Holy Week (; ) is a significant religious observance in the Philippines for the Catholic majority, the  or the Philippine Independent Church, and most Protestant groups. One of the few majority Christian countries in Asia, Catholics make up 78.8 percent of the country's population, and the Church is one of the country's dominant sociopolitical forces.

The solemn celebration begins on Friday of Sorrows turning to Palm Sunday and continues on through to Easter Sunday. Many communities observe Spanish-influenced Catholic rituals such as processions, that have been syncretised with elements of precolonial beliefs. This is evident in some ritual practices not sanctioned by the universal Church and the many superstitions associated with the occasion.

The days of the Easter Triduum (Maundy Thursday until Black Saturday) are considered statutory holidays. During this period, many businesses are closed or operate on shorter hours. Local terrestrial television and most radio stations usually go off the air (for annual maintenance of broadcast equipment), while others (such as stations owned by various denominations) shorten broadcasting hours and feature Lenten drama specials, religious and inspirational programming. Holy Week celebrations also receive wide news coverage of various services and rites. International cable television channels distributed to the Philippines, however, continue to broadcast their normal programming, while channels dedicated to horse racing, cockfighting and similar niche programming go off-air during the Triduum.

Holy Week in the Philippines is also highly anticipated as one of the annual long weekends in the country. Non-Catholics or non-practicing Catholics take this opportunity to go on vacations, resulting to a peak season in most Philippine tourist destinations.

Palm Sunday

On Palm Sunday (Linggo ng Palaspás, Domingo de Ramos, "Branches Sunday"), worshipers bear ornately woven palm fronds or palaspás to church for blessing by the priest before or after the day's Mass. The fronds (considered by the Church as sacramentals) are often brought home and placed on altars, doors, lintels or windows, in the belief that these can ward off demons, and avert both fires and lightning.

Some places hold a procession into the church before the service, a common starting point being an ermita/visita (chapel of ease) several blocks away. The presiding priest, vested in a stole and cope of red (the prescribed liturgical colour of the day), either walks the route or, in imitation of Jesus' triumphal entry, is led on horseback to the church. Sometimes, a statue of Christ riding a donkey (known as the Humenta) is used instead.

Whether the priest himself or a statue is used to represent Christ, a custom is for women to cover the processional route with tapis (literally, "wraparound"), which are large, heirloom cloth skirts or aprons made exclusively for this ritual. This is to recall how excited Jerusalemites spread their cloaks before Christ as he entered the city.

Once the procession reaches the church or some other designated spot, children dressed as angels strew flowers and sing the day's processional antiphon, Hosanna Filio David ("Hosanna to the Son of David"). The antiphon's text, whether the Latin original or a vernacular translation, is sung to traditional hymn tunes.

The blessing of palms and the intonation of the antiphon often occurs in the church's parvise, its parking lot, or the town plaza, which usually is in front of or near the church (a common layout in most Philippine settlements).

Holy Monday and Holy Tuesday

On Holy Monday (Lunes Santo) and Holy Tuesday (Martes Santo), the major procession of the Journey to Calvary takes to the streets. The main figure is the Fallen Christ accompanied by the images of the saints present during Christ's walk to Calvary. There is St. Peter holding the heavenly keys, the beloved St. John, the Three Marys, St. Veronica with her white veil implanted with Christ's image, Mary Magdalene bearing small bottles of oil and perfume, and the Virgin of Sorrows. In some parts of the country where there is an abundance of wood as well as skilled craftsmen, life-size wooden images are constructed so that they are able to move their arms and heads like puppets. Holy Tuesday is a regular working day and is sometimes the last full one preceding half- or full-day holidays given by some private companies on Holy Wednesday.

Holy Wednesday

Holy Wednesday (Miyérkules Santo) is officially the last working day of the week. Private companies are free to give full or partial holidays to their employees, while government offices implement a half-day suspension starting noon for their employees. This lets people return to their home provinces for the Triduum, and holidaymakers to leave for their destinations, making it one of the country's busiest travel seasons.

In some parish, "Tenebrae" service usually held on Holy Wednesday that involves the gradual extinguishing of candles on a Tenebrae hearse, readings related to the Passion of Jesus, and the strepitus (loud noise).

In the evening, long processions depicting the Passion of Christ are held in towns throughout the provinces of Pampanga, Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, and in the Ilocandia, as well as in Makati in Metro Manila.

Except in Baliwag and Pulilan, the Passion tableaux are excluded from the Good Friday afternoon procession.

Maundy Thursday
Maundy Thursday (Huwebes Santo) is the first statutory public holiday of the week and marks the beginning of the Paschal Triduum. Prior to the Second Vatican Council, the Procession of the Passion of Christ was held on Maundy Thursday. This was later transferred to Holy Wednesday for Latin Rite Catholics, with the Philippine Independent Church (which separated from Rome in the early 20th century) retaining the Maundy Thursday date. Among the most famous processions of the Philippine Independent Church are those of Concepcion in Malabon, and Santa Cruz and Paete in Laguna.

The first rite of the day is the Chrism Mass, in which parishioners join their priest for morning Mass in the cathedral, especially in the large dioceses and archdioceses. The clergy on the day renew their priestly vows. This Mass, which is presided by the bishop of the diocese, is when the Chrism, oil of catechumens and the oil for the sick are consecrated after the homily. Priests then bring portions of the oils to their respective parishes after the service and store these for future use. However, in such dioceses where logistics and other valid reasons hamper gathering the clergy on this day, the Chrism Mass is held earlier in the week; examples of which are the Archdiocese of Lipa and the Diocese of Malolos, where the Chrism Mass is held instead on Holy Tuesday.

The main observance of the day is the last Mass before Easter, the Evening Mass of the Lord's Supper. Though not mandatory, the afternoon service customarily includes a re-enactment of the Washing of the Feet of the Twelve Apostles. The service ends abruptly with a somber procession of the Blessed Sacrament, which is brought to the church's Altar of Repose. Churches remain open until midnight for those who want to venerate the Blessed Sacrament, with others going to one of several priests on standby to confess their sins.

One of the most important Holy Week traditions in the Philippines is the Visita Iglesia (Spanish for "church visit", also known as the Seven Churches Visitation), a Holy Week practice of visiting and praying in at least seven churches. Throughout the day, worshipers pray the Stations of the Cross inside or outside the church, while at night, the faithful pay obeisance and perform supplications to the Blessed Sacrament within the Altar of Repose.

Good Friday

Good Friday (Biyernes Santo) is the second public holiday of the week, and considered the most solemn day of the year. It is observed with street processions, the Way of the Cross, sermons and prayers meditating on Jesus' Seven Last Words ("Siete Palabras") and the staging of Senákulo, which in some places has already begun on Palm Sunday. The Baliwag Good Friday procession is the longest Lenten procession in the Philippines. Baliwag currently has 118 statues and scenes portraying the life of Christ. This activity is well-attended by both local and foreign tourists, and follows the main liturgical service of the day.

Mass is not celebrated on this day. Instead, people gather in churches in the afternoon for the Veneration of Cross service and the Mass of the Presanctified. Nationwide, the veneration service begins silently in unlit churches at 3:00 PM PST (GMT+8), remembering the "ninth hour" that was the instant Christ died according to the Gospels. The Mass of the Presanctified is said at the altar, which has been stripped of linens and decorations, and the priests omit the Anaphora as the sacramental bread was already consecrated on Maundy Thursday.

In some places (most famously in the province of Pampanga, where the day is known as Maleldo), processions include devotees who flagellate and sometimes even have themselves nailed to crosses. While frowned upon by the Church, devotees consider these to be personal expressions of penance, whether in fulfilment of a vow or in thanksgiving for a prayer granted. The San Fernando local government says these reenactments are regarded as a part of Pampanga's and the city's cultural heritage. Reenactments of Christ's crucifixion in the village began in 1958 but the first actual crucifixion took place four years later in 1962.

Other penitents, called magdarame, carry wooden crosses, crawl on the rough and hot pavement, and slash their backs before whipping themselves to draw blood. This is done to ask for forgiveness of sins, to fulfill vows (panata), or to express gratitude for favours granted.

The pabasa, or continuous chanting of the Pasyón (the Filipino epic narrative of Christ's life, Passion, Death, and Resurrection), usually concludes on this day before 3:00 PM. Television and radio stations also broadcast their own special Siete Palabras programmes from large churches in Manila, usually beginning at noon so as to end before the veneration service.

Santo Entierro

The usual highlight of Good Friday is the Santo Entierro ("Holy Burial"), which is both the name of the rite itself and of the statue of the dead Christ that is its focus. Comparable to the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic practice of processing the epitaphios, the sculpted image of the Santo Entierro. Left bare or covered to the neck in a shroud of red, white, black, or gold, the image is laid in an ornate, flower-decked calandra or bier that is brought around in a funeral procession. The retinue is normally composed of images of saints connected to the Passion narrative, such as Peter, Mary Magdalene, and John the Evangelist. Tradition dictates that regardless of the number of images used in the procession, that of the Virgin Mary, dressed in black and gold as the mourning Mater Dolorosa, is always last and alone as a mark of importance.

