Harmony Hammond (born February 8, 1944) is an American artist, activist, curator, and writer. She was a prominent figure in the founding of the feminist art movement in 1970s New York.

Early life and education
Harmony Hammond was born on February 8, 1944, in Hometown, Illinois. At 17, Hammond attended Miliken University in Decatur, Illinois. Later, she moved to Minneapolis and enrolled at the University of Minnesota. Hammond graduated with a B.A. of Arts in painting in 1967.

Career
Hammond and her husband moved to New York in 1969, just months after the Stonewall Riots. When Hammond found out she was pregnant with her daughter, she and her husband decided to part ways. In 1973, Hammond came out as a lesbian.

Harmony Hammond co-founded the A.I.R. Gallery in 1972; it was the first women's cooperative art gallery in New York. She also co-founded Heresies: A Feminist Publication of Art and Politics in 1976, co-edited issues #1, 3 and 9, and published articles in seven issues. Heresies was founded by Heresies Collective, whose core group consisted of Joyce Kozloff, Miriam Schapiro, Joan Semmel, Lucy Lippard, Mary Beth Edelson, Nancy Spero, and Harmony Hammond. She was an instructor at the New York Feminist Art Institute.

Hammond curated A Lesbian Show in 1978 at 112 Greene Street Workshop, featuring works by lesbian artists. She was one of the featured artists in the "Great American Lesbian Art Show" at the Woman's Building in 1980. In 1981, Hammond curated and exhibited her work in Home Work: The Domestic Environment As Reflected in the Work of Women Artists, sponsored by the New York State Council of the Arts (NYSCA) and The Women's Hall of Fame, Seneca Falls, NY. She also curated an exhibition in 1999 at Plan B Evolving Arts in Santa Fe titled Out West, bringing together 41 lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and two-spirit artists from the Southwest.

Hammond authored her first book, Wrappings: Essays on Feminism, Art, and the Martial Arts, a corpus of her writings from 1973 to 1983 published by TSL Press, in 1984. In 2000 she published Lesbian Art in America: A Contemporary History. She is featured in two 2010 films on feminist art - The Heretics, directed by Joan Braderman which focuses on the founders of the magazines Heresies: A Feminist Publication of Art and Politics in 1976; and !Women Art Revolution, directed by Lynn Hershman Leeson.

In 1984, she moved to New Mexico, where she lives and works today. As a tenured full professor, Hammond taught painting, combined media and graduate critiques at the University of Arizona in Tucson, from 1988 to 2005. Hammond continues to teach workshops and writes, curates, and lectures on feminist, lesbian, and queer art.

Works

In her art, Hammond asserts that traditionally feminine qualities are worthwhile artistic subjects and means for artistic creation. To this end, for example, she created sculptures in the early 1970s featuring swaths of fabric, a traditionally feminine material, as a primary material. There were four fabric series: Bags (1971), Presences (1972), Floorpieces (1973), and Wrapped Sculptures (1977-1984). Harmony Hammond's paintings themselves show how they were made and are almost all abstract. In the 1990s Hammond primarily made mixed-media installations that incorporated a range of traditionally non-art materials (such as human hair and corrugated roofing) with traditional oil painting, and in the first decade of the 2000s, her focus was on making monochrome abstract paintings.

Presences
This was a series of works created in 1971–1972. It was her first major series. Seven of these pieces are included in her Material Witness collection. These artworks are fabric scraps soaked in paint, densely sewn together and on a hanger strung from the ceiling. Presences was presented at Harmony Hammond's first solo exhibition in New York in 1973. The fabric is all different lengths with some strips being layered or tied together to be longer. "Six fabric sculptures appearing slightly larger than life size hang from the ceiling and graze the floor, inviting viewers to join them. Paint applied by artist Harmony Hammond imparts earthy tones to these layered scraps of cloth. Spots of bright color and pattern peek out here and there—plaids, polka dots, florals." Hammond's intention behind the works was to capture the history of women being creative and claiming space. Most of the fabric scraps used to create the pieces in the Presences series were sourced from members of a women's group Hammond was involved with.

Floorpieces
In 1973, Hammond created a series of artworks titled Floorpieces. Hammond created these rugs through a traditional braiding style with colorful, remnant fabric she had found in dumpsters in New York's garment district. The rag-rugs were then painted selectively with acrylic pigment and were displayed on the ground like rugs. Most of Hammond's Floorpieces were approximately 5 ft. (1.5 m) in diameter and almost 2 in. (5 cm) thick. The size and detail of Hammond's artwork is hard to obtain from reproductions and photographs, therefore insisting on the importance of a present viewer. Hammond's Floorpieces challenged the binary between Art and Craft; they also continued the artist's exploration of the space between painting and sculpture. The creation of the Floorpieces coincided with Hammond coming out as a lesbian.

Near Monochromes
Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Hammond's work began to include fewer sculptural elements, taking on more traditionally painterly forms and focusing more heavily on partially hidden forms beneath layers of paint. Regarding the evolution of her work, Hammond stated: "Over the years, the paintings have gotten simpler, more condensed, with fewer materials in any given piece." The works include materials such as "straps, grommets, bandage-like strips of cloth, or rough burlap patches with fraying edges and pronounced seams."

Recognition
Hammond has had more than 40 solo exhibitions internationally. Her works have been shown in the Tucson Museum of Art, Museum of Contemporary Art, Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, the Vancouver Art Gallery, National Academy Museum, and Museo Tamayo. Her works are also included in permanent collections in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Walker Art Center, the Brooklyn Museum, the National Museum of Women in the Arts, the Art Institute of Chicago, the New Mexico Museum of Art, and the Wadsworth Atheneum.

She has received fellowships from the National Endowment of the Arts, the Rockefeller Foundation, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, the Adolph and Esther Gottlieb Foundation, and the Pollock-Krasner Foundation among others. In 2013, the Women's Caucus for Art announced that Hammond would be one of the 2014 recipients of the organization's Lifetime Achievement Award. The Harmony Hammond Papers were acquired by the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles in 2016.

Harmony Hammond: Material Witness, Five Decades of Art, Hammond's first comprehensive museum survey, took place at the Aldrich Museum in Ridgefield, Connecticut. The exhibit traveled to the Sarasota Art Museum in Sarasota, Florida, in 2020. The exhibit was accompanied by the first hardcover monograph written on Hammond's work, with an essay by the exhibit's curator, Amy Smith-Stewart.

Public collections

 Art Institute of Chicago, IL
 Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, NY
 Denver Art Museum, Denver, CO
 Everson Museum, Syracuse, NY
 Grey Art Gallery, New York University, New York, NY
 Leslie-Lohman Museum, New York, NY
 Library of Congress, Washington, DC
 Lyman Allyn Art Museum, New London, CT
 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY
 Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, MN
 Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, CA
 The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY
 National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC
 New Mexico Arts, State Public Art Collection, NM
 New Mexico Museum of Art, Santa Fe, NM
 Orlando Museum of Art, FL
 Phoenix Art Museum, AZ
 Smithsonian American Art Museum
 Tucson Museum of Art, AZ University of New Mexico Art Museum, Albuquerque, NM
 Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, Hartford, CT
 Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, MN
 Weatherspoon Art Museum, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC
 Weisman Museum, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
 Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY

References

Further reading

 Bryan-Wilson, Julia (2017). Fray: Art + Textile Politics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
 Chaich, John (2017). Queer Threads: Crafting Identity and Community. Los Angeles, CA: Ammo.
 Hammond, Harmony (2000). Lesbian Art in America: A Contemporary History. New York: Rizzoli.
 Hammond, Harmony (1984). Wrappings : essays on feminism, art, and the martial arts. New York: TSL Press.

External links

Official website
Harmony Hammond bio in glbtq: an encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and queer culture
Hammond's gallery, Alexander Gray
Harmony Hammond prints at 10 Grand Press
Harmony Hammond on her 2019 exhibit at the White Cube Gallery
Oral history interview with Harmony Hammond

Feminist artists
1944 births
Living people
Artists from Chicago
Artists from New Mexico
University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts alumni
University of Arizona faculty
LGBT people from Illinois
20th-century American women artists
20th-century American artists
20th-century textile artists
21st-century American women artists
21st-century American artists
21st-century textile artists
Textile artists
Women textile artists
American textile artists
Heresies Collective members
American women academics
American lesbian artists

Harmony Hammond


The Marine Mill, established in 1839, was the first commercial sawmill in what became the U.S. state of Minnesota.  Now in ruins, it is currently a historic site managed by the city of Marine on St. Croix in partnership with the Minnesota Historical Society.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Marine Mill Site in 1970 for having state-level significance in the themes of exploration/settlement, industry, and transportation.  It was nominated for being the birthplace of the region's seminal industry—lumbering—and a major landing on its crucial transportation route, the St. Croix River.  The site is also a contributing property to the Marine on St. Croix Historic District.

Operational history
Lewis Judd and David Hone identified the site, with a swift-flowing stream for power and a bank suitable for steamboats, as ideal for a sawmill during an 1838 scouting expedition.  They were members of a group of New Englanders who had come west in search of new lumbering opportunities.  They returned to their home base in Marine, Illinois, and chartered the Marine Lumber Company with six other business partners.  In May 1839 the eight partners, plus one member's wife and two children, arrived by steamboat with a load of milling machinery.  In just 90 days they had completed their sawmill, cutting lumber for the first time on August 24.  The land, only purchased by the United States in 1837 through treaties with the Ojibwe and Dakota people, was not yet legally open to settlement.

The original mill cut less than  of lumber per day, so it was replaced in 1852 with a larger mill powered by a  water wheel.  However the whole building burned down in a fire in September 1863, idling workers for three years until a replacement was constructed in 1866.  To keep pace with its competitors, that mill was almost completely remodeled in 1873, at which point it could cut up to  per day.

