The Island of Eternal Love is a 2006 novel by Cuban author Daína Chaviano.

The plot is a family saga that takes place along two parallel lines: one during our time and another that begins in the 1850s.

The modern story revolves around the paranormal investigations of Cecilia, a young journalist researching a phantom house that appears and disappears in different parts of Miami. Several witnesses claim to have seen the inhabitants of that house, whose behavior seems to hide a secret that she decides to find out.

Before starting her investigations into the house, Cecilia goes to a bar, where she meets an old woman whom she befriends. Night after night, Cecilia listens to the story of that woman, who returns to that spot each evening to await a mysterious visitor. And this account is the other part of the novel, which begins in the nineteenth century in three regions of the world: Africa (Kingdom of Ifé, currently Nigeria), China (Canton) and Spain (Cuenca).

Different magical or supernatural events conspire to make the three stories from the past begin to mix: an ancient god's promise changes the future of a young woman in the mountains of Cuenca (Spain); a ritual in which the presence of a sensual deity is invoked is secretly witnessed by a young girl, who falls under the demonic spell of the goddess; a spirit that can only be seen by the women in a family triggers events that decide the fate of all; the sudden appearance of a ghost causes a widow's ruin... All of these events culminate in the story of a love that must face the opposition of two families.

Part history, part romance, part gothic, part esoteric, the novel also pays homage to the bolero. Historical personages from the world of music mix with fictional characters and are part of the plot: the pianist Joaquín Nin (father of Anaïs Nin), Ernesto Lecuona, Rita Montaner, Beny Moré, La Lupe, singer Fredesvinda García and others are historical figures caught up in the story.

The novel was first published in Spain by Grijalbo (Random House Group) in 2006 as La isla de los amores infinitos.

The Island of Eternal Love, whose rights have been sold to 26 languages, has become the most translated Cuban novel of all time.

Its English edition was released by Riverhead Books-Penguin Group (translated by Andrea L. Labinger) in June 2008.

References

External links
Daína Chaviano's Official Web. In English and Spanish.
The Island of Eternal Love Official Book Trailer
Official Book Page
All editions of the novel.
Laura Dail Literary Agency.
Library Journal Review, June 1, 2008.
Gary K. Wolfe, "A Rich, Moving, Musical Novel" (review of The Island of Eternal Love), Locus Magazine, June 2008.
Yvette Fuentes, Ph.D., "A Fascinating Fusion of History and Fantasy" (an academic review], Anthurium: A Caribbean Journal Studies, Vol. 6, Issue 2, Fall 2008. .

2008 American novels
Cuban magic realism novels
Cuban-American literature
Family saga novels
Fiction set in the 1850s
Hispanic and Latino American novels
Literature by Hispanic and Latino American women
Novels by Daína Chaviano
Novels set in China
Novels set in Miami
Novels set in Nigeria
Novels set in Spain
Novels set in the Caribbean
Novels set on islands

The Island of Eternal Love


Bishop's Stortford Football Club is a football club based in Bishop's Stortford, Hertfordshire, England. They are currently members of the  and play at Woodside Park.

History

The club was established at the Chequers Hotel on 28 January 1874. Initially playing in crimson and green, their first match was played two weeks later, losing 2–1 to East of England Nonconformist Grammar School. In 1885 they were founders of the Hertfordshire County Football Association, and subsequently started playing in local leagues in the 1890s. They joined the Stansted & District League, winning it in 1910–11 and 1912–13, and also entered a team in the Saffron Walden & District League during the same era, winning it in 1911–12, 1912–13 and 1913–14.

After World War I Bishop's Stortford won both the Stansted & District League and the East Hertfordshire League in 1919–20. In 1921 they joined the North-Eastern Division of the Hertfordshire County League. In 1923 the league was reduced to a single division, and it disbanded entirely in 1925, making a brief comeback in 1926–27, when Stortford were one of only six clubs to play in it. In 1929 they joined the new Division Two East of the Spartan League, which they went on to win   in 1931–32, earning promotion to Division One.

Following World War II, the league resumed in 1945, with Bishop's Stortford in the Eastern Division. Despite finishing in last place in 1945–46, they were placed in the Premier Division the following season. However, after finishing bottom of the Premier Division in 1948–49, they were relegated to Division One. In 1951 the club were founder members of the Delphian League, which they won in 1954–55. After the league disbanded in 1963 they joined Division Two of the Athenian League, winning Division One in 1965–66 and the Premier Division in 1969–70.

In the 1970–71 season Bishop's Stortford reached the first round of the FA Cup for the first time, losing 6–1 at Reading. In 1971 the club switched to the Isthmian League, and in 1973 they reached the second round of the FA Cup, losing 3–1 at Peterborough United after a replay. They also reached the semi-finals of the FA Amateur Cup, losing 1–0 to Slough Town. However, the following season they won the last edition of the cup, beating Ilford 4–1 at Wembley. In 1974–75 they reached the FA Cup first round again, but lost 2–0 at Leatherhead in a replay. The following season they reached the second round again, losing 2–0 at Aldershot.

In 1977–78 Bishop's Stortford finished bottom of the Isthmian League Premier Division, and were relegated to Division One. They returned as Division One champions in 1980–81, a season in which they won the FA Trophy with a 1–0 win over Sutton United at Wembley, becoming the first club to win both the FA Amateur Cup and the FA Trophy. In 1982–83 the club beat Football League opposition in the FA Cup for the first time, winning 2–1 at Reading in the first round. After beating Slough Town 4–1 in the second round, they held Second Division Middlesbrough to a 2–2 draw at Ayresome Park, before losing 2–1 at home. They reached the first round again in 1984–85, 1985–86 and 1986–87, but failed to progress on each occasion, with the club losing to Brentford, Peterborough United and Colchester United respectively.

Bishop's Stortford finished bottom of the Premier Division in 1991–92, and were relegated back to Division One. They returned as champions in 1993–94, but were relegated again in 1998–99. After a second-place finish in 2001–02 the club returned to the Premier Division, and after finishing eleventh in 2003–04, were placed in the newly formed Conference South. The 2003–04 season also saw them reach the FA Cup first round again, eventually losing 6–0 at Mansfield Town. In 2006–07 another first round appearance resulted in a 5–3 defeat to King's Lynn. Rushden & Diamonds' expulsion from the Football Conference led to the club being transferred to the Conference North in 2011. In 2012–13 they reached the FA Cup first round for the twelfth time, losing 2–1 at home to Hastings United. At the end of the season they were transferred back to the Conference South, and the following season saw another FA Cup first round appearance, a 2–1 defeat at home to Northampton Town.

Stortford were relegated to the Premier Division of the Southern League at the end of the 2016–17 season after finishing second-from-bottom of the renamed National League South. The club were transferred to the Premier Division of the Isthmian League a year for the 2018–19 season. In 2020–21 they reached the first round of the FA Cup, losing 3–2 on penalties at Brackley Town after a 3–3 draw. The 2021–22 season saw the club finish as runners-up in the Premier Division, before losing 3– to Cheshunt in the play-off final. They went on to win the Premier Division title in 2022–23, earning promotion to the National League North.

Ground
The club initially played home matches at Silver Leys, which they shared with the polo club. In 1897 they moved to the playing fields of the Grammar School on Hadham Road, remaining there until moving to Havers Lane in 1900 and Laundry Field on Dunmow Road in 1903.

Following World War I, local businessman Joe Brazier allowed the club to start playing at a piece of land near South Road, which became known as Brazier's Field and later the Town Ground. The ground was opened on 4 October 1919 with a match against Ware in front of a crowd of 400, which saw Stortford win 2–1. A wooden pavilion was later erected on site, having been moved from Silver Leys. In 1927 the club bought the land from Brazier, and a wooden stand was built in 1931.