Some places accord the Santo Entierro traditional, pre-Christian funeral rites such as washing the corpse, laying the body in state, or seating it in a funerary chair. In Pakil, Laguna the  Santo Entierro is smoked over burning lansones peelings: during the procession, the shoulder-borne calandra makes several stops, and each time is placed on rests above the burning peelings. At each stop, a band plays a hymn and afterwards a crier turns towards the bier and shouts clearly, melodically, and loudly three times in Spanish, "¡Señor! ¡Misericordia, Señor!" ("Lord! Mercy, Lord!"), which the congregation repeats in a melodic low voice.

In Alimodian, Iloilo the Santo Entierro is interred – not by the altar as is customary elsewhere – but at the church doors for the people to venerate, usually by kissing the icon's feet. There is also a large crucifix before the altar for people to venerate and kiss. Later that night, young girls in costume and bearing lit tapers, walk barefoot in a second procession with the Mater Dolorosa in an around the town plaza. The maidens meditate and mourn, representing Christ's female disciples accompanying the Virgin Mary.

Among the country's famous and elaborate calandaras are those of Agoo, Bacolor, Baliwag, Guagua, Molo, Iloilo, Paete, San Pablo, Sasmuan, Silay, and Vigan. Some are centuries old and were commissioned from the famous talleres (studios) of the santeros Asunción and Máximo Vicente. The image itself, meanwhile, is displayed the rest of the year in the church that owns it, or in the house of the family that cares for it.

Popular culture
Several traditional taboos are customarily observed on Good Friday, such as the avoidance of excessive noisemaking, and in older times, bathing (except for health reasons). The prohibitions usually begin after 3:00 PM PST. Children, in particular, were traditionally discouraged from outdoor play, with elders cautioning that since "God is dead", evil spirits are freely roaming the earth to harm humans.

The ritual mourning and generally sombre mood of the day gave rise to the Tagalog idiom "Mukhâ kang Biyernes Santo" ("You've a face like Good Friday.") The phrase refers to a sad person's demeanor resembling that of the suffering Christ.

Black Saturday

Black Saturday or Holy Saturday (Sábado de Gloria) is the third and final public holiday of the week. The day is legally and colloquially termed in English as "Black" given the colour's role in mourning. The term Sábado de Gloria (Spanish for Gloria Saturday) refers to the return of the Gloria in Excelsis Deo during the Easter Vigil held on this day. The hymn is absent throughout Lent except on solemnities and Maundy Thursday.

The ritual mourning for the "dead" Christ continues, albeit with less intensity. Traditional taboos from the previous day, such as merrymaking and the consumption of meat, are carried over and sometimes broken at noon. This includes swimming in a river or the sea, as superstition warns against bathing on Good Friday afternoon. Most commercial establishments operate on shorter hours, with smaller enterprises in many areas remaining closed until Easter Sunday or Easter Monday, but some return to normal in major urban areas. Television and radio stations broadcast on shorter hours with special programming, or remain off-air.

Easter Sunday

Easter (Linggo ng Pagkabuhay or Pasko ng Pagkabuhay) is marked with joyous celebrations, the first being the pre-dawn rite called Salubong in Filipino and Sugat in Cebuano and Hiligaynon (both calques of the rite's Spanish name Encuentro, "meeting"). The rite is customarily performed in the early hours of Easter before the first Mass. In some parishes, the rite is held earlier at midnight immediately after the long Easter Vigil proper, retaining the same format.

The ritual is meant to depict the apocryphal reunion of Christ and his Mother, the Virgin Mary, after the Resurrection. Statues of both are borne in two separate processions that converge at a designated area called a Galilea ("Galilee"), which is often an open space with a purpose-built scaffold (permanent or otherwise) near the church. Depending on the size and wealth of the congregation, the processions include statues of any or all the Myrrhbearers, particularly the Three Marys (Mary, mother of James, Mary Magdalene, and Mary Salome), along with Peter and John the Evangelist. By custom, the two processions are sex-segregated, with male worshipers following the Risen Christ, twelve men dressed as the Apostles, and icons of male saints, while female congregants accompany icons of the Virgin Mary and female saints. Those in the procession hold lit tapers, and often recite the rosary as a brass band plays hymns and joyful music.

The icon of the Virgin Mary, still called the Mater Dolorosa, is clothed or draped in a black veil (Tagalog: lambóng) to show her bereavement. An "angel" (often a small girl in costume) stands at or is suspended in mid-air from the Galilea. From this lofty perch, the angel chants the Regina Coeli in Latin or in the vernacular, sometimes accompanied by similarly dressed schoolchildren representing the angelic choirs.

The high point is when the principal angel dramatically removes the veil from the Virgin's icon, signalling the abrupt end to her grieving and the period of mourning. The veil may simply be pulled off the statue, or tied to balloons or doves that are released into the dawn sky. The sorrowing Virgin is ritually transformed into Nuestra Señora de Alegria ("Our Lady of Joy"); in celebratory veneration, the angels throw flower petals at the icons of the Christ and the Virgin as confetti rains down. The moment is punctuated by bells pealing, brass bands playing, and fireworks. The reunited congregation then gathers inside the church for the first Mass of Easter.

Notable observances and pilgrimage sites

Minglanilla, Cebu
The traditional "sugat" or the meeting of the risen Christ with the Blessed Virgin Mary signals the start of the new liturgical calendar. The Minglanilla Sugat is a yearly spectacle of "little angels" (played by children) descending from the sky held at dawn of Easter Sunday. Sugat, the religious activity mainly based on the biblical narration of Jesus's resurrection, in later years became attached to the cultural "Kabanhawan Festival," thus "Sugat-Kabanhawan Festival."

Tondo, Manila
Caridad or Pakaridad is a way of giving or sharing food (especially ginataan or suman) to the neighbors or to the local church or chapel to be given to the crowds of people who attend the Good Friday procession. A complimentary drink of water is also given by local residents living along the processional route.

Black Nazarene
The Black Nazarene icon, brought from Mexico during the Galleon Trade era, is enshrined in Quiapo Church, and is considered miraculous by devotees is brought out for procession every Good Friday – one of three such occasions when this is done. The statue is borne on the shoulders of male devotees in a slow, difficult procession around the narrow streets of the district, a score of men struggle to keep the image moving on. Thousands more try to muscle their way to touch the icon as well as the long ropes in which the wheeled carriage carrying the image is pulled. The procession lasts the whole morning.

Amulet hunting
It is a folk belief that anting-anting (traditional amulets) are especially potent if collected, made, or imbued with power on Good Friday. In Sipalay, Negros Occidental many albularyo (witch doctors) search for anting-anting in unexplored caves. There is a particular type of anting-anting for every need: for passing exams, childbirth, protection from danger, love, good business, or invincibility. Holy Week also attracts folk healers who gather and showcase their amulets' power in the middle of the plaza. Antingeros (talisman aficionados) go to Mt. Banahaw (believed to be a sacred mountain) on Good Friday to empower it there themselves. Believers of anting-anting claim that the best time to recharge the spiritual energy of their talisman is during the night of Good Friday. Different groups also identify their own special places for 'recharging' their amulets: cemeteries, mountain tops, churches, etc. Recharging of anting-anting is usually done through repeatedly chanting Latin incantations (copies of which may also be bought) while holding the talisman.

Procession of Statues
On Holy Wednesday, a procession is held with Paete's 53 images of Christ's life and death. The procession goes through the town's narrow streets en route to the church. It stops three times to give way to the Salubong (meeting) which depicts three scenes of Jesus' passion and in which Paete's "moving saints" take part. These are: the meeting of Christ and Mary, held at the church patio; the wiping of Jesus' face by Veronica, which takes place at Plaza Edesan; and finally, the encounter between Mary and Veronica where the latter shows the miraculous imprints of Christ's face on her cloth. This is held at the town plaza.

In San Pablo, the Good Friday procession consists of huge, century-old statues bedecked in fresh flowers. In the old times, the famous processions were that of Saint Bartholomew of Malabon, Binan, Laguna, Pateros and Tuguegarao. Unfortunately, the Holy Week Images from Cagayan were destroyed by the war and similarly the Tres Caidas of Binan. In the seventies, the Holy Week Procession of Malabon consisted of 30 silver carrozas. The highlight was the Tres Caidas either from Talleres Maximo or Asuncion. It today does no longer join the procession of Good Friday. The most famous procession in Manila during the inter war period was of Santa Cruz. Almost all images were obliterated during the aerial-bombardment of Manila in 1945. Today, Makati has a major Holy Wednesday procession aside from the usual Good Friday one, both of which have some of the oldest images and is held in the city proper.

