The equation of time describes the discrepancy between two kinds of solar time. The word equation is used in the medieval sense of "reconciliation of a difference". The two times that differ are the apparent solar time, which directly tracks the diurnal motion of the Sun, and mean solar time, which tracks a theoretical mean Sun with uniform motion along the celestial equator. Apparent solar time can be obtained by measurement of the current position (hour angle) of the Sun, as indicated (with limited accuracy) by a sundial. Mean solar time, for the same place, would be the time indicated by a steady clock set so that over the year its differences from apparent solar time would have a mean of zero.

The equation of time is the east or west component of the analemma, a curve representing the angular offset of the Sun from its mean position on the celestial sphere as viewed from Earth. The equation of time values for each day of the year, compiled by astronomical observatories, were widely listed in almanacs and ephemerides.

The equation of time can be approximated by a sum of two sine waves (see explanation below):

  [minutes]

In plain text format:
 EoT =  -7.659sin(6.24004077 + 0.01720197(365*(y-2000) + d)) + 9.863sin( 2 (6.24004077 + 0.01720197 (365*(y-2000) + d)) + 3.5932 )  [minutes]

A less precise but more compact and simpler form is:
 EoT = 9.87 sin(2B°) - 7.67 sin(B° + 78.7°)
where B = 360° (d - 81) / 365.

With arguments expressed in radians:
 EoT = 9.87 sin(2B * π /180) - 7.67 sin((B° + 78.7°) * π /180)
d represents the number of days since January 1 of the current year.

The concept

During a year the equation of time varies as shown on the graph; its change from one year to the next is slight. Apparent time, and the sundial, can be ahead (fast) by as much as 16 min 33 s (around 3 November), or behind (slow) by as much as 14 min 6 s (around 11 February). The equation of time has zeros near 15 April, 13 June, 1 September, and 25 December. Ignoring very slow changes in the Earth's orbit and rotation, these events are repeated at the same times every tropical year. However, due to the non-integral number of days in a year, these dates can vary by a day or so from year to year.

The graph of the equation of time is closely approximated by the sum of two sine curves, one with a period of a year and one with a period of half a year. The curves reflect two astronomical effects, each causing a different non-uniformity in the apparent daily motion of the Sun relative to the stars:

 the obliquity of the ecliptic (the plane of the Earth's annual orbital motion around the Sun), which is inclined by about 23.44 degrees relative to the plane of the Earth's equator; and
 the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, which is about 0.0167.

The equation of time vanishes only for a planet with zero axial tilt and zero orbital eccentricity. Two examples of planets with large equations of time are Mars and Uranus. On Mars the difference between sundial time and clock time can be as much as 50 minutes, due to the considerably greater eccentricity of its orbit. The planet Uranus, which has an extremely large axial tilt, has an equation of time that makes its days start and finish several hours earlier or later depending on where it is in its orbit.

Sign of the equation of time
The United States Naval Observatory states "the Equation of Time is the difference apparent solar time minus mean solar time", i.e. if the sun is ahead of the clock the sign is positive, and if the clock is ahead of the sun the sign is negative. The equation of time is shown in the upper graph above for a period of slightly more than a year. The lower graph (which covers exactly one calendar year) has the same absolute values but the sign is reversed as it shows how far the clock is ahead of the sun. Publications may use either format — in the English-speaking world, the former usage is the more common, but is not always followed. Anyone who makes use of a published table or graph should first check its sign usage. Often, there is a note or caption which explains it. Otherwise, the usage can be determined by knowing that, during the first three months of each year, the clock is ahead of the sundial. The mnemonic "NYSS" (pronounced "nice"), for "new year, sundial slow", can be useful. Some published tables avoid the ambiguity by not using signs, but by showing phrases such as "sundial fast" or "sundial slow" instead.

In this article, and others in English Wikipedia, a positive value of the equation of time implies that a sundial is ahead of a clock.

History
The phrase "equation of time" is derived from the medieval Latin aequātiō diērum, meaning "equation of days" or "difference of days".
The word aequātiō (and Middle English equation) was  used in medieval astronomy to tabulate the difference between an observed value and the expected value (as in the equation of the centre, the equation of the equinoxes, the equation of the epicycle).
Gerald J. Toomer uses the medieval term "equation", from the Latin aequātiō, for Ptolemy's difference between the mean solar time and the apparent solar time. Johannes Kepler's definition of the equation is "the difference between the number of degrees and minutes of the mean anomaly and the degrees and minutes of the corrected anomaly."

The difference between apparent solar time and mean time was recognized by astronomers since antiquity, but prior to the invention of accurate mechanical clocks in the mid-17th century, sundials were the only reliable timepieces, and apparent solar time was the generally accepted standard. Mean time did not supplant apparent time in national almanacs and ephemerides until the early 19th century.

Early astronomy
The irregular daily movement of the Sun was known to the Babylonians.

Book III of Ptolemy's Almagest (2nd century) is primarily concerned with the Sun's anomaly, and he tabulated the equation of time in his Handy Tables. Ptolemy discusses the correction needed to convert the meridian crossing of the Sun to mean solar time and takes into consideration the nonuniform motion of the Sun along the ecliptic and the meridian correction for the Sun's ecliptic longitude. He states the maximum correction is  time-degrees or  of an hour (Book III, chapter 9). However he did not consider the effect to be relevant for most calculations since it was negligible for the slow-moving luminaries and only applied it for the fastest-moving luminary, the Moon.

Based on Ptolemy's discussion in the Almagest, values for the equation of time  (Arabic taʿdīl al-ayyām bi layālayhā) were standard for the tables (zij) in the works of medieval Islamic astronomy.

Early modern period

A description of apparent and mean time was given by Nevil Maskelyne in the Nautical Almanac for 1767: "Apparent Time is that deduced immediately from the Sun, whether from the Observation of his passing the Meridian, or from his observed Rising or Setting.  This Time is different from that shewn by Clocks and Watches well regulated at Land, which is called equated or mean Time." He went on to say that, at sea, the apparent time found from observation of the Sun must be corrected by the equation of time, if the observer requires the mean time.

The right time was originally considered to be that which was shown by a sundial. When good mechanical clocks were introduced, they agreed with sundials only near four dates each year, so the equation of time was used to "correct" their readings to obtain sundial time. Some clocks, called equation clocks, included an internal mechanism to perform this "correction". Later, as clocks became the dominant good timepieces, uncorrected clock time, i.e., "mean time", became the accepted standard. The readings of sundials, when they were used, were then, and often still are, corrected with the equation of time, used in the reverse direction from previously, to obtain clock time. Many sundials, therefore, have tables or graphs of the equation of time engraved on them to allow the user to make this correction.

The equation of time was used historically to set clocks. Between the invention of accurate clocks in 1656 and the advent of commercial time distribution services around 1900, there were several common land-based ways to set clocks. A sundial was read and corrected with the table or graph of the equation of time. If a transit instrument was available, the sun's transit across the meridian (the moment the sun appears to be due south or north of the observer) was noted; the clock was then set to noon and offset by the number of minutes given by the equation of time for that date. A third method did not use the equation of time; instead, it used stellar observations to give sidereal time, exploiting the relationship between sidereal time and mean solar time.

The first tables to give the equation of time in an essentially correct way were published in 1665 by Christiaan Huygens. Huygens, following the tradition of Ptolemy and medieval astronomers in general, set his values for the equation of time so as to make all values positive throughout the year.

Another set of tables was published in 1672–73 by John Flamsteed, who later became the first Astronomer Royal of the new Royal Greenwich Observatory. These appear to have been the first essentially correct tables that gave today's meaning of Mean Time (previously, as noted above, the sign of the equation was always positive and it was set at zero when the apparent time of sunrise was earliest relative to the clock time of sunrise). Flamsteed adopted the convention of tabulating and naming the correction in the sense that it was to be applied to the apparent time to give mean time.

The equation of time, correctly based on the two major components of the Sun's irregularity of apparent motion, was not generally adopted until after Flamsteed's tables of 1672–73, published with the posthumous edition of the works of Jeremiah Horrocks.

Robert Hooke (1635–1703), who mathematically analyzed the universal joint, was the first to note that the geometry and mathematical description of the (non-secular) equation of time and the universal joint were identical, and proposed the use of a universal joint in the construction of a "mechanical sundial".

18th and early 19th centuries
The corrections in Flamsteed's tables of 1672–1673 and 1680 gave mean time computed essentially correctly and without need for further offset. But the numerical values in tables of the equation of time have somewhat changed since then, owing to three factors:
 general improvements in accuracy that came from refinements in astronomical measurement techniques,
 slow intrinsic changes in the equation of time, occurring as a result of small long-term changes in the Earth's obliquity and eccentricity (affecting, for instance, the distance and dates of perihelion), and
 the inclusion of small sources of additional variation in the apparent motion of the Sun, unknown in the 17th century but discovered from the 18th century onwards, including the effects of the Moon, Venus and Jupiter.

From 1767 to 1833, the British Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris tabulated the equation of time in the sense 'add or subtract (as directed) the number of minutes and seconds stated to or from the apparent time to obtain the mean time'.  Times in the Almanac were in apparent solar time, because time aboard ship was most often determined by observing the Sun. This operation would be performed in the unusual case that the mean solar time of an observation was needed. In the issues since 1834, all times have been in mean solar time, because by then the time aboard ship was increasingly often determined by marine chronometers. The instructions were consequently to add or subtract (as directed) the number of minutes stated to or from the mean time to obtain the apparent time. So now addition corresponded to the equation being positive and subtraction corresponded to it being negative.