The mill, then known as the Walker, Judd, and Veazie Mill, was at its most profitable in the early 1870s.  However a widespread economic depression triggered by the Panic of 1873, delays caused by a series of log jams on the river, and the valley's dwindling lumber supply soon changed that, and the mill went bankrupt in 1885.  Various attempts to reopen the mill failed, and the business was dismantled in 1895.  Over its 56 years of operation the mill had produced some  of lumber.

Later history
The Marine Mill site lay abandoned for nearly 70 years.  It wasn't until 1964 that a resource commission recommended acquiring the land as a historic site.  No action was taken until a local committee formed in 1970 to advocate for preservation, and the following year the Minnesota Legislature appropriated funds to buy the site.  The local committee also cleared decades of revegetation, uncovering the foundations of support structures.  The land acquisition was completed in 1972 and the property transferred to the Minnesota Historical Society.

Description

At its peak the mill complex occupied about .  In addition to the sawmill there was a planing mill, storage sheds, the steamboat levee, and piles of cut lumber, shingles, and laths.  Between 1888 and 1895 all the wooden buildings were dismantled and the machinery sold off.  All that remained were the stone walls of the 1873 sawmill and its water wheel.  Today a historical marker stands by the entrance to the property, and an open lawn leads to an overlook of the sawmill ruins.  A short interpretive trail leads past the faint foundations of two other mill complex buildings.  The stream that powered the mill still runs through the site.

See also
 List of watermills in the United States
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington County, Minnesota

References

External links

1839 establishments in Iowa Territory
1895 disestablishments in the United States
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Minnesota
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
Industrial buildings completed in 1839
Industrial buildings completed in 1852
Industrial buildings completed in 1866
Industrial buildings completed in 1873
Logging in the United States
Minnesota Historical Society
Minnesota state historic sites
National Register of Historic Places in Washington County, Minnesota
Protected areas of Washington County, Minnesota
Ruins on the National Register of Historic Places
Sawmills in the United States
Watermills in the United States

Marine Mill


Marcel Tyberg (27 January 1893, in Vienna – 31 December 1944, in Auschwitz-Birkenau) was an Austrian composer, conductor and organist. His music is late-Romantic in style.

Biography and career
Marcel Tyberg was born into a musical family in Vienna. His father, Marcell Tyberg (Sr.), was a well-known violinist, while his mother, Wanda Paltinger Tybergova, was a pianist in the school of Theodor Leschetizky, and a colleague of Artur Schnabel. Although little is known about his musical education, it is assumed that Tyberg had some formal training in orchestration, counterpoint and harmony outside the family home. Tyberg's father was on good terms with the renowned violinist Jan Kubelik and the two families frequented one another. Marcel dedicated lieder to Jan's two daughters and, despite a twenty-year age gap, cultivated a lifelong friendship with their young brother, the conductor Rafael Kubelik. Tyberg also became friendly with the Italian violinist and conductor, Rodolfo Lipizer. Tyberg's Piano Sonata No. 1 (1920) and his Symphony No. 1 (1924) both date from his time in Vienna.

In 1927, following the death of his father, Tyberg moved with his mother to the town of Abbazia (Opatija), today in Croatia, then part of Italy. To eke out a living, he turned his hand to any work on offer. He taught harmony, played church organs, conducted, and under the pseudonym "Till Bergmar" produced popular dance music for the local resorts (rumbas, tangos and waltzes, etc.).

His Symphony No. 2 was premiered by his friend Rafael Kubelik with the Czech Philharmonic at some time in the early 1930s. A pious Roman Catholic, Tyberg composed a setting of the Te Deum, which was premiered in the expanded church of Abbazia on 25 July 1943, the day Mussolini was forced out of office.

When German forces occupied northern Italy in 1943, Tyberg's mother, in compliance with Nazi regulations, registered that one of her great-grandfathers had been Jewish. Soon after, Tyberg's mother died of natural causes. Subsequently, Tyberg was arrested and deported to the death camps of San Sabba and Auschwitz. It was long believed that he had died by suicide in transit, but the date of his death was recorded in Auschwitz as 31 December 1944.

Tyberg's surviving music, in the form of manuscript scores, was entrusted by him to his friend, Dr. Milan Mihich, and ultimately brought to the United States. Works from this cache have begun to be recorded. These include the Symphony No. 2 (JoAnn Falletta conducting the Buffalo Philharmonic), coupled with the Piano Sonata No. 2 (Fabio Bidini, pianist), on Naxos Records; the Symphony No. 3 (JoAnn Falletta conducting the Buffalo Philharmonic), coupled with the Piano Trio (Michael Ludwig, violinist; Roman Mekinulov, cellist; Ya-Fei Chuang, pianist), on Naxos Records; the two Masses (Brian A. Schmidt conducting the South Dakota Chorale, with Christopher Jacobsen, organist), on Pentatone; the String Sextet with Double Bass (Ensemble Alraune) on NovAntiqua Records (Musica & Regime 3).

The Symphony No. 3 contains in the second movement direct thematic citations and rhythmic over-structures that originate from Hans Rott's Symphony No. 1 and that were also cited by Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 2 greatly. At current research status it is not known if Tyberg has directly cited Mahler or if he had access via Mahler to Rott's score of his Symphony No. 1, which was kept locked in private by Gustav Mahler, who was a close friend of Rott. Stylistic similarities to Anton Bruckner may be thought, however are not verified by compositional techniques, instrumentation and musical depth. Instead, they are much more related to Rott, who was a scholar of Bruckner and who, by Mahler's words, invented the new symphony.

Works
The known surviving works by Marcel Tyberg include:

Orchestral

 Symphony No. 1 (1922-1924)
 Allegro molto (1922) – Adagio (1922) - Scherzo (31 December 1922) – Finale, Allegro non troppo (12 April 1924)

 Scherzo and Finale for Schubert's Unfinished Symphony (1927-1928)
 Symphony No. 2 in F minor (1927-1931)
 Allegro appassionato – Adagio – Scherzo – Finale

 Symphony No. 3 in D minor (1938-1943)
 Andante Maestoso – Scherzo – Adagio – Rondo

Chamber

 String sextet in F minor, for 2 violins, 2 violas, cello and double bass (1931-1932)
 Allegro non troppo – Scherzo – Adagio molto sostenuto (Tema con variationi) – Scherzo – Finale

 Piano Trio in F major (1935-1936)
 Allegro maestoso – Adagio non troppo – Rondo

Instrumental

 Piano Sonata No. 1 in B minor (1914-1920)
 Allegro appassionato – Larghetto (Tema con variationi) – Rondo

 Piano Sonata No. 2 in F sharp minor  (1934-1935)
 Allegro con fuoco – Adagio – Scherzo – Finale

 4 Lieder without words for piano

Sacred
 Mass No. 1, for Soprano, Contralto, Tenor, Bass and organ (1933-1934)
 Mass No. 2, for Soprano, Contralto, Tenor, Basso and organ (1941)

Lieder

 21 lieder on Heine's lyric Intermezzo
 Rache, text by Poridzky
 5 lieder on texts by Daisy von Adelsfeld-Salghetti
 Ave Maria
 6 Austrian lieder for small orchestra (three orchestrated from the Heine lieder)
 4 songs in English, texts by Moore and others
 Evening Bells, text by Thomas Moore
 To a Flower, text by Barry Cornwall
 My Heart's in the Highlands, text by Robert Burns

References

External links
Marcel Tyberg Musical Legacy Fund, Peter Fleischmann
Podcast: JoAnn Falletta and the music of Marcel Tyberg (Naxos blog)
The Rediscovery of Marcel Tyberg - Article by Herman Trotter

1893 births
1944 deaths
20th-century classical composers
20th-century Austrian composers
20th-century Austrian male musicians
Austrian classical composers
Austrian male classical composers
Austrian Roman Catholics
Austrian people who died in Auschwitz concentration camp

Marcel Tyberg


Jarl Charpentier (17 December 1884 – 5 July 1935) was a Swedish academic and linguist who worked at Uppsala University.

Charpentier's research focused on Sanskrit literature but he was also interested in Indo-European comparative linguistics, including Iranistics, especially questions of etymology.

Selected publications
 Charpentier, J., (1927). The Meaning and Etymology of Puja. Indian Antiquary, 56, pp. 93–98.
 Charpentier, J. ed., (1922). The Uttaradhyayanasutra. Lehmann & Stage.
 Charpentier, J., (1931). Antiochus, King of the Yavanas. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 6(2), pp. 303–321.

References

1884 births
1935 deaths
Academic staff of Uppsala University
Swedish orientalists

Jarl Charpentier


Third-wave coffee is a movement in coffee marketing emphasizing high quality. Beans are typically sourced from individual farms and are roasted more lightly to bring out their distinctive flavors. Though the term was coined in 1999, the approach originates in the 1970s, with roasters such as the Coffee Connection.

History
The term "third-wave coffee" is generally attributed to the coffee professional Trish Rothgeb, who used the term in a 2003 article, alluding to the three waves of feminism. However, the specialty coffee broker and author, Timothy J. Castle, had already used the term in an article (Coffee's Third Wave) that he wrote for the Dec 1999 / Jan 2000 issue of the magazine Tea & Coffee Asia. The first mention in the mainstream media was in 2005, in a National Public Radio piece about barista competitions.

United States
In the first wave of coffee, coffee consumers generally did not differentiate by origin or beverage type. Instant coffee, grocery store canned coffee, and diner coffee were all hallmarks of first wave coffee. First wave coffee focuses on low price and consistent taste. Many restaurants offered free refills.

The second wave of coffee is generally credited to Peet's Coffee & Tea of Berkeley, California, which in the late 1960s began artisanal sourcing, roasting, and blending with a focus on highlighting countries of origin and their signature dark roast profile. Peet's Coffee inspired the founders of Starbucks of Seattle, Washington. The second wave of coffee introduced the concept of different origin countries to coffee consumption, beyond a generic cup of coffee. Fueled in large part by market competition between Colombian coffee producers and coffee producers from Brazil through the 1960s, coffee roasters highlighted flavor characteristics that varied depending on what countries coffees came from. While certain origin countries grew to be prized among coffee enthusiasts and professionals, the world's production of high-altitude grown arabica coffee, grown in countries within the tropical zone, became sought-after as each country had particular flavor profiles that were considered interesting and desirable. In addition to country of origin, the second wave of coffee introduced coffee-based beverages to the wider coffee-consuming world, particularly those traditional to Italy made with espresso.