Passion plays

Senákulo

Many towns have their own versions of the Senákulo, using traditional scripts that are decades or centuries old. A version is held at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, sponsored by the Department of Tourism; popular film and televisions stars often join the cast of the play. In Taguig, they popularize the modern version of Jesus Christ Superstar reshown at the Fort Santiago Amphitheater for the benefit of Manila residents. In Mexico, Pampanga and Dinalupihan, Bataan, the actor portraying Jesus has been actually nailed to the cross to simulate Christ's passion.

Pagtaltal sa Guimaras
Ang Pagtaltal is a holy Lenten presentation staged on the hillside of Jordan, Guimaras every Good Friday, patterned to Oberammergau in Southern Bavaria, Germany. Pagtaltal means to remove. Thus, the drama ends with the removal or bringing down the body of Jesus Christ from the cross and is laid in the arms of the Blessed Virgin Mary, a familiar scene known as the Pieta moment, recalling the period when Christ's body was removed from that very cross where he died.

Backed up by a strong Christian community, Jordan has registered its first festival in Pagtaltal sa Jordan, Guimaras, a Good Friday spectacle. This saga of the sufferings of Christ is enacted with intense spirituality, religious realism, theatrical color, and mass appeal that outclass other presentation of similar flavor. The ever increasing throng of spectators, both local and foreign, who brave the summer heat to witness Pagtaltal is a proof of its popularity.

Moriones Festival

The Moriones Festival in the island province of Marinduque commemorates the story of the Roman centurion, Longinus (Tagalog: San Longhino) and his legendary conversion at the foot of the cross.

The Moriones Festival is a synthesis of Catholicism and folk mysticism. The townsfolk of Boac, Gasan and Mogpog are dressed in masks and helmets (moriones), depicting Roman soldiers. The rest of the locals portray St. Longinus and hide among the houses while the others search for him. Unlike most of the country, Marinduque observes Holy Week in a much more joyous manner.

Salubong

Saboy
The Saboy is a traditional dance performed by girls on Easter Sunday in Las Piñas, Metro Manila. The dance is divided into two parts, the "mourning" section and the "joyful" version.

The first dancer is the Salubong Angel, who often has large wings and bears a black veil. Second are the Hosanna Angels dressed in white, who usually hold baskets with rose petals and comprise a majority of the dancers.

Third are the Tres Marías (English: Three Marys), three older girls dressed in pink and also bearing baskets. Last are the blue-clad Kapitana (Captainess) and Tinyentera (Female Lieutenant); the Kapitana can be distinguished by the large banner she waves, while the Tinyentera swings a thurible.

Sayaw ng Pagbatì

The Sayaw ng Pagbati ("Dance at the Greeting" or Welcome dance) or Bati-bati for short is an Easter ritual dancing that shows up to what pious length the local faithful are prepared to take just to tell the world that "Christ is risen". This varies from town to town, with the most prominent versions found in Angono, Rizal and Ibaan, Batangas, as well as in Parañaque in Metro Manila.

In Parañaque, the Sayaw ng Pagbatì ("Dance at the Greeting"), performed in different renditions, is the official city cultural dance. On Easter Sunday morning right after Mass and the Salubong (Encounter) between the images of the Risen Christ and the Blessed Mother, beribboned girls from the various barangays of Parañaque clad in white gowns file in front of St. Andrew Cathedral in La Huerta village for a street dance showdown. Taking their cue from the marching bands or from a recording, they will dance for hours till noon to the tune of joyful music as they wave their wands in the air.

In the province of Batangas, this version performed in the municipality of Ibaan consists of a lady who acts as the Kapitana, similar to Saboy, but accompanied with two male escorts. In nearby Rosario, Pagbati is traditionally composed of three young ladies dancing to the tune of a local brass band. They are dressed in white on the actual Easter Sunday dance early in the morning, and clad in a more colorful dress on the Black Saturday rehearsal dance held in the evening. It is accompanied by waving a flag with grace, making sure it would not fall or roll up.

In the Municipality of Angono, Rizal, The Traditional Salubong Rites Consists of Kapitana and Tenyenta Who Perform A Religious Dance  to the Tune of Bati. The Tenyenta is the First to Perform the Dance to the Tune of Gavotte. After That, The Kapitana Recited the Traditional Poem Offered to the Virgin Mary, Called Dicho, Consisting of 31 Stanzas and 124 Verses. After That, The Kapitana Performs the Dance to the Tune of Valse (Waltz).

In the Municipality of Taytay, Rizal, There is A Revived Traditional Easter Greeting Dance Consisting of Kapitana and Her Four Councilors or Assistants (Konsehala). The Taytay Municipal Mayor Allan Martine de Leon Brought Back The Said Tradition in March 2023. The Kapitana at Mga Konsehala Represents The Five Barangays in the Said Municipality Which are as Follows: Barangay Dolores, Barangay San Isidro, Barangay Santa Ana, Barangay San Juan, and Barangay Muzon.

In the Municipality of Cainta, Rizal, The Traditional Salubong Rites Consists of Kapitana Who Performs the Dance to the Tune of Marcha and Modanza. The Four Captainesses (Kapitana Apatan) Represents the Barangays in the Said Municipality, Which are the Following: San Roque, San Andres, San Juan, and Barrio Dayap (Consisting of Barangay Sto. Domingo, Barangay Sta. Rosa, and Barangay Sto. Niño).

See also

 Binignit
 Black Nazarene
 Good Friday processions in Baliwag
 Holy Week in Paete
 Hispanic influence on Filipino culture
 Pasyon

External links

 The unique and varied observance of Holy Week in the Philippines – Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines
 Good Friday traditions, solemn rites held today Holy Wednesday Focuses On Judas' Betrayal Of Jesus
 Baliwag processions
 Tourists witness Good Friday procession in Baliwag
 Online Visita Iglesia

References

Philippines
Christian festivals in the Philippines

Holy Week in the Philippines


As a result of the 1707 union of the Kingdom of Scotland with the Kingdom of England (including Wales) to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, within the newly formed Parliament of Great Britain, Scotland had 48 constituencies representing seats for 45 Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons, normally located at the Palace of Westminster. (Westminster being the meeting place for the former Parliament of England).

Scottish Westminster constituencies were first used in the 1708 general election. Prior to that election Scotland was represented by MPs who were co-opted as commissioners of the former Parliament of Scotland.

In the Parliament of Great Britain, Scotland had 15 burgh constituencies and 33 county constituencies, with each representing a seat for one MP. The county constituencies included, however, three pairs of alternating constituencies, so that only one member of a pair was represented at any one time. Therefore, Scotland had more constituencies than seats. With the exception of Edinburgh, the burgh constituencies were districts of burghs.

1708 boundaries were used for all subsequent election of the Parliament of Great Britain.

In 1801 the Parliament of Ireland was merged with the Parliament of Great Britain to form the Parliament of the United Kingdom, also at Westminster. The first general election of the new parliament was the general election of 1802, and there was no change to the boundaries of any pre-existing Westminster constituency.

1802 boundaries were used also in the general elections of 1806, 1807, 1812, 1818, 1820, 1826, 1830 and 1831.

For the 1832 general election, Scottish Westminster constituencies were redefined by the Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1832.

Burgh constituencies

County constituencies

References

 1708
1708 establishments in Scotland
Political history of Scotland
1708 in politics
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom established in 1708
1832 disestablishments in Scotland
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom disestablished in 1832

Scottish Westminster constituencies 1708 to 1832


The Pinkas Synagogue () is the second oldest surviving synagogue in Prague. Its origins are connected with the Horowitz family, a renowned Jewish family in Prague. Today, the synagogue is administered by the Jewish Museum in Prague and commemorates about 78,000 Czech Jewish victims of the Shoah.

History

An archaeological excavation has showed that in 15th century in the area of present Pinkas Synagogue there were wells, a mikveh and inhabited houses. By 1492 in one of those houses there was a private oratory belonging to a distinguished Prague Jewish family of Horowitz. In 1535 one of the family members, Aharon Meshulam Horowitz, decided to replace the house by a synagogue for his family. In this building we can find components in Gothic and Renaissance styles – for example the reticulated vault is made in the late Gothic style but its ornaments have Renaissance features and the portal is pure Renaissance. Between 1607 and 1625 an annex in Renaissance style was added and so the synagogue was extended with a vestibule, a women's section and a balcony. The architectural plan of the annex was designed by Juda Coref de Herz (the author of the plan to Maisel Synagogue, too).

The floor of the synagogue is below the ground level so it was repeatedly afflicted by floods and moisture. In the second half of 18th century it was necessary to restore aron-ha-kodesh and bimah damaged by flood and so they were changed to the Baroque style. About the same time (in 1793) successful businessman and communal leader Joachim von Popper donated the synagogue with a wrought-iron Rococo grille which adorns the bimah until now. The grille is decorated with an emblem of the Prague Jewish community – Magen David with a Middle-Age Jewish hat.