Covered terracing was installed behind both goals in the 1950s, and a new 250-seat main stand was built in 1961. Some uncovered terracing was added alongside the main stand in 1968. Floodlights were installed in 1967, and the following year saw the ground renamed the George Wilson Stadium after a former chairman, although by then the ground was commonly known as simply Rhodes Avenue. Due to financial problems, the club sold the ground in 1997, with the last match played against Ware in December that year. Mirroring the result in the first-ever game at the ground, Stortford won 2–1.

After eighteen months groundsharing at Boreham Wood, Dagenham & Redbridge, Hitchin Town, St Albans City and Ware, the club returned to Bishop's Stortford in 1999 when Woodside Park was completed. The first match was played on 17 July 1999, a friendly against Norwich City. There are seated stands on either side of the pitch, with covered terracing at each end.

Coaching staff

Boardroom staff

Honours
 FA Amateur Cup
 Winners 1973–74
 FA Trophy
 Winners 1980–81
 Isthmian League
 Premier Division Champions 2022-23
 Division One champions 1980–81, 1993–94
 Athenian League
 Premier Division Champions 1969–70
 Division One champions 1965–66
 Spartan League
 Division Two East Champions 1931–32
 Delphian League
 Champions 1954–55
 Stansted & District League
 Champions 1910–11, 1912–13, 1919–20
 Saffron Walden & District League
 Champions 1911–12, 1912–13, 1913–14
 East Herts League
 Division One Champions 1919–20
 Herts Senior Cup
 Winners 1932–33, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1963–64, 1970–71, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1975–76, 1986–87, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2011–12
 London Senior Cup
 Winners 1973–74

Records
 Record attendance: 6,000 vs Peterborough United, FA Cup second round, 1972–73; vs Middlesbrough, FA Cup third round replay, 1982–83
 Biggest victory: 11–0 vs Nettleswell & Buntwill, Herts Junior Cup, 1911
 Heaviest defeat: 13–0 vs Cheshunt, Herts Senior Cup, 1926
 Most appearances: Phil Hopkins, 543
 Most goals: Jimmy Badock, 123 (postwar)

See also
 Bishop's Stortford F.C. players
 Bishop's Stortford F.C. managers

References

External links

 Official website

Football clubs in Hertfordshire
Football clubs in England
1874 establishments in England
Association football clubs established in 1874
Hertfordshire Senior County League
Spartan League
Delphian League
Athenian League
Isthmian League clubs
National League (English football) clubs
Southern Football League clubs

el:Μπίσοπς Στόρτφορντ#Μπίσοπς Στόρτφορντ ΦΚ

Bishop's Stortford F.C.


Lane End is a village and civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England. It is just south of the M40 from High Wycombe, about  west of Booker. The village is twinned with Saint-Pierre-d'Oléron in France.

The village is situated in the Chilterns, around  above sea level, in rolling hills of farmland, beech woods and footpaths.

The civil parish includes the hamlets of Cadmore End, Ditchfield, Moor Common and Moor End, and had a population of 3,583 at the 2001 Census.

History
Lane End was historically on the borders of the parishes of Great Marlow, Hambleden, Fingest and West Wycombe, with a small part (Ackhampstead) belonging to the parish of Lewknor in Oxfordshire until 1895.  In 1867 the ecclesiastical parish of Lane End was formed from the neighbouring parishes.  The village continued to be divided between the four neighbouring civil parishes until 1934, when the parts within Great Marlow, Hambleden and West Wycombe civil parishes were transferred to Fingest (renamed Fingest and Lane End in 1937).  In the 1980s the parish of Fingest and Lane End was abolished, and the civil parish of Lane End was formed.

In addition to working the land to provide wheat and barley to the breweries in Marlow and Henley, the inhabitants traditionally manufactured chairs or worked in a local iron foundry.

During the Second World War, King Zog of Albania lived at Parmoor House in Frieth, a hamlet a mile south of Lane End, and with many Albanians living in Lane End, used to attend village events.

According to local legend, the village is haunted by the ghost of a girl in a red dress, who died two weeks before her wedding day in 1766.

School
The main school in Lane End is Lane End Primary School which is situated on three acres of land. It has a total pupil capacity of 210, and teaches 2-11 year olds. The school is defined as a mixed, community school and has an Ofsted rating of Good.

Lane End's facilities include a nurseryfor  children ages 2-4; 7 classrooms which are equipped for teaching students throughout the years; a refurbished learning cafe, which was opened on 15 May 2017; natural areas including a pond. Lane End Community Centre is situated on the school grounds.

The Headteacher is Mrs D Williams.

Churches
The oldest church in the village is the Methodist church which started as a congregational church, meeting in a chapel in Marlow Road in 1801.  Later this was replaced by a chapel, built in 1835, which is now Lane End Studios.  A Wesleyan chapel was built in 1866, but the congregation now meets at the Parish Church.

The parish is served by the church of the Holy Trinity in Ditchfield Common, which was designed by John Oldrid Scott and built in 1878, replacing one built in 1832. The arch brace trusses, purlins and wind braces of the roof are from Marlow's medieval Manor Hall, built c.1200 and demolished in 1878. These were rescued by Thomas Somers-Cocks of Thames Bank, Marlow, who bought the roof timbers and paid for their carriage to Lane End where they fit Scott's nave perfectly.

A Gospel mission hall dating from 1888 at Moor End now meets as the Elim Christian Centre in the centre of the village near the large estate area.

Amenities
Lane End Youth and Community Centre is used for activities including classes, lunches for local elderly residents, band practice, and private functions.

The parish council meets at the village hall, whose other uses include dances and The Lane End Players.

The village has two ponds, one on the High Street, the other approximately 80m away on The Row.

Lane End has been twinned with St Pierre d'Oleron on the West coast of France since 1999. The Lane End Twinning Association promotes the links between the two communities and celebrates its twentieth anniversary in 2019.

Industry
Lane End has two small industrial estates where several companies are based includingthe global operation for ELGA LabWater, part of the Veolia Environment group.

Transport links
Lane End is connected by infrequent bus routes to the neighbouring town of High Wycombe, and several small nearby villages. Red Eagle Buses operate routes to High Wycombe and Stokenchurch, while Arriva Shires & Essex operate a route to High Wycombe.

Media
In the fantasy police procedural novel "The Hanging Tree" by Ben Aaronovitch, the first confrontation between the Met police wizards and the main villain (the Faceless Man) is described as occurring just outside Lane End

Notable residents

Thomas Stapleton, an English paediatrician, retired to The Foundry Cottage in the village, upon his return to England after working in Australia since 1960; he died there in 2007. He is commemorated by a memorial bench there, with a plaque noting that he "Helped improve the health of children around the world", in English and Chinese.

References

External links
Lane End Parish Council website
Lane End Village
Lane End Players
Lane End Conservation Group (LECG)
Lane End Elim Christian Centre
Lane End Conference Centre
Lane End Twinning Association
Lane End Holy Trinity Church

Villages in Buckinghamshire
Civil parishes in Buckinghamshire

Lane End, Buckinghamshire


The Roth 401(k) is a type of retirement savings plan. It was authorized by the United States Congress under the Internal Revenue Code, section 402A, and represents a unique combination of features of the Roth IRA and a traditional 401(k) plan. Since January 1, 2006, U.S. employers have been allowed to amend their 401(k) plan document to allow employees to elect Roth IRA type tax treatment for a portion or all of their retirement plan contributions. The same change in law allowed Roth IRA type contributions to 403(b) retirement plans. The Roth retirement plan provision was enacted as a provision of the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA 2001).