Third-wave coffee is often associated with the concept of 'specialty coffee,' referring either to specialty grades of green (raw and unroasted) coffee beans (distinct from commercial grade coffee), or specialty coffee beverages of high quality and craft.

United Kingdom
In the late twentieth century, instant coffee dominated the UK market. Inspired by the example of Starbucks, Seattle Coffee Company opened in London in 1995, opening over 50 stores before being taken over by Starbucks in 1998. Flat White, an early third-wave café, opened in 2005 and James Hoffmann's third-wave roastery Square Mile opened in 2008.

From 2007 to 2009, the World Barista Championship was won by Londoners, starting with Hoffmann, and the 2010 edition of the competition was hosted in London. Hoffmann has since come to be regarded as a pioneer in the third-wave coffee movement in the UK, with The Globe and Mail describing him as "the godfather of London's coffee revolution".

Use of the term
The third-wave of coffee has been chronicled by publications such as The New York Times, LA Weekly, Los Angeles Times, La Opinión and The Guardian.

In March 2008, the food critic Jonathan Gold of LA Weekly defined the third wave of coffee:

The earlier term "specialty coffee" was coined in 1974, and refers narrowly to high-quality beans scoring 80 points or more on a 100-point scale.

Australia

The third wave of coffee has been popular in Australia. Melbourne is known as the "capital of coffee" with its many cafes.

Current status
Across the US and Canada, there are many third-wave roasters, and some stand-alone coffee shops or small chains that roast their own coffee. There are a few larger businesses, more prominent in roasting than in operating – the "Big Three of Third Wave Coffee" are Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea of Chicago; Stumptown Coffee Roasters of Portland, Oregon; and Counter Culture Coffee of Durham, North Carolina, all of which engage in direct trade sourcing. Intelligentsia has seven bars – four in Chicago, three in Los Angeles, together with one "lab" in New York. Stumptown has 11 bars – five bars in Portland, one in Seattle, two in New York, one in Los Angeles, one in Chicago, and one in New Orleans. Counter Culture has eight regional training centers – that do not function as retail stores – one in each of: Chicago, Atlanta, Asheville, Durham, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. By comparison, Starbucks has over 23,000 cafes worldwide as of 2015.

Both Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea and Stumptown Coffee Roasters were acquired by Peet's Coffee & Tea (itself part of JAB Holding Company) in 2015. At that time, Philz Coffee (headquartered in San Francisco), Verve Coffee Roasters (headquartered in Santa Cruz, California) and Blue Bottle Coffee (headquartered in Oakland, California) were also considered major players in third-wave coffee.

In 2014, Starbucks invested around $20 million in a coffee roastery and tasting room in Seattle, targeting the third-wave market. Starbucks' standard cafes use automated espresso machines which are faster and require less training than conventional espresso machines used by third-wave competitors.

See also

Specialty foods
Coffee wars

References

Further reading

Artisans
Coffee culture
Coffee
1999 neologisms

Third-wave coffee


G-Music Limited is a company built in 2002 by Rose Records and Tachung Records, both are the largest local music retails and wholesale chains in Taiwan. The physical retail arms have been kept separate, for different customer bases and brand identity, but the e-retailing, wholesale and distributor business is unified as Rose Tachung Records.

The two chains originally teamed up to create Taiwan's popular music ranking, the G-Music Chart (Chinese: 風雲榜 fēngyúnbǎng). The chains had around 60 locations in 2002. Tachung's network includes Taiwan's only remaining specialist classical CD store, opposite the Taipei YMCA on Hsu Chang St. G-Music Chart remains the most popular record chart in Taiwan.

G-Music Chart

The G-Music Chart was first officially published on July 7, 2005, and compiled the top physically sold CD releases in Taiwan (including both albums and physically released singles). Only the top 20 positions are published, and instead of sales, a percentage ranking is listed next to each release. For example, in the 52nd week of 2006, Born to Love, ranked at number one, sold 25.46% of the CDs sold in Taiwan that week. G-Music's main chart, Combo Chart (Chinese: 綜合榜 zònghé bǎng), ranks all music sales, regardless of language, country of origin or genre. The Combo Chart is defunct in 2015.

Sub charts

In addition to the main chart, there are eight sub-charts, and one defunct chart. All charts feature a percentage ranking, which is the percentage sold for each subcategory. All charts began on the same day as the Combo Chart, July 7, 2005. The currently operating sub-charts are:

Mandarin Chart (Chinese: 華語榜 Huáyǔ bǎng) ranks releases in Chinese language.
Western Chart (Chinese: 西洋榜 Xīyáng bǎng) ranks predominantly English releases from North America, Europe or other Western countries.
J-Pop Chart (Chinese: 東洋榜 Dōngyáng bǎng, "East Asian Chart") ranks non-Chinese Asian language albums. Originally named for Japanese releases, the chart increasingly features musicians singing in Korean.
Jazz Chart (Chinese: 爵士榜 Juéshì bǎng) ranks jazz releases, regardless of nationality or language.
Classical Chart (Chinese: 古典榜 Gǔdiǎn bǎng) ranks classical music releases, regardless of nationality or language.
Audio/Video Chart (Chinese: 影音榜 Yǐngyīn bǎng) ranks music-related DVD and Blu-ray releases, regardless of nationality, language or genre.
International Chart (Chinese: 外語榜 Wàiyǔ bǎng) combines the Western Chart and J-Pop Chart together

In addition to these, a Taiwanese singles chart called the Top Chinese Chart (Chinese: 百事榜 Bǎishì bǎng, "Pepsi Chart"), also called the "Mengniu Dairy Chart" (蒙牛榜 Méngniú bǎng), was created at the start of 2006. It ranked the top songs in two different top 20 charts: one for Mainland China (内地榜單 Nèidì bǎngdān) and one combining Hong Kong and Taiwan (港臺榜單 Gǎng-tái bǎngdān). The chart was made defunct in September 2008.

References

External links
g-music.com.tw, combined site of Rose Tachung Records

Online music stores of Taiwan
Record charts
2005 establishments in Taiwan

G-Music


Cabela's Dangerous Hunts: Ultimate Challenge is the first of the Cabela's games to be released on PlayStation Portable. It is a port of Cabela's Dangerous Hunts 2, with the addition of some new features. The game was co-developed by Sand Grain Studios and Fun Labs, and published by Activision, in conjunction with hunting supply company Cabela's. It was released on April 4, 2006, in North America and on March 21, 2007, in Australia.

Gameplay
The game is similar to the second game, with the addition of a Quick Action Mode and including two new animals: the Burchell's zebra and African wild dog (though under protection). The game modes are: Quick Hunt, Action Zone, and Career. The player's objective is to hunt and track deadly animals like bears, leopards, rhinos and cape buffalos, among others.

External links

2006 video games
PlayStation Portable games
Activision games
PlayStation Portable-only games
Video games set in Argentina
Video games set in Australia
Video games set in India
Video games set in Russia
Video games set in Tanzania
Video games set in the United States
Cabela's video games
Video games developed in Romania
Fun Labs games
Single-player video games
Sand Grain Studios games


Penrith (,  , ) is a market town and civil parish in the Westmorland and Furness district of Cumbria, England. It is less than  outside the Lake District National Park and about  south of Carlisle. It is between the Rivers Petteril and Eamont and just north of the River Lowther. The town had a population of 15,181 at the 2011 census. It is part of historic Cumberland.

From 1974 to 2015, it was an unparished area with no local council. A civil parish was reintroduced on 1 April 2015 with the first election for Penrith Town Council on 7 May 2015. The town was previously part of the 1974-created Eden District until 2023.

Toponymy

The etymology of "Penrith" has been debated. Several writers argue for the Cumbric or Welsh  "head, chief, end" (both noun and adjective) with the Cumbric , Welsh  "ford", to mean "chief ford", "hill ford", "ford end", or Whaley's suggestion: "the head of the ford" or "headland by the ford".

The centre of Penrith, however, lies about  from the nearest crossing of the River Eamont at Eamont Bridge. An alternative has been suggested consisting of the same  element meaning "head, end, top" + the equivalent of Welsh  "crimson". Research on the medieval spelling variants of Penrith also suggests this alternative etymology. The name "red hill" may refer to Beacon Hill, to the north-east of today's town. There is also a place called Redhills to the south-west, near the M6 motorway, and a place called Penruddock, about  west of Penrith. These names all reflect the local geology, as red sandstone is abundant in the area and was used for many buildings in Penrith.

Prehistory
The origins of Penrith go far back in time. There is archaeological evidence of "early, concentrated and continuous settlement" in the
area. The Neolithic (c. 4500–2350 BCE) or early-Bronze Age (c. 2500–1000 BCE) sites at nearby Mayburgh Henge, King Arthur's Round Table, Little Round Table, Long Meg and Her Daughters, and Little Meg, and the stone circles at Leacet Hill and Oddendale are some of the visible traces of "one of the most important groups of prehistoric ritual sites in the region." In addition there have been various finds (stone axes, hammers, knives) and carvings found in the Penrith area.

For the Celtic (Iron Age) era (c. 800 BCE – 100 CE), nearby Clifton Dykes has been proposed as the centre of the Carvetti tribe, due to the large enclosure discovered there and assumptions about the strategic position of the Penrith area in the communications systems running north–south through the Eden Valley and east–west across Stainmore.

Roman period

Penrith itself was not established by the Romans, but they recognised the strategic importance of the place, especially near the confluence of the rivers Eamont and Lowther, where the Roman road crossing the Pennines (the present A66) came through. In doing so, they built the fort at Brougham (Brocavum) along with another road (the present A6) going north over Beacon Hill to the large fort at Plumpton (Voreda) – and from there northwards to Carlisle (Luguvallium). Brocavum may also have been built in order to have a military presence close to the centre of the Carvetti.