In 1860, a radical step was taken to solve the problem of floods – the floor level of the synagogue was raised by 1,5 m. The baroque bimah disappeared, the arrangement of the seats was modernized (seats surrounding the walls as in Old-New Synagogue were replaced by the church-like rows) and pseudo-Romanesque style dominated the space. However, less than century later, during reconstruction in 1950–1954, the original floor-level as well as the appearance of the synagogue were restored.

During World War II, the Pinkas Synagogue served as a storehouse of Jewish liturgical utensils, which, after the ban on Jewish services in the autumn of 1941, could no longer be commonly used in Prague synagogues. When the Jewish Central Museum was established in the second half of 1942, the synagogue was also to serve as a repository of monuments, which it collected from Czech and Moravian communities, but also as a conservation office. Although the Jewish Central Museum considered at the beginning of 1943 moving the pre-war exposition of the Prague Jewish Museum to the Pinkas Synagogue, less than a year later it abandoned this idea due to various difficulties and the Pinkas Synagogue remained a warehouse.

In following five years, the walls of the synagogue were covered with names of about 78 000 Bohemian and Moravian Jewish victims of Shoah. The names are arranged by communities where the victims came from and complemented with their birth and death date. The memorial was designed by painters Václav Boštík and Jiří John. In 1960 it was opened to public, but it was closed after less than a decade, in 1968, after the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia. It was said that the reason for closing was moisture. After the fall of communist regime in 1989 the synagogue had been reconstructed for three years and then opened to public, but it took another three years to restore the inscriptions of the names on the walls that were damaged by moisture. Moreover, in 2002, an old enemy of the synagogue – flood – proved its power and the inscriptions had to be restored again.

Permanent exhibition

On the first floor of the synagogue there is an exhibition of pictures drawn by children in the Theresienstadt Ghetto. Children drew them during lessons led by Friedl Dicker-Brandeis (1898–1944), a painter, who studied at Bauhaus, Weimar. Dicker-Brandeis's experience from Bauhaus influenced the conception of her drawing lessons in Theresienstadt. She encouraged children to express themselves in drawing, to grapple with their grim experiences from the ghetto, as well as to capture their memories from home and dreams about the future. Their pictures therefore offer wide-ranged testimony about the daily reality of the ghetto and about individual children. Most of the children, as well as Friedl Dicker-Brandeis, were murdered in Auschwitz. The only witnesses of their lives, their drawings, "survived" because Dicker-Brandeis hid them in Theresienstadt before her deportation to Auschwitz. After the war about 4,500 pictures were handed over to the Jewish Museum in Prague.

Beside activities of the Museum, Pinkas Synagogue serves also the religious community.

References

Synagogues in Prague
Holocaust memorials
Synagogues preserved as museums
Museums in Prague
Josefov (Prague)
Romanesque and Gothic synagogues

Pinkas Synagogue


Antwon Burton (born June 11, 1983) is a former American football defensive tackle. He was signed by the Denver Broncos as an undrafted free agent in 2006. He played college football at Temple.

Burton was also a member of the Cincinnati Bengals, Kansas City Chiefs, St. Louis Rams, Carolina Panthers, Florida Tuskers, Sacramento Mountain Lions and Virginia Destroyers.

Early years
Burton was a First-team All-State and All-Western New York selection as a senior at Cleveland Hill High School in Cheektowaga, New York.

College career
Burton played 22 games (16 starts) and totaled 96 tackles in two seasons at Temple University after transferring from Erie Community College in Orchard Park, N.Y. As a senior in 2005, Burton played 11 games (10 starts), posting 66 tackles (26 solo), five tackles-for-losses, four fumble recoveries, three forced fumbles and three pass breakups. Burton concluded his collegiate career by playing in the East-West Shrine Game. Before the start of his senior year, he was named one of the top five independent pro prospects by the College Football News. He played 11 games (6 starts) in his first year at Temple as a junior in 2003 before missing the 2004 season with a foot injury. He posted 6.5 sacks and was voted First-team All-Northeast Conference at Erie Community College in 2002.

Professional career

Pre-draft
At his pro day workout at Temple University, Burton measured 6-1 and 308 pounds. He ran a 5.39 forty-yard dash and did 31 reps of 225 pounds. He also had a 31" vertical leap and a broad jump of 9'5"

Denver Broncos
Burton, who entered the NFL with the Broncos as a college free agent on May 3, 2006, was signed to Denver's practice squad after training camp. He was signed to the Broncos' active roster on November 12, 2006, and made his professional
debut with an assisted tackle at Oakland on November 12, 2006. He was declared inactive for the rest of the season. In 2007, he played in six games and made eight tackles (five solo). He was waived on November 13, 2007, and signed November 14, 2007 to Broncos practice squad, where he finished the season.

Cincinnati Bengals
Burton signed with Bengals as a free agent on May 4, 2008. Burton was on the roster of the Kansas City Chiefs and St. Louis Rams in 2008 but did not play in a game.

Carolina Panthers
Burton signed with the Carolina Panthers on September 22, 2009, after they lost Ma'ake Kemoeatu and Louis Leonard for the season. He was waived on October 20, after the Panthers acquired Tank Tyler from Kansas City.

Post NFL Career Stats
Burton currently works & runs his own gym "Next Level Performance" in Pueblo, Colorado as an athletic trainer and performs a great deal of philanthropic workings in the town. Here he trains elite athletes in the southern Colorado area, where he also met his wife.

References

1983 births
Living people
Players of American football from Buffalo, New York
American football defensive tackles
SUNY Erie alumni
Temple Owls football players
Denver Broncos players
Cincinnati Bengals players
Kansas City Chiefs players
St. Louis Rams players
Carolina Panthers players
Florida Tuskers players
Sacramento Mountain Lions players

Antwon Burton


Prince Chitcharoen, the Prince Narisara Nuwattiwong ( ; 28 April 1863 – 10 March 1947), Prince Naris for short, né Chitcharoen (), was a member of the royal family of Siam (now Thailand), minister, general and scholar. A polymath, he became known as "the great craftsman of Siam" and "the prince master". The anniversary of his birth, 28 April, is celebrated in Thailand as "Prince Naris Day".

Early life
Prince Narisara Nuwattiwong was born on 28 April 1863 in Bangkok, Thailand. He was the son of Pannarai and King Rama IV (also known as King Mongkut). Prince Nuwattiwong was educated by Western missionaries who encouraged his interest in the fine arts.

Career

Government
Prince Narisara Nuwattiwong was appointed as the Director of Public Works, Town and Country Planning for the Ministry of the Interior. He worked on Thailand's early urban planning and became an Art Advisor for the Royal Institute of Thailand. His other jobs included working for the Ministry of the Treasury, the Ministry of War, and the Ministry of the Palace. From 1892 to 1894, he served as Minister of the Treasury.

From 1894 to 1899, he was the Minister of War. During his tenure, the former Kalahom department (dating back to the 15th century) was radically modernised based on Western models. From 1896 to 1899, Prince Naris—who was both a general of the army and an admiral—additionally held the position of the Commander of the Department of Military Operation, the highest military position in the Siamese Army of that time. From 1898 to 1899 he was also the Commander of the Navy Department and therefore commanding officer of the Siamese Navy.

Prince Naris served as Regent of Siam from 1934 to 1935, substituting for his nephew King Prajadhipok (Rama VII) who resided in England during the treatment of an eye condition. After Prajadhipok's definite abdication in 1935 and the choice of 9-year-old Ananda Mahidol as the new king, Naris declined the request to continue as regent, pointing to his old age.

Design
When Prince Naris began his art endeavours, there was no Siamese concept of design. Thailand had no art museum, and the arts were not taught at universities. Prince Naris worked with Siamese craftsmen and Italian artists on royal commissions to create Siamese "art".

As Thailand began to modernize, it created its first European-style government ministries. Narisara was assigned to design the crest for these newly created ministries. Each crest he designed was different, representing the role of each group.

Architecture

Wat Benchamabophit (the Marble Temple) was the first temple in Thailand to use marble in its construction. This temple has been described as a defining example of a modern Buddhist temple by the Western Ministries of Architecture.

The Wat Benchamabophit School is next to Wat Benjamabophit. Unlike the temple, the school was built in Western style. Phraubosotwatrachativas is another temple made of marble, but the style of this building combines Western and Thai styles. The temple contains oil paintings that were inspired by art found in Western medieval churches.