Traditional 401(k) plan
In a traditional 401(k) plan, introduced by Congress in 1978, employees contribute pre-tax earnings to their retirement plan, also called "elective deferrals". That is, an employee's elective deferral funds are set aside by the employer in a special account where the funds are allowed to be invested in various options made available in the plan.  The IRS sets a limit on the amount of funds deferred in this way, and includes a "catch up" provision intended to allow older workers to save for their approaching retirement. These limits are adjusted each year to reflect changes in the cost of living due to inflation.  For tax-year 2019, this limit is $19,500 for those under age 50, and $26,000 for those 50 and over.

Employers may also add funds to the account by contributing matching funds on a fractional formula basis (e.g., matching funds might be added at the rate of 50% of employees' elective deferrals), or on a set percentage basis. Funds within the 401(k) account grow on a tax deferred basis. When the account owner reaches the age of 59½, he or she may begin to receive "qualified distributions" from the funds in the account; these distributions are then taxed at ordinary income tax rates. Exceptions exist to allow distribution of funds before 59½, such as "substantially equal periodic payments", disability, and separation from service after the age of 55, as outlined under IRS Code section 72(t).

Roth IRA
Under a Roth IRA, first enacted in 1998, individuals, whether employees or self-employed, voluntarily contribute post-tax funds to an individual retirement arrangement (IRA). In contrast to the 401(k) plan, the Roth plan requires post-tax contributions, but allows for tax free growth and distribution, provided the contributions have been invested for at least 5 years and the account owner has reached age 59½. Roth IRA contribution limits are significantly lower than 401(k) contribution limits. For tax years 2016 and 2017, individuals could contribute no more than $5,500 per year to a Roth IRA if under age 50, and $6,500 if age 50 or older. For tax years 2019, 2020, and 2021, contributions up to $6,000 are permitted under age 50, or $7,000 if 50 or older. Additionally, Roth IRA contribution limits are reduced for taxpayers with a Modified Adjusted Gross Income (modified AGI) greater than $125,000 ($198,000 for married filing jointly), phasing out entirely for individuals with a modified AGI of $140,000 ($208,000 for married filing jointly), for 2021. See 401(k) versus IRA matrix that compares various types of IRAs with various types of 401(k)s.

Roth 401(k) plans
The Roth 401(k) combines some of the most advantageous aspects of both the 401(k) and the Roth IRA. Under the Roth 401(k), employees may contribute funds on a post-tax elective deferral basis, in addition to or instead of pre-tax elective deferrals under their traditional 401(k) plans. An employee's combined elective deferrals whether to a traditional 401(k), a Roth 401(k), or both cannot exceed the IRS limits for deferral of the traditional 401(k). Employers' matching funds are not included in the elective deferral cap but are considered for the maximum section 415 limit, which is $58,000 for 2021, or $64,500 for those age 50 and older. The higher section 415 limit also applies to after tax contributions, which, depending on the specific 401(k), might be convertible into a Roth 401(k) later.

Employers are permitted to make matching contributions on employees' designated Roth contributions. However, employers' contributions cannot receive the Roth tax treatment. The matching contributions made on account of designated Roth contributions must be allocated to a pre-tax account, just as matching contributions are on traditional, pre-tax elective contributions.  (Pub 4530)

In general, the difference between a Roth 401(k) and a traditional 401(k) is that income contributed to the Roth version is taxable in the year it is earned, but income contributed to the traditional version is taxable in the year in which it is distributed from the account.  Furthermore, earnings on the traditional version are taxable income in the year they are distributed, but earnings on the Roth version are never taxable.

There are restrictions on the nontaxability of Roth earnings: typically, the distribution must be made at least 5 years after the first Roth contribution and after the recipient is age 59 ½.

A Roth 401(k) plan is probably most advantageous to those who might otherwise choose a Roth IRA, such as younger workers who are currently taxed in a lower tax bracket but expect to be taxed in a higher bracket upon reaching retirement age. Higher-income workers may prefer a traditional 401(k) plan because they are currently taxed in a higher tax bracket but would expect to be taxed at a lower rate in retirement; also, those near the Roth IRA income limits may prefer a traditional 401(k) since its pre-tax contributions lowers Modified Adjusted Gross Income (MAGI) and thus increases eligibility for various other tax incentives (Roth IRA contributions, the Child Tax Credit, medical expense deduction, etc.). Another consideration for those currently in higher tax brackets is the future of income tax rates in the US: if income tax rates increase, current taxation would be desirable for a wider group). The Roth 401(k) offers the advantage of tax free distribution but is not constrained by the same income limitations. For example, in tax year 2013, normal Roth IRA contributions are limited to $5,500 ($6,500 if age 50 or older); up to $17,500 could be contributed to a Roth 401(k) account if no other elective deferrals were taken for the tax year, such as traditional 401(k) deferrals.

Adoption of Roth 401(k) plans has been relatively slow, partly because they require additional administrative recordkeeping and payroll processing. However some larger firms have now adopted Roth 401(k) plans, which is expected to spur their adoption by other firms including smaller ones. IRS Raises 2022 401(k) Contribution Limit to $20,500, a $1,000 boost from 2021 contribution limits.

Additional considerations
Roth 401(k) contributions are irrevocable; once money is invested into a Roth 401(k) account, it cannot be moved to a regular 401(k) account.
Employees can roll their Roth 401(k) contributions over to a Roth IRA account upon termination of employment.
It is the employer's decision whether to provide access to the Roth 401(k) in addition to the traditional 401(k). Many employers find that the added administrative burden outweighs the benefits of the Roth 401(k).
The Roth 401(k) program was originally set up to sunset after 2010, along with the rest of EGTRRA 2001. The Pension Protection Act of 2006 extended it.
Until the end of 2022, owners of Roth 401(k) accounts (designated Roth accounts) must begin distributions at age 72, as with IRAs and other retirement plans. (Pub 4530)
Starting in 2023, the SECURE 2.0 Act of 2022 changes the age when distributions must begin to 73.
Starting in 2024, the SECURE 2.0 Act of 2022 removes the requirement to take distributions from Roth 401(k) accounts, making them more similar to Roth IRAs.
Employees need to consider their current tax rates to future tax rates to determine if a Roth 401(k) should be chosen over a traditional account.

See also
401(k)
Comparison of 401(k) and IRA accounts - 401k & IRA comparisons (401k vs Roth 401k vs Traditional IRA vs Roth IRA)
403(b)
Form 1099-R
Individual Retirement Account
Internal Revenue Service
Rollovers as Business Start-Ups
Self-Directed IRA

References

External links
 Designated Roth Accounts in 401(k) or 403(b) Plans, Information from the IRS website.
 IRS Publication 4530 (pdf file)
 Retirement Plans FAQs regarding Designated Roth Accounts
 Differences between Roth 401(k) and Roth IRA accounts

0401k Roth
Retirement plans in the United States
Tax-advantaged savings plans in the United States

Roth 401(k)


Afro-Caribbean people or African Caribbean are Caribbean people who trace their full or partial ancestry to sub-Saharan Africa. The majority of the modern African-Caribbeans descend from Africans taken as slaves to colonial Caribbean via the trans-Atlantic slave trade between the 15th and 19th centuries to work primarily on various sugar plantations and in domestic households. Other names for the ethnic group include Black Caribbean, Afro or Black West Indian or Afro or Black Antillean. The term Afro-Caribbean was not coined by Caribbean people themselves but was first used by European Americans in the late 1960s.

People of Afro-Caribbean descent today are largely of West African ancestry, and may additionally be of other origins, including European, South Asian and native Caribbean descent, as there has been extensive intermarriage and unions among the peoples of the Caribbean over the centuries.

Although most Afro-Caribbean people today continue to live in English, French and Spanish-speaking Caribbean nations and territories, there are also significant diaspora populations throughout the Western world, especially in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands. Caribbean peoples are predominantly of Christian faith, though some practice African-derived or syncretic religions, such as Santeria or Vodou. Many speak creole languages, such as Haitian Creole, Jamaican Patois, or Papiamento.