The Roman fort of Voreda occupied the site now known as Old Penrith, five miles north of the town. The 18th-century antiquarian and vicar of Penrith, Dr.Hugh Todd, speculated that the Ala I Petriana may have been stationed there, giving its name to the subsequent town, but see the "Toponymy" section above.

The Roman road from Manchester to Carlisle ran through the area. Excavations before an extension to Penrith Cemetery showed the road had survived better at the edges of the field. The cobble and gravel surfaces seemed to have been ploughed out at the centre. The road was constructed by excavating a wide, shallow trench below subsoil level. Large cobbles were probably obtained nearby, as they did not appear frequently in the subsoil in the excavated area. They were added to the excavated subsoil dumped back into the cut to form a stable foundation, canted at the centre of the road.

The two forts close to where Penrith is today would have had a vicus, an ad-hoc civilian settlement nearby, where farmers supplying food to the forts, and traders and others supplying goods and services lived and died. There is evidence of continuous settlement throughout the Roman period and into the post-Roman era.

History
Penrith's history has been defined primarily by its strategic position on vital north–south and east–west communications routes. This was especially important in its early history, when Anglo-Scottish relations were fraught. Furthermore, Penrith was a Crown possession in its early phase, though often granted to favoured noble families. It did not become a chartered borough or a municipal corporation and had no representation in Parliament. It also gained growth from its proximity to the Inglewood Forest and to the fertile Eden valley, and largely depended upon agriculture, especially cattle rearing and droving.

Early medieval period
After the departure of the Romans (c. 450 CE), the north became a patchwork of warring Celtic tribes (Hen Ogledd). One of these may have been Rheged, perhaps with a centre in the Eden valley and covering the area formerly held by the Carvetti. However, this has been disputed by historians. The Rheged Centre, just outside Penrith, commemorates the name.

During the 7th century, the region was invaded by the Angles, a Germanic tribe which moved west from Northumbria. The Celtic place-names in the region such as Penrith, Blencow, Culgaith, Penruddock, were now joined by settlements ending in "-ham" (estate) and "-ton" (farm), such as Askham, Barton, Clifton, Plumpton and Stainton.

From about 870, the area became subject to Viking settlement by Norse from Dublin and the Hebrides, along with Danes from Yorkshire. Settlements with names ending in "-by" ("village") and "-thorpe" ("hamlet") were largely on higher ground – the Vikings were pastoralists, the Angles arable farmers. Examples are Melkinthorpe, Langwathby, Lazonby, and Ousby. Little and Great Dockray (not to be confused with the nearby village Dockray) in Penrith itself are Norse names.

The Penrith Hoard of Viking silver brooches was found in the Eden valley at Flusco Pike, Penrith, as were 253 pieces of silver at Lupton.

Two cross-shafts and four hogbacks, along with a small cross found immediately to the west of St Andrew's Church, known as the "Giant's Grave" and "Giant's Thumb" (c. 920s), have long prompted speculation. They may have been separate items brought together by an antiquary or they may be a genuine group. They appear to be an Anglo-Norse fusion of Christian and Norse motifs, but it is still debated whether they are linked to the King of the Strathclyde Cumbrians, Owain ap Dyfnwal (fl. 934). It is thought that Strathclyde British had settled in parts of north Cumbria in the 10th century.

On 12 July 927, Eamont Bridge (or possibly the monastery at Dacre, Cumbria, or the site of the old Roman fort at Brougham or even the church at Penrith, or a combination of these) was the scene of a gathering of kings from throughout Britain as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the histories of William of Malmesbury and John of Worcester. Present were Athelstan, King of the Anglo-Saxons and then of the English, Constantín mac Áeda (Constantine II), King of Scots, Owain of Strathclyde, King of the Cumbrians, Hywel Dda, King of Wales, and Ealdred son of Eadulf, Lord of Bamburgh. Athelstan took the submission of some of these other kings, presumably to form some sort of coalition against the Vikings. The growing power of the Scots and perhaps of the Strathclyders, may have persuaded Athelstan to move north and attempt to define the boundaries of the various kingdoms. This is generally taken as the date of foundation of the Kingdom of England, whose northern boundary was the Eamont river, with Westmorland outside the control of Strathclyde. Penrith was effectively held by the Scottish king as overlord of the Strathclyde Cumbrians, until the Norman takeover in 1092. Thereafter Penrith's fortunes varied according to the state of play between England and Scotland over ownership of Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumbria.

Penrith may have been founded before the arrival of the Normans. A ditched oval enclosure surrounding the area now occupied by St Andrew's Church (a burh - hence "Burrowgate") has been excavated. A church on the site may date back to the time of Bishop Wilfrid, (c. 670s) whose patron saint was Saint Andrew.

Later medieval period: Normans and Plantagenets
The Norman conquest of north Cumbria took place in 1092 under William Rufus, who retained Carlisle, Penrith and some other manors round Penrith as demesne. The Norman and Plantagenet rulers thereafter held Penrith as a crown estate ("Penred Regis"), along with a group of others locally, including Carlatton, Castle Sowerby, Gamblesby, Glassonby, Langwathby, Great Salkeld, Little Salkeld and Scotby. The group became known as the "Queen's Hames" ("Queen's Homes") from 1330 onwards.

Membership of the group fluctuated over time. In 1187 a sub-set including Penrith, Langwathby, Great Salkeld, Gamblesby, Glassonby and Scotby was referred to as the Honour of Penrith. From 1242 to 1295, the Honour of Penrith (created "the liberty of Penrith" by the Treaty of York in 1237) was in the hands of the King of Scots, in return for renouncing his claims to Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland. King Henry III had been reluctant to cede Penrith to the Scots, as it was a good source of Crown income: the right to hold a market and fair was granted in 1223 by Henry, and arable farming produced good yields and taxes. Tensions between the English Crown's agents in Cumberland and the Scottish agents attempting to defend the rights of the Scottish king and his tenants in the liberty of Penrith, may have influenced the mindset of the Scots leading up to the outbreak of the Wars of Scottish Independence.

King Edward I took Penrith and the other manors back into Crown possession (having been taken from the Scots and given to Bishop Anthony Bek). Perhaps to underline the authority of the Crown, Edward also established an Augustinian Friary in 1291. This succumbed to the Reformation in 1539. The Friarage house was built on the site in 1717.

With the Wars of Scottish Independence, Penrith suffered destruction by Scottish forces in 1296 (William Wallace), 1314, 1315–1316 and 1322 (Robert the Bruce). Meanwhile climatic change caused poor harvests. Penrith went from incipient economic growth in the early 14th century to poverty by the third decade. Recovery in the 1330s was again reversed by the devastating Scottish raid of 1345 (David II of Scotland) and the Black Death of 1348–1349 and subsequent years. However, Penrith, Castle Sowerby and the other manors were valuable as a source of royal income, paying debts the Crown owed to those leading the fight against the Scots, such as Roger de Leybourne, Anthony de Lucy and Andrew Harclay, 1st Earl of Carlisle.

There is evidence of a protective wall built round the town after the Scottish raid of 1345. This was strengthened in 1391 by the townspeople and Penrith's patron, William Strickland, Bishop of Carlisle, after another Scottish raid by the 1st Earl of Douglas in 1380, and others in 1383 and 1388, when Brougham Castle was probably destroyed as well. It is thought that Strickland built and strengthened the "pele tower" in Benson Row, behind Hutton Hall. He also endowed a chantry (1395) in St Andrew's Church, (where the chantry priest may have taught music and grammar), and created Thacka Beck, diverting clean water from the River Petteril, which was notably valuable for the tanning and related industries.

Strickland shared power in Penrith with the Neville family, which had been promoted in the North by Richard II of England to offset the influence of the Percies. In 1396, Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland and his wife Joan gained the manors of Penrith and Castle Sowerby: windows in St Andrew's Church may depict the Nevilles along with Richard II. Ralph probably started building Penrith Castle, which was continued by his son, Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, father of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, the "Kingmaker", whose death in the Battle of Barnet in 1471 led Edward IV of England to grant the Castle and Penrith manors to Richard of Gloucester, the future Richard III, to keep them Yorkist. Richard III used Penrith as a base against the Scots and to promote a Yorkist "affinity" in the area to offset Lancastrian loyalties at nearby Brougham, Appleby (Clifford) and Greystoke (Baron Greystoke) and elsewhere. Tradition has Richard staying in what is now Dockray Hall (once the Gloucester Arms) during building work on the castle. The latter was more of a palace than a military stronghold, with a chantry chapel endowed by Richard.

Early modern period (1485–1714)

Tudor period
The Tudor period saw the centralising tendencies of the Yorkist government continued. The English Reformation, economic and social progress, educational change, the rise of the non-noble landed gentry and the depredations of the plague all affected Tudor England, and Penrith was no exception.

The eclipse of the Nevilles and Percies by the end of the Wars of the Roses opened the field for families such as the Cliffords, the Dacres and the Musgraves to jostle for position in the North (including those of the Sheriff of Cumberland, the Warden of the West March and the keeper of Penrith Castle).

Penrith people were involved in a rebellion of 1536/1537 known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. Eight town residents were executed as a result. The motives seem to have been partly religious, partly to do with a desire for more English government protection against Scottish raids.

The reformation went on apace afterwards – the Augustinian Priory was dissolved and the two chantry bequests closed later. The Strickland bequest partly funded the Penrith Grammar School, founded 1564, in the reign of Elizabeth I. Many governors of the new foundation in St Andrew's churchyard were rising Protestant gentry, who moved into various houses in Penrith: the families of Whelpdale (whose coat of arms adorns Dockray Hall), Carleton, Bost and Hutton (who had taken over the pele tower in Benson Row), and Richard Dudley of Yanwath Hall. The foundation was overseen by Sir Thomas Smith, one of Elizabeth's trusted Protestant counsellors.

Penrith was not involved in the Rising of the North in 1569, despite involvement by Sir Richard Lowther and his younger brother Gerard, whose house in Penrith became the former Two Lions Inn. The merchant, Robert Bartram, may have built the Tudor House in St Andrew's Place (1563), indicating a trading class operating in Penrith.

However, there may have been a substantial underclass as well, as shown by possible poverty and poor nutrition causing a high death rate in 1587, when there may have been a typhus epidemic. The Bubonic plague may have caused some 615 deaths in 1597–1598, according to the vicar's register (2,260 according to a brass plaque inside St Andrew's Church).

Stuart period
Penrith in Stuart times was affected by political and religious upheavals that saw the English Civil War, the Commonwealth and the Glorious Revolution, but was spared any fighting. It also escaped the witch-craze phenomenon that afflicted other parts of England. The Union of the Crowns and suppression of the reiver clans such as the Grahams, gave Penrith relief from Scottish raiding and a boost to Penrith's commercial prosperity. James VI and I and his entourage of 800 visited Brougham Castle in 1617, which boosted commerce. However, Penrith's crossroads position on the north–south and east–west routes made it vulnerable to starving vagrants bringing disease. This plus a national food shortage may have led to a typhus epidemic in 1623.

During the Civil War, Penrith's gentry were mostly Royalist, but Penrithians seem to have been neither for nor against the King. During the first war (1642–1646), General Leslie took over Brougham Castle for the Covenanters and Penrith became a supply centre for Parliament. In the second civil war starting in 1648, Brougham and Penrith castles were strategic assets. Major-General Lambert, the Parliamentary commander, took over Penrith in June 1648 until forced out by Scottish royalists aided by Sir Philip Musgrave of Edenhall. The Covenanters supported the future Charles II after 1648. He stayed at Carleton Hall in 1651 on his way south to defeat at the Battle of Worcester.

Because Penrith lacked borough or corporation status, governance fell on the local nobility, gentry and clergy, (such as Hugh Todd). During the Commonwealth, Presbyterian "Godly rule" was administered at St Andrew's Church by the local Justice of the peace, Thomas Langhorne, who had bought Lowther's Newhall/Two Lions house. Meanwhile, Penrith benefited from work on restoration of Brougham and other castles, and by charitable donations undertaken by Lady Anne Clifford. The gradual rise in religious toleration eventually saw in 1699 the establishment, by the Quakers, of Penrith's second place of worship, the Friends' Meeting House in Meeting House Lane.

Leading gentry of Cumberland and Westmorland gathered at the George Inn on 4 January 1688 at the behest of Lord Preston, the Lord Lieutenant of Cumberland and Westmorland. He was attempting to gauge the views of leading figures in the counties (deputy-lieutenants, and J.P.s) on the intention of King James II to introduce greater religious toleration. Partly due to efforts by John Lowther, 1st Viscount Lonsdale, the attendees were persuaded to give a non-committal reply. The Whig Lowther went on to contribute to securing the two counties for King William in the Glorious Revolution and advancing his career, unlike his local (Tory) rival Christopher Musgrave of Edenhall who had been more dilatory in his support for William. This exemplified local politics feeding into national politics.

The economy of Penrith "continued to rely on cattle rearing, slaughtering and the processing of cattle products" (leather goods, tanning, shoemaking).

Local government before 1974

Penrith was an urban district from 1894 to 1974, when it merged into Eden District. It was coterminous with the civil parish of Penrith, although when the council was abolished, Penrith became an unparished area. The area had been an urban sanitary district presided over by a Local Board of Health. The district also contained the hamlets of Carleton (now a suburb of Penrith), Bowscar, Plumpton Head and some of the village of Eamont Bridge. It was split into four wards – North, South, East and West – which remained the basic local-government divisions in the town until the 1990s.

In the 1920s Penrith Castle came into council possession, its grounds becoming a public park. Castle Hill (Tyne Close) Housing Estate was built nearby. Further council housing was built at Fair Hill and Castletown before the Second World War, and after the war at Scaws, Townhead and Pategill. The district was bordered on three sides by Penrith Rural District, the southern boundary marked by the River Eamont being with Westmorland.

Governance

UK Parliament
Penrith is in the parliamentary constituency of Penrith and the Border.  Its Member of Parliament (MP) is Neil Hudson (Conservative), who was elected at the 2019 General Election, with a majority of 37.8 per cent, replacing Rory Stewart.

Local government
Since 2023, Penrith has had two levels of local government – Westmorland and Furness unitary authority (see below) and Penrith parish (town).

Until 2023, for county purposes, it was governed by Cumbria County Council, whose social services and education departments used to have area offices in the town. It was the seat of administration for Eden District Council, one of the largest districts by area in England and the most sparsely populated. It was based at offices in Penrith Town Hall and at the building now known as Mansion House, formerly Bishop Yards House.

A civil parish of Penrith was first formed in 1866. Between 1894 and 1974 the Urban District council acted as the parish council, but on its abolition, its successor authority, Eden District Council, decided that Penrith would become an unparished area under the district council's direct control. In 2014 a referendum was held open to all registered voters in the unparished area of Penrith to see if they wanted a parish council for Penrith, and the result was in favour. The first elections to this were held on 7 May 2015. Initially the town council was based in offices in St Andrews Place, but since 2017 it has taken the former county council offices in Friargate.

Former local government divisions
For electing councillors to Eden District Council and to Penrith Town Council, the civil parish of Penrith was divided into six wards:
Penrith West: Castletown and parts of the town centre and Townhead
Penrith North: part of the town centre, the New Streets, most of Townhead and the outlying settlements of Roundthorn, Bowscar and Plumpton Head
Penrith South: Wetheriggs, Castle Hill, a small part of the town centre, part of Eamont Bridge and part of the Bridge Lane/Victoria Road area
Penrith East: part of the town centre, Scaws, Carleton Parklands and Barco
Penrith Carleton (formerly part of Penrith East): Carleton Village, High Carleton, Carleton Heights, Carleton Hall Gardens
Penrith Pategill (formerly part of Penrith East): Pategill, Carleton Drive/Place, Tynefield Drive/Court and part of Eamont Bridge

Penrith West and South wards made up the Penrith West Electoral Division of Cumbria County Council, while East, Carleton and Pategill wards combine as Penrith East division. Penrith North, along with the rural Lazonby ward, made up Penrith North division.

2023 changes to Local Government
In 2023 Cumbria County Council and the 6 District councils within the county were abolished and replaced by two new unitary authorities. Eden along with South Lakeland and the Borough of Barrow-in-Furness became the new unitary District of Westmorland and Furness.  The first elections to the new authority took place in May 2022.  Penrith was divided into two new wards for the new council – Penrith North (the former Eden council wards of Penrith North and East) and Penrith South (the former West, South, Carleton and Pategill wards).

A nascent campaign has arisen, demanding that Penrith be included within Cumberland, given that it forms part of the historic county of Cumberland and has never been part of Westmorland.

Geography

Watercourses
Penrith lies in the Eden Valley, just north of the River Eamont. Other local rivers bounding the town are the Lowther and Petteril. Thacka Beck flows through the town centre partly in a culvert, remaining mostly underground. It links the River Petteril and the River Eamont. For many centuries, the Beck provided Penrith's main water supply. Thacka Beck Nature Reserve provides flood storage to protect buildings in Penrith. Another stream, the Myers or Dog Beck, flows through and under the south-west of the town, joining Thacka Beck near Tynefield Court. The Dog Beck section has also been known as Scumscaw Beck or Tyne Syke. In 2014 the pub chain Wetherspoons opened a branch in Penrith, naming it the Dog Beck. There are also streams or becks running through the Carleton area of the town.

Divisions and suburbs

Castletown
Castletown, west of the West Coast Main Line, includes the Gilwilly Industrial Estate and some of the Penrith or Myers Industrial Estate. The area, originally built for workers on the railway line, mostly consists of late 19th and early 20th-century terraced housing, including some council housing. Since the 1990s, private developments such as Greystoke Park, Castletown Drive and Castle Park have appeared.

There was until March 2010 a pub in the suburb, The Castle Inn, and in previous years a sub-post office, a Co-op store and other shops, all now closed. Until the 1970s, Castletown had its Church of England St Saviour's in Brougham Street, acting as a chapel of ease to Penrith's parish church of St Andrew, originally built as a Primitive Methodist chapel. As of 2017, the Oasis Evangelical Church holds services at Brackenber Court sheltered housing complex in Musgrave Street. The Church in the Barn, Elim Pentecostal church, meets at the community centre at Gilwilly.

The suburb has a community centre on the recreation ground at Gilwilly and until recently held an annual gala day and parade throughout Penrith. At one time in the mid-20th century elections were held amongst regulars at the Castle pub to find a Mayor of Castletown. There is longstanding rivalry between the Castletown and Townhead districts.

Townhead
Townhead is the town's northern area, including the Fair Hill district and the Voreda Park or Anchor housing estate. It mainly flanks the A6 road, heading uphill towards Carlisle. The road is named Stricklandgate and Scotland Road, but on maps before the mid-19th century it appears as Town Head. It was one of seven constablewicks into which the ancient Penrith parish divided, alongside Middlegate, Burrowgate, Dockray and Netherend in the town proper and Plumpton Head and Carleton beyond.

New Streets

New Streets marks an area between Townhead and Scaws on the side of the Beacon Hill or Fell, with steep streets of some terraced housing, but mainly detached and semi-detached houses of the late 19th century. These streets from north to south are Graham, Wordsworth, Lowther and Arthur Street. The term sometimes includes Fell Lane, which is actually the ancient east road from Penrith town centre to Langwathby), and Croft Avenue and Croft Terrace (from about 1930), which were not developed till later. At the foot is Drovers Lane, once Back Lane, subdivided into Drovers Terrace, Wordsworth Terrace, Lowther Terrace, Bath Terrace, Arthur Terrace, Lonsdale Terrace, and finally Meeting House Lane. Along the top is Beacon Edge, with extensive views over the town and towards the Lake District. Until the turn of the 20th century, Beacon Edge was known as Beacon Road. Apart from the streets up the fellside there are some that link smaller housing developments between them.

The fellside is known to have been used as a burial ground for victims of bubonic plague, which struck Penrith down the centuries. There are also areas that still have farming names, such as a wooded enclosure in Fell Lane known as the Pinfold (or Pinny) – once a pound for stray animals until owners paid to reclaim them. One lane off Beacon Edge is still Intack Lane, i. e. the lane to farmed land. Most of what formed the intack was passed to Penrith Cemetery.

Scaws
The Scaws Estate was built by Penrith Urban District Council after World War II on land hitherto known as the Flatt Field and Scaws Farm, as part of the Lowther Estates. Scaws Farm is now Coldsprings Farm, the name being changed after a murder there. Later some private housing was built on higher parts of the estate.

Beaconside Primary School stands in the centre of the estate, where there were once three corner shops and a launderette. Adjoining Scaws are the private Barcohill and Meadow Croft housing estates.

Carleton

Carleton was once a separate settlement of houses along one side of the A686 road following the boundary of the built-up area. Carleton Hall holds the headquarters of the Cumbria Constabulary. The area is the home of Carelton Banks FC, colloquially the Pinks.

Pategill
Adjoining Carleton is the Pategill Housing Estate. It began as a council estate on land once part of the Carleton Hall estate and is still mostly owned by housing associations. Two streets, Prince Charles Close and Jubilee Close, were opened by the Prince of Wales in 1977. The centre of the estate is accessible by foot only and there was until 2012 a small convenience store. Several properties are run as sheltered housing for the elderly.

Wetheriggs
The Wetheriggs, Skirsgill and Castle Hill or Tyne Close areas were developed in the 1920s by Penrith Urban District Council on land formerly known as Scumscaw. The first private housing was developed in Holme Riggs Avenue and Skirsgill Gardens just before World War II. Further development did not start until the 1960s and 1970s, on land between Wetheriggs Lane and Ullswater Road. Not until the late 1980s were the two roads connected by the Clifford Road extension, which saw the Skirsgill area developed. There are three schools: Ullswater Community College. North Lakes Junior and Queen Elizabeth Grammar School (QEGS). The Crescent in Clifford Road holds sheltered accommodation for the elderly. There was once a shop at the junction of Huntley Avenue and Clifford Road and another at the foot of Holme Riggs Avenue. The large North Lakes Hotel and Spa stands at the junction of Clifford and Ullswater Roads, overlooking the Skirsgill Junction 40 Interchange of the M6 motorway, A66 and A592 roads.

Penrith New Squares
Plans to expand Penrith town centre south into the Southend Road area began by expanding the swimming pool area into a leisure centre, to replace a previous car park and sports fields, including ones used by Penrith and Penrith United football clubs. Plans for the rest of the scheme were drawn up by a property firm and included a supermarket and shopping streets, car parking and housing. Penrith New Squares refers to shops to be centred round two squares for parking and public entertainment.

Work here was suspended in October 2008 due to the financial crisis, but a new deal was agreed with Sainsbury's and it resumed in 2011. The update includes less new housing, with parts deferred for up to five years. Sainsburys opened in December 2011. In June 2013, the first shop in the squares opened, along with a walk through from Sainsburys to the town centre.

Landmarks

The main church is St Andrew's, built in 1720–1722 in an imposing Grecian style, abutting a 13th-century tower. The churchyard has ancient crosses and hogback tombstones known as the Giant's Grave (early 10th century) and Giant's Thumb (remains of a Norse cross from about 920).

Ruins of Penrith Castle (14th–16th centuries) can be seen from the adjacent railway station. It is run by English Heritage. To the south-east of the town are more substantial ruins of Brougham Castle, also held by English Heritage, as are the ancient henge sites known as Mayburgh Henge and King Arthur's Round Table to the south.

The town centre has a Clock Tower erected in 1861 to mark Philip Musgrave of Edenhall. Hutton Hall in Friargate has a 14th-century pele tower at the rear, attached to an 18th-century building. Dockray Hall (once the Gloucester Arms) dates from about 1470 and may include remains of another pele tower. Richard, Duke of Gloucester resided there before becoming King Richard III and carried out extensive work at Penrith Castle about 1471.

Penrith has many wells. Well-dressing ceremonies took place on days in May. Three miles south-east, on the River Eamont opposite Ninekirks, are the "Giants' Caves", with a well dedicated to St Ninian. These are enlarged out of Lower Permian sandstone and their associated breccias and purple shales.

Just north of the town is a wooded signal-beacon hill named Beacon Hill, originally Penrith Fell. Its last use was probably in 1804 in the war against Napoleon. Traditionally, Beacon Pike warned of danger from Scotland. Though ringed by commercial woodland owned by Lowther Estates, it still has natural woodlands visited by locals and tourists. On a clear day most of Eden Valley, local fells, Pennines and parts of the North Lakes can be seen. Beacon Hill possibly gave Penrith its Celtic name of "red hill".

A fibreglass -tall statue of King Kong once stood in the Skirsgill Auction Mart.

Transport

Railway
Penrith North Lakes station is a stop on the West Coast Main Line. It is served by two train operating companies:
 Avanti West Coast operates inter-city services between London Euston, Glasgow Central and Edinburgh Waverley, with trains calling at Birmingham, Carlisle, Crewe,  Lancaster and Preston.
 TransPennine Express operate services between Manchester Piccadilly and Glasgow Central.

Buses and coaches
Local bus services are operated mostly by Stagecoach Cumbria, with links to Carlisle, Keswick and Ullswater, with less frequent ones to Windermere, Appleby-in-Westmorland and Kendal. There is also a 646 town service, run by the local NBM Motors, serving most of the town once an hour. Fellrunner buses connect Penrith to villages in the Eden Valley. A daily service to Alston and Newcastle-upon-Tyne is run by Wright Brothers of Nenthead. The bus station is in the town centre, off Sandgate; many services also stop at the railway station.

National Express operate two long-distance coach routes with stops in Penrith. Route 182 runs from Birmingham to Edinburgh and the 590 links Glasgow to London.

Roads
Penrith is close to junction 40 of the M6 motorway. The A66, A6 and A686 intersect in the town.

The town has several taxi firms licensed by Eden District Council. The main rank is in Sandgate in the middle of town, near the bus station, with another outside the railway station.

Cycling
The National Cycle Network's major National Route 7 runs through the town and National Route 71 stops just short of its southern edge.

Public services

Health
Penrith Hospital and Health Centre lies along Bridge Lane at the southern entrance to the town, close to the Kemplay Bank roundabout, where the A6, A66 and A686 meet. These are administered by the Cumbria Partnership NHS Trust. It opened in 1970 to replace Jubilee Cottage Hospital on Beacon Edge, Fairhill Fever Hospital and the maternity home at the old workhouse in Castletown. It has wards for the elderly, mental health care and minor injuries, and a Primary Care Assessment unit, a maternity wing and the Lady Anne Clifford Day Hospital. Various weekly clinics are held at the hospital and the adjacent health centre, which opened in 1983 and brought all three NHS medical practices into one building – two have since merged. There is also a pharmacy in the centre.

There are several private and National Health Service dental practices in the town.

Police and fire
Penrith falls comes under Cumbria Constabulary, with headquarters at Carleton Hall on the outskirts of the town. The town's own police station was in Hunter Lane, but has since been replaced by a smaller one close to Carleton Hall. Carleton Hall also houses Penrith's fire station and the headquarters of Cumbria Fire and Rescue Service.

Ambulance
The North West Ambulance Service has a base in Tynefield Drive, close to the hospital. The Great North Air Ambulance Service has its Cumbrian base close to Penrith at Langwathby and was at one time-based at Carleton Hall. The Penrith Mountain Rescue team, whose operating area covers the Eden Valley, North Pennines and the area towards the Scottish border, also has a base in Tynefield Drive.

Notable people

In order of birth:
Richard III (1452–1485) lived at Penrith Castle for a time. The links to him in the town include two fragments of medieval glass. One in St Andrew's Church is taken to show the heads of Richard Plantagenet and Cecily Neville – Richard III's parents. The other, on display in the town, shows the Musgrave coat of arms. Richard III is thought to have stayed at the Gloucester Arms, then a large private house. The bar has panelling of various periods, behind which is an early screen carved with a design taken to be broom (Planta genista), an emblem of the Plantagenet kings.
The Scottish road-builder and engineer John Loudon Macadam (1756–1836), inventor of macadamized roads, lived for a while at Cockell House in Townhead. Close by are streets named Macadam Way and Macadam Gardens.
George Leo Haydock (1774–1849), noted for an annotated edition of the Catholic Douay Bible, served as Catholic priest here from 1839 until his death in 1849.
Penrith was the home town of the mother of the poet William Wordsworth (1770–1850). He spent some of his childhood there, attending school with Mary Hutchinson, his later wife.
The Victorian writer Frances Trollope (1779–1863), Anthony Trollope's mother, lived for a while at a house called Carleton Hill (not Carleton Hall) outside the town on the Alston road.
Samuel Plimsoll (1824–1898), MP and social reformer, spent some of his childhood at Page Hall in Foster Street. The houses at Townhead called Plimsoll Close are named after him.
Percy Toplis (1896–1920), the "monocled mutineer", was shot and killed on the run by police at Plumpton, near Penrith. He is buried in Penrith's Beacon Edge Cemetery in an unmarked grave. His monocle is on display in Penrith and Eden Museum.
Mary (1916–2018), wife of Prime Minister Harold Wilson, lived in Penrith whilst her father was minister at the Congregational Church in Duke Street.
Stuart Lancaster (born 1969) became head coach of the England national rugby union.
Paul Nixon (born 1970), Leicestershire wicket-keeper and England cricket international, was born in Carlisle, but grew up in the Penrith area. Nixon retired from professional sport in 2011.
Angela Lonsdale (born 1970 in Penrith), actress, is perhaps best known as policewoman Emma Taylor in Coronation Street and currently stars as DI Eva Moore in the BBC soap Doctors.
Charlie Hunnam (born 1980), the actor, attended Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Penrith (QEGS) and lived locally in his teenage years. He claimed it is "just about the worst place you could hope to live".
Lewis Brett Guy (born 1985 in Penrith) is an English football forward currently with Annan Athletic F.C.
Danny Grainger (born 1986), footballer, scored Heart of Midlothian's third goal in the 2012 Scottish Cup final against Hibernian.
Oliver Turvey (born 1987), racing driver, attended Queen Elizabeth Grammar School and lives locally.
Stephen Hindmarch (born 1989), a professional footballer, was born here.

Night life
Like other rural towns of its size, Penrith relies on public houses to form the basis of social entertainment. It was once famous for the sheer number of its pubs, served by five working breweries. The trend of pub closures continues, but many remain. They range from small traditional pubs with a loyal clientele to bigger bars that form part of the "circuit". Penrith also has numerous dining places and restaurants.

The Lonsdale (formerly the Alhambra) in Middlegate is a cinema with three screens built in 1910 by William Forrester. There was until the 1980s another cinema called the Regent on Old London Road.

Amateur dramatics and musicals are staged at the Penrith Players Theatre, Ullswater Community College and Queen Elizabeth Grammar School.

Penrith dialect
The Penrith dialect known as Penrithian, spoken around the Penrith and Eden district area, is a variant of the Cumbrian dialect.

Media
The local newspaper, the Cumberland and Westmorland Herald appears on Saturdays. Sections are updated every following Tuesday on their website. It is independently owned, with offices on King Street, but printed at the Newsquest's printing works in Glasgow, along with the weekly Cumberland News and daily News and Star which also cover some news items from Penrith. A separate edition of the Herald is published for the Keswick area, known as the Lake District Herald.

The Free, monthly circulated Eden Local community magazine http://www.cumbrianlocal.co.uk/ has been posted through doors since 2010 in Penrith and in areas surrounding it in the Eden Valley. It was set up to launch https://www.edenfm.co.uk/ It reaches its 200th publication in 2023

Penrith lies with the ITV Border region and the BBC North East and Cumbria. There were three local radio stations serving the Penrith area. Eden FM which is based in Penrith launched in 2011. There were two others based in Carlisle. These being BBC Radio Cumbria and what was independent station CFM, that from 3rd April 2023, rebranded to Greatest Hits Radio.

Penrith was used as a setting in the 1940 book Cue for Treason by Geoffrey Trease. It was also a setting for Bruce Robinson's 1987 film Withnail and I, although the Penrith scenes were actually filmed in Stony Stratford, Buckinghamshire.

Education

Uniformed youth organisations
Penrith hosts two Community Cadet Forces units: 1247 Squadron of the Air Training Corps and Penrith Detachment of Cumbria Army Cadet Force.

Primary schools
Brunswick School (formerly County Infants), Brunswick Road
Beaconside Primary, Eden Mount/Brent Road. Until 2008 there were separate Beaconside Infant and Junior schools.
North Lakes School (formerly Wetheriggs Junior; was at first a girls-only school), Huntley Avenue – North Lakes was one of the first schools in England to be awarded a Sing Up Gold Award (in December 2008) and their highest accolade, a Sing Up Platinum Award (likewise in December 2008).
St Catherines Roman Catholic Primary, Drovers Lane
Hunter Hall (private preparatory school), Frenchfield

Secondary schools
Ullswater Community College (formerly Ullswater High School, and before that, two single sex secondary modern schools on the same site called Tynefield (girls) and Ullswater (boys)), Wetheriggs Lane
Queen Elizabeth Grammar School (QEGS) (selective), Ullswater Road

Further education
The former Newton Rigg College had its campus just outside the town. Its most recent owner was Askham Bryan College but in the past it has been part of UCLAN and subsequently the University of Cumbria. Since the closure some facilities remain available for public and educational use, for example the Equestrian Centre re-opened in February 2022
Ullswater Community College had a large further or adult education centre.

Former schools in the town include:
Girls National School (building now housing school replaced by Beaconside Juniors), Drovers Lane
Boys National School or St Andrews School for Boys (building now demolished school replaced by Beaconside Juniors), Benson Row
National Infants School (now Penrith Playgroup Nursery School), Meeting House Lane
Robinsons School – this was a girls-only school founded with 29 pupils, which later became a mixed (infant) school founded in 1670 by William Robinson, a local merchant who made good in London. It now houses the town's museum and tourist information centre, Middlegate, and has the following inscription above the door: ""
County Girls School (building now part of Brunswick Infants, the school was replaced by Wetheriggs), Brunswick Road
County Boys School (the building now QEGS Sixth Form Centre, also for a while an annexe to Wetheriggs). The school merged with Wetheriggs Girls to form Wetheriggs Junior, Ullswater Road
Tynefield Secondary Modern (originally co-educational but later girls only), Wetheriggs Lane
Ullswater Secondary Modern (boys only), Wetheriggs Lane. Ullswater and Tynefield schools and buildings merged to create Ullswater High in 1980.

Places of worship

Church  of England

St Andrew's Church is the ancient parish church of Penrith Parish, sited in the centre of Penrith. It is the largest of four parishes making up the Penrith Team Ministry.
Christ Church, Drovers Lane/Stricklandgate, opened in 1850 as a separate parish, but from 1968 to 2008 was part of the United Parish of Penrith. It is now again a separate parish church for the northern part of the town, remaining within the Penrith Team Ministry.

Roman Catholic Church
St Catherine's, Drovers Lane

Methodist Church of Great Britain
Penrith Methodist Church, Wordsworth Street

Other churches
Society of Friends, Quaker Meeting House, Meeting House Lane
Gospel Hall Evangelical Church, Albert Street/Queen Street
King's Church Eden - part of the Newfrontiers family of churches
Oasis Evangelical Church, Brackenber Court, Musgrave Street
Salvation Army, Hunter Lane
Church in the Barn, Castietown Community Centre, Gilwilly
Influence Church Assemblies of God, Burrowgate
 Jehovah's Witnesses, Skirsgill Lane, Eamont Bridge

Mosques
The town also has two places of worship for Islam. It has an Islamic centre called the "Quba Islamic Centre" and a mosque called the "Al-Amin Mosque". Both are close to each other and on both Middlegate and Bluebell Lane.

Economy

As a market town relying heavily on the tourist trade, Penrith benefits from some high-street chain stores and local specialist shops alongside other businesses such as banks, building societies and travel agents.

Market days are traditionally Tuesday and Saturday. On Tuesdays there was a small outdoor market in Great Dockray and Cornmarket. This ceased in the early 21st century, since when a small farmers' market has been held in the Market Square once a month. On Saturdays, Cumbria's largest outdoor market takes place at the Auction Mart alongside the M6 motorway junction 40.

The main central shopping areas are Middlegate, Little Dockray, Devonshire Street/Market Square, Cornmarket, King Street, Angel Lane and the Devonshire Arcade and Angel Square precincts, with some shops in Burrowgate, Brunswick Road and Great Dockray.

Although the main industries are based around tourism and agriculture, some others are represented. For example, in 2011 Greggs opened a new bakery at Gilwilly, replacing two bakeries in the Friargate area that used to belong to the Penrith-based Birketts firm. Domino's Pizza had a dough manufacturing site at Gilwilly until 2019. The model firm Lilliput Lane (now part of Enesco) was founded in Penrith and until March 2009 had its main factory at Skirsgill Park. Also at Penrith Industrial Estate is the Penrith Door Company factory, formerly part of Magnet Joinery, now of the American-based JELD-WEN group.

Agriculture-based industries include For Farmers, which has a large animal feed mill on the Penrith Industrial Estate. Until 2005 there was another feed mill at Gilwilly, originally belonging to Cumberland and Westmorland Farmers Ltd, but eventually becoming part of the Carrs Milling Industries group. Local butchers Cranstons have an expanding meat packing, pie and sandwich-manufacturing site alongside their shop and head office on Ullswater Road.

Penrith was known for its tanning industry and breweries. The tanneries were mainly in the Friargate/Old London Road area of the town. There were at one time five working breweries. Penrith in recent years has attracted many larger international haulage firms to open depots beside the M6.

Fylde Guitars is a manufacturer of hand-made fretted musical instruments, founded in Penrith in 1973 by luthier Roger Bucknall. Its instruments command high prices. All are hand-made using traditional techniques and have been developed in collaboration with professional players. Fylde Guitars is the only UK guitar maker to have been awarded the Acoustic Guitar Magazine "Gold Award", in 2000.

Sport
Penrith is home to Penrith Rugby Union Football Club, which currently plays in the RFU National League 3 North. Home games are played at Winters Park in Penrith.

Penrith Netball Club has been active in the town since 2002. They cater for junior players from the age of 11, as well as adults, playing at both secondary schools (QEGS and Ullswater Community College) in the town. Penrith Netball are currently playing in the Carlisle Netball League.

Penrith A.F.C. plays in the Northern Football League.

There is a skate park area by the Penrith Leisure Centre. The skate park opened in 2007.

Penrith has a golf club and driving range. Penrith Castle Park houses the town's Bowling Club.

Penrith Swimming Club was founded in 1881 and was then based at Frenchfield in the River Eamont. Training sessions originally involved great variations of conditions that challenged the skills of any swimmer. Icy water, strong currents and obstacles like weed and the odd eel or two provided the ultimate test of stamina. It was all a far cry from conditions for today's training sessions, held at Penrith Leisure Centre.

Penrith Canoe Club, founded in 2012, trains at the local leisure centre. Its main activity is canoe polo, in which the club was represented at the World Championships in Syracuse, Italy 2016 by its under-21 women's squad, which finished a respectable fourth.

Penrith Tennis Club is located in the grounds of Penrith Rugby Club at Carleton Village.

Twin town
Since 1989, Penrith has had a twinning arrangement with the Australian city named after it in New South Wales.

Regular events
Mayday Carnival On the first Monday in May, Penrith holds a Mayday Carnival run by Penrith Lions Club. It includes a parade, street dancers and fairground rides in the Great Dockray and Market Square car parks of the commercial area. The procession includes floats, vintage cars and tractors, a marching band, various local celebrities and members of the Penrith Lions Club. It starts in the yard of Ullswater Community College and ends in the bus station car park. Many roads in the centre are closed for the event.

Penrith Agricultural Show The first Penrith Show was held in 1834. From 2019 the event takes place on the 3rd Saturday in July.

The Winter Droving Held in late October/early November 'The Winter Droving Festival' celebrates all things rural, traditional and fun. The highlight is a torch-lit procession through the town, featuring fire, lanterns, masquerade and music and mayhem. The event is a celebration of Penrith and its age-old role as the market place for the local area, where for centuries livestock and produce has been brought for sale.

Kendal Calling Music Festival held in late July each year at Lowther Deer Park has had headline acts that included the Stereophonics, Tinie Tempah, Editors and the Manic Street Preachers.

Potfest Ceramic festivals take place as Potfest in the Pens and Potfest in the Park at Skirsgill Auction Mart and Hutton in the Forest.

Lowther Show Held at nearby Lowther Castle each August, this includes the Lowther Horse Driving Trials as attended in the past by Prince Philip.

Climate
Like most of the British Isles, Penrith has a maritime climate with mild summers and winters. The nearest Met Office weather station is at Newton Rigg, about a mile outside of the centre. Temperatures have ranged from  in July 1901, down to  in February 1969, although this was nearly exceeded by a fall to  in December 2010. Newton Rigg also holds a record for the coldest April temperature reported in England:  in April 1917.

See also

Listed buildings in Penrith, Cumbria
Cockermouth, Keswick and Penrith Railway
Penrith and The Border (UK Parliament constituency)
Penrith Mountain Rescue Team
Penrith Hoard

References

Mullett references

Sources

.

External links

Cumbria County History Trust: Penrith (nb: provisional research only - see Talk page)
Penrith Leisure Centre
Area profile based on 2001 census Details

Penrith
Market towns in Cumbria
Cumberland
Towns in Cumbria
Eden District
Civil parishes in Cumbria

Penrith, Cumbria


The Eritrean–Ethiopian War was a war between Ethiopia and Eritrea. It lasted from May 1998 to June 2000. Both countries spent hundreds of millions of dollars on the war, and tens of thousands of people were killed by the conflict. The war resulted in small changes to the border between the two countries.

Eritrea's war of independence lasted for 30 years, on and off; it was started in 1961 and finished in 1991 when Eritrea finally became independent.  While this was going on, there was also a civil war in Ethiopia, which began in 1975.  This war was started by Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) as a rebellion to overthrow the Marxist military dictatorship of Derg (a military committee that had overthrown Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974).  TPLF and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front were formidable allies during the civil war, but then Ethiopia and Eritrea could not agree on where the border was after Eritrea's independence.  One of the main areas of conflict was focused on Badme.

Events
The war took place from May 1998 to June 2000. It become one of the most violent wars in Africa. Ethiopia and Eritrea are some of the poorest countries in the world, but hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on the wars. Tens of thousands of people were killed in the conflicts.

The fighting quickly increased to using artillery and tanks. On 5 June 1998, the Ethiopians launched air attacks on the airport in Asmara and the Eritreans retaliated by attacking the airport of Mekele. These raids caused civilian casualties and deaths on both sides of the border. The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1177 condemning the use of force and welcomed statements from both sides to end the air strikes.

After the war
The border dispute was settled on 13 April 2002, when an international court heard the case and made a decision. It was decided that the area around Badme belonged to Eritrea. This area, however, was occupied by Ethiopian forces. On 10 December 2005, Ethiopia announced that it was withdrawing some of its forces from the border. As of 2013, Ethiopia still occupies Badme.

References

1998
Conflicts in 1999
2000
1990s in Africa
History of Ethiopia
Wars involving Africa
History of Eritrea

Eritrean–Ethiopian War


International telephone calls are those made between different countries. These telephone calls are processed by international gateway exchanges (switches). Charges for these calls were high initially but declined greatly during the 20th century due to advances in technology liberalization. Originally they were placed via long-distance operators. The calls were transmitted by cable, communications satellite, radio, and more recently, fiber optics and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). International direct dialling was introduced in the 1970s, so calls can be dialed by country code without an operator.

International calls can be paid via telephone card (aka phone card, calling card). These popular telecommunications products allow users to initiate an international call from almost anywhere in the world. These cards typically offer rates lower than most traditional long-distance products and services, and can be used via landline, cellular phone, PBX, and some VoIP services, as well as from some airports and hotels.

In the United Kingdom, there are various ways to make an international call. For users with access to a landline:

 It can be made directly by dialling the country code together with the destination phone number. This is the most expensive way to call internationally, unless a special arrangement is made with the telephone operator. For example, with BT there is an option to add an international add-on to a standard calling plan.
 Dial-around access numbers allow a landline user to call an 08 or 09 number to connect to a service that routes using LCR rather than direct routes.  This allows the call to be carried cheaper as the user is getting "around" the expensive direct routing method.
 It can also be made with the use of a telephone card. This way, international calls are made by first dialling to a local access telephone number and providing the PIN before dialling the country code together with the destination phone number.  Some companies provide business solutions and accounts for businesses that are making high volumes of international calls.

For mobile phone users, the choices used to be very limited but it is no longer the case as mobile phone network operators roll out new pricing models and innovation in call routing developed. There are now numerous ways for a mobile phone user to call internationally:

 It can be made directly by dialling the country code together with the destination phone number. This is the most expensive way to call internationally.
 It can be made by adding an add-on to an existing mobile phone tariff. A number of mobile phone network operators are offering add-ons for making discounted international calls. Some mobile phone network operators describe their add-ons as giving 'unlimited' minutes for making international calls. However, the official Fair Usage Policy tends to limit the maximum allowable talk time at 3,000 minutes per month.
 It can be made with the use of a telephone card, as described above. Telephone cards are typically sold in  newsagents or can be purchased from the user's mobile phone using reverse SMS billing
 It can be made by using a SIM card provided by mobile virtual network operators, which include UWTMobile, Lebara Mobile and LycaMobile. Users of these networks make international calls by dialling the country code together with the destination phone number.
 It can be made through a call-forwarding service that allows mobile phone users to associate an international phone number with a landline number within the United Kingdom. Users would dial a landline number and the call is then forwarded internationally. This allows mobile phone users to take advantage of their free minutes when accessing the service. Since the provider identifies its users by their Caller ID's, there is no need to provide a PIN when accessing the service.
 It can be made by first dialling a voice short code, which tends to be operated by a company other than the mobile phone network operator, before entering the country code together with the destination phone number.
 It can also be made with the use of VoIP applications on smart phones. Such applications include Skype, Google Voice, Fring, and others. Some applications allow users to make free international calls, which are paid by sponsors. These applications make use of the Wi-Fi or 3G connection on the phones to make calls. Alternatively, calls can also be routed by accessing a server through a local or regional phone number.

A Local Dialling Disparity exists where the originating number and the foreign number are on the same network, usually a mobile telephone provider with operations in multiple countries. A less expensive call path is available by routing within the local Mobile Switching Center without going out to the global GMSC to its HLR. Both users are on the same network, so the international call remains within that company's network.

There are instances of telephone country codes covering points in more than one country; the North American Numbering Plan is one example, as is nominally-sovereign Vatican City's use of Italian numbering. The term overseas call is used by the Bell System to distinguish international calls to another country code from NANP-internal calls.

See also
 Call forwarding
 International direct dialling
 List of international call prefixes
 Routing in the PSTN
 Telephone card
 VoIP

References

International telecommunications
Telecommunication services

International call


A telecompressor or focal reducer is an optical element used to reduce focal length, increase lens speed, and in some instances improve optical transfer function (OTF) performance. It is also widely known under the name "Speed Booster", which is the commercial name of a line of telecompressors by the manufacturer Metabones. Popular applications include photography, videography, and astrophotography. In astrophotography, these qualities are most desirable when taking pictures of nearby large objects, such as nebulae. The effects and uses of the telecompressor are largely opposite to those of the teleconverter or Barlow lens. A combined system of a lens and a focal reducer has smaller back focus than the lens alone; this places restrictions on lenses and cameras that focal reducer might be used with.

Lens adapters that include telecompressors are useful with digital mirrorless cameras.  By combining a telecompressor within a lens adapter, mirrorless cameras can use the lenses of both digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) and film-based SLR (Single-lens reflex cameras).

Calculating focal reduction
For a refractor telescope or simple camera lens, the new effective focal length fn is given by:

where
fo = original focal length of telescope,
d = distance from telecompressor to image plane, and
fr = focal length of telecompressor.

For a reflecting telescope, the calculation is the same.  However, since the telecompressor increases the field of view, there could be vignetting in the image, depending on the sizes of the secondary mirror and the telescope tube.

For a catadioptric system that has a combination of mirror and lens, the determination of reduction is more complicated, due to the fact that the telescope has a variable focal length, where the imaging plane can move along the axis of the imaging system.  As the addition of the telecompressor will increase the necessary back focus, the original focal length will increase by a certain amount, and then this new focal length would be used in the above formula.

Keplerian (relay) telecompressors
Telecompressors were used in early digital SLR systems like the Minolta RD-175 and the Nikon E series. The technology of the time used relatively small sensor sizes, so lenses designed for 35 mm film could not be used with their native field of view without additional optics used. Implementing a telecompressor helped to mitigate these limitations. One effect of a telecompressor is that it reduces the diameter of the image circle, which means that a lens meant for a larger format can be used on a smaller sensor with a higher crop factor.

See also
Barlow lens
Teleconverter
Convertible lens

References

Astronomical instruments
Photography equipment

Telecompressor