Music
 "Sansoen Phra Barami" or Royal Anthem
 "Khamen Sai Yok"

Family
Prince Naris was married three times. His first wife was Mom Rachavongse Pluem Sirivongse (หม่อมราชวงศ์ปลื้ม ศิริวงศ์), with whom he had one daughter:
 Prince Pluemchit Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้าปลื้มจิต จิตรพงศ์)

After the death of his first wife, Prince Naris married Mom Malai Chitrabongse Na Ayudhaya (née Sewatam) (หม่อมมาลัย เศวตามร์), with whom he had two sons:
 Prince Ai Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้าอ้าย จิตรพงศ์)
 Prince Charoenchai Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้าเจริญใจ จิตรพงศ์)

After the death of his second wife, the prince remarried one last time, marrying Mom Rachavongse To Ngon-rot (หม่อมราชวงศ์โต งอนรถ). They had a total of six children, of whom five were male:
 Prince Sam Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้าสาม จิตรพงศ์)
 Princess Pralomchit Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้าประโลมจิตร จิตรพงศ์)
 Princess Duangchit Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้าดวงจิตร จิตรพงศ์)
 Prince Yachai Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้ายาใจ จิตรพงศ์)
 Prince Phlao-rot Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้าเพลารถ จิตรพงศ์)
 Princess Konnika Chitrabongse (หม่อมเจ้าหญิงกรณิกา จิตรพงศ์)

Official title
His official title was "สมเด็จพระเจ้าบรมวงศ์เธอ เจ้าฟ้าจิตรเจริญ กรมพระยานริศรานุวัดติวงศ์" (Somdet Phra Chao Boromma Wong Thoe Chao Fa Chitcharoen Krom Phraya Naritsaranuwattiwong), which can be translated as "His Royal Highness Prince Chitcharoen, the Prince Narisara Nuwattiwong".

His full ceremonial title (before he was promoted to the rank of "Krom Phraya") was "สมเด็จพระเจ้าบรมวงศ์เธอ เจ้าฟ้ากรมพระนริศรานุวัดติวงศ์ มหามกุฏพงศ์นฤบดินทร ปรมินทรานุชาธิเบนทร์ ปรเมนทรราชปิตุลา สวามิภักดิ์สยามวิชิต สรรพศิลปสิทธิวิทยาธร สุรจิตรกรศุภโกศล ประพนธปรีชาชาญโบราณคดี สังคีตวาทิตวิธีวิจารณ์ มโหฬารสีตลัธยาศรัย พุทธาทิไตรรัตนสรณานุวัติ ขัตติยเดชานุภาพบพิตร" ("Somdet Phra Chao Boromma Wong Thoe, Chao Fa Kromma Phra Naritsaranuwattiwong, Maha Makutta Phong Narue Bodin, Paraminthranuchathiben, Paramen Ratcha Pitula, Sawamiphak Sayama Wichit, Sappha Sinlapa Sit Witthaya Thon, Sura Chittra Kon Suppha Koson, Praphontha Pricha Chan Boranna Khadi, Sangkhita Wathit Withi Wichan, Maholan Sitalatthayasai, Phutthathi Trai Rat Sarananuwat, Khattiya Dechanuphap Bophit").

Death
Naris died on 10 March 1947 from a stroke. His funeral was held publicly at Sanam Luang. His cremation pyre was similar to the royal funeral pyre of Ananda Mahidol.

References

Further reading

External links
The Prince Narisara Nuvadtivongs

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Thai male Chao Fa
Chitrabhongse family
19th-century Chakri dynasty
20th-century Chakri dynasty
Thai artists
Regents of Thailand
Ministers of Defence of Thailand
Knights Grand Cordon of the Order of Chula Chom Klao
Knights of the Ratana Varabhorn Order of Merit
Recipients of the Dushdi Mala Medal, Pin of Arts and Science
1863 births
1947 deaths
Thai male Phra Ong Chao
Children of Mongkut
Commanders-in-chief of the Royal Thai Army
Ministers of Finance of Thailand
Ministers of Transport of Thailand
Members of the Privy Council of Thailand
19th-century military history of Thailand
Sons of kings
20th-century regents

Narisara Nuwattiwong


Katar River is a river of central Ethiopia. It arises from the glaciated slopes of Mount Kaka and Mount Badda in the Arsi Zone. The Katar's tributaries include the Gonde. The gradient of the river is generally steep, and areas suitable for irrigation are few in number and very limited in extent. With a watershed of 3,400 km2, the Katar drains into Lake Ziway.

See also
List of Ethiopian rivers

References

Rivers of Ethiopia

Katar River


Edgar Lubbock LLB (22 February 1847 – 9 September 1907) was an English amateur footballer who twice won the FA Cup and played first-class cricket. He later became a partner in the Whitbread Brewery, a Director and Deputy Governor of the Bank of England and the Master of the Blankney Foxhounds.

Early life and education
Lubbock was born in London, the tenth of eleven children of Sir John Lubbock (1803–1865), the former head of the Lubbock & Co Bank, and Harriet Hotham.

He was educated at Eton College where he became a member of the football XI between 1864 and 1866, and captain in his final year. He was also part of the mixed Wall team between 1863 and 1865. In 1868, he went up to the University of London where he studied law, graduating with a second-class honours Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree in 1874 and obtaining the Clifford's Inn prize for Law.

Cricket career

Lubbock was a member of the Eton College cricket XI from 1864 to 1866; after leaving college, he played for various teams including Marylebone Cricket Club, I Zingari and the Gentlemen of Kent. He was described as "a right-handed batsman with an awkward style, (who) bowled left underhand fast".

In August 1871, he played one match for Kent County Cricket Club against the Gentlemen of Marylebone Cricket Club. In this match his wicket was taken twice by W.G. Grace. Despite this, Lubbock was his side's top scorer with 54 in the second innings, although the "Gentlemen" won by an innings and 45 runs; His obituary in Wisden commented that it was "surprising that he never assisted the county again".

In 1872, he was a member of R.A. Fitzgerald's XI who visited North America playing nine matches in little over a month. Over the next few years, he turned out a few times a year, mainly for I Zingari until 1879, although he played one match for I Zingari in June 1891, in which he failed to score and claimed one wicket.

Several of his brothers also played cricket, including Alfred who was considered one of the best batsmen of the era but only made 28 first-class appearances and Nevile who made six first-class appearances. Both played matches for Kent as well as for a variety of other amateur sides.

Football career
Lubbock was a member of the Eton College football XI, becoming captain in 1866. Whilst at college, he joined the Wanderers, making his debut on 22 December 1866 against Harrow Chequers. His appearances for Wanderers were infrequent over the next few years until 1869–70 when he played more regularly, normally in a half-back role.

In March 1870, Lubbock was invited by the Wanderers' captain, C.W. Alcock to take part in a match between "England" and "Scotland". This was the first of five "pseudo-internationals" which took place before the first officially recognised international in November 1872. The match report in "The Sporting Gazette" of Saturday 12 March 1870 said "For England. . . Messrs E. Freeth and E. Lubbock were also very effective as backs", while the "Glasgow Herald" said "among the English, A. Baker, E. Lubbock and E. Freeth were the most prominent". Lubbock was one of four players to appear in all five matches.

On 16 December 1871, he played for Wanderers in their opening match in the first season of the FA Cup. The match against Clapham Rovers was played on Clapham Common with Wanderers victorious by a 3–1 margin, in which Thomas Pelham, the son of the Earl of Chichester scored the opening goal. Despite only drawing against Crystal Palace and Queen's Park in the next two rounds, Wanderers reached the final of the tournament, where they met a team from the Royal Engineers. The final was played at the Kennington Oval on 16 March 1872 for which Lubbock was selected as one of only two defenders, with Wanderers playing with eight forwards. Despite being an "all-out attacking affair" the match was decided by a single goal, scored by Morton Betts (who played under the pseudonym, "A. H. Chequer"). The Wanderers thereby claimed the inaugural FA Cup and went on to win it five times in the first seven years. Their victory in 1872 was attributed to "the superior play of their backs".

Lubbock also played regularly for Old Etonians and in one match between Wanderers and the Old Boys, Lubbock came up against C.W. Alcock. Alcock "tried out a special charge of his own against "Quintus" Lubbock, one of the great half-backs of the day. 'By heaven! Alcock', cried out the towering Lubbock. 'If you do that again, I'll hack your legs off".

In 1874, the Old Etonians entered the FA Cup for the first time. They started their campaign against the Swifts, which proved a very tough match. After two drawn games, the Etonians managed to pull off a 3–0 victory. In the second round they received a bye which led them into the Quarter Finals. Following a win against Maidenhead, they played Shropshire Wanderers; in an extremely close match, the Old Boys came through by a single goal to nil. Thus, the Old Boys reached the FA Cup Final at their first attempt, where they came up against a strong team from the Royal Engineers who were in the final for the third time in the first four years of the competition. The final was played in a strong wind, which favoured the Old Etonians who had the wind at their backs for all but ten minutes of the 90, and all 30 minutes of extra time (teams in this period only changed ends after a goal was scored). The teams finished level after 90 minutes, with a goal from Capt Henry Renny-Tailyour being cancelled out by one from Alexander Bonsor.