Both the home and diaspora populations have produced a number of individuals who have had a notable influence on modern African, Caribbean and Western societies; they include political activists such as Marcus Garvey and C. L. R. James; writers and theorists such as Aimé Césaire and Frantz Fanon; US military leader and statesman Colin Powell; athletes such as Usain Bolt, Tim Duncan and David Ortiz; and musicians Bob Marley, Nicki Minaj and Rihanna.

History

16th–18th centuries
During the post-Columbian era, the archipelagos and islands of the Caribbean were the first sites of African diaspora dispersal in the western Atlantic. Specifically, in 1492, Pedro Alonso Niño, an African-Spanish seafarer, was recorded as piloting one of Columbus' ships. He returned in 1499, but did not settle. In the early 16th century, more Africans began to enter the population of the Spanish Caribbean colonies, sometimes arriving as free men of mixed ancestry or as indentured servants, but increasingly as enslaved workers and servants. This increasing demand for African labour in the Caribbean was in part the result of massive depopulation of the native Taino and other indigenous peoples caused by the new infectious diseases, harsh conditions, and warfare brought by European colonists. By the mid-16th century, the slave trade from West Africa to the Caribbean was so profitable that Francis Drake and John Hawkins were prepared to engage in piracy as well as break Spanish colonial laws, in order to forcibly transport approximately 1500 enslaved people from Sierra Leone to Hispaniola (modern-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic).

During the 17th and 18th centuries, European colonial development in the Caribbean became increasingly reliant on plantation slavery to cultivate and process the lucrative commodity crop of sugarcane. On many islands shortly before the end of the 18th century, the enslaved Afro-Caribbeans greatly outnumbered their European masters. In addition, there developed a class of free people of color, especially in the French islands, where persons of mixed race were given certain rights. On Saint-Domingue, free people of color and slaves rebelled against harsh conditions, and constant inter-imperial warfare. Inspired by French revolutionary sentiments that at one point freed the slaves, Toussaint L'Ouverture and Jean Jacques Dessalines led the Haitian Revolution that gained the independence of Haiti in 1804, the first Afro-Caribbean republic in the Western Hemisphere.

19th–20th centuries
In 1804, Haiti, with its overwhelmingly African population and leadership, became the second nation in the Americas to win independence from a European state. During the 19th century, continuous waves of rebellion, such as the Baptist War, led by Sam Sharpe in Jamaica, created the conditions for the incremental abolition of slavery in the region by various colonial powers. Great Britain abolished slavery in its holdings in 1834. Cuba was the last island to be emancipated, when Spain abolished slavery in its colonies.

During the 20th century, Afro-Caribbean people, who were a majority in many Caribbean societies, began to assert their cultural, economic, and political rights with more vigor on the world stage. Marcus Garvey was among many influential immigrants to the United States from Jamaica, expanding his UNIA movement in New York City and the U.S.  Afro-Caribbeans were influential in the Harlem Renaissance as artists and writers. Aimé Césaire developed a négritude movement.

In the 1960s, the West Indian territories were given their political independence from British colonial rule. They were pre-eminent in creating new cultural forms such as reggae music, calypso and Rastafari within the Caribbean. Beyond the region, a developing Afro-Caribbean diaspora in the United States, including such figures as Stokely Carmichael and DJ Kool Herc, was influential in the development of the Black Power movement of the 1960s and the hip-hop movement of the 1980s. African-Caribbean individuals also contributed to cultural developments in Europe, as evidenced by influential theorists such as Frantz Fanon and Stuart Hall.

Notable people

Politics
Sir Grantley Adams – Barbados, politician and lawyer; the first and only Prime Minister of the West Indies Federation (1958–1962)
Jean-Bertrand Aristide – politician, priest and head of state, Haiti
Dean Barrow – head of government, Belize
Maurice Bishop – Grenada, revolutionary leader
Paul Bogle – Jamaica, political activist
Ertha Pascal Trouillot – Haiti, first Black female president in the world, lawyer
Juan Almeida Bosque – Cuban revolutionary and politician
Dutty Boukman – Haitian freedom fighter
Forbes Burnham – Guyana, head of government
Bussa – Barbados, freedom fighter
Stokely Carmichael – Trinidad-born, civil rights activist and leader in the US
Mary Eugenia Charles – Dominican head of government
Perry Christie – Bahamian, politician and lawyer
Henri Christophe – Haiti, revolutionary, general and head of state
David Clarke(sheriff) – Barbudan, former Sheriff of Milwaukee
John Compton – Saint Lucia, politician and lawyer
Francisco del Rosario Sánchez – Dominican Republic founding father, revolutionary, and president
Paris Dennard – Grenada, former CNN political commentator
Jean-Jacques Dessalines – Haiti (est. 1804), revolutionary, general and first head of state of independent Haiti
Papa Doc Duvalier – dictator of Haiti, 20th century
Marcus Garvey – Jamaica, politician and writer, founder of UNIA and active in US politics from 1916 to 1927
Philip Goldson – Belize, politician
Ulises Heureaux – Dominican Republic president and military leader
Sam Hinds – Guyana, head of government
Hubert Ingraham – Bahamian, politician and lawyer
Toussaint L'Ouverture – Saint-Domingue, revolutionary, general and governor
Joseph Robert Love – Bahamian-born, medical doctor; Jamaican politician and political activist who influenced Marcus Garvey
Gregorio Luperón – Dominican Republic revolutionary, general and president
Antonio Maceo Grajales – Cuban revolutionary and general
Michael Manley – Jamaica, politician
Jon Miller – Montserrat, Conservative Review, BlazeTV Host
Nanny of the Maroons – Jamaica, freedom fighter
Jeanne Odo – Haiti, abolitionist
Candace Owens – British Virgin Islander, PragerU Radio and Founder of Blexit
Lynden Pindling – Bahamian politician, and first Prime minister of the Bahamas
Samuel Jackman Prescod – Barbados, first elected Afro-Caribbean politician in the House of Assembly
Sam Sharpe – Jamaica, freedom fighter
Solitude – Guadeloupe, freedom fighter
Eric Eustace Williams – Trinidad and Tobago politician, writer and head of government
Shirley Chisholm – Guyanese and Bajan descent, first black woman elected to the US Congress, first black major-party US Presidential candidate
Colin Powell – Jamaican descent, US Army General, Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff
Kamala Devi Harris – Jamaican descent, first African American, first Asian American, and first female Vice President of the United States

Science and philosophy
Alfredo Bowman (Dr. Sebi) – International herbalist healer from Honduras.
Frantz Fanon – Martinique, writer, psychiatrist and freedom fighter
Hubert Harrison – St. Croix, writer, orator, educator, critic, and race and class conscious political activist based in Harlem, New York
Stuart Hall – Jamaican philosopher
C. L. R. James – Trinidad and Tobago, activist and writer
W. Arthur Lewis – Saint Lucia, economist and Nobel Prize recipient
Pedro Alonso Niño – Afro-Spanish explorer
Arlie Petters – Belizean mathematician
Walter Rodney – Guyanese activist and writer
Mary Seacole – Jamaican nurse and hospital director

Arts and culture
Carlos Acosta – Cuba, ballet dancer
Beenie Man – Jamaica, artist and musician
Frank Bowling – Guyana, painter
Esther Rolle – Actress of Bahamian descent
Aimé Césaire – Martinique, fiction writer
Celia Cruz – Cuba, singer
Stacey Dash – Barbadian descent, actress
Bert Williams – Bahamian entertainer, and probably the first successful Afro-Caribbean entertainer in America
AngelaMaria Davila – Puerto Rican poet
Eddy Grant – Guyana, singer and musician
Edward W. Hardy – Puerto Rican, composer and musician
C. L. R. James – Trinidad, historian, essayist and journalist
Wyclef Jean – Haitian singer, composer and activist
Earl Lovelace – Trinidad, novelist and writer
Luis Palés Matos – Puerto Rican poet
Bob Marley – Jamaica, singer and musician
Ziggy Marley (Bob Marley's son) – Jamaica, singer and musician
Myke Towers – Puerto Rican, rapper
The Mighty Sparrow – Grenadian/Trinidadian singer and composer
Trinidad James – Trinidad, rapper
Zoe Saldana – American actress of Dominican and Puerto Rican descent
Nicki Minaj – Trinidad, rapper and singer
Sean Paul  – Jamaica, dancehall artist
Shyne – Belize rapper
Sidney Poitier – Bahamas, first actor of African American or Afro-Caribbean descent to win an Academy Award-winning in the USA
Rihanna – Barbados, singer
Chevalier de Saint-Georges – Guadeloupe, composer
Cardi B - Dominican Republic, rapper
Naomi Campbell - Jamaican-English supermodel.
Lewis Hamilton - Grenadian, Formula 1 driver.
FKA Twigs - Jamaican, alternative singer.
Antony Santos – Dominican Republic, bachata singer
Peter Tosh – Jamaica, singer and musician
Bebo Valdés – Cuban musician
Johnny Ventura – Dominican Republic salsa and merengue singer
Corinne Bailey Rae – singer of Kittian descent
Derek Walcott – Saint Lucia, poet, recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature
Pop Smoke – American rapper of Jamaican and Panamanian descent

Sports
Kirani James – Grenada, Grenada's first Olympic Gold Medalist and World's fastest 400m runner from 2012 to 2016
Omar Amir-Bahamas – professional wrestler in the Ohio Valley Wrestling Arena
Deandre Ayton – Bahamas, #1 Overall Pick of the 2018 NBA Draft and player for the Phoenix Suns
Ozzie Albies – Curaçao, MLB player for the Atlanta Braves
John Barnes – Jamaican-born English footballer
Usain Bolt – Jamaica, Olympics gold medalist and the fastest man in history
Robinson Canó – Dominican Republic MLB player
Kingsley Coman – Guadeloupe, football player
Carmelo Anthony – Puerto Rican-American, basketball player
Tonique Williams-Darling – Bahamas, 400m runner and Olympic gold medalist
Tim Duncan – St. Croix (Anguilla parentage), basketball player
Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce – Jamaica, athlete
Thierry Henry – Guadeloupe, football player, best French scorer
Buddy Hield – Bahamas, NBA player for the Sacramento Kings
Kenley Jansen – Curaçao, MLB player for the Los Angeles Dodgers
Brian Lara – Trinidad, cricketer
Anthony Martial – Guadeloupe, French football player
Shaunae Miller – Bahamian, 400m and 200m runner and Olympic gold medalist
David Ortiz – Dominican Republic MLB player
Burgess Owens – Barbadian-born, former American football player
Sir Vivian Richards – Antigua, cricketer
Teddy Riner – Guadeloupe, Judoka
Errol Spence Jr. – Jamaican American, boxer, current Unified Welterweight Champion
Mike McCallum – Jamaica, Boxer, World Champion in 3 different weight classes
Julian Jackson (boxer) – Saint Thomas, boxer, 3-time world champion in 2 weight classes
Darren Sammy – Saint Lucia, cricketer
Kimbo Slice – Bahamian boxer and MMA fighter
Sir Garfield Sobers – Barbados, cricketer
Sammy Sosa – Dominican Republic MLB player
Karl-Anthony Towns – Dominican Republic-descended NBA player, #1 overall pick in the 2015 NBA draft, NBA player for the Minnesota Timberwolves
Marcellus Wiley – Martinican American, former American football player and FOX Sports commentator/host
Adam Sanford – Dominican cricketer
Jayde Riviere – Dominican football Player
 Jay Emmanuel-Thomas – Dominican football player
 Konrad de la Fuente – Dominican-American football player
 Vurnon Anita – Curaçao football player
 Joe Willock – Jamaican football player
 Fabrice Noel – Haitian footballer
  Jaron Vicario – Curaçaoan football player
 Sanchez Watt – Jamaican football player

Main groups
Afro-Antiguan and Barbudan
Afro-Bahamian
Afro-Barbadian
Afro-Bermudian
Afro-Curaçaoans
Afro-Colombians
Afro-Costa Ricans
Afro-Cuban
Afro-Dominican (Dominica)
Afro-Dominican (Dominican Republic)
Afro-Grenadian
Afro-Guatemalan
Afro-Guyanese
Afro-Haitians
Afro-Hondurans
Afro-Jamaican
Afro-Kittian and Nevisian
Afro-Mexicans
Afro-Nicaraguan
Afro-Panamanian
Afro-Puerto Ricans
Afro-Saint Lucian
Afro-Salvadoran
Afro-Surinamese
Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians
Afro-Venezuelan
Afro-Vincentian
Belizean Creole people
Other members of the African diaspora in or from the Caribbean

Culture

Afro-Caribbean music

See also
 Afro-Latin Americans
 African diaspora in the Americas

References

External links

Ethnic groups in the Caribbean
Caribbean

Afro-Caribbean people


Matthias Hoë von Hoënegg (24 February 1580, in Vienna – 4 March 1645, in Dresden) was a German Lutheran pastor.

Life
Matthias's father was Leonhard Höe von Höenegg, a Lutheran imperial councillor and doctor of law descended from old Austrian nobility. Matthias was born prematurely and so his health was weak during his early years, meaning he only started speaking when he was seven. His father initially had him taught by a private tutor until, once he was almost fully educated, he was allowed to visit Vienna's St Stephan's Stadtschule, where he developed remarkably and began talking to the city's scholars.

Due to the imminent capture of Vienna in 1594 by the Ottomans, Matthias, his father and his brother moved to Steyr, where they spent three years and where Matthias attended the local gymnasium. His father then returned to Vienna and recalled Matthias, giving him a chance to attend the University of Vienna, where he initially studied philosophy. On the recommendation of an envoy from Saxony, on 16 June 1597 he moved to the University of Wittenberg, where he studied philosophy and gained his master's degree, toying with going into law but in the end deciding to study theology.

After several disputations and lectures in Wittenberg, his father's death in 1599 brought him back to Vienna for a short time, before returning to Wittenberg, where he gained his licentiate in theology in 1601. In 1602 he travelled to Dresden, where he aimed to become court-preacher to the Prince Elector. After a trial sermon on 17 February 1602 he gained the post and also graduated on 6 March 1604 as a doctor of theology in Wittenberg. Christian II of Saxony then sent him to Plauen as superintendent, where on 20 April he was introduced to Polykarp Leyser the Elder.

Despite several offers of other posts, he remained in the service of Saxony and in 1611, at the request of the elector of Saxony, moved to Prague as director of Protestant schools and churches in Bohemia. He then moved back to Dresden on the death of Paul Jenisch and replaced him as chief court preacher of Saxony.

His most notable work is his two-volume Commentarii in Joannis Apocalypsin (Leipzig 1610/40). His sermons and writings were strong Lutheran polemics against the Reformed churches, whose beliefs he loathed more than Counter-Reformation Catholicism. Older literature on the topic has overestimated his influence on John George I of Saxony and Saxon policy at the start of the Thirty Years' War, though he was on John George's privy council when it approved siding with the Emperor against Frederick V and wrote propaganda to support that decision.

References

Bibliography
  Frank Müller: Kursachsen und der böhmische Aufstand 1618–1622. Münster 1997, .
  Christian Gottlieb Jöcher: Gelehrtenlexikon. Vol 2 p. 1638
  Wolfgang Sommer: Die lutherischen Hofprediger in Dresden: Grundzüge ihrer Geschichte und … Franz Steiner, 2006,
 Adolf Brecher: Hoë von Hoënegg, Matthias. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Vol 12, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1880, S. 541–549.

External links

 Church history of Saxony

1580 births
1645 deaths
17th-century German Lutheran clergy
German people of Austrian descent
University of Wittenberg alumni
University of Vienna alumni
Clergy from Vienna

Matthias Hoë von Hoënegg


Religion in the Faroe Islands is dominated by the Lutheran Christianity. Historically linked to both Norway and Denmark, the islands' religious evolution reflects a blend of Norse traditions and Danish influences. Although the Lutheran Church remains predominant, the islands also host an array of other religious groups, including smaller Protestant denominations, Catholics, and followers of non-Trinitarian religions.

After gaining religious independence in 2007, the Church of the Faroe Islands became the established religion. Before this shift, the Church of Denmark played a pivotal role in the spiritual life of the Faroese people. Notably, the religious fervor and observance in the Faroe Islands are considerably more intense than in Denmark, making it an essential facet of the Faroese cultural and social landscape.

History
The Færeyinga saga is often cited with respect to the early spread of Christendom in the islands. The saga states that the king of Norway told Sigmund to go by ship to the Faroe Islands with orders from the King. Sigmund's orders were clear: he was supposed to make the 18 small islands Christian, which is what he did, according to the saga. This event is believed to have taken place around 1000, but the Faroese did not establish an organised congregation of the Catholic Church before around 1100, so there do appear to be some inconsistencies in the saga.

The islands, initially under Norwegian governance, transitioned to Danish jurisdiction in 1523. During this period, significant religious changes occurred. Ámundur Ólavsson, the last Catholic Bishop of the Faroe Islands, was succeeded by Jens Gregersøn Riber, the first Lutheran bishop, marking the transition to Lutheranism in 1540.

Demographics
The religious demographics of the Faroe Islands are dominated by Christianity.

According to the 2011 Census: there were 33,018 Christians (95.44%), 23 Muslims (0.07%), 7 Hindus (0.02%), 66 Buddhists (0.19%), 12 Jews (0.03%), 13 Bahá'ís (0.04%), 3 Sikhs (0.01%), 149 Others (0.43%), 85 with more than one belief (0.25%) and 1,397 with no religion (4.04%).

The Catholic Church has around 270 adherents, representing 0.8% from Faroe population. There are also small groups of Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Ahmadi Muslims and followers of the Bahá'í Faith in the country.

See also
Church of the Faroe Islands (Fólkakirkjan)
Catholic Church in the Faroe Islands

References

Religion in the Faroe Islands


An eddy current can be made when you have a solenoid (coil of wire), in which there is a soft iron core. When you connect the solenoid to an AC power source, metal objects held above the cross sectional area of the solenoid are repelled due to Lenz's Law.

Electricity

Eddy current


Yury (Georgy) Danilovich (; 1281 – 21 November 1325) was Prince of Moscow from 1303 to 1325 and Grand Prince of Vladimir from 1318 to 1322.

Biography

Early life
Yury was the oldest son of Daniel of Moscow, the first prince of Moscow and progenitor of the Daniilovichi. His first military action was to defend Pereslavl-Zalessky against the grand prince of Vladimir, Andrey of Gorodets.

Conflict with Mikhail of Tver
After his father Daniel died in 1303, Yury became prince of Moscow, and contended over the title of grand prince of Vladimir (the supreme position among princes in the northeast) with his uncle Mikhail of Tver. Because Daniel had never been grand prince of Vladimir, his descendants, including his son Yury, had no legitimate claim to the throne of Vladimir according to traditional succession practices. This is why the Golden Horde's khan, Tokhta, granted Mikhail of Tver the grand princely title when Andrey of Gorodets died the next year on 27 July 1304. Mikhail went to the Golden Horde's capital city Sarai, where the khan elevated him grand prince. His nephew Yury rebelled against this appointment, but two military campaigns by Mikhail of Tver against Moscow in 1305 and 1308 forced Yury to comply with the khan's decision. The Tverian army besieged Pereslavl and Moscow itself.

In the meantime, Yury arranged the murder of Prince Konstantin of Ryazan. This unlucky ruler had been captured by Yury's father back in 1302 and had been incarcerated in Moscow since then. While Ryazan was shocked by such a barbarity, Yury annexed the key Ryazanian fortress of Kolomna to Moscow. He also captured Mozhaisk, which formerly belonged to the princes of Smolensk. By 1314, Yury secured backing from the Metropolitan Peter and formed a military alliance with Novgorod against Tver. Now, he felt strong enough to challenge Mikhail of Tver in the Horde.

In 1315, Yury went to the Golden Horde and, after spending two years there, constructed an alliance with Uzbeg Khan. Yury married the khan's sister Konchaka, a Tatar princess who converted to Russian Orthodox Christianity for her marriage to Yury, and adopted "Agafiia" as her baptismal name. Uzbeg Khan deposed Mikhail and nominated Yury as the Grand Prince of Vladimir. Back in Moscow with a large force of Tatars, Yury approached Tver. However, Yuri's army was defeated and his brother Boris and his wife were taken prisoners. Thereupon he fled to Novgorod and sued for peace. At that time his wife, still held in Tver as a hostage, died unexpectedly. Yury availed himself of the confusion that followed and announced to the khan that she had been poisoned on Mikhail's order. Uzbeg Khan summoned both princes to Sarai and, after a trial, had Mikhail executed on 22 November 1318. Yury, who both depended on and benefited from Uzbeg Khan's favour, was allowed to be the grand prince of Vladimir for the next for years (1318–1322).

Last years
Yury returned to Suzdalia in 1319, spending much time in Novgorod. He was fiercely resisted by other princes and populace alike, as his appointment to grand prince was considered illegitimate. Now entrusted with the task of gathering tribute to the Horde, Yury faced much opposition; Uzbeg sent no fewer than four punitive expeditions to the northeastern principalities of Rus' during Yury's last two years as grand prince (1320–1322) in order to enforce their joint authority. In particular, Mikhail's son and successor, Dmitry "the Terrible Eyes" of Tver, still opposed him. In 1322, Dmitry, seeking revenge for his father's murder, went to Sarai and persuaded the khan that Yury had appropriated a large portion of the tribute due to the Horde. Uzbek granded Dmitry the patent for grand prince of Vladimir. Yury was summoned to the Horde for a trial but, before any formal investigation, was killed by Dmitry. Eight months later, Dmitry was also executed in the Horde. In early 1326,  Yury's remains were returned to Moscow and buried by the bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church headed by Metropolitan Peter.

Shortly before his death, Yury led the army of Novgorod to fight the Swedes and founded a fort in the mouth of the Neva River. Upon signing the Treaty of Orekhovo in 1323, Yury continued eastward and conquered Velikiy Ustyug the same year.

Notes

References

Bibliography
  (e-book).

1281 births
1325 deaths
14th-century Grand Princes of Moscow
14th-century murdered monarchs
13th-century princes from Kievan Rus'
Grand Princes of Vladimir
Murdered Russian monarchs
Daniilovichi family
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Assassinated Russian politicians

Yury of Moscow


Simon Lohet (Loxhay) (born before c. 1550 – buried 5 July 1611) was a Flemish composer and organist of the late Renaissance, active in Germany. He is best known as one of the earliest exponents of the keyboard fugue.

Life
Lohet's father was a certain Jean de Liège, so the family originates from Liège and Simon was probably born in the area. Loxhay is the Walloon version of his surname. He was appointed organist of the Württemberg court at Stuttgart on 14 September 1571, assisting Utz Steigleder and H.F. Fries until both went into retirement. Lohet then assumed full responsibility for the chapel services. He was also somewhat active as a teacher, his pupils included his own son Ludwig (who became his father's assistant in 1594) and, most importantly, Adam Steigleder (father of Johann Ulrich Steigleder). Lohet made several trips to the Low Countries in the 1570s and to Venice in 1581 to buy instruments and music. In 1601 he retired from his post. He remained in Stuttgart until his death in summer 1611.

Works
Johann Woltz's Nova musices organicae tabulatura (Basel, 1617) contains all of Lohet's known works (six also survive in another manuscript, D-Mbs Mus.ms.1581). The bulk of his small surviving output consists of twenty keyboard fugues, which are also his most historically important works. Most of them are short, averaging 20-25 bars, and eight are monothematic (exploring a single subject in a single section), which is very different from contemporary examples of imitative counterpoint (i.e. ricercars and canzonas that frequently ran to 100+ bars in several sections exploring either a variety of themes or different variations of one theme) and very close, also because of frequent use of stretto entries, diminution and other contrapuntal devices, to the classic fugue of the late Baroque. A full list follows, with the number of sections given in parentheses:

Fuga prima (2)
Fuga secunda (2)
Fuga tertia (2)
Fuga quarta (1)
Fuga quinta (3)
Fuga sexta (1)
Fuga septima (2)
Fuga octava (3)
Fuga nona (1)
Fuga decima (3)
Fuga undecima (1)
Fuga duodecima (1)
Fuga decima tertia (2)
Fuga decima quarta (1)
Fuga decima quinta (2)
Fuga decima sexta (3)
Fuga decima septima (1)
Fuga decima octava (2)
Fuga decima nona (1)
Fuga vigesima (2)

Single-section fugues are all monothematic. Their subjects are typical ricercar subjects: slow, sustained, moving in whole, half- and quarter notes. In two section fugues either both sections are imitative, or the second one is in free counterpoint. Fuga quinta's three sections are all imitative, but the rest of three-section fugues feature an imitative section, a stretto/canzona subject section and a free counterpoint section for the ending. In all, Lohet's pieces represent some of the earliest keyboard fugues in the modern understanding of the word.

Lohet's other works are a canzona (which is really a monothematic fugue like the ones described above), two chorales (Erbarm dich mein O Herre Gott and Nun Welche hie ihr hoffnung gar auf Gott den Herren legen) and keyboard transcriptions of a motet (Media vita in morte) and a chanson (De tout mon coeur). The chorales are written in a style reminiscent of the later south German tradition, with the first line set imitatively.

Editions
Simon Lohet. Compositions for organ, ed. Larry W. Peterson, Corpus of Early Keyboard Music 25:9-38. See .

References
José Quitin, Henri Vanhulst. "Simon Lohet", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, grovemusic.com.
J. S. Shedlock, article "The Evolution of the Fugue" from "Proceedings of the Musical Association, 24th Sess. (1897-1898), pp. 109-123.
Willi Apel. "The History of Keyboard Music to 1700", Indiana University Press (November 1997). pp. 100, 203.

15th-century composers
Composers for pipe organ
Organists and composers in the South German tradition
German male organists
16th-century births
1611 deaths
German classical composers
German male classical composers
People from Liège Province
Male classical organists

Simon Lohet


In computer programming, a sigil () is a symbol affixed to a variable name, showing the variable's datatype or scope, usually a prefix, as in $foo, where $ is the sigil.

Sigil, from the Latin sigillum, meaning a "little sign", means a sign or image supposedly having magical power. Sigils can be used to separate and demarcate namespaces that possess different properties or behaviors.

Historical context
The use of sigils was popularized by the BASIC programming language. The best known example of a sigil in BASIC is the dollar sign ("$") appended to the names of all strings. Consequently, programmers outside America tend to pronounce $ as "string" instead of "dollar". Many BASIC dialects use other sigils (like "%") to denote integers and floating-point numbers and their precision, and sometimes other types as well.

Larry Wall adopted shell scripting's use of sigils for his Perl programming language. In Perl, the sigils do not specify fine-grained data types like strings and integers, but the more general categories of scalars (using a prefixed "$"), arrays (using "@"), hashes (using "%"), and subroutines (using "&"). Raku also uses secondary sigils, or twigils, to indicate the scope of variables. Prominent examples of twigils in Raku include "^" (caret), used with self-declared formal parameters ("placeholder variables"), and ".", used with object attribute accessors (i.e., instance variables).

Sigil use in some languages

In CLIPS, scalar variables are prefixed with a "?" sigil, while multifield (e.g., a 1-level list) variables are prefixed with "$?".

In Common Lisp, special variables (with dynamic scope) are typically surrounded with * in what is called the "earmuff convention". While this is only convention, and not enforced, the language itself adopts the practice (e.g., *standard-output*). Similarly, some programmers surround constants with +.

In CycL, variables are prefixed with a "?" sigil. Similarly, constant names are prefixed with "#$" (pronounced "hash-dollar").

In Elixir, sigils are provided via the "~" symbol, followed by a letter to denote the type of sigil, and then delimiters. For example, ~r(foo) is a regular expression of "foo". Other sigils include ~s for strings and ~D for dates. Programmers can also create their own sigils.

In the esoteric INTERCAL, variables are a 16-bit integer identifier prefixed with either "." (called "spot") for 16-bit values, ":" (called "twospot") for 32-bit values, "," ("tail") for arrays of 16-bit values and ";" ("hybrid") for arrays of 32-bit values. The later CLC-Intercal added "@" ("whirlpool") for a variable that can contain no value (used for classes) and "_" used to store a modified compiler.

In MAPPER (aka BIS), named variables are prefixed with "<" and suffixed with ">" because strings or character values do not require quotes.

In mIRC script, identifiers have a "$" sigil, while all variables have a "%" prefixed (regardless of local or global variables or data type). Binary variables are prefixed by an "&".

In the MUMPS programming language, "$" precedes intrinsic function names and "special variable names" (built-in variables for accessing the execution state). "$Z" precedes non-standard intrinsic function names. "$$" precedes extrinsic function names. Routines (used for procedures, subroutines, functions) and global variables (database storage) are prefixed by a caret (^). The last global variable subtree may be referenced indirectly by a caret and the last subscript; this is referred to as a "naked reference".  System-wide routines and global variables (stored in certain shared database(s)) are prefixed with ^%; these are referred to as "percent routines" and "percent globals".

In Objective-C, string literals preceded with "@" are instances of the object type NSString or, since clang v3.1 / LLVM v4.0, NSNumber, NSArray or NSDictionary. The prefix @ is also used on the keywords interface, implementation, and end to express the structure of class definitions. Within class declarations and definitions as well, a prefix of - is used to indicate member methods and variables, while prefix + indicates class elements.

In the PHP language, which was largely inspired by Perl, "$" precedes any variable name. Names not prefixed by this are considered constants, functions or class names (or interface or trait names, which share the same namespace as classes).

PILOT uses "$" for buffers (string variables), "#" for integer variables, and "*" for program labels.

Python uses a "@" prefix, called pie syntax, for application of decorators and a "__" prefix, called dunder, for "private" attributes.

In Ruby, ordinary variables lack sigils, but "$" is prefixed to global variables, "@" is prefixed to instance variables, and "@@" is prefixed to class variables. Ruby also allows (strictly conventional) suffix sigils: "?" indicates a predicate method returning a boolean or a truthy or falsy value, and "!" indicates that the method may have a potentially unexpected effect and needs to be handled with care.

In Scheme, by convention, the names of procedures that always return a boolean value usually end in "?". Likewise, the names of procedures that store values into parts of previously allocated Scheme objects (such as pairs, vectors, or strings) usually end in "!".

Standard ML uses the prefix sigil "'" on a variable that refers to a type. If the sigil is doubled, it refers to a type for which equality is defined. The "'" character may also appear within or at the end of a variable, in which case it has no special meaning.

In Transact-SQL, "@" precedes a local variable or parameter name. System functions (previously known as global variables) are distinguished by a "@@" prefix. The scope of temporary tables is indicated by the prefix "#" designating local and "##" designating global.