As the apparent daily movement of the Sun is one revolution per day, that is 360° every 24 hours, and the Sun itself appears as a disc of about 0.5° in the sky, simple sundials can be read to a maximum accuracy of about one minute. Since the equation of time has a range of about 33 minutes, the difference between sundial time and clock time cannot be ignored. In addition to the equation of time, one also has to apply corrections due to one's distance from the local time zone meridian and summer time, if any.

The tiny increase of the mean solar day due to the slowing down of the Earth's rotation, by about 2 ms per day per century, which currently accumulates up to about 1 second every year, is not taken into account in traditional definitions of the equation of time, as it is imperceptible at the accuracy level of sundials.

Major components of the equation

Eccentricity of the Earth's orbit

The Earth revolves around the Sun. As seen from Earth, the Sun appears to revolve once around the Earth through the background stars in one year. If the Earth orbited the Sun with a constant speed, in a circular orbit in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis, then the Sun would culminate every day at exactly the same time, and be a perfect time keeper (except for the very small effect of the slowing rotation of the Earth). But the orbit of the Earth is an ellipse not centered on the Sun, and its speed varies between 30.287 and 29.291 km/s, according to Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and its angular speed also varies, and thus the Sun appears to move faster (relative to the background stars) at perihelion (currently around 3 January) and slower at aphelion a half year later.

At these extreme points this effect varies the apparent solar day by 7.9 s/day from its mean. Consequently, the smaller daily differences on other days in speed are cumulative until these points, reflecting how the planet accelerates and decelerates compared to the mean.

As a result, the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit contributes a periodic variation which is (in the first-order approximation) a sine wave with:

 amplitude: 7.66 minutes
 period: one year
 zero points: perihelion (at the beginning of January) and aphelion (beginning of July)
 extreme values: early April (negative) and early October (positive)

This component of the EoT is represented by aforementioned factor a:

a = -7.659 * Math.sin(6.24004077 + 0.01720197 * (365*(y-2000) + dayOfYear))

Obliquity of the ecliptic

Even if the Earth's orbit were circular, the perceived motion of the Sun along our celestial equator would still not be uniform. This is a consequence of the tilt of the Earth's rotational axis with respect to the plane of its orbit, or equivalently, the tilt of the ecliptic (the path the Sun appears to take in the celestial sphere) with respect to the celestial equator. The projection of this motion onto our celestial equator, along which "clock time" is measured, is a maximum at the solstices, when the yearly movement of the Sun is parallel to the equator (causing amplification of perceived speed) and yields mainly a change in right ascension. It is a minimum at the equinoxes, when the Sun's apparent motion is more sloped and yields more change in declination, leaving less for the component in right ascension, which is the only component that affects the duration of the solar day. A practical illustration of obliquity is that the daily shift of the shadow cast by the Sun in a sundial even on the equator is smaller close to the solstices and greater close to the equinoxes.  If this effect operated alone, then days would be up to 24 hours and 20.3 seconds long (measured solar noon to solar noon) near the solstices, and as much as 20.3 seconds shorter than 24 hours near the equinoxes.

In the figure on the right, we can see the monthly variation of the apparent slope of the plane of the ecliptic at solar midday as seen from Earth. This variation is due to the apparent precession of the rotating Earth through the year, as seen from the Sun at solar midday.

In terms of the equation of time, the inclination of the ecliptic results in the contribution of a sine wave variation with:

 amplitude: 9.87 minutes
 period: 1/2 year
 zero points: equinoxes and solstices
 extreme values: beginning of February and August (negative) and beginning of May and November (positive).

This component of the EoT is represented by the aforementioned factor "b":

b = 9.863 * Math.sin( 2 *(6.24004077 + 0.01720197 * (365*(y-2000) + dayOfYear)) + 3.5932 )

Secular effects
The two above mentioned factors have different wavelengths, amplitudes and phases, so their combined contribution is an irregular wave. At epoch 2000 these are the values (in minutes and seconds with UT dates):

E.T. = apparent − mean. Positive means: Sun runs fast and culminates earlier, or the sundial is ahead of mean time. A slight yearly variation occurs due to presence of leap years, resetting itself every 4 years. The exact shape of the equation of time curve and the associated analemma slowly change over the centuries, due to secular variations in both eccentricity and obliquity. At this moment both are slowly decreasing, but they increase and decrease over a timescale of hundreds of thousands of years.
On shorter timescales (thousands of years) the shifts in the dates of equinox and perihelion will be more important. The former is caused by precession, and shifts the equinox backwards compared to the stars. But it can be ignored in the current discussion as our Gregorian calendar is constructed in such a way as to keep the vernal equinox date at 20 March (at least at sufficient accuracy for our aim here). The shift of the perihelion is forwards, about 1.7 days every century. In 1246 the perihelion occurred on 22 December, the day of the solstice, so the two contributing waves had common zero points and the equation of time curve was symmetrical: in Astronomical Algorithms Meeus gives February and November extrema of 15 m 39 s and May and July ones of 4 m 58 s. Before then the February minimum was larger than the November maximum, and the May maximum larger than the July minimum. In fact, in years before −1900 (1901 BCE) the May maximum was larger than the November maximum. In the year −2000 (2001 BCE) the May maximum was +12 minutes and a couple seconds while the November maximum was just less than 10 minutes.  The secular change is evident when one compares a current graph of the equation of time (see below) with one from 2000 years ago, e.g., one constructed from the data of Ptolemy.

Graphical representation

Practical use
If the gnomon (the shadow-casting object) is not an edge but a point (e.g., a hole in a plate), the shadow (or spot of light) will trace out a curve during the course of a day. If the shadow is cast on a plane surface, this curve will be a conic section (usually a hyperbola), since the circle of the Sun's motion together with the gnomon point define a cone. At the spring and fall equinoxes, the cone degenerates into a plane and the hyperbola into a line. With a different hyperbola for each day, hour marks can be put on each hyperbola which include any necessary corrections. Unfortunately, each hyperbola corresponds to two different days, one in each half of the year, and these two days will require different corrections. A convenient compromise is to draw the line for the "mean time" and add a curve showing the exact position of the shadow points at noon during the course of the year. This curve will take the form of a figure eight and is known as an analemma. By comparing the analemma to the mean noon line, the amount of correction to be applied generally on that day can be determined.

The equation of time is used not only in connection with sundials and similar devices, but also for many applications of solar energy. Machines such as solar trackers and heliostats have to move in ways that are influenced by the equation of time.

Civil time is the local mean time for a meridian that often passes near the center of the time zone, and may possibly be further altered by daylight saving time. When the apparent solar time that corresponds to a given civil time is to be found, the difference in longitude between the site of interest and the time zone meridian, daylight saving time, and the equation of time must all be considered.

Calculating the equation of time
The equation of time is obtained from a published table, or a graph. For dates in the past such tables are produced from historical measurements, or by calculation; for future dates, of course, tables can only be calculated. In devices such as computer-controlled heliostats the computer is often programmed to calculate the equation of time. The calculation can be numerical or analytical. The former are based on numerical integration of the differential equations of motion, including all significant gravitational and relativistic effects. The results are accurate to better than 1 second and are the basis for modern almanac data. The latter are based on a solution that includes only the gravitational interaction between the Sun and Earth, simpler than but not as accurate as the former. Its accuracy can be improved by including small corrections.

The following discussion describes a reasonably accurate (agreeing with almanac data to within 3 seconds over a wide range of years) algorithm for the equation of time that is well known to astronomers. It also shows how to obtain a simple approximate formula (accurate to within 1 minute over a large time interval), that can be easily evaluated with a calculator and provides the simple explanation of the phenomenon that was used previously in this article.

Mathematical description
The precise definition of the equation of time is

The quantities occurring in this equation are
 EOT, the time difference between apparent solar time and mean solar time;
 GHA, the Greenwich Hour Angle of the apparent (actual) Sun;
 GMHA = Universal Time − Offset, the Greenwich Mean Hour Angle of the mean (fictitious) Sun.

Here time and angle are quantities that are related by factors such as: 2 radians = 360° = 1 day = 24 hours. The difference, EOT, is measurable since GHA is an angle that can be measured and Universal Time, UT, is a scale for the measurement of time. The offset by  = 180° = 12 hours from UT is needed because UT is zero at mean midnight while GMHA = 0 at mean noon. Both GHA and GMHA, like all physical angles, have a mathematical, but not a physical discontinuity at their respective (apparent and mean) noon. Despite the mathematical discontinuities of its components, EOT is defined as a continuous function by adding (or subtracting) 24 hours in the small time interval between the discontinuities in GHA and GMHA.

According to the definitions of the angles on the celestial sphere  (see hour angle) where:
 GAST is the Greenwich apparent sidereal time (the angle between the apparent vernal equinox and the meridian in the plane of the equator).  This is a known function of UT.
  is the right ascension of the apparent Sun (the angle between the apparent vernal equinox and the actual Sun in the plane of the equator).

On substituting into the equation of time, it is

Like the formula for GHA above, one can write , where the last term is the right ascension of the mean Sun. The equation is often written in these terms as

where . In this formulation a measurement or calculation of EOT at a certain value of time depends on a measurement or calculation of  at that time. Both  and  vary from 0 to 24 hours during the course of a year. The former has a discontinuity at a time that depends on the value of UT, while the latter has its at a slightly later time. As a consequence, when calculated this way EOT has two, artificial, discontinuities. They can both be removed by subtracting 24 hours from the value of EOT in the small time interval after the discontinuity in  and before the one in . The resulting EOT is a continuous function of time.

Another definition, denoted  to distinguish it from EOT, is

Here , is the Greenwich mean sidereal time (the angle between the mean vernal equinox and the mean Sun in the plane of the equator). Therefore, GMST is an approximation to GAST (and  is an approximation to EOT); eqeq is called the equation of the equinoxes and is due to the wobbling, or nutation of the Earth's axis of rotation about its precessional motion. Since the amplitude of the nutational motion is only about 1.2 s (18″ of longitude) the difference between EOT and  can be ignored unless one is interested in subsecond accuracy.

A third definition, denoted  to distinguish it from EOT and , and now called the Equation of Ephemeris Time (prior to the distinction that is now made between EOT, , and  the latter was known as the equation of time) is

here  is the ecliptic longitude of the mean Sun (the angle from the mean vernal equinox to the mean Sun in the plane of the ecliptic).

The difference  is 1.3 s from 1960 to 2040. Therefore, over this restricted range of years  is an approximation to EOT whose error is in the range 0.1 to 2.5 s depending on the longitude correction in the equation of the equinoxes; for many purposes, for example correcting a sundial, this accuracy is more than good enough.

Right ascension calculation
The right ascension, and hence the equation of time, can be calculated from Newton's two-body theory of celestial motion, in which the bodies (Earth and Sun) describe elliptical orbits about their common mass center. Using this theory, the equation of time becomes

where the new angles that appear are
, is the mean anomaly, the angle from the periapsis of the elliptical orbit to the mean Sun; its range is from 0 to 2 as  increases from  to ;
  =  days is the length of time in an anomalistic year: the time interval between two successive passages of the periapsis;
 , is the ecliptic longitude of the periapsis;
  is dynamical time, the independent variable in the theory. Here it is taken to be identical with the continuous time based on UT (see above), but in more precise calculations (of  or EOT) the small difference between them must be accounted for as well as the distinction between UT1 and UTC.
  is the value of  at the periapsis.

To complete the calculation three additional angles are required:
 , the Sun's eccentric anomaly (note that this is different from );
 , the Sun's true anomaly;
 , the Sun's true longitude on the ecliptic.

All these angles are shown in the figure on the right, which shows the celestial sphere and the  Sun's elliptical orbit seen from the Earth (the same as the Earth's orbit seen from the Sun). In this figure  is the obliquity, while  is the eccentricity of the ellipse.

Now given a value of , one can calculate  by means of the following well-known procedure:

First, given , calculate  from Kepler's equation:

Although this equation cannot be solved exactly in closed form, values of  can be obtained from infinite (power or trigonometric) series, graphical, or numerical methods. Alternatively, note that for , , and by iteration:

This approximation can be improved, for small , by iterating again,
 ,
and continued iteration produces successively higher order terms of the power series expansion in . For small values of  (much less than 1) two or three terms of the series give a good approximation for ; the smaller , the better the approximation.

Next, knowing , calculate the true anomaly  from an elliptical orbit relation

The correct branch of the multiple valued function  to use is the one that makes  a continuous function of  starting from . Thus for  use , and for  use . At the specific value  for which the argument of  is infinite, use . Here  is the principal branch, ; the function that is returned by calculators and computer applications.  Alternatively, this function can be expressed in terms of its Taylor series in , the first three terms of which are:
 .
For small  this approximation (or even just the first two terms) is a good one. Combining the approximation for  with this one for  produces
 .
The relation  is called the equation of the center; the expression written here is a second-order approximation in . For the small value of  that characterises the Earth's orbit this gives a very good approximation for .

Next, knowing , calculate  from its definition:

The value of  varies non-linearly with  because the orbit is elliptical and not circular. From the approximation for :
 .

Finally, knowing  calculate  from a relation for the right triangle on the celestial sphere shown above

Note that the quadrant of  is the same as that of , therefore reduce  to the range 0 to 2 and write
 ,
where  is 0 if  is in quadrant 1, it is 1 if  is in quadrants 2 or 3 and it is 2 if  is in quadrant 4. For the values at which tan is infinite, .

Although approximate values for  can be obtained from truncated Taylor series like those for , it is more efficacious to use the equation

where . Note that for ,  and iterating twice:
 .

Equation of time
The equation of time is obtained by substituting the result of the right ascension calculation into an equation of time formula. Here  is used; in part because small corrections (of the order of 1 second), that would justify using , are not included, and in part because the goal is to obtain a simple analytical expression. Using two-term approximations for  and  allows  to be written as an explicit expression of two terms, which is designated  because it is a first order approximation in  and in .
 1)  minutes
This equation was first derived by Milne, who wrote it in terms of . The numerical values written here result from using the orbital parameter values,  = ,  = ° =  radians, and  = ° =  radians that correspond to the epoch 1 January 2000 at 12 noon UT1. When evaluating the numerical expression for  as given above, a calculator must be in radian mode to obtain correct values because the value of  in the argument of the second term is written there in radians. Higher order approximations can also be written, but they necessarily have more terms. For example, the second order approximation in both  and  consists of five terms
 2)
This approximation has the potential for high accuracy, however, in order to achieve it over a wide range of years, the parameters , , and  must be allowed to vary with time. This creates additional calculational complications. Other approximations have been proposed, for example,  which uses the first order equation of the center but no other approximation to determine , and  which uses the second order equation of the center.

The time variable, , can be written either in terms of , the number of days past perihelion, or , the number of days past a specific date and time (epoch):
 3)  days  days
 4)

Here  is the value of  at the chosen date and time. For the values given here, in radians,  is that measured for the actual Sun at the epoch, 1 January 2000 at 12 noon UT1, and  is the number of days past that epoch. At periapsis , so solving gives  = . This puts the periapsis on 4 January 2000 at 00:11:41 while the actual periapsis is, according to results from the Multiyear Interactive Computer Almanac (abbreviated as MICA), on 3 January 2000 at 05:17:30. This large discrepancy happens because the difference between the orbital radius at the two locations is only 1 part in a million; in other words, radius is a very weak function of time near periapsis. As a practical matter this means that one cannot get a highly accurate result for the equation of time by using  and adding the actual periapsis date for a given year. However, high accuracy can be achieved by using the formulation in terms of .

When , M is greater than 2 and one must subtract a multiple of 2 (that depends on the year) from it to bring it into the range 0 to 2. Likewise for years prior to 2000 one must add multiples of 2. For example, for the year 2010,  varies from  on 1 January at noon to  on 31 December at noon; the corresponding  values are  and  and are reduced to the range 0 to 2 by subtracting 10 and 11 times 2 respectively.

One can always write:

5)

where:

  =  number of days from the epoch to noon on 1 January of the desired year
  (365 if the calculation is for a leap year).

The resulting equation for years after 2000, written as a sum of two terms, given 1), 4) and 5), is:

6)  [minutes]

In plain text format:

7) EoT =  -7.659sin(6.24004077 + 0.01720197(365*(y-2000) + d)) + 9.863sin( 2 (6.24004077 + 0.01720197 (365*(y-2000) + d)) + 3.5932 )  [minutes]

Term "a" represents the contribution of eccentricty, term "b" represents contribution of obliquity.

The result of the computations is usually given as either a set of tabular values, or a graph of the equation of time as a function of .  A comparison of plots of , , and results from MICA all for the year 2000 is shown in the figure. The plot of  is seen to be close to the results produced by MICA, the absolute error, , is less than 1 minute throughout the year; its largest value is 43.2 seconds and occurs on day 276 (3 October). The plot of  is indistinguishable from the results of MICA, the largest absolute error between the two is 2.46 s on day 324 (20 November).

Remark on the continuity of the equation of time
For the choice of the appropriate branch of the  relation with respect to function continuity a modified version of the arctangent function is helpful. It brings in previous knowledge about the expected value by a parameter. The modified arctangent function is defined as:
 .
It produces a value that is as close to  as possible. The function  rounds to the nearest integer.

Applying this yields:
 .
The parameter  arranges here to set  to the zero nearest value which is the desired one.

Secular effects
The difference between the MICA and  results was checked every 5 years over the range from 1960 to 2040. In every instance the maximum absolute error was less than 3 s; the largest difference, 2.91 s, occurred on 22 May 1965 (day 141). However, in order to achieve this level of accuracy over this range of years it is necessary to account for the secular change in the orbital parameters with time. The equations that describe this variation are:

According to these relations, in 100 years ( = ),  increases by about 0.5% (1.7°),  decreases by about 0.25%, and  decreases by about 0.05%.

As a result, the number of calculations required for any of the higher-order approximations of the equation of time requires a computer to complete them, if one wants to achieve their inherent accuracy over a wide range of time. In this event it is no more difficult to evaluate  using a computer than any of its approximations.

In all this note that  as written above is easy to evaluate, even with a calculator, is accurate enough (better than 1 minute over the 80-year range) for correcting sundials, and has the nice physical explanation as the sum of two terms, one due to obliquity and the other to eccentricity that was used previously in the article. This is not true either for  considered as a function of  or for any of its higher-order approximations.

Alternative calculation
Another procedure for calculating the equation of time can be done as follows. Angles are in degrees; the conventional order of operations applies.
 =
where  is the Earth's mean angular orbital velocity in degrees per day, a.k.a. "the mean daily motion".

where  is the date, counted in days starting at 1 on 1 January (i.e. the days part of the ordinal date in the year). 9 is the approximate number of days from the December solstice to 31 December.  is the angle the Earth would move on its orbit at its average speed from the December solstice to date .

 is the angle the Earth moves from the solstice to date , including a first-order correction for the Earth's orbital eccentricity, 0.0167 . The number 3 is the approximate number of days from 31 December to the current date of the Earth's perihelion. This expression for  can be simplified by combining constants to:
 .

Here,  is the difference between the angle moved at mean speed, and at the angle at the corrected speed projected onto the equatorial plane, and divided by 180° to get the difference in "half-turns". The value 23.44° is the tilt of the Earth's axis ("obliquity"). The subtraction gives the conventional sign to the equation of time. For any given value of ,  (sometimes written as ) has multiple values, differing from each other by integer numbers of half turns. The value generated by a calculator or computer may not be the appropriate one for this calculation. This may cause  to be wrong by an integer number of half-turns. The excess half-turns are removed in the next step of the calculation to give the equation of time:

  minutes

The expression  means the nearest integer to . On a computer, it can be programmed, for example, as . Its value is 0, 1, or 2 at different times of the year. Subtracting it leaves a small positive or negative fractional number of half turns, which is multiplied by 720, the number of minutes (12 hours) that the Earth takes to rotate one half turn relative to the Sun, to get the equation of time.

Compared with published values, this calculation has a root mean square error of only 3.7 s. The greatest error is 6.0 s. This is much more accurate than the approximation described above, but not as accurate as the elaborate calculation.

Addendum about solar declination

The value of  in the above calculation is an accurate value for the Sun's ecliptic longitude (shifted by 90°), so the solar declination  becomes readily available:

which is accurate to within a fraction of a degree.

See also
Azimuth
Milankovitch cycles

Notes and footnotes
Notes

Footnotes

References

External links

NOAA Solar Calculator
 (include rise/set/transit times of the Sun and other celestial objects)
The equation of time described on the Royal Greenwich Observatory web site
The Equation of Time and the Analemma, by Kieron Taylor
An article by Brian Tung containing a link to a C program using a more accurate formula than most (particularly at high inclinations and eccentricities). The program can calculate solar declination, Equation of Time, or Analemma.
Doing calculations using Ptolemy's geocentric planetary models with a discussion of his E.T. graph
Equation of Time Longcase Clock by John Topping C.1720
The equation of time correction-table A page describing how to correct a clock to a sundial.
Solar tempometer – Calculate your solar time, including the equation of time.

Dynamics of the Solar System
Timekeeping
Time in astronomy
Earth phenomena
Sundials
Equations

Equation of time


Pisa is a city in Tuscany, Italy. About 90,000 people live in the city. The city has a very long and turbulent history. The "Leaning Tower of Pisa" is a famous landmark of Pisa.

Important buildings

 The Leaning Tower, the most famous image of the city.
 Campo dei Miracoli (in English: "Square of Miracles") in the north of the old town center.
 Duomo di Pisa.
 The Baptistry.
 The Camposanto (The monumental cemetery of the city).
 Piazza dei Cavalieri, (the "Knights' Square" in English).
 Church o Santo Steano dei cavalieri,in the "Knights' Square".
 St. Sixtus,a small church.
 The church of St. Francis, designed by Giovanni di Simone, built after 1276. In 1343 new chapels were added and the church was elevated.
 Church of San Frediano, built by 1061.
 Church of San Nicola, built by 1097, was enlarged between 1297 and 1313
 The small church of Santa Maria della Spina,
 The church of San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno,
 Lungarno, the avenues along the river Arno.
 The Medici Palace, a building of the Appiano family, who ruled Pisa in 1392–1398. In 1400 the Medici acquired it, and Lorenzo de' Medici lived here.
 The  is Europe's oldest university botanical garden.
 The  ("Royal Palace").
 , a Gothic building of the 14th century.
 , a Gothic building
 : where there are the original sculptures of Nicola Pisano and Giovanni Pisano.
 : showing the sinopias from the camposanto, the monumental cemetery.
 : exhibiting sculptures and painting from 12th century–15th century,of Giovanni and Andrea Pisano, the Master of San Martino, Simone Martini, Nino Pisano and Masaccio.

Famous people born in Pisa
 Jason Acuña
 Guglielmo Agnelli
 Christian Amoroso
 Anselm of Capraia
 Gerardo Appiani
 Giovanni di Balduccio
 Iacopo Balestri
 Michele Bartoli
 Ercole Bazicaluve
 Alfredo Biondi
 Alessandro Birindelli
 Bona of Pisa
 Guido Buffarini Guidi
 Philippe Buonarroti
 Ulisse Dini
 Pope Eugene III
 Fibonacci
 Galileo Galilei
 Giovanni Galli
 Orazio Gentileschi
 Ugolino della Gherardesca
 Ignazio Hugford
 Enrico Letta
 Fabio Lione
 Dario Marianelli
 Francesco Marianini
 Giuseppe Melani
 Antonio Pacinotti
 Pandolfo Masca of Pisa
 Andrea Parola
 Giovanni Pisano
 Nino Pisano
 Bruno Pontecorvo
 Gillo Pontecorvo
 Girolamo Riminaldi
 Orazio Riminaldi
 Titta Ruffo
 Rustichello da Pisa
 Paolo Savi
 Sidney Sonnino
 Marco Storari
 Antonio Tabucchi
 Terramagnino da Pisa
 Francesco Traini
 Soozie Tyrell

Sisters cities
 , Kolding
 , Angers
 , Acre
 , Niles
 , Unna
 , Cagliari

Capital cities in Italy

Pisa


The Long Count Fight, or the Battle of the Long Count, was a professional boxing 10-round rematch between world heavyweight champion Gene Tunney and former champion Jack Dempsey, which Tunney won in a unanimous decision. It took place on September 22, 1927, at Soldier Field in Chicago. "Long Count" is applied to the fight because when Tunney was knocked down in the seventh round the count was delayed due to Dempsey's failure to go to and remain in a neutral corner. Whether this "long count" actually affected the outcome remains a subject of debate.

Just 364 days before, on September 23, 1926, Tunney had beaten Dempsey by a ten round unanimous decision to lift the world heavyweight title, at Sesquicentennial Stadium in Philadelphia. The first fight between Tunney and Dempsey had been moved out of Chicago because Dempsey had learned that Al Capone was a big fan of his, and he did not want Capone to be involved in the fight. Capone reportedly bet $50,000 on Dempsey for the rematch, which fueled false rumors of a fix. Dempsey was favored by odds makers in both fights, largely because of public betting which heavily tilted towards Dempsey.

The rematch was held at Chicago's Soldier Field, and would draw a gate of $2,658,660 (). It was the first $2 million gate in entertainment history.

Despite the fact that Tunney had won the first fight by a wide margin on the scorecards, the prospect of a second bout created tremendous public interest. Dempsey was one of the so-called "big five" sports legends of the 1920s, and it was widely rumored that he had refused to participate in the military during World War I.  He actually had attempted to enlist in the Army, but had been turned down; a jury later exonerated Dempsey of draft evasion. Tunney, who enjoyed literature and the arts, was a former member of the United States Marine Corps. His nickname was The Fighting Marine.

The fight took place under new rules regarding knockdowns: the fallen fighter would have 10 seconds to rise to his feet under his own power, after his opponent moved to a neutral corner (i.e., one with no trainers). The new rule, which was not yet universal, was asked to be put into use during the fight by the Dempsey camp, who had requested it during negotiations. Dempsey, in the final days of training prior to the rematch, apparently ignored the setting of these new rules. Also, the fight was staged inside a 20-foot ring, which favored the boxer with superior footwork, in this case Tunney. Dempsey liked to crowd his opponents, and normally fought in a 16-foot ring that offered less space to maneuver.

The fight
Tunney was, by most accounts, dominating the fight from rounds one to six, using his familiar style of boxing from a distance while looking for openings and, at the same time, building a points lead. Up until the end of round six, nothing indicated this fight would be far different from their original meeting.

In round seven, however, the 104,943 in attendance witnessed a moment that would live on in boxing history. With Tunney trapped against the ropes and near a corner, Dempsey unleashed a combination of punches that floored the champion. Two rights and two lefts landed on Tunney's chin and staggered him, and four more punches deposited him on the canvas. It was the first time in Tunney's career that he had been knocked down.

Apparently dizzy and disoriented, Tunney grabbed on to the ring's top rope with his left hand. Dempsey, who often stood over downed opponents and rushed back at them after they got up, looked down on Tunney. Referee Dave Barry ordered Dempsey into a neutral corner to no avail; Dempsey remained standing near Tunney, observing his opponent. This gave Tunney precious seconds to recuperate. By the time Dempsey finally walked to a neutral corner, Tunney had been down for around 3 to 8 seconds. Barry could not start to count on Tunney until Dempsey reached the neutral corner, but he was still able to count to nine before Tunney got up. Some believe that if Dempsey had responded to the referee's orders in time, he would have likely regained the world heavyweight crown with a seventh round knockout. The validity of this argument has been debated to this day. In the fight film, a clock was superimposed that recorded Tunney's time on the floor as 13 seconds, from the moment he fell until he got up. Because of this delay, it became known as The Long Count Fight.

By the eighth round, Tunney had resumed boxing from a distance, and he floored Dempsey with a punch. This time, however, the referee started counting right away, before Tunney had moved to a neutral corner. Tunney was then dominant in the final two rounds, and went on to retain the world title by a unanimous decision. After the fight, Dempsey lifted Tunney's arm and said, "You were best. You fought a smart fight, kid." It was Dempsey's last career fight, and Tunney's next-to-last.

In March 2011, the family of Gene Tunney donated the gloves he wore in the fight to The Smithsonian's National Museum of American History.

Controversy
Controversy over the match promptly erupted. A significant factor in prolonging the controversy was that, at the time, U.S. law prohibited the transportation of boxing match movies across state lines (the law had been passed in 1912 in reaction to riots that broke out after Jack Johnson's 1910 victory over James J. Jeffries<ref>Tim Goodman, "Boxing champ faced worst adversary outside the ring — "racism". San Francisco Chronicle, January 17, 2005.</ref>; the fight had been filmed, though was banned in areas of the US.) As a result, almost nobody was able to see the counts for themselves. Once the law was repealed, and it became possible for many to watch the footage and judge the fallen fighters' alertness (particularly Tunney's), the controversy dwindled.

To this day, however, boxing fans argue over whether Dempsey could or should have won the fight. What is not in dispute is that the public's affection for Dempsey grew in the wake of his two losses to Tunney.  "In defeat, he gained more stature," wrote the Washington Post's'' Shirley Povich. "He was the loser in the battle of the long count, yet the hero."

Tunney said that he had picked up the referee's count at "two," and could have gotten up at any point after that, preferring to wait until "nine" for obvious tactical reasons. Dempsey said, "I have no reason not to believe him. Gene's a great guy."

Dempsey later joined the United States Coast Guard, and he and Tunney became good friends who visited each other frequently. Tunney and Dempsey are both members of the International Boxing Hall of Fame.

References

Long Count
Boxing in Chicago
1927 in boxing
1927 in Illinois
September 1927 sports events

The Long Count Fight


The Ramavataram, popularly referred to as Kamba Ramayanam, is a Tamil epic that was written by the Tamil poet Kambar during the 12th century. Based on Valmiki's Ramayana (which is in Sanskrit), the story describes the legend of King Rama of Ayodhya. However, the Ramavataram is different from the Sanskrit version in many aspects – both in spiritual concepts and in the specifics of the storyline. This historic work is considered by both Tamil scholars and the general public as one of the greatest literary works in Tamil literature.

Kambar wrote this epic with the patronage of Thiruvennai Nallur Sadayappa Vallal, a chieftain of the Pannai lineage. In gratitude to his patron, Kamban references his name once in every 1,000 verses.

Early references in Tamil literature

Even before Kambar wrote the Ramavataram in Tamil in the 12 century CE, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana, implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the Common Era. References to the story can be found in the Sangam literature of Akanaṉūṟu,(dated 200 BCE–300 CE) and Purananuru (dated 200 BCE–300 CE), the twin epics of Silappatikaram (dated 6th century CE) and Manimekalai, and the Alvar literature of Kulasekhara Alvar, Thirumangai Alvar, Andal and Nammalvar (dated between 8th and 10th centuries CE).

Structure
The book is divided into six chapters, called Kandam in Tamil. The Kandams are further divided into 113 sections called Padalam (படலம்) in Tamil. These 113 sections contain approximately 10569 verses of the epic.

 Bala Kandam (Chapter: Childhood)
 Ayodhya Kandam (Chapter: Ayodhya)
 Aranya Kandam (Chapter: Forest)
 Kishkindha Kandam (Chapter: Kishkindha)
 Sundara Kandam (Chapter: Beautiful)
 Yuddha Kandam (Chapter: War)

Compilation
As with many historic compilations, it was very difficult to discard the interpolations and addendum which have been added over a period of time to the original. This task was taken up a committee of scholars headed by T. P. Meenakshisundaram called the Kamban Kazhagam (Kamban Academy). The compilation published by this committee in 1976 is what is used as the standard today. Valmiki's Ramayana in Sanskrit has seven chapters. The Tamil poet Ottakoothar wrote Uttara Kandam, the seventh (last chapter) kandam of the Tamil epic Ramayanam.

Literary significance
Kamban's use of Virutham (Sanskrit: vṛttam) and Santham (Sanskrit: chandas) in various verses is effective in bringing out the emotion and mood for storytelling. He achieves the Virutham and Santham by effective choice of words.

Religious significance
This epic is read by many Hindus during prayers. In some households, the entire epic is read once during the Tamil calendar's month of Aadi (mid-July to mid-August). It is also read in Hindu Temples and other religious associations. On many occasions, Kambar talks about surrendering to Rama, who is a manifestation of Vishnu himself.

The chapter Sundara Kandam is considered very auspicious and is the most popular. The chapter talks about the hardships faced by the main characters in the epic, their practice of restraint, and their hopes for a better tomorrow.

See also

Ramayana in Tamil literature

Kamban Kazhagam

References

External links

Tamil Virtual University: Kamba Ramayanam

Tamil literature repository: Kamba Ramayanam at Project Madurai

Works based on the Ramayana
Tamil epic poems

Ramavataram


Olaf Helliesen Lange (11 February 1875 – 19 April 1965) was a Norwegian painter and print maker. Lange's fin-de-siècle art has its own special approach visualizing the complexity of the modern urban life.

Olaf Lange is best known for his symbolistic paintings and the multicolored aquatint etchings he made between 1903 and 1912, which are closely linked to the continental art nouveau style. The unique qualities of Lange's fin de siècle art are appreciated internationally. Among other prizes, Lange received a gold medal for graphics at the XI International Exhibition in Munich in 1913 and a Medal of Honor at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco in 1915.

Early life
Olaf Lange was born in Stavanger, Norway in 1875, the son of Emil Lange (1821–1904), a doctor, and Marie Helliesen (1840–1916). The Art Nouveau textile artist Frida Hansen was his cousin and among his relatives were the painter Kitty Lange Kielland and the author Alexander Lange Kielland.

Lange started drawing and painting early in life, and among his teachers were both his cousin Frida Hansen (1855–1931) and Kitty L. Kielland (1843–1914). His teenage paintings and writings reveal Lange's lifelong interest in literature, including the works of Shakespeare and Goethe.

Lange studied at the University of Kristiania (now University of Oslo) for two years (1895–1897) and during the same period he attended drawing classes at the Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry art school.

Paris
Olaf Lange studied at the Académie Julian in Paris from 1897 until 1901, where teachers were Jules Lefebvre and Tony Robert-Fleury. Living close to Montmartre, Lange experienced the fin-de-siècle modern life in Paris. He visited Normandy and Brittany to paint landscapes and the local people. His paintings from this period show an affinity to naturalism and social realism. Lange's painting Tète d'infant was exhibited in the Paris Salon in 1901.

Munich – colour intaglio etchings
After leaving Paris, Lange lived in Norway for two years, mostly in Kristiania (now Oslo). He made his debut at the Høstutstillingen in  1905.

In 1903 he moved to Munich, spending his first two years in the Schwabing area of the city. During this period he made his first multicolored intaglio etchings. His nine etching motifs were made between in the period 1903 to 1912.
Lange drew his inspiration from Arnold Böcklin, Frida Hansen, Gustav Klimt and Franz von Stuck, and from Italian frescoes and Japanese art. He also found inspiration in literature, including the works of Gustave Flaubert, Anatole France and Goethe.

In 1905 Lange moved to Dachau and was based there until 1914, with a stay in Rome in 1909 and some trips back to Norway.

Stavanger Art Museum has a complete collection of Lange's colour etchings, comprising:
 Salammbô (1905)
 Herodias (1905)
 Women Impailed on Butterflies (1905)
 The Mermaid (1905)
 The Queen of Sheba (1906)
 Urvasi (1906)
 The Cry / Revolution (1908)
 The Martyr (1911)
 Tang / Seaweed (1912)

The First World War and after
Lange moved to Copenhagen in 1914, at the beginning of the First World War, also spending time in Norway. Besides stops in Stavanger, he travelled to Ulvik, Hardanger and Sogn to paint mainly landscapes of the western fjords. During this period Lange also painted monumental tempera paintings, and a six meter long triptych called The 11,000 Virgins. Lange contracted tuberculosis and stayed in Copenhagen until the early 1920s.

Olaf Lange recovered from the illness after a stay in Baden-Baden, in the fresh air of the Black Forest. He then moved back to Munich and started writing articles for newspapers in Norway and Sweden, besides painting. In his articles in the Stavanger Aftenblad newspaper he wrote about the tense situation building up in Munich during the leading up to the Second World War. In 1936 Lange stayed in Brixen in northern Italy.  In 1943 he was expelled from Germany and travelled to Norway where he spent the rest of his life. During the war he lived in Tau, moving back to his hometown Stavanger when the war ended in 1945. Around 1950 Lange lived for some time in Stord.

Olaf Lange left a great deal of his work to Stavanger Faste Galleri, now Stavanger Art Museum and to the British Museum

Olaf Lange died in Stavanger in 1965.

Collections
Lange's art is represented in the collections of several museums, including in Rome, Venice, Munich, Vienna, Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden, Paris, Brighton, Chicago and San Francisco. In Norway his work is in the collections of the National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design, Oslo, and the art museums of Bergen and Stavanger.

References

Further reading

1875 births
1965 deaths
People from Stavanger
People from Stord
Art Nouveau painters
Art Nouveau illustrators
19th-century Norwegian painters
20th-century Norwegian painters
Norwegian male painters
Norwegian illustrators
Académie Julian alumni
Symbolist painters
19th-century Norwegian male artists
20th-century Norwegian male artists

Olaf Lange


Andy Mulligan is an English writer best known for young adult fiction. His work is strongly influenced by his experiences working as a volunteer in Calcutta, India, and as an English and drama teacher in Brazil, Vietnam, the Philippines, and the UK. He has been married to UK television presenter Anne Robinson since their elopement in 2015.

Career
Mulligan's first novel, Ribblestrop, was published by Simon & Schuster in 2009. The story originated "on a walk with a fellow teacher"; they talked about they might turn a particular "ramshackle stately home ... into a thoroughly inappropriate school".

His second novel, Trash, is set in the garbage dump of a large unnamed third world city reminiscent of Manila,  and features a street child who lives as a waste picker. It was shortlisted for one of the annual Blue Peter Book Awards, but dropped "because it contains scenes of violence and swearing that are not suitable for the younger end of" the Blue Peter audience. David Fickling, the publisher of Trash, stated that "poor children live a very unpleasant life and to avoid that would be untruthful, and I don't think one should be untruthful to children. You can't make life wonderfully safe and middle-class all over the world." Trash was later shortlisted for the 2012 CILIP Carnegie Medal. A film adaptation of Trash by Working Title Films and PeaPie Films is in development.

Return to Ribblestrop (2011) was the first of two Ribblestrop sequels. Mulligan won the 2011 Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, a once-in-a-lifetime book award judged by a panel of British children's writers. "It is so fresh: the judges loved its anarchy, its good humour, its warm heart and the way it depicted children," according to committee chair Julia Eccleshare, children's book editor

Works

Ribblestrop (Simon & Schuster Children's Books, 2009)
Trash (David Fickling Books, 2010)
Return to Ribblestrop (Simon & Schuster, 2011)
Ribblestrop Forever! (Simon & Schuster, 2012)
The Boy With Two Heads  (RHCP Digital, 2013)
Liquidator  (David Fickling Books, 2015)
Rollercoaster:(Adventure Book Box, 2016)Dog (Pushkin Children's Books, 2017

 Awards

 2011 Guardian Children's Fiction Prize for Return to Ribblestrop Ribblestrop was shortlisted for a Roald Dahl Funny Prize in 2009. Trash'' was shortlisted for the CILIP Carnegie Medal in 2012.

See also

Notes

References

External links

 Andy Mulligan at Simon & Schuster publisher

English children's writers
Guardian Children's Fiction Prize winners
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Andy Mulligan (author)


The Red Mirage is a 1913 novel by Ida Alexa Ross Wylie. It was her third novel, and was immensely popular, reportedly making her a "darling of the media." It was adapted multiple times into motion pictures, including versions in 1915 and 1928, respectively under the titles The Unknown and The Foreign Legion.

The action is set predominantly in the town of Sidi Bel Abbès, and most of the male characters are members of the French Foreign Legion. The plot primarily concerns the romantic troubles caused by the character Sylvia Omney when she chooses to marry Captain Desiré Arnaud instead of her long-time friend Richard Farquhar. A subplot concerns Farquhar's father's shady past and the impact it is continuing to have on the life of his son.

In 1928 a photoplay edition of the book was released to coincide with the release of The Foreign Legion.

Sources

Passion's Fortune: The Story of Mills and Boon, by Joseph McAleer.

https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0943782/

References

External links
 The Foreign Legion/The Red Mirage at the Internet Archive

1913 novels
Novels set in Algeria

The Red Mirage


The Gullah (also called Geechee) are the descendants of African slaves who lived in the Lowcountry regions of Georgia and South Carolina. They lived on the mainland and on the Sea Islands.

The Gullah region used to include what is now Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina, but today the Gullah area is only in Georgia and South Carolina.

The Gullah were able to keep parts of their African culture, but were also influenced by North American culture. The Gullah people speak a creole language that is based on English, but has many African loanwords.

History

The name "Gullah" may come from Angola, where the ancestors of some Gullah people likely came from. They created a new culture from the numerous African peoples brought into Charleston and South Carolina. Other scholars think that it came from the name of other ethnic groups in Africa.

Origin of Gullah culture

Along the western coast of Africa, the people had cultivated African rice for 3,000 years. When British colonial planters discovered that rice would grow in the American South, they wanted enslaved Africans from this region. Africans were taken as slaves from the Western region of Africa (in what is today Sierra Leone), transported to the Americas, and were traded in Charlestowne, South Carolina. These African farmers brought their skills for farming and irrigation.

According to British historian P.E.H. Hair, Gullah culture had elements of many different African cultures. The Gullah people were able to keep much of their African culture because the climate and geography of this area were similar to Africa, and because slaves lived in large groups and had little interaction with whites.

The slaves also brought the diseases malaria and yellow fever. These diseases spread to English and European settlers because of the subtropical climate, and became endemic in the region. Africans had more immunity to these diseases. Many white planters left the area during seasons when the diseases were more common. The European or African "rice drivers", or overseers, were left in charge of the plantations.

Civil War period
In the U.S. Civil War, white planters on the Sea Islands were afraid of an invasion by US naval forces. They left their plantations and went to the mainland. When Union forces arrived on the Sea Islands in 1861, the Gullah people wanted freedom. Many Gullahs served in the Union Army. The Sea Islands were the first place in the South where slaves were freed. Long before the end of the War, Unitarian missionaries came to start schools for the newly freed slaves.

After the Civil War ended, the Gullah became more isolated from the outside world. This happened because the rice planters on the mainland left their farms and moved away from the area. The Gullahs continued to practice their traditional culture with little influence from the outside world until the 20th century.

Recent history
In 2006, the U.S. Congress passed the "Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor Act". This act will provide $10 million over 10 years to preserve Gullah historic sites. The Heritage Corridor will extend from southern North Carolina to northern Florida.

Cultural survival
The Gullah people still have their traditional culture. Their traditions have survived in the Lowcountry mainland and on the Sea Islands, and also in urban areas such as Charleston and Savannah, Georgia. Gullah people who have moved far away have also preserved their traditions. In the summer, they usually send their children back to rural communities in South Carolina and Georgia, where they live with grandparents, uncles, and aunts.

Representation in art, entertainment, and media

Historical landmarks
 "Designated by Congress in 2006, the Gullah Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor extends from Wilmington, North Carolina in the north to Jacksonville, Florida in the south."

Literature
The characters in Joel Chandler Harris' Uncle Remus stories speak in a Deep South Gullah dialect.

Notable Americans with Gullah roots
Joe Frazier
Michelle Obama
Chris Rock
Clarence Thomas

Related pages
Gullah Gullah Island

References

Ethnic groups in the United States

Gullah


Sho-Chieh Tsiang (; August 25, 1918 – October 21, 1993) was a Chinese-American economist. He was born in China but resided primarily in the United States from 1949 until his death. He also resided in Taiwan in 1948 and in the 1980s.

He was the father-in-law of Lars Peter Hansen (2013 Nobel Prize in Economics laureate).

Life and career
He studied at Keio University and London School of Economics (B.Sc. Economics 1941, Ph.D. Economics 1945) under Friedrich Hayek and received the Hutchinson Silver Medal 1944–45. He served as Professor of Economics at National Peking University, 1946–48, staff economist at the International Monetary Fund, member of Academia Sinica, and Professor of Economics at University of Rochester and Cornell University. He was founding director of the Chung-Hwa Institute for Economic Research, serving from 1981 until his resignation in 1993 due to illness.

Tsiang's academic contributions include work on the demand for money, monetary theoretic foundations of the monetary approach to the balance of payments, an early statement of the relation between spot and forward exchange rates, and the role of money in trade balance stability. However, together with his lifelong friend and colleague Ta-Chung Liu, also a professor at Cornell University, gave practical advice to the Republic of China on economic policy. Together they advocated against central planning and for creating an environment that encouraged private enterprises to compete on world markets. They were able to convince members of the government, such as Economic Minister, Kwoh-Ting Li of the soundness of their views. Their advice was implemented, beginning with foreign exchange reform in beginning in 1958. Tsiang advocated the unification of multiple exchange rates and the devaluation of the New Taiwan dollar from artificially overvalued levels. Understanding that Taiwan at that time had cheap labor relative to the world market, he advocated for a liberalization of interest rate controls to promote savings and produce funds for investment for small enterprises, and proposed low tariffs to encourage exports. In this way, Taiwan could exploit its comparative advantage in labor-intensive goods on the world market. This was counter to prevailing policy recommendations by economists of the day, for whom "import substitution" was a common policy prescription where subsidization of domestic heavy industry was seen as a fast track to modernization.  He also wrote for the public audience in Taiwan, engaging in lively public debates while director of the Taiwan Institute for Economic Research and later, the Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Research.

Selected writings
 Tsiang, S.C. "The 1951 improvement in the Danish balance of payments." IMF Staff Papers, vol. 3, 1953, pp. 155–170
 Tsiang, S.C. "Liquidity preference and loanable funds theories, multiplier and velocity analysises: a synthesis," American Economic Review, vol. 46, 1956, pp. 539–64.
 Tsiang, S.C. "The Theory of Forward Exchange and Effects of Government Intervention on the Forward Exchange Market", 1959, IMF Staff Papers.
 Tsiang, S.C. "The Role of Money in Trade-Balance Stability: Synthesis of the Elasticity and Absorption Approaches", 1961, American Economic Review, vol. 51, 1961, pp. 912–936.
 Tsiang, S.C. "A Model of Economic Growth in Rostovian Stages", Econometrica, vol. 32, 1964, pp. 619–648.
 Tsiang, S.C. "Walras' Law, Say's Law and Liquidity Preference in General Equilibrium Analysis", International Economic Review, vol. 7, 1966, pp. 329–345.
 Tsiang, S.C. "The Precautionary Demand for Money: an Inventory Theoretical Approach", Journal of Political Economy, vol. 76, 1968.
 Feldstein, M.S. and Tsiang, S.C. "The Interest Rate, Taxation, and the Personal Savings Incentive", Quarterly Journal of Economics vol. 82, 1968, pp. 419–434.
 Tsiang, S.C. "A Critical Note on the Optimum Supply of Money", Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, vol. 1, 1969, pp. 266–280.
 Tsiang, S.C. "The Rationale of the Mean-Standard Deviation Analysis, Skewness Preference, and the Demand for Money", American Economic Review, vol. 62, 1972, pp. 354–371.
 Tsiang, S.C. "Risk, Return, and Portfolio Analysis: Comment", Journal of Political Economy, vol. 81, 1973, pp. 748–752.
 Tsiang, S.C. "The Dynamics of International Capital Flows and Internal and External Balance", Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 89, 1975, pp. 195–214.
 Tsiang, S.C. "The Monetary Theoretic Foundation of the Modern Monetary Approach to the Balance of Payments", Oxford Economic Papers, vol. 29, 1977, pp. 319–338.
 Tsiang, S.C. "Fashions and Misconceptions in Monetary Theory and Their Influences on Financial and Banking Policies", Zeitschrift furGesamte Staatswissenschaft, vol. 135, 1979, pp. 594–604.
 Tsiang, S.C. "Keynes's 'Finance' Demand for Liquidity, Robertson's Loanable Funds Theory, and Friedman's Monetarism", Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 94, 1980, pp. 467–491.
 Tsiang, S.C. "Taiwan's economic miracle: lessons in economic development," in A.C. Harberger, editor, "World Economic Growth; Case Studies of Developed and Developing Countries," Institute for Contemporary Studies, San Francisco, CA, 1984.

References

Further reading

 Lau, Lawrence J., "In Remembrance of S.C. Tsiang, A Scholar and a Gentleman" CIER Newsletter, 2:2 1994.

 Wang, Lutao Sophia Kang. "K.T. Li Kwoh-Ting Li and the Taiwan Experience." National Tsing Hua University Press (2006)

1918 births
1993 deaths
Cornell University faculty
Members of Academia Sinica
20th-century Chinese economists
20th-century Taiwanese economists
Chinese expatriates in the United States
Taiwanese expatriates in the United States
Writers from Shanghai
Taiwanese people from Shanghai
Keio University alumni
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Economists from Shanghai
Educators from Shanghai

Sho-Chieh Tsiang


If It's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium is a 1969 American DeLuxe Color romantic comedy film made by Wolper Pictures and released by United Artists. It was directed by Mel Stuart, was filmed on location throughout Europe, and features many cameo appearances from various stars. The film stars  Suzanne Pleshette, Ian McShane, Mildred Natwick, Murray Hamilton, Sandy Baron, Michael Constantine, Norman Fell, Peggy Cass, Marty Ingels, Pamela Britton, and Reva Rose.

Synopsis
Charlie (McShane) is an amorous English tour guide who takes groups of Americans on whirlwind 18-day sightseeing tours of Europe. Among his various clients on his latest trip are Samantha (Pleshette), with whom he wants to have an affair; a man who desires a pair of custom-made Italian shoes from a certain cobbler in Rome; another man (Baron), who is secretly being set up for a surprise marriage with his Italian cousin; and an army veteran (Constantine) who is reliving his World War II experiences.

Production
The title, also used by a 1965 documentary on CBS television that filmed one such tour, was taken from a New Yorker cartoon by Leonard Dove. Published in the June 22, 1957, issue of the magazine, the cartoon depicts a young woman near a tour bus and a campanile, frustratedly exclaiming "But if it's Tuesday, it has to be Siena," thereby humorously illustrating the whirlwind nature of European tour schedules. This concept formed the premise of the film's plot.  Donovan sings "Lord of the Reedy River," which he had also written. He also wrote the film's title song, performed by J.P. Rags, a pseudonym for Douglas Cox.

Locations
Locations where the film was shot include first: London, Great Britain;  second: the Netherlands; third: Brussels and Bastogne, Belgium; fourth: Rhineland-Palatinate with the boat on the Rhine from Koblenz to Wiesbaden, Germany; fifth: Switzerland; and last: Venice and Rome, Italy. The film poster shows the cast on the normally pedestrianized Grote Markt square of Antwerp, Belgium, posing for a typical souvenir photo in front of the city hall, with their tour bus obstructing the view of the Brabo fountain which is normally a favorite photo-op with other tourists.

Cast

Main

 Suzanne Pleshette as Samantha Perkins
 Ian McShane as Charlie Cartwright
 Mildred Natwick as Jenny Grant
 Murray Hamilton as Fred Ferguson
 Sandy Baron as John Marino
 Michael Constantine as Jack Harmon
 Norman Fell as Harve Blakely
 Peggy Cass as Edna Ferguson
 Marty Ingels as Bert Greenfield
 Pamela Britton as Freda
 Reva Rose as Irma Blakely
 Aubrey Morris as Harry Dix
 Hilarie Thompson as Shelly Ferguson
 Luke Halpin as Bo
 Mario Carotenuto as Giuseppe
 Patricia Routledge as Mrs. Featherstone
 Marina Berti as Gina
 Ermelinda De Felice as Italian Woman in Automobile Accident (as Linda De Felice)
 Paul Esser as German Sergeant
 Jenny White as Dot

Cameo appearances

 Senta Berger
 John Cassavetes
 Joan Collins
 Vittorio De Sica
 Donovan singing "Lord of the Reedy River"
 Sonya Doumen
 Anita Ekberg
 Ben Gazzara
 Virna Lisi
 Elsa Martinelli
 Catherine Spaak
 Robert Vaughn

Reception

Box office
If It's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium earned estimated rentals of $3 million in the United States during its initial run.

Critical response
Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote in his review: "IF IT'S TUESDAY, This Must Be Belgium may be the first cartoon caption ever made into a feature-length movie. If I remember correctly, that was the legend that appeared some years ago under a New Yorker Magazine cartoon showing two harried American travelers, in the middle of a relentlessly picturesque village, consulting their tour schedule. It was a nice cartoon, made timely by the great wave of tourism that swept Europe in the 1950s. Subsequently, I'm told, there was a television documentary that explored more or less this same phenomenon—the boom in pre-paid (two in a room), packaged culture junkets. Now, some years after the subject seemed really fresh, a movie has been made about one such 18-day, 9-country excursion. Even if you don't accept the fact that just about everything that could be said about American tourism was said earlier by Mark Twain, Henry James or even Woody Allen, If It's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium is a pretty dim movie experience, like a stopover in an airport where the only reading matter is yesterday's newspapers."

Roger Ebert wrote in his review: "Someone -- Mark Twain? -- once said that the American tourist believes English can be understood anywhere in the world if it's spoken loudly and slowly enough. To this basic item of folklore, other characteristics of the typical American tourist have been added from year to year: He wears sunglasses, Bermuda shorts and funny shirts. He has six cameras hanging around his neck. He orders hamburgers in secluded little Parisian restaurants. He talks loudly, and the female of his species is shrill and critical. He is, in short, a plague. This sort of American tourist does still exist, but in much smaller numbers. My observation during several visits to Europe is that the American tourist has become poorer and younger than he used to be, and awfully self-conscious about being an American. On the average, he's likely to be quieter and more tactful than the average German or French tourist (who doesn't have to prove anything). The interesting thing about If It's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium is that it depicts this new American tourist. That's amazing because movies of this sort usually tend to be 10 years behind the times, and I went expecting another dose of the Bermuda shorts syndrome. "If It's Tuesday" isn't a great movie by any means, but it manages to be awfully pleasant. I enjoyed it more or less on the level I was intended to, as a low-key comedy presenting a busload of interesting actors who travel through England, Belgium, Germany, and Italy on one of those whirlwind tours. There is a lot of scenery, but not too much, and some good use of locations in Venice and Rome. There are also some scenes that are better than they should be because they're well-acted. Murray Hamilton is in a lot of these scenes, and they're reminders that he has been in a disproportionate number of the best recent comedies: The President's Analyst, Two for the Road, and The Graduate (he was Mr. Robinson)."

Remake
If It's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium was remade in 1987 as a made-for-TV movie titled If It's Tuesday, It Still Must Be Belgium directed by Bob Sweeney. The film starred Claude Akins, Lou Liberatore, Courteney Cox, Bruce Weitz,  Stephen Furst, Anna Maria Horsford, Kene Holliday. Kiel Martin, David Leisure, Doris Roberts, Tracy Nelson, Richard Moll, David Oliver, Lou Jacobi, and Peter Graves.

Release
If It's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium was released in theatres on April 24, 1969.

Home media
The film was released on DVD on May 20, 2008. Olive Films released a Blu-Ray edition in 2016.

See also
 List of American films of 1969

References

External links

 NY Times Review

1969 films
1969 romantic comedy films
American romantic comedy films
1960s English-language films
Films about vacationing
Films directed by Mel Stuart
Films scored by Walter Scharf
Films set in Belgium
Films set in West Germany
Films set in Italy
Films set in the Netherlands
Films set in Switzerland
Films set in London
Films set in Rome
Films set in Venice
American road movies
The Wolper Organization films
United Artists films
1960s American films

If It's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium


The Caldicot and Wentloog Levels are two areas of low-lying estuarine alluvial wetland and intertidal mudflats adjoining the north bank of the Severn Estuary, either side of the River Usk estuary near Newport in south east Wales. They are also known collectively as the Monmouthshire Levels or Gwent Levels, and the name Wentloog is sometimes spelled Wentlooge in official publications.

The Caldicot Level lies to the southeast of Newport between the River Usk and River Wye and consists of . It is home to Newport Wetlands Reserve. The Wentloog Level lies to the southwest between the River Usk and Rhymney River and consists of .

The levels are formed from tidal deposits and alluvium, which have been recurrently inundated and reclaimed from the Severn Estuary by humans since Roman times. They have been patterns of settlement, enclosure and drainage systems belonging to successive periods of use, and are extremely rich archaeologically, with finds from the Mesolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age periods.

They are an important wetland resource. Parts have been designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest. They are registered as a Historic Landscape of Outstanding Historic Interest in Wales.

History and archaeology
There have been variations in both land and sea levels in the Severn Estuary since the start of human habitation in the area. The Levels have been reclaimed from the sea at different times during the historic period, preserving evidence of patterns of settlement, enclosure and drainage systems. Mesolithic and later remains have been discovered at Goldcliff, and late Mesolithic human footprints at Uskmouth.

One of the most significant finds was of a 3rd-century Romano-British boat found at Wilcrick near Magor. The Romans occupied the area from the 2nd to the 4th centuries. In 1878, a boundary stone marking the building of 33 paces of embankment by Roman soldiers was discovered at Goldcliff. Research suggests that, initially, reclamation of the natural salt marsh for farmland began at a few "island" sites within the marshes, such as at Nash and Redwick, before a sea wall was built along the whole coast.

Goldcliff Priory was established in 1113 and together with other major landowners took responsibility for further drainage work in the area. Settlements became established, linked by droveways such as the Whitewall at Magor, and land was gradually reclaimed for pasture and arable use. A large number of Anglo-Norman sites including castles, churches, court houses, manor houses, moated sites and watermills show near-continuous occupation throughout the Middle Ages.

The Bristol Channel floods of 30 January 1607 (New style), caused by either a storm surge or a tsunami, resulted in the drowning of an estimated 2,000 people, with houses and villages swept away, an estimated  of farmland inundated and livestock destroyed. This was one of the worst natural disasters recorded in Britain.

Drainage and management
Most of the levels has been the subject of artificial drainage schemes, and the area is criss-crossed by drainage channels, known locally as 'reens'. Many of these are now managed by the Caldicot and Wentlooge Levels Internal Drainage Board.

In 1531, Henry VIII set up Courts of Sewers to improve drainage, but without any powers to oblige landowners to carry out work. In 1828 the Commissioners for Sewers ordered a series of maps of the Caldicot and Wentloog Levels from Thomas Morris, a surveyor based in Newport. In 1884, the Caldicot and Wentlooge Level Act established a new body, the Monmouthshire Commissioners of Sewers, with responsibility for maintaining sea walls and roads in the Levels. The long title of the Act is "An Act to provide for the commutation of the liability of Landowners in the Levels of the hundreds of Caldicot and Wentlooge in the County of Monmouth to maintain sea walls and other works to provide for the making and maintaining of roads in the said Levels and for other purposes."

This was superseded in 1942 by the Caldicot and Wentlooge Levels Drainage Board, now the Internal Drainage Board or IDB. In 2012, the IDB was criticised in a report by the Wales Audit Office for overpaying staff, paying for trips abroad for its members, and acting unlawfully on other occasions.  The IDB accepted the report and stated that the organisation's management had changed substantially since the time of the offences. Newport West MP Paul Flynn called for further police investigation into what had happened.

The pattern of ditches now found on the Caldicot Level has been complicated by the construction of the Newport Wetlands Reserve. Whereas the raison d'etre of all previous reens and ditches had been to drain the land, the aim of the network of new waterways constructed as part of the reserve has been to keep the land flooded, albeit with fresh water.

Ecology
The levels support the following rare species:
 Variable damselfly (Coenagrion pulchellum)
 Flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus) – an unusual water-edge plant with sprays of pink flowers in May and June
 Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)
 Musk beetle (Aromia moschata) – a smelly longhorn beetle with shiny metallic green armour, that lives in willows along the reens
 Great silver water beetle (Hydrophilus piceus) – Britain's biggest beetle ignoring the Stag beetle's extra length due to antlers
 Water vole (Arvicola terrestris)

References

External links
 Caldicot and Wentlooge Levels Internal Drainage Board
 The Gwent Levels info from Glamorgan -Gwent Archaeological Trust
 Mattock made of antler used by hunter gatherers at Uskmouth
  Hunter gatherer footprints in the tidal mudflats
Life on the Levels at livinglevels.org.uk

Wetlands of Cardiff
Archaeological sites in Monmouthshire
History of Monmouthshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Monmouthshire
Wetlands of Monmouthshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Newport
Tourist attractions in Newport, Wales
Wetlands of Newport, Wales
Levels in the United Kingdom
Coast of Newport, Wales
Caldicot, Monmouthshire

Caldicot and Wentloog Levels


George Boxley (1780–1865) was a white abolitionist and former slaveholder who allegedly tried to coordinate a local slave rebellion on March 6, 1815, while living in Spotsylvania, Virginia.  His plan was based on "heaven-sent" orders to free the slaves.  He tried to recruit slaves from Orange, Spotsylvania, and Louisa counties to meet at his home with horses, guns, swords and clubs.  He planned to attack and take over Fredericksburg and Richmond, Virginia.  Lucy, a local slave, informed her owner, and the plot was foiled.  Six slaves involved were imprisoned or executed.  With his wife's help, Boxley escaped from the Spotsylvania County Jail and, despite a reward, he was never caught.

Boxley fled to Ohio and Indiana, where he was joined by his family.  He built a cabin in 1830, the first in Adams Township.  He helped runaway slaves, taught school, and supported abolitionism.  The George Boxley Cabin has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Boxley's years as an Indiana pioneer

George Boxley, a native of Virginia, was born in 1780. He was a merchant storekeeper and miller who became deeply committed to abolitionism. He arrived in Indiana as a fugitive from justice and was the first settler in Adams Township, Hamilton County, Indiana. Accounts vary in details, but the facts are that Boxley, himself a slaveowner, opposed—or came to oppose—the institution of slavery. Boxley was accused of helping slaves to escape and of fomenting a slave rebellion in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. Jailed, he made his escape aided by his wife Hannah. After fleeing Virginia, Boxley may have spent a brief time in Pennsylvania.

Various accounts indicate that he lived in Ohio and the Missouri Territory at different times, and that at least once he was confronted by bounty hunters but was able to elude them. His family eventually joined him each time he relocated. Finally Boxley headed to Indiana, pausing first at Strawtown with the idea of continuing westward to settle along the Wabash River. Sources indicate that on his way west through the heavily forested land, Boxley took note of what was to become his future home and decided to stake a claim there.

It was about 1828 that Boxley arrived to stay in Adams Township, his family soon joining him. Boxley recorded the  of land on which he had built his cabin in 1830, the earliest in the township. Boxley was a well-read man and believed strongly in education. On his land, he soon constructed a small log school for his own children and those of other settlers starting to come into the area.

Boxley is credited with establishing the first school in the township. He taught his pupils from the books in his own library, educating them in history, literature, law and politics, about which he held strong views. How long he kept the school going is unclear, but it was at least until about 1838, when a subscription school became available in the settlement of Englewood (later, Bakers Corner) roughly four miles to the east, and possibly even longer. In 1851, a township school was finally established near the southeast corner of Boxley's land.

Local folklore holds that Boxley participated in the Underground Railroad by hiding runaway slaves in an excavated place beneath his cabin. Certainly his abolitionist views were widely known, but there is no concrete evidence to document his having participated in the Underground Railroad. Such activity is known to have taken place to the southeast in the Westfield area, and some sources indicate there was a route that would have passed, and perhaps included, Boxley's cabin. On the other hand, since Boxley's strong libertarian and abolitionist sympathies were public knowledge, logic suggests that the Boxley property might have been a too obvious—and thus insecure—hiding place for fugitive slaves. But this would not have prevented him from helping in any number of other ways.

Marriage and family
George Boxley married Hannah in Fredericksburg, Virginia, and they had 11 children together, some born after they left the South. While some were young adults when Boxley arrived in Indiana, the youngest among them were born in his years on the run. His youngest child became the first recorded death in the township: Benjamin Boxley was killed by a tree that fell on him during a severe thunderstorm.

After the death of his wife in 1853, George Boxley had deteriorating health. At some point, he left his cabin to live with his son Caswell (1817–1891), a lawyer and schoolteacher. Caswell's first wife died in 1858, and possibly his father came to live with him at that time. Caswell rapidly remarried, finding a second wife, Sarah Ann Kercheval, whom he married in 1859. He also purchased his father's land then.

George Boxley died in 1865 and was buried in the cemetery of the town named after him.

Legacy and honors
In 1836, Boxley's two oldest sons, Thomas and Addison, founded Boxleytown about four miles (6 km) to the northeast of the Boxley cabin on the old Lafayette Trace. This was a significant road for decades.  In the 1830s, a state road had been routed to the south that had formerly run across George Boxley's property.
2007 – The restored logs of the George Boxley Cabin were reassembled on the original foundation on Pioneer Hill in Sheridan's Veterans Park. The Boxley Cabin has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Citations

References

 History of Sheridan, Indiana
 African American History in the Rappahannock Region, Teenspoint.com
 Indiana Historical Society
 Sheridan, Indiana Historical Society
 Virginia Historical Society, Guide to African American Manuscripts

1780 births
1865 deaths
Conflicts in 1815
Slave rebellions in the United States
American abolitionists
People from Hamilton County, Indiana
American slave owners
African-American history of Virginia
Abolitionists from Virginia
Abolitionists from Indiana

George Boxley