The match was replayed three days later, with the Old Etonians being forced to make four changes; one of the replacements was Lubbock's elder brother, Alfred; they were the first brothers to appear for the same side in an FA Cup Final (William and Herbert Rawson had played for opposing teams in the previous year's final). As a result of playing a weakened team, the Old Etonians were easily dominated by the Engineers who emerged victorious by a 2–0 margin. According to the football historian Philip Gibbons, Edgar Lubbock and Arthur Kinnaird were the pick of the Old Boys, although the Engineers' victory was well deserved.

The following year, the Old Etonians again reached the final, where they met Lubbock's former team, the Wanderers. Lubbock was not available for the first match, which again ended in a 1–1 draw, but was available for the replay when he replaced James Welldon, who was later to become Bishop of Calcutta. Once again, the Old Boys failed in the replay, going down by a 3-goal margin.

After two years in which the Old Etonians failed to put up a team, they re-entered the FA Cup for the 1878–79 tournament. In the First Round, they were drawn against the cup holders, Wanderers, who had won the cup in five out of the seven years since the tournament was inaugurated. The Old Etonians won the match 7–2 in what, at the time, was considered a shock result. They went on to defeat Darwen, after two replays, and Nottingham Forest in the later stages, before reaching the final for the third time, against Clapham Rovers. After a goalless first-half, the only goal of the game came after 59 minutes, when Charles Clerke scored from close range following a run from Harry Goodhart. The old Etonians thus claimed the cup for the first time in what was considered to be "the poorest FA Cup Final to date".

In his 1875 "Football Annual", C.W. Alcock described Lubbock as "still unrivalled as a back, and no English Eleven can be complete without him; very accurate in his kicking". Despite this, Lubbock never played for England in an official international although he was selected for the match against Scotland on 6 March 1875 but withdrew because of injury.

Lubbock also played football for West Kent, Crusaders and Gitanos as well as representing Kent, London and Middlesex.

Tennis career
Lubbock was also a successful lawn tennis player he won two titles including the Grand National Lawn Tennis Tournament at Hendon in 1879, and the South of England Championships at Eastbourne in 1881. He was also a finalist at the Prince's Club Championships at West Kensington in 1880, and a semi-finalist at the London Athletic Club Tournament (today's Queen Club Championships) in 1883. At the 1881 Wimbledon Championships the furthest he progressed was to the third round.

Professional career
After graduating from the University of London, Lubbock embarked on a career in the law achieving high office, including being appointed Lieutenant of the City of London. He gained the reputation as an "extremely able business organiser" and became a director of the Whitbread Brewery in 1875 and of the Bank of England from 1891.

Family
On 26 June 1886, Lubbock married Amy Myddelton Peacock of Greatford Hall, Stamford, Lincolnshire. They had three daughters:

Nancy Induna Lubbock (17 September 1897 – 13 December 1972). She married James Knyvett Howard, son of Henry Howard, 18th Earl of Suffolk.
Bridget Myfanwy Lubbock (11 November 1900 – 7 February 1966). She married Capt. George Barker and secondly, Louis Philippe de Carol de Moute, Baron de Moute.
Marigold Rosemary Lubbock (15 May 1903 – 15 May 1976). She married Hugo William Cecil Denison, 4th Earl of Londesborough of Blankney Hall and secondly, Capt. Zygmunt de Lubicz-Bakanowski.

Lincolnshire
Following his marriage, Lubbock moved to Lincolnshire, firstly living in Grantham. In 1903, the family moved to Caythorpe Court which Lubbock had had designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield. The house was built as a hunting lodge in the grounds of an old farm to the east of the village of Caythorpe.

He was a keen huntsman, and rode with both the Belvoir and Blankney Hunts, becoming Master of the Blankney in 1904. In 1906 he was appointed High Sheriff of Lincolnshire.

He died suddenly on 9 September 1907, aged 60. His funeral was held at St Vincent Church, Caythorpe.

Football honours
Wanderers
FA Cup winners: 1872

Old Etonians
FA Cup winners: 1879
FA Cup finalists: 1875, 1876

References

External links

Article on the Lubbock family website

1847 births
1907 deaths
Alumni of the University of London
Men's association football defenders
Cricketers from Greater London
Deputy Governors of the Bank of England
England men's representative footballers (1870–1872)
English cricketers of 1864 to 1889
English cricketers
English men's footballers
English hunters
English lawyers
Footballers from Westminster
Gentlemen of Kent cricketers
High Sheriffs of Lincolnshire
I Zingari cricketers
Kent cricketers
Edgar
Masters of foxhounds in England
Masters of the Worshipful Company of Brewers
Old Etonians F.C. players
People educated at Eton College
People from Caythorpe, Lincolnshire
Sportspeople from Grantham
Wanderers F.C. players
Younger sons of baronets
19th-century English businesspeople
English male tennis players
British male tennis players

Edgar Lubbock


BlaBlaCar is an online marketplace for carpooling headquartered in Paris. Its website and mobile apps connect drivers and passengers willing to travel together between cities and share the cost of the journey, in exchange for a commission of between 18% and 21%. It also operates BlaBlaBus, an intercity bus service. The platform has 26 million active members and is available Europe and Latin America.

The service is named for its rating scale for drivers' preferred level of chattiness in the car: "Bla" for not very chatty, "BlaBla" for someone who likes to talk, and "BlaBlaBla" for those who can't keep quiet.

History
In December 2003, Frédéric Mazzella wanted to travel from Paris to visit his family in the French countryside for Christmas but he did not own a car and the trains were fully booked. After his sister made a 150-kilometer detour to collect him, he noticed that most cars going in his direction did not have any passengers. During nights and weekends, he began working on creating a concept to address the issue. In 2006, he bought a website called Covoiturage.fr, French for "carpooling", created in 2004. By September 2008, it was the largest carpool website in France.

In 2009, it launched a Spanish version of the site under the name of Comuto.es. Throughout the year, it opened carpool services for companies and cities, such as MAIF, IKEA, Vinci Park, RATP, Carrefour, and the city of Montrouge.

In December 2009, the company launched its mobile app.

In June 2011, it introduced BlaBlaCar.com in the United Kingdom.

In June 2012, an online reservation service was added to Covoiturage.fr. The web service put in place its business model and began to make profits. It was also a way to attract drivers and to reach the critical mass. Between July and November, Comuto expanded to Italy, Portugal, Poland, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium.

In April 2013, BlaBlaCar was launched in Germany. Covoiturage.fr was re-branded BlaBlaCar.fr.

By December 2013, BlaBlaCar had 5 million members.

In January 2014, BlaBlaCar was introduced in Ukraine and Russia.

In September 2014 , the service had 10 million users.

In January 2015, BlaBlaCar expanded to India. The company bought multiple competitors, including Carpooling in Germany, Autohop in eastern Europe, and Rides in Mexico, expanding to Latin America.

In 2015, the company had 290 employees on three continents and 20 million users in 19 countries. In May 2015, BlaBlaCar signed a partnership with Axa to insure its users, launching BlaBlaSure in May 2018.

In April 2017, a long term rental service was offered to the best drivers. It was the result of a partnership with the constructor Opel and ALD Automotive, specializing in long term rental.

On 2 May 2017, BlaBlaLines, an application for daily carpool, was launched in France.

In 2017, the company closed its offices in India, Turkey and Mexico. Executives said they had spent too much and hired too aggressively in those territories. Overall, the company has become far more diversified in terms of geography. While 75% of its users were in France in 2015, by 2021 the company reported that 80% of its riders were outside of France and 60% were outside of Europe.

On 30 January 2018, BlaBlaCar unveiled a new corporate identity and style guide. A new algorithm was also put in place to increase the number of trips proposed for users.

In April 2018, the company acquired Less, which launched four months earlier.

In November 2018, BlaBlaCar announced the purchase of long-distance coach operator Ouibus from SNCF. As part of the transaction, SNCF became a shareholder in BlaBlaCar. Ouibus was rebranded BlaBlaBus and BlaBlaCar also raised $114 million from SNCF and previous investors. In 2019, BlaBlaCar acquired Russia's largest bus booking platform, Busfor.

In April 2021, the company acquired Octobus, a Ukrainian company that develops software for bus operators to manage their finances and ticket sales.

In 2021, bus seats represented 20% of all bookings on the BlaBlaCar platform.

In March 2023, the company acquired Klaxit, a French startup enabling carpools on work commutes.

Funding
In 2009, the company raised €600,000 from the founders and their friends and family.

In June 2010, Comuto raised €1.25 million from ISAI run by Jean-David Chamboredon.

In January 2012, Comuto raised €7.5 million from Accel Partners, ISAI and Cabiedes & Partners to develop its activities in Europe.

In July 2014, BlaBlaCar raised US$100 million from Index Ventures. In September 2015, the company raised US$200 million, primarily from Insight Venture Partners, in a round that valued the company at $1.6 billion.