In Windows PowerShell, which was partly inspired by Unix shells and Perl, variable names are prefixed by the "$" sigil.

In XSLT, variables and parameters have a leading "$" sigil on use, although when defined in <xsl:param> or <xsl:variable> with the "name" attribute, the sigil is not included. Related to XSLT, XQuery uses the "$" sigil form both in definition and in use.

In MEL, variable names are prefixed by "$" to distinguish them from functions, commands, and other identifiers.

Similar phenomena

Shell scripting variables
In Unix shell scripting and in utilities such as Makefiles, the "$" is a unary operator that translates the name of a variable into its contents. While this may seem similar to a sigil, it is properly a unary operator for lexical indirection, similar to the * dereference operator for pointers in C, as noticeable from the fact that the dollar sign is omitted when assigning to a variable.

Identifier conventions
In Fortran, sigils are not used, but all variables starting with the letters I, J, K, L, M and N are integers by default. Fortran documentation refers to this as "implicit typing".  Explicit typing is also available to allow any variable to be declared with any type.

Various programming languages including Prolog, Haskell, Ruby and Go treat identifiers beginning with a capital letter differently from identifiers beginning with a small letter, a practice related to the use of sigils.

Stropping

Actually a form of stropping, the use of many languages in Microsoft's .NET Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) requires a way to use variables in a different language that may be keywords in a calling language. This is sometimes done by prefixes. In C#, any variable names may be prefixed with "@". This is mainly used to allow the use of variable names that would otherwise conflict with keywords. The same is achieved in VB.Net by enclosing the name in square brackets, as in [end].

The "@" prefix can also be applied to string literals; see literal affixes below.

Hungarian notation
Related to sigils is Hungarian notation, a naming convention for variables that specifies variable type by attaching certain alphabetic prefixes to the variable name. Unlike sigils, however, Hungarian notation provides no information to the compiler; as such, explicit types must be redundantly specified for the variables (unless using a language with type inference). As most standard compilers do not enforce use of the prefixes, this permits omission and also makes code prone to confusion due to accidental erroneous use.

Literal affixes
While sigils are applied to names (identifiers), similar prefixes and suffixes can be applied to literals, notably integer literals and string literals, specifying either how the literal should be evaluated, or what data type it is. For example, 0x10ULL evaluates to the value 16 as an unsigned long long integer in C++: the 0x prefix indicates hexadecimal, while the suffix ULL indicates unsigned long long. Similarly, prefixes are often used to indicate a raw string, such as r"C:\Windows" in Python, which represents the string with value C:\Windows; as an escaped string this would be written as "C:\\Windows".

As this affects the semantics (value) of a literal, rather than the syntax or semantics of an identifier (name), this is neither stropping (identifier syntax) nor a sigil (identifier semantics), but it is syntactically similar.

Java annotations
Compare Java annotations such as @Override and @Deprecated.

Confusion
In some cases the same syntax can be used for distinct purposes, which can cause confusion. For example, in C#, the "@" prefix can be used either for stropping (to allow reserved words to be used as identifiers), or as a prefix to a literal (to indicate a raw string); in this case neither use is a sigil, as it affects the syntax of identifiers or the semantics of literals, not the semantics of identifiers.

See also
 Delimiter
 Source code
 Token

References

Source code
Variable (computer science)
Naming conventions

Sigil (computer programming)


Samuel Petrus Kleinschmidt (27 February 1814–9 February 1886) was a German/Danish missionary linguist born in Greenland known for having written extensively about the Greenlandic language and having invented the orthography used for writing this language from 1851 to 1973. He also translated parts of the Bible into Greenlandic.

Life

He was born in the rectory of Lichtenau in southern Greenland (today, Alluitsoq) to a couple of Moravian missionaries, Johann Konrad Kleinschmidt (1768 – 1832) from Oberdorla in Thuringia, Germany and Christina Petersen (1780-1853) from Trudsø, now a part of Struer, Denmark. As a youth he went to school in Kleinwelke, Saxony in Germany and subsequently for an apprenticeship to a pharmacy in Zeist, Holland studying during that period Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, as well as Dutch, French, and English, all the while retaining his childhood languages, Danish, German, and Greenlandic. In 1837 he went to Christiansfeld in Denmark working there for a couple of years as a teacher. Subsequently he returned to Greenland in 1841. After two years he held his first sermon in Greenlandic, speaking it fluently and plainly rather than using old worn out idioms of the previous ministers. From 1846 to 1848 he worked as a teacher in Lichtenfels (present-day: Akunnat), subsequently moving to Neu-Herrnhut (Old Nuuk).

He already finished his grammar of Greenlandic in 1845 and sent it to printing at the University of Berlin but it was not be published until 1851. It was exceptional because it did not use the traditional scheme of the Latin grammar to describe its subject, but rather devised a new scheme more suited for the Greenlandic language. This grammar was also the first work to employ the orthography which became the standard in writing Greenlandic until the reform of 1973. In 1859 he left the Moravian church to join the Church of Denmark. Most of his time in Greenland he served as a teacher rather than as a priest. He also translated the better part of the Bible into Greenlandic. He died in 1886 at 72 years of age in Neu-Herrnhut (present-day Noorliit, a part of Nuuk), having spent 54 of them in Greenland.

Works
 1968 (1851): Grammatik der grönländischen Sprache : mit teilweisem Einschluss des Labradordialekts. Hildesheim: Olms.
 1858: Nunalerutit, imáipoĸ: silap píssusianik inuinigdlo ilíkarsautíngui (Geography: A little book about the world and mankind). Godthåb/Nuuk: nûngme.
 1871: Den grønlandske ordbog / omarbeidet af Sam. Kleinschmidt ; udgiven paa foranstaltning af Ministeriet for Kirke- og Underviisningsvæsenet og meddet kongelige danske Videnskabernes Selskabs understøttelse ved H.F. Jørgensen. Kjøbenhavn:L. Kleins bogtrykkeri.

References

Further reading

External links
  Dansk biografisk leksikon Kleinschmidt, Samuel Petrus, runeberg.org
  Salmonsens konversationsleksikon: Kleinschmidt, runeberg.org

1812 births
1886 deaths
Moravian Church missionaries
Danish Protestant missionaries
Protestant missionaries in Greenland
Greenlandic Moravian clergy
Greenlandic people of German descent
19th-century Lutheran clergy
Linguists from Denmark
Linguists from Germany
Missionary linguists
German Protestant missionaries
Greenlandic Protestant missionaries
Linguists of Eskaleut languages

Samuel Kleinschmidt


Crossing to Safety is a 1987 semi-autobiographical novel by "The Dean of Western Writers", Wallace Stegner.  It gained broad literary acclaim and commercial popularity.

In Crossing to Safety, Stegner explores the mysteries of friendship, and it extends Stegner's distinguished body of work that had already earned him a Pulitzer Prize (for 1971's Angle of Repose) and the National Book Award (for 1976's The Spectator Bird).  Publishers Weekly described the novel as "an eloquent, wise and immensely moving narrative," and "a meditation on the idealism and spirit of youth, when the world is full of promise, and on the blows and compromises life inevitably inflicts." The story is told mostly in flashback; the narrator, Larry Morgan, and his wife, Sally, settle into their new home in Madison, Wisconsin, as Larry begins a term teaching creative writing at the university's English department. They soon befriend another couple, Sid and Charity Lang, and learn of Sid's ambition to succeed as a writer. As their careers mature, they take different paths, but they spend much of their time together on summer vacations in the small Vermont town where Charity's family has been coming for decades.

Stegner's powerful but unassuming narrative traces the bond that develops between the Langs and the Morgans from their first meeting in 1937 through their eventual separation on the occasion of Charity's death from cancer.

References

1987 American novels
American autobiographical novels
Novels set in Madison, Wisconsin

Crossing to Safety