TV miniseries, directed by Giuliano Montaldo), as Giovanni
 State buoni se potete (1983, directed by Luigi Magni), as Pope Sixtus V
 Klassenverhältnisse (1984, directed by Straub-Huillet), as Karl Roßmann's Uncle
  (1985), as Siemann
  (1985), as Pope Urban VIII
 The Holcroft Covenant (1985, directed by John Frankenheimer), as Erich Kessler / Jürgen Mass
 Via Mala (1985, TV miniseries, directed by ), as Jonas Lauretz
 Momo (1986, directed by Johannes Schaaf), as Nicola
 La ragazza dei lillà (1986), as Albert
 Kir Royal (1986, TV series, 1 episode, directed by Helmut Dietl), as Generaldirektor Heinrich 'Heini' Haffenloher
 Mino (1986, TV miniseries, directed by ), as Maggiore Lupo
  (1987, directed by Vadim Glowna), as Schomberg
 The Second Victory (1987, directed by Gerald Thomas), as Dr. Sepp Kunzli
 Italian Night (1987, directed by Carlo Mazzacurati), as Alvise Tornov
 Vado a riprendermi il gatto (1987, directed by Giuliano Biagetti)
  (1988, TV miniseries, directed by Egon Günther), as Alfons Rogalla
 The Post Office Girl (1988, TV film, directed by Édouard Molinaro), as Anthony van Boolen
 Incident at Twilight (1988, TV film, directed by August Everding), as Maximilian Friedrich Korbes
 La piovra,  (1989, TV series, directed by ), as Salvatore 'Acidduzzu' Frolo
 I ragazzi di via Panisperna (1989, directed by Gianni Amelio), as Orso Mario Corbino
 Francesco (1989, directed by Liliana Cavani), as Cardinal Ugolino
 La luna negra (1989), as Padre
 Try This One for Size (1989), as Radnitz
 Ocean (1989, TV miniseries), as Damian Centeno
  (1990, directed by Egon Günther), as Levin Austerlitz
 The Bachelor (1990, directed by Roberto Faenza), as Gräsler's Friend
 Présumé dangereux (1990), as Radnitz
 Quiet Days in Clichy (1990, directed by Claude Chabrol), as Ernest Regentag
 Mother (1990, directed by Gleb Panfilov)
  (1990), as Mikis
  (1991, TV film, directed by Andy Bausch), as Heinrich Hartholz
  (1991, TV film, directed by ), as Istvan Kaltenbach
 Money (1991, directed by Steven Hilliard Stern), as The Turk
  (1991), as Francesco Serboli
 Fantaghirò (1991, TV film, directed by Lamberto Bava), as The King
  (1992, TV miniseries, directed by Dieter Wedel), as Peter Bellheim
 Abissinia (1993), as Enzo Pagnini
  (1993, TV film, directed by ), as Franz Graf Waldeck
 Amigomío (1994), as Grandfather
  (1996, TV miniseries, directed by Dieter Wedel), as Janusz 'Jan' Herzog
 Life Is a Bluff (1996), as Willi Butzbach
 Schwarzmüller (1996)
  (1997, directed by Helmut Dietl), as Paolo Rossini
 Smilla's Sense of Snow (1997, directed by Bille August), as Capt. Sigmund Lukas
 Alle für die Mafia (1998), as Don Michele
  (1999, TV miniseries, directed by Lamberto Bava), as Coda del diavolo
 Die Affäre Semmeling (2002, TV miniseries, directed by Dieter Wedel), as Walter 'Beton-Walter' Wegener
  (2002), as Jochen Epstein
  (2005, TV film, directed by Volker Schlöndorff), as Abel Znorko
  (2005, directed by Ben Verbong), as Santa Claus
  (2008), as Fisherman Gorian
 Rebecca Ryman: Olivia and Jai (2008, TV film), as Sir Joshua Templewood
 Same Same But Different (2009), as Publishing Director Mr. Behr
 Das Geheimnis der Wale (2010, TV film, directed by Philipp Kadelbach), as Prof. Johannes 'Joe' Waldmann
  (2010, TV film), as Konrad Hansen
 Gegengerade (2011), as Baldu
  (2012, TV film, directed by ), as Martin Burian
  (2012, directed by Lola Randl), as Nino Winter
  (2013), as Hermann von Kirsch
  (2013, directed by ), as Marcus Schwarz
  (2014), as Johann Schäfer
 Schubert in Love: Vater werden ist (nicht) schwer (2016), as Professor Schubert
 Winnetou (2016), as Frederick Louis Santer
 Einmal Sohn, immer Sohn (2018, TV film)
 Alte Bande (2019, TV film)
 Real Fight (2021), as Wechselburg

German-language voice acting
 The Brave Little Toaster (1987), as Kirby (German version)
 Felidae (1994), as Bluebeard
 Dragonheart (1996), as Draco (German version)
 The Fearless Four (1997), as Fred the Donkey
 Jester Till (2003), as Bürgermeister
 Racing Stripes (2005), as Tucker (German version)
 Little Dodo (2008), as Darwin

References

External links

 Official website

 Photographs and literature

1930 births
Living people
Male actors from Zürich
German male film actors
German people of Calabrian descent
German male stage actors
German male television actors
Swiss emigrants to Germany
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Male Spaghetti Western actors
20th-century German male actors
21st-century German male actors
German Film Award winners

Mario Adorf


The following is a list of astronomers, astrophysicists and other notable women who have made contributions to the field of astronomy.

A
 Madge Adam (1912–2001), English solar astronomer
 Maggie Aderin-Pocock (born 1968), English space scientist
 Conny Aerts (born 1966), Belgian astrophysicist specializing in asteroseismology
 Aglaonike (c. 1st or 2nd Century BCE), ancient Greek astronomer and thaumaturge
 María Luisa Aguilar Hurtado (1938–2015), Peruvian astronomer
 Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs (1912–1954), German variable star astronomer
 Elizabeth Alexander (1908–1958), English geologist and physicist
 Leah Allen (1884–1973), American astronomer and educator
 Adelaide Ames (1900 - 1932), American astronomer
 Anja Cetti Andersen (born 1965), Danish astronomer focused on cosmic dust
 Necia H. Apfel (born 1930), American astronomer and educator
 Alice Archenhold (1874–1943), German astronomer
 Anne Archibald, Canadian astronomer and educator

B

 Neta Bahcall (born 1942), Israeli astrophysicist and cosmologist specializing in dark matter
 Odette Bancilhon (1908–1998), French astronomer
 Amy Barger (born 1971), American galactic astronomer
 Nadine G. Barlow, American planetary scientist
 Amy Barr, American planetary geophysicist
 Maria A. Barucci, Italian astronomer
 Sarbani Basu, Indian-American Astronomer working in solar and stellar astrophysics
 Natalie Batalha (born 1966), American Astronomer
 Stefi Baum (born 1958), American astronomer and educator
 Reta Beebe (born 1936), American planetary scientist
 Emilia Pisani Belserene (1922-2012), American astronomer
 Jocelyn Bell Burnell (born 1943), Irish radio astronomer
 Mary Adela Blagg (1858–1944), English selenologist
 Erika Böhm-Vitense (1923–2017), German-born American stellar astronomer
 Priscilla Fairfield Bok (1896–1975), American astronomer of galactic astronomy
 Tabetha S. Boyajian (born c. 1980), American stellar and exoplanetary astronomer
 Sophia Brahe (c. 1559 to 1643), Danish noble woman
 Ingeborg Brun (1872–1929), Danish amateur astronomer
 Margaret Burbidge (1919–2020), British-American observational astronomer and astrophysicist
 Marta Burgay (born 1976), Italian radio astronomer
 Mary E. Byrd (1849–1934), American educator and cometary observer

C

 Annie Jump Cannon (1863−1941), American astronomer who cataloged stellar spectra
 Robin M. Canup (born 1968), American planetary scientist
 Nicole Capitaine (born 1948), French astronomer specializing in astrometry
 C. Marcella Carollo, Italian astronomer studying galaxy formation and evolution
 Catherine Cesarsky (born 1943), Argentinian–French astrophysicist
 Merieme Chadid (born 1969), Moroccan-French astronomer
 Kyongae Chang (born 1946), South Korean astrophysicist and instructor
 Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Meiningen (1751–1827), German noble and patron of astronomy
 Jun Chen, Chinese–American astronomer
 Lyudmila Chernykh (1935–2017), Russian astronomer
 Jessie Christiansen, Australian astrophysicist
 Agnes Mary Clerke (1842–1907), Irish astronomer and author
 Judith Gamora Cohen (born 1946), American astronomer researching galactic astronomy
 Françoise Combes (born 1952), French astrophysicist and educator
 Lynn Cominsky (born 1953), American astrophysicist and educator
 Janine Connes (born c. 1934), French astronomer
 France A. Córdova (born 1947), American astrophysicist and administrator
 Heather Couper (1949–2020), English astronomer, broadcaster and science populariser
 Athena Coustenis, Greek planetary scientist
 Carolin Crawford, English astrophysicist and educator
 Lucy D'Escoffier Crespo da Silva (1978–2000), Brazilian astronomy student
 Maria Cunitz (1610–1664), Silesian astronomer and author

D
 Rosina Dafter (1875–1959), Australian astronomer
 Ruth Agnes Daly, American astrophysicist
 Laura Danly (born 1958), American astronomer and educator
 Doris Daou (born 1964), Lebanese-Canada astronomer and educator
 Marie-Jeanne de Lalande (1768–1832), French astronomer and mathematician
 Audrey C. Delsanti (born 1976), French astrobiologist
 Elsa van Dien, Dutch astronomer
 Harriet Dinerstein, American astronomer
 Ewine van Dishoeck (born 1955), Dutch astrochemist
 Anlaug Amanda Djupvik, Norwegian stellar astronomer
 Megan Donahue, American astronomer and instructor
 Vibert Douglas (1894–1988), Canadian astrophysicist
 Jeanne Dumée (1660–1706), French astronomer and author
 Jo Dunkley (1979/1980), British cosmologist
 Andrea Dupree, American astrophysicist

E
 Maria Clara Eimmart (1676-1707), German astronomer, engraver, and designer
 Sara Ellison, Canadian astronomer and instructor studying extragalactic astronomy
 Rebecca Elson (1960–1999), Canadian–American astronomer and writer

F

 Sandra Faber (born 1944), American astrophysicist and instructor studying galactic evolution
 Annette Ferguson, Scottish observational astrophysicist
 Laura Ferrarese, Italian astronomer studying supermassive black holes
 Debra Fischer, American astronomer investigating exoplanets
 Gabrielle Renaudot Flammarion (1877–1962), French astronomer
 Williamina Fleming (1857–1911), Scottish astronomer
 Anna Frebel (born 1980), German astronomer
 Wendy Freedman (born 1957), Canadian-American observational cosmologist
 Katherine Freese, German theoretical astrophysicist
 Caroline Furness (1869–1936), American astronomer and teacher

G
 Catharine Garmany (born 1946), American astronomer and educator
 Pamela L. Gay (born 1973), American astronomer, educator, and writer
 Vera Fedorovna Gaze (1899–1954), Russian astronomer who studied emission nebula and minor planets
 Margaret Geller (born 1947), American astrophysicist studying extragalactic astronomy
 Andrea M. Ghez (born 1965), American astronomer, teacher, and Nobel prize winner
 Agnes Giberne (1845–1939), English novelist and scientific writer
 Nüzhet Gökdoğan (1910–2003), Turkish astronomer, mathematician and academic
 Merle Gold (1921-2017), American astrophysicist
 Andreja Gomboc (born 1969), Slovenian astrophysicist
 Alyssa A. Goodman (born 1962), American astrophysicist
 Eva Grebel, German astronomer studying stellar populations and galaxy formation
 Lucie Green (born c. 1975), English science communicator and solar researcher
 Jenny Greene (born 1978), American astrophysicist and teacher studying supermassive black holes and galaxies
 Ruth Grützbauch (born 1978), Austrian astronomer

H

 Erika Hamden, American astrophysicist and instructor
 Heidi Hammel (born 1960), American planetary scientist
 Fiona A. Harrison, American astrophysicist
 Marjorie Hall Harrison (1918–1986), English-born American astronomer
 Lisa Harvey-Smith (born 1979), British-Australian astrophysicist
 Margaret Harwood (1885–1979), American astronomer
 Martha P. Haynes (born 1951), American astronomer specialized in radio astronomy and extragalactic astronomy
 Martha Locke Hazen (1931-2006), American astronomer
 E. Ruth Hedeman (1910–2006), American solar astronomer
 Mary Lea Heger (1897–1983), American astronomer who studied the interstellar medium
 Charlene Heisler (1961-1999), Canadian astronomer
 Eleanor F. Helin (1932–2009), American astronomer who studied near–Earth asteroids
 Amina Helmi, Argentine astronomer
 Amanda Hendrix (born 1968), American planetary scientist
 Caroline Herschel (1750–1848), German astronomer
 Elisabeth Hevelius (1647–1693), Polish astronomer
 Jacqueline Hewitt (born 1958), American astrophysicist
 Catherine Heymans, British astrophysicist and instructor
 Renée Hložek, South African cosmologist
 Dorrit Hoffleit (1907–2007), American astronomer
 Helen Sawyer Hogg (1905–1993), American-Canadian astronomer
 Ann Hornschemeier, American astronomer studying X-ray astronomy
 Joan Horvath, American aeronautical engineer and writer
 Nancy Houk, American astronomer
 Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld (1921–2015), Dutch astronomer studying minor planets
 Margaret Lindsay Huggins (1848–1915), Irish-English scientific investigator and astronomer
 Carolyn Hurless (1934-1987), American astronomer and an American Association of Variable Star Observers merit award winner.
 Hypatia (c. 350–370 to 415), Hellenistic Neoplatonist philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician

I
 Violeta G. Ivanova, Bulgarian astronomer
 Al-ʻIjliyyah (c. 10th-century), Arab maker of astrolabes

J
 Odette Jasse (1899–1949), French astronomer at Marseille Observatory.
 Louise Freeland Jenkins (1888–1970), American astronomer of stellar astronomy
 Carole Jordan (born 1941), English physicist, astrophysicist, astronomer and academic

K

 Vicky Kalogera, Greek astrophysicist
 Lyudmila Karachkina (born 1948), Russian astronomer studying astrometry and minor planets
 Victoria Kaspi (born 1967), American-Canadian astrophysicist and instructor
 Lisa Kewley (born 1974), Australian astronomer studying galactic evolution
 Pamela M. Kilmartin, New Zealand astronomer searching for comets and minor planets
 Maria Margarethe Kirch (1670–1720), German astronomer and calendar maker
 Margaret G. Kivelson (born 1928), American planetary scientist
 Dorothea Klumpke (1861–1942), American astronomer
 Gillian R. Knapp, American astronomer
 Kirsten Kraiberg Knudsen, Danish astronomer studying galaxies
 Heather A. Knutson, American astronomer studying exoplanets
 Gloria Koenigsberger, Mexican astrophysicist and instructor
 Bärbel Koribalski, German astrophysicist studying galaxy formation and evolution
 Lenka Kotková (born 1973), Czech astronomer
 Chryssa Kouveliotou, Greek astrophysicist and instructor
 Reiki Kushida, Japanese amateur astronomer

L

 Elizabeth Lada, American astronomer and instructor
 Eleanor Annie Lamson (1875-1932), American astronomer
 Marguerite Laugier, French astronomer who discovered minor planets
 Gemma Lavender (born 1986), British astronomer, author and journalist
 Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868–1921), American astronomer who observed variable stars
 Nicole-Reine Lepaute (1723–1788), French astronomer and mathematician
 Isabel Martin Lewis (1881–1966), American astronomer and author
 Nikole Lewis, American astrophysicist
 Helen Lines (died 2001), American amateur astronomer
 Sarah Lee Lippincott (1920–2019), American astronomer and instructor who focused on astrometry
 Jane Luu (born 1963), Vietnamese–American astronomer and defense systems engineer

M
 Amy Mainzer (born 1974), American astronomer specializing in astrophysical instrumentation and infrared astronomy
 Esmeralda Mallada (born 1937), Uruguayan astronomer and instructor
 Rachel Mandelbaum, American astronomer
 Karen Masters (born 1979), American astrophysicist studying galaxy formation and evolution
 Janet Akyüz Mattei (1943–2004), Turkish-American astronomer studying variable stars
 Annie Russell Maunder (1868–1947), Irish-British astronomer
 Antonia Maury (1866–1952), American astronomer studying stellar astronomy
 Claire Ellen Max (born 1946), American astronomer and instructor
 Margaret Mayall (1902–1995), American astronomer studying variable stars
 Jaylee Burley Mead (1929–2012), American astronomer
 Karen Jean Meech (born 1959), American planetary scientist
 Maria Mitchell (1818–1889), American astronomer, librarian, naturalist, and educator
 Linda A. Morabito (born 1953), American planetary scientist
 Jean Mueller (born 1950), American astronomer
 Burçin Mutlu-Pakdil, Turkish astrophysicist

N
 Sultana N. Nahar, Bangladeshi-American physicist studying atomic processes in astrophysical and laboratory plasmas
 Joan Najita, American astronomer researching the formation and evolution of stars and planetary systems
 Yaël Nazé, Belgian astrophysicist studying massive stars and their environmental interaction
 Heidi Jo Newberg, American astrophysicist studying the Milky Way structure

O

 Carolina Ödman-Govender, (1974–2022), Swiss astrophysicist and lecturer
 Sally Oey, American astronomer researching massive stars
 Kathleen Ollerenshaw, (1912–2014), English mathematician, politician, and amateur astronomer
 C. Michelle Olmstead, American astronomer and computer scientist who has discovered minor planets
 Liisi Oterma (1915–2001), Finnish astronomer
 Mazlan Othman, Malaysian astrophysicist
 Feryal Özel (born 1975), Turkish astrophysicist studying stellar remnants

P
 Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900–1979), British-born American astrophysicist and instructor
 Ruby Payne-Scott (1912–1981), Australian radio astronomer
 Louise du Pierry (1746–1807), French astronomer and instructor
 Carle Pieters (born 1943), American planetary scientist
 Thushara Pillai, (born 1980), Indian astrophysicist and astronomer
 Paris Pişmiş (1911–1999), Armenian-Mexican astronomer
 Elena V. Pitjeva, Russian astronomer studying solar system dynamics and celestial mechanics
 Carolyn Porco (born 1953), American planetary scientist
 Helen Dodson Prince (1905–2002), American astronomer and instructor
 Mary Proctor (1862–1957), American popularizer of astronomy

Q

 Elisa Quintana, American planetary scientist

R
 Hilkka Rantaseppä-Helenius, Finnish astronomer who studied minor planets
 Katharine Reeves, American solar astronomer
 Emily Rice, American astronomer researching sub-stellar objects including brown dwarfs
 Christina Richey, American planetary scientist and astrophysicist
 Julia Riley, English radio astronomer
 Constance M. Rockosi, American galactic astronomer
 Elizabeth Roemer (1929–2016), American astronomer who studied minor planets
 Nancy Roman (1925–2018), American stellar astronomer
 Marta Graciela Rovira, Argentinian astrophysicist
 Vera Rubin (1928–2016), American astronomer researching extragalactic astronomy
 María Teresa Ruiz, Chilean astronomer

S

 Penny Sackett (born 1956), American-born Australian astronomer, educator, and manager
 Rita M. Sambruna, Italian-American astrophysicist studying supermassive black holes and jets
 Anneila Sargent (born 1942), Scottish–American astronomer specialized in star formation
 Ann Savage (1946–2017), British astronomer
 Caterina Scarpellini (1808–1873), Italian astronomer and meteorologist
 Sara Seager (born 1971), Canadian-American astronomer and planetary scientist
 Waltraut Seitter (1930–2007), German astronomer and instructor
 Muriel Mussells Seyfert (1909–1997), American astronomer
 Pelageya Shajn (1894–1956), Russian astronomer searching for minor planets
 Aomawa Shields, American astrophysicist and professor researching exoplanets
 Carolyn S. Shoemaker (born 1929), American astronomer
 Amy Simon, American planetary scientist
 Charlotte Moore Sitterly (1898–1990), American astronomer who studied stellar physics
 Tamara Mikhaylovna Smirnova (1935–2001), Russian astronomer who searched for minor planets and comets
 Alicia M. Soderberg (born 1977), American astrophysicist and instructor focused on supernovae
 Mary Somerville (1780–1872), Scottish scientist, writer, and polymath
 Linda Spilker, American planetary scientist
 Denise Stephens, American astronomer and instructor
 Sarah Stewart-Mukhopadhyay, American planetary scientist
 Annapurni Subramaniam, director of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics
 Karlina Leksono Supelli (born 1958), Indonesian philosopher and astronomer
 Jean Swank, American astrophysicist studying compact objects
 Henrietta Hill Swope (1902–1980), American astronomer who studied variable stars
 Nadezhda Sytinskaya (1906-1974), Soviet astronomer and planetary scientist
 Paula Szkody (born 1948), American astronomer and instructor specialized in cataclysmic variable stars

T
 Jill Tarter (born 1944), American astronomer focused on SETI
 Florence Taylor Hildred (1865–1932), English astronomer and pastor
 Alenush Terian (1921–2011), Iranian-Armenian astronomer
 Michelle Thaller (born 1969), American astronomer and educator
 Jana Tichá (born 1965), Czech astronomer searching for minor planets
 Beatrice Tinsley (1941–1981), British-born New Zealand astronomer studying galactic evolution
 Maura Tombelli (born 1952), Italian amateur astronomer
 Christy A. Tremonti, American astronomer
 Virginia Louise Trimble (born 1943), American astronomer
 Lidiya Tseraskaya (1855–1931), Russian astronomer
 Margaret Turnbull (born 1975), American astronomer and astrobiologist

U
 Anne Barbara Underhill (1920–2003), Canadian astrophysicist who studied massive stars
 Meg Urry, American astrophysicist studying supermassive black holes and galaxies

V
 Bobbie Vaile (1959–1996), Australian astrophysicist and lecturer
 Zdeňka Vávrová (born 1945), Czech astronomer
 Faith Vilas, American planetary scientist
 Julie Vinter Hansen (1890–1960), Danish astronomer
 Emma Vyssotsky (1894–1975), American astronomer who studied astrometry

W

 Lucianne Walkowicz (born 1979), American astronomer
 Wang Zhenyi (1768–1797), Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and poet
 Kim Weaver (born 1964), American astrophysicist and instructor focused on X-ray astronomy
 Alycia J. Weinberger, American astronomer studying planetary formation
 Mareta West (1915–1998), American astrogeologist
 Sarah Frances Whiting (1847–1927), American physicist, astronomer, and instructor
 Mary Watson Whitney (1847–1921), American astronomer and teacher
 Belinda Wilkes, English astrophysicist
 Beth Willman, American cosmologist
 Lee Anne Willson (born 1947), American astronomer
 Anna Winlock (1857–1904), American astronomer
 Jennifer Wiseman, American astrophysicist
 Rosemary Wyse (born 1957), Scottish astrophysicist and instructor
 Frances Woodworth Wright (1897–1989), American astronomer and educator
 Gillian Wright, Scottish astronomer

Y
 Ye Shuhua (born 1927), Chinese astronomer and instructor
 Anne Sewell Young (1871–1961), American astronomer who studied variable stars
 Judith Young (1952–2014), American physicist, astronomer, and educator
 Louise Gray Young (1935-2018), American astronomer and researcher

Z
 Lyudmila Zhuravlyova (born 1946), Russian-Ukrainian astronomer who discovered minor planets
 Maria Zuber (born 1958), American planetary scientist

See also
 List of astronomers
 List of astronomical instrument makers
 List of French astronomers
 List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists
 Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy

.Women
Astronomers, Women
Astronomers
Astronomers
Astronomers
History of astronomy
Women astronomer

List of women astronomers


Colonel Lloyd James Beall (October 19, 1808November 10, 1887) was a senior officer of the Confederate States Marine Corps who served as the Commandant of the Confederate States Marine Corps from May 23, 1861, to April 9, 1865.

Early life and career
Lloyd James Beall was born at Fort Adams, Rhode Island, the son of Brevet Major Lloyd Beall of the United States Army, cousin of George Beall, and descendant of Ninian Beall, immigrant to Maryland from Scotland. His father, Lloyd Beall, was wounded at Germantown during the Revolution, served as mayor of Georgetown, D.C., from 1797 to 1799, and in 1814 during the War of 1812 was a Major of Artillery stationed at Fort McHenry near Baltimore. Lloyd James Beall's mother was Elizabeth Waugh Jones, daughter of Hon. Thomas Jones of Patapsco Neck, Judge of the Maryland Court of Appeals (1778–1806). His two brothers, Benjamin Lloyd Beall and John were to become officers and remain in the U.S. Army during the Civil War. He was a distant cousin of John Yates Beall, Confederate privateer and spy, executed during the Civil War.

Beall graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, in 1830. He also attended the Cavalry School of Saumur, France, from 1840 to 1842 to learn the French Army's system of Dragoon exercise. In 1844, Beall was promoted to major in the U.S. Army. He served in the Black Hawk and Seminole Wars, as well as in the Mexican–American War. He was a U.S. Army paymaster stationed at St. Louis, Missouri, when the Civil War began.

A summary of Beall's U.S. Army career follows:
Cadet at the Military Academy, July 1, 1826, to July 1, 1830, when he was graduated and promoted in the Army to Bvt. Second Lieut., 1st Infantry, July 1, 1830; Second Lieut., 1st Infantry, July 1, 1830,
Served on frontier duty, at Ft. Winnebago, Wisconsin, 1831, and Ft. Armstrong, Illinois, 1831–32; in the Black Hawk War against the Sac Indians, 1832; on frontier duty at Ft. Crawford, Wisconsin, 1832–33; as Adjutant, 1st Infantry, at Regimental Headquarters, March 1, 1833, to June 11, 1836; became First Lieutenant, 2nd Dragoons, June 11, 1836; Captain, 2nd Dragoons, October 19, 1836, to September 13, 1844; at Headquarters of 2nd Dragoons on Regimental Staff duty, 1836–37; in garrison at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, 1837; in the Second Seminole War, also known as the Florida War, against the Miccosukee Seminole Indians, 1837–38, being engaged in the action of Locha-Hatchee, Florida, Jan. 24, 1838, and the Skirmish of Kenapapa Prairie, June 17, 1838, while transferring Indians to the West during the "Trail of Tears"; in the Cherokee Nation, Oklahoma 1838–39. Recruiting service, 1839–40; at the Cavalry School at Saumur, France, 1840–1842, to learn the French system of Dragoon exercise; at United States Army Cavalry School, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, 1842; on frontier duty at Fort Jesup, Louisiana, 1842–43; on detached service at Washington, D.C., 1843–44; as Member of the Board of Visitors to the U.S. Military Academy, 1843; and again, on frontier duty at Fort Jesup, Louisiana, 1844; Major, Staff and became Paymaster, U.S. Army, Sep. 13, 1844; in the Army Pay Department, 1844–1861, in the Military Occupation of Texas, 1845–1846; in the Mexican–American War, 1846–47; in Cincinnati, Ohio, 1847–48; New Orleans, Louisiana, 1848; Washington, D.C. 1848–49; Albany, New York, 1849–1854; San Antonio, Texas, 1854–1859, and St. Louis, Missouri, 1859–1861.
Resigned from United States Army, April 22, 1861, and joined the Confederate States Army in the rebellion of 1861–1865 against the United States.

American Civil War
Siding with the Confederate States of America, Beall tendered his resignation and headed south. Beall was appointed a colonel in the Provisional Army of the Confederate States. On May 23, 1861, the Secretary of the Confederate States Navy, Stephen Mallory, appointed Beall as Colonel Commandant of the Marine Corps, the only person to hold that position, and Beall served in that capacity throughout the war.

As an administrator during the war, Beall's military knowledge and experience remained an untapped resource. He worked hard to have the Confederate Marine Corps receive the personnel, supplies and other benefits accorded to other branches of the military. The training of officers and enlisted Marines took place at the Marines' Barrack's Camp Beall, just a short distance south of Richmond, Virginia, at Drewry's Bluff overlooking the James River. By the end of the war, he had succeeded in helping improve the resources available to the Marine Corps and established a separate Marine training camp in Charleston, South Carolina; several permanent stations on the Mississippi River and Atlantic Seaboard.

Thanks, in part, to Beall's efforts, the Confederate Marines, called the "Rebel Leathernecks", gained a reputation for distinguished combat service, on the sea and land.

Later life
Beall married Frances Duncan Hayne, daughter of South Carolina Senator Arthur Peronneau Hayne, and Frances Gibson Duncan, daughter of Hon. Thomas Duncan of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania (1817-1827).

After the Civil War, Beall lived in Richmond, Virginia, and became a merchant, Alderman of the city of Richmond and Superintendent of the Westmoreland Club. Beall kept most of the Confederate States Marine Corps records at his home. Much of the CSMC history, along with Beall's personal history during the war, was destroyed in a fire at his Richmond home in 1887.

Beall died in Richmond on November 10, 1887, at age 79. He is interred in the city's Hollywood Cemetery.

References

External links

1808 births
1887 deaths
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
American people of the Black Hawk War
American people of the Seminole Wars
Beall family of Maryland
Burials at Hollywood Cemetery (Richmond, Virginia)
Confederate States Marine Corps officers
Military personnel from Richmond, Virginia
Northern-born Confederates
People of Maryland in the American Civil War
United States Military Academy alumni

Lloyd J. Beall


Alfred Struwe (April 22, 1927 – February 13, 1998) was a German actor, best known for his television role as Dr. Alexander Wittkugel in Zahn um Zahn.

Struwe was born in Marienburg, West Prussia (today Malbork in Poland), the son of a postman, and grew up there with five siblings. His first acting experience was in Hitler Youth summer camps. In 1944 he was called up first into the Reich Labour Service, then into the military. After attending officer training school in Hanover, he was sent along with other young contemporaries into battle in the final days of World War II. In 1945 he rejoined his family in Leipzig. Since his father, Gustav, was opposed to his making acting his career, he instead had to attend a police academy, until in 1948 it closed and he was also discharged. From then on, he was able to dedicate himself entirely to acting. He had already performed part-time in amateur productions and taken private acting lessons during his police training. In 1949 he joined the theater company in Greiz and subsequently was engaged in Brandenburg, Zittau, Cottbus, Karl-Marx-Stadt and Dresden.

Struwe made his first appearance before the cameras in 1954, in the DEFA co-production Leuchtfeuer. Then beginning in the 1960s, his face was often seen on both movie and television screens. Several times he played the part of the would-be assassin of Hitler, Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg. In 1985 he played what would become his signature role, the eccentric dentist Dr. Alexander Wittkugel in the television series Zahn um Zahn ("A Tooth for a Tooth"). This was so successful that in response to viewer demand the 7 projected episodes were extended and in the end 21 stories of "Dr. Wittkugel's Practices" were produced.

Struwe's daughter Catharina Struwe is likewise an actress, with, for example, a longstanding engagement at the Neue Bühne in Senftenberg.

With the dissolution of the Iron Curtain, the popular actor's life became quieter. Struwe made occasional further appearances on stage and on television, but otherwise enjoyed his retirement. He died in Potsdam in 1998 after a lengthy illness caused by pneumonia and was buried in the Southwest Cemetery in Stahnsdorf.

Selected filmography

1954: Leuchtfeuer - Junger Fischer
1963: Geheimarchiv an der Elbe - Adjutant von Upitz
1963: Vanina Vanini (TV Movie) - Fürst Savelli
1966: Ohne Kampf kein Sieg (TV Mini-Series) - Claus von Stauffenberg
1968: Die Toten bleiben jung - von Klemm
1969: Krupp und Krause (TV Series) - Alfried Krupp
1969: Verdacht auf einen Toten - Scheitler
1971: KLK Calling PTZ - The Red Orchestra - Bellini
1971: Liberation III: Direction of the Main Blow - Stauffenberg
1971: Istanbul-Masche (TV Movie) - Alfred Gärtner
1972: Die Bilder des Zeugen Schattmann (TV Mini-Series) - Fritz Marcus
1973: Die Hosen des Ritters Bredow - Hauptmann Otterstädt
1973-1979: Das unsichtbare Visier (TV Series) - General Gert von Wieseneck
1974: Wolz - Leben und Verklärung eines deutschen Anarchisten - Zweiter Polizist
1974: Ulzana - Aldrigton, Bürgermeister von Tucson
1975: Fischzüge (TV Movie) - Nienhusen
1976: Im Staub der Sterne - Suko
1976-1989: Polizeiruf 110 (TV Series) - Uwe Kellerbauer / Dr. Frowein / Friedrich Bader
1977: Osvobození Prahy - von Matzmer
1978: Anton the Magician - Bankmensch
1978: Zwei Betten in der Hohen Tatra - Wolfgang Witt
1979: Bis daß der Tod euch scheidet - Jens' Schwager
1980: Archiv des Todes (TV Series) - Standartenführer Hauk
1980: Oben geblieben ist noch keiner (TV Movie) - Flugplatzleiter Behrens
1980: Wizja lokalna 1901
1980: Jesli serce masz bijace
1981: Asta, mein Engelchen
1981: Der ungebetene Gast (TV Movie) - Felix Hollerbusch
1981: Berühmte Ärzte der Charité: Der kleine Doktor (TV Movie) - Geheimrat Dr. Lehnert
1982: Dein unbekannter Bruder - Staatsrat Diestelkamp
1982: Der lange Ritt zur Schule - Erster Guter
1983: Frühstück im Bett (TV Movie) - Georg Hartmann
1983: Die lieben Luder (TV Movie, Sequel to Polizeiruf 110) - Herr Zander
1983: Verzeihung, sehen Sie Fußball? - Dr. Kobermann
1983: Automärchen - Sauerboom
1984: Mensch, Oma! (TV Mini-Series) - Redner
1984: Front ohne Gnade (TV Series) - Obersturmbannführer Maas
1984-1990: Schauspielereien: Gesucht und gefunden (TV Series)
1985-1988: Zahn um Zahn (TV Series) - Dr. Alexander Wittkugel
1987: Magnat - Wilhelm II, German Emperor
1987: Sachsens Glanz und Preußens Gloria: Gräfin Cosel (TV Movie) - Graf Jacob Heinrich von Flemming
1989:
1991: Aerolina (TV Series) - Zirkusdirektor Bernhard
1992: Karl May (TV Mini-Series) - Lawyer Bernstein
1997: Verdammtes Glück (TV Movie) - Herr Leipold (final film role)

References

External links

1927 births
1998 deaths
Burials at Stahnsdorf South-Western Cemetery
People from Malbork
People from West Prussia
German male film actors
German male stage actors
German male television actors
Deaths from pneumonia in Germany
20th-century German male actors
Hitler Youth members
Reich Labour Service members
German Army officers of World War II

Alfred Struwe