In April 2021, BlaBlaCar raised $115 million.

References

2006 establishments in France
Carsharing
Companies based in Paris
Location-based software
Multilingual websites
Ridesharing companies of France

Shared transport
Transport companies established in 2006

BlaBlaCar


Sir Hilton Lawson, 4th Baronet (1895–1959) was the son of Mordaunt Lawson, third son of Sir Wilfrid Lawson, 2nd Baronet, of Brayton. He was educated at Repton School and later the Royal Military College. He served throughout World War I in the Royal Fusiliers where he attained the rank of Major. In 1939 he rejoined the army, went to France with the British Expeditionary Force, taken prisoner at Dunkirk and did not return until 1945. He succeeded his uncle Sir Wilfrid Lawson, 3rd Baronet, of Isell in 1937 and afterwards took up residence at Isel Hall.

In 1952, Lawson became the High Sheriff of Cumberland. He was a keen sportsman, especially outdoor pursuits. He was chairman of the Cumberland Foxhounds under successive Masters and the chairman of the committee responsible for reviving the Cumberland point-to-point steeplechasing at Moota, Cockermouth, where he officiated as judge. As a keen angler, he was a member of the Derwent Board of Conservators, the body preceding the Cumberland Rivers Board. In politics he forsook the Liberal Party family tradition and supported the Conservative Party, he was the principal nominee of Helen Fox in the 1950 election for the Workington (UK Parliament constituency).

Hilton, who was unmarried, died at Isel on 12 January 1959, and the baronetcy expired with him.

References

1895 births
1959 deaths
People from Cumberland
Hilton
High Sheriffs of Cumberland
People from Aspatria

Hilton Lawson


Ellison is a surname and given name. It may derive from "Son of Elias" in Norwegian. Ellison can also be spelled Ellisson, Elison, Elisson, Ellyson, Ellysson, Elyson, and Elysson.

People with the surname
 Andy Ellison, British musician
 Atiyyah Ellison (born 1981), American football player
 Brooke Ellison (born 1979), American politician
 Casey Ellison, American actor
 Chase Ellison (born 1993), American actor
 Chris Ellison (disambiguation), multiple individuals
 David Ellison, American film producer
 Debbie Ellison, Playboy model
 Eileen Ellison, Grand Prix racer
 Frank Ellison, American model railroader
 George Ellison (disambiguation), multiple individuals
 Glenn Ellison, American professor
Grace Ellison (died 1935), British journalist
 Harlan Ellison, writer
 Harold John Ellison, US naval ensign
 James Ellison (actor)
 James Ellison (footballer, born 1901)
 James Ellison (motorcycle racer)
 James T. Ellison, New York gangster
 Jason Ellison, Major League Baseball outfielder
 Jennifer Ellison (born 1983), British actress
 Jeremiah Ellison, member of the Minneapolis City Council
 Joseph Ellison, Royal Navy officer.
 Keith Ellison (football), American football player
 Keith Ellison, member of the United States House of Representatives and Attorney General from Minnesota
 Larry Ellison, co-founder and CEO of Oracle Corporation
 Lorraine Ellison, singer
 Matt Ellison, Canadian ice hockey player
 Megan Ellison, American film producer
 Mervyn A. Ellison, Irish astronomer
 Paul Ellison, bassist
 Pervis Ellison, American basketball player
 Peter T. Ellison (born 1951), American anthropologist
 Ralph Ellison, Author of Invisible Man
 Richard Ellison (cricketer)
 Richard Ellison (politician) (1754–1827), British Member of Parliament (MP)
 Riki Ellison, New Zealand-American football player
 Robert Ellison (disambiguation), multiple individuals
 Scott Ellison (born 1954), American electric blues guitarist, singer and songwriter.
 Sheila Ellison, American author on parenting and relationships
 Thomas Ellison, New Zealand rugby player
 Thomas Ellison (mutineer), English seaman
 William Ellison-Macartney (1852–1924), British and Australian politician
 William Frederick Archdall Ellison, Irish astronomer and clergyman

People with the given name
 Ellison Barber, American journalist
 Ellison Brown (1913-1975), U.S. Olympian
 Ellison Hatfield, the younger brother of Devil Anse Hatfield, murdered by three sons of Randolph McCoy during the Hatfield-McCoy feud
 Ellison "Cotton Top" Mounts, the illegitimate son of Ellison Hatfield, whose hanging is often seen as the end of the Hatfield-McCoy feud.
 Ellison Onizuka (1946-1986), American astronaut killed on the Space Shuttle Challenger
 Ellison D. Smith (1864-1944), American politician
 Ellison G. Smith (1854-1935), a justice of the South Dakota Supreme Court.
 Ellison Capers, Confederate general in the American Civil War.

See also
 Ellison (band), an indie rock band from Cincinnati, Ohio
 Ellison (crater), a lunar impact crater on the far side of the Moon
 Ellison Bay, Wisconsin
 Ellis

Given names
English-language given names
English-language surnames
Patronymic surnames
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Ellison


The World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002, took place in  South Africa, from 26 August to 4 September 2002. It was convened to discuss sustainable development organizations, 10 years after the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. (It was therefore also informally nicknamed "Rio+10".)

Declarations
The Johannesburg Declaration was the main outcome of the Summit; however, there were several other international agreements.

It laid out the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation as an action plan.

Agreements
Johannesburg, 27 August: agreement was made to restore the world's depleted fisheries for 2015. It was agreed to by negotiators at the World Summit.

Instead of new agreements between governments, the Earth Summit was organized mostly around almost 300 "partnership initiatives" known as Type II, as opposed to Type I Partnerships which are the more classic outcome of international treaties.  These were to be the key means to achieve the Millennium Development Goals.  These are kept in a database of Partnerships for Sustainable Development.

U.S. participation
The absence of the United States rendered the summit partially impotent. George W. Bush boycotted the summit and did not attend. Except for a brief appearance by Colin Powell, who hurriedly addressed the closing stages of the conference while his airplane taxied on the runway of Johannesburg International, the US government did not send a delegation, earning Bush praise in a letter from conservative organizations such as Americans for Tax Reform, American Enterprise Institute, and Competitive Enterprise Institute.

History

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, was first held in Stockholm, Sweden, in June 1972, and marked the emergence of international environmental law. The Declaration on the Human Environment also known as the Stockholm Declaration set out the principles for various international environmental issues, including human rights, natural resource management, pollution prevention and the relationship between the environment and development. The conference also led to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme.

The Brundtland Commission set up by Gro Harlem Brundtland, the pioneer of sustainable development, provided the momentum for first Earth Summit 1992 – the United Nations Conference on Environmental Development (UNCED), that was also headed by Maurice Strong, who had been a prominent member of the Brundtland Commission – and also for Agenda 21.

South Africa's first National Conference on Environment and Development entitled, "Ecologise Politics, Politicise Ecology" was held at the University of the Western Cape in conjunction with the Cape Town Ecology Group and the Western Cape Branch of the World Conference on Religion and Peace in 1991. Prominent persons involved in this conference were Ebrahim Rasool, Cheryl Carolus, Faried Esack, and Julia Martin.

The initial informal discussions on a possible new Summit in 2002 were held in February 1998 and hosted by Derek Osborn who co-chaired the preparatory meetings for Rio+5 and Stakeholder Forum for a Sustainable Future. A set of 10 governments started working informally to start putting together the possible agenda for a Summit. the non-papers produced in 1998 and 1999 ensured that when the UN Commission met in 2000 it could agree to host another Summit in 2002.

See also
 Agenda 21
 Energy development
 Global Map
 Green energy
 Sustainability
 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, the follow-up conference in 2012
 United Nations Environment Programme
 United Nations Human Settlements Programme

References

External links
Earth Summit 2002
Johannesburg Summit
Greenpeace Earth Summit Page
Constitution of the Conference

International sustainable development
United Nations conferences on the environment
Diplomatic conferences in South Africa
21st-century diplomatic conferences (Global)
2002 in South Africa
2002 in international relations
2002 in the environment
Environmental conferences
United Nations development policy
2000s in Johannesburg
August 2002 events in South Africa
September 2002 events in South Africa
South Africa and the United Nations

Earth Summit 2002


Per Henrik Olsson (born 15 September 1970) is a Swedish television presenter who has hosted shows like SVT's Voxpop, Jupiter and Melodifestivalen 2001. He has also been a travelling reporter for the travel show Packat & klart on the same channel, and also as a reporter on the entertainment show Nöjesnytt at SVT and SVT24.
 There, he covered the latest news in entertainment and he also covered Melodifestivalen 2007. He has presented the radioshows Ketchup sommarlov, nattliv, Sommartoppen and P3Mix on Sveriges Radio. Nowadays he presents at P4 Premiär, P4 Retro, and at SR P4 Stockholm.

Olsson is married to his husband Oscar Målevik and he also has a daughter with Lotta Bromé.

References

External links

Living people
1970 births
Swedish television personalities
Swedish LGBT entertainers

Henrik Olsson


The Robert and Concetta Dwyer Arena houses two ice surfaces, both 200 x 85 ft., and pro shop on Niagara University's campus in Lewiston, New York, United States. The main rink can seat up to 1,400 people and is the home to the Niagara Purple Eagles men's ice hockey team, which plays in Atlantic Hockey. The arena was formerly home to the women's ice hockey team, which played in College Hockey America.

The building was built in 1996. Prior to the 1999–2000 season, major renovation took place as a result of a gift by Bob and Connie Dwyer, both 1965 graduates, who contributed $3 million for facilities upgrades. Locker and training rooms, players' lounge, and lobby were upgraded, while separate entrances for the main and auxiliary rinks, new pro shop, and new ticket office were arranged. In the summer of 2007 a premium seating section was added in the area formerly occupied by the Party Deck, and as a result, capacity was increased from 1,600 to 2,100. The current seating capacity is 1,400.

It hosted the College Hockey America 2002, 2008, and 2010 men's conference tournaments and the 2004 and 2008 women's conference tournaments.  Dwyer was home of the Buffalo Sabres Summer Development Camp in 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 which featured young prospects and draft picks in the Sabres organization.  The arena co-hosted the 2011 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.

External links

Indoor arenas in New York (state)
College ice hockey venues in the United States
Sports venues in New York (state)
Indoor ice hockey venues in the United States
Niagara Purple Eagles ice hockey
Sports venues in Niagara County, New York
1996 establishments in New York (state)
Sports venues completed in 1996

Dwyer Arena


Rancho San Marcos was a  Mexican land grant in present-day Santa Barbara County, California given in 1846 by Governor Pio Pico to Nicolas A. Den and Richard S. Den.  The grant in the Santa Ynez Valley extended between the San Rafael Mountains and the Santa Ynez River.

History
The former Santa Barbara Mission land was granted to the Den brothers, who emigrated from Ireland.  Nicolas Den came to Santa Barbara in the 1836 and was also the grantee of Rancho Dos Pueblos. His younger brother Richard Den came to Santa Barbara in 1843, and was a doctor who practiced in the Pueblo de Los Angeles.

With the cession of California to the United States following the Mexican–American War, the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the Land Act of 1851, a claim for Rancho San Marcos was filed with the Public Land Commission in 1852, and the grant was patented to Nicolas A. Den and Richard S. Den in 1869.

In 1868 William Pierce bought Rancho San Marcos from the Den brothers' heirs. Pierce was also the owner of adjoining Rancho Tequepis and Rancho Nojoqui. The businesses were moderately successful.

Nicolas A. Den
Nicolas August Den (1812–1862) was an Irish immigrant who moved to Santa Barbara in 1836.  Den who had studied to become a medical doctor in Dublin, and although not yet graduated, he became the first medical doctor in the Santa Barbara area.  His brother, Richard, came to Santa Barbara in 1843.  While both Den brothers were medical men, Nicolas Den's practice had been put aside in favor of administration of Rancho Dos Pueblos and service as alcalde of Santa Barbara.  He also devoted himself to preserving the local mission and establishing a Catholic seminary in Santa Barbara. In later years Nicolas Den was one of the seven organizers of the Society of California Pioneers. He married Rosa A. Hill, a daughter of Daniel A. Hill. He died in 1862, leaving ten children.

Richard S. Den
Richard Somerset Den (1821–1895), a native of County Kilkenny, Ireland, had followed his brother Nicolas, to Santa Barbara in 1843. Richard Den practiced medicine in Los Angeles with the exception of a brief sojourn in 1848–1850 prospecting for gold in Calaveras County, and a decade's absence (1854–1866) to administer Rancho San Marcos, until 1895. Den also aroused a certain awe in his later days as he made his rounds astride a black charger, dressed in black and wearing a black felt hat atop "a clustered mass of wavy hair as white as snow". A participant in the Mexican–American War, Richard S. Den served as the chief physician and surgeon for the Mexican forces. He treated Californios and the American prisoners, including Benjamin D. Wilson and his party captured at the Battle of Chino in 1846.

See also
Ranchos of California
List of Ranchos of California
National Register of Historic Places listings in Santa Barbara County, California — includes Rancho San Marcos.

References

External links
Ranchos of Santa Barbara County Map

San Marcos
San Marcos
San Rafael Mountains
National Register of Historic Places in Santa Barbara County, California

Rancho San Marcos


Christianity is the most widely professed religion in the Dominican Republic. Historically, Catholicism dominated the religious practices of the country, and as the official religion of the state it receives financial support from the government. About 60% of Dominicans identify themselves as Catholic.

Christianity

Roman Catholicism

The most professed denomination by far is Roman Catholicism

The Catholic Church in the Dominican Republic  has formed a large part of the history of the country, and it is known as the largest humanitarian aid Institution, it is also in charge of school education in the area of Integral and Religious Human Formation and others also of the revision of it.

The Dominican Catholic Church also has several media outlets including:

• Multimedia Life (Televida)

• The Voice of Mary

• Udeca (Union of Catholic radio stations)

Multimedia Vida is located in Santo Domingo and is from the  Archdiocese of Santo Domingo. It hosts a TV statation, Televida (Channel 41) and a radio station Vida FM 105.3, also belonging to Radio ABC 540am in the National District; the director until now is Father Kennedy Rodríguez. The largest Christian TV in the country, La Voz de María, is based in the north; this broadcasts nationally and internationally, and has a Web Radio with headquarters in the Concepcion La Vega that transmits to the whole country. The Dominican Catholic Church also stands out for having one of the largest areas in the country and using Religious tourism that takes tours to sanctuaries and outstanding churches in the country, including:

• Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Altagracia (Higüey)

• Cathedral of Santa María la Menor

• Sanctuary of Our Lady of Las Mercedes.

• Sacred Heart of Jesus Church of Moca.

• Cathedral Santiago Apostle

• Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception De la Vega.

• New National Sanctuary Santo Cristo de los Milagros de Bayaguana

Patroness:

• Our Lady of Mercy.

• Santo Domingo.

Protector:

 Our Lady of Altagracia.

Assembly of Bishops:

Conferencia del Episcopado Dominicano

Ecclesial Data in 2020:

There are twelve ecclesiastical circumscriptions, two being archdioceses or metropolitan sees, nine dioceses and one military ordinariate. There are 648 parishes without counting the chapels and cathedrals and 1,056 pastoral care centers. There are 25 living bishops: a cardinal archbishop emeritus, a papal nuncio, three archbishops and 20 bishops. The following work in the country as pastoral agents: 1,073 priests (624 secular clergy and 449 religious clergy), 530 permanent deacons, 91 members of secular institutes, 35 lay missionaries, 267 brothers, 621 major seminarians, 3,125 consecrated religious, 50,114 catechists.

Protestantism and other Christian religions

Morgan Foley was the leader of Protestantism for women in the 1800s. During the 1820s, Protestants migrated to the Dominican Republic from the United States. West Indian Protestants arrived on the island late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries, and by the 1920s, several Protestant organizations were established all throughout the country, which added diversity to the religious representation in the Dominican Republic. Many of the Protestant groups in DR had connections with organizations in  United States including Evangelical groups like Assemblies of God, Dominican Evangelical Church, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. These groups dominated the Protestant movement in the earlier part of the 20th century, but in the 1960s and 1970s Pentecostal churches saw the most growth. Protestant denominations active in the Dominican Republic now include:

Assembly of God
Church of God
Baptist
Pentecostal
Seventh-day Adventist Church
Church of the Brethren

Other religions include The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and Jehovah's Witnesses who have had a growing presence in the country.

Missionaries from the Episcopal Church, the LDS, the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Seventh-day Adventist church, and various Mennonite churches also travel to the island. Jehovah's Witnesses, specifically, have been known to be migrating (more so during the last decade) to the Dominican Republic where they feel there is a great need for evangelizing their faith.

Afro-Caribbean religions
The Dominican Republic, being a nation with a large population of Haitian migrants was able to preserve some African religions, and aspects of them. Many of the Afro-Caribbean religions in the country are syncretized with Catholicism, but not all to the same extent. Some may only use the image of saints but be completely Africanized in every other aspect, while others may be fully Christian with some African aspects.

21 Divisiones or Dominican Vodou

Dominican Vodou is composed of three divisions, the Indian Division, which refers to Taino entities, the Black Division, whose entities are of African origin, and the White Division, whose entities are of European origin. The Indian Division is one of the main features that distinguishes 21 Divisiones from other forms of Vodou. Dominican Vodou uses a different percussion, a lot of times it is played with Abates or "Tambour de Palo", which are of Kongo origin; along with it a Guira (Scraper) is usually used. The drums are known as Palos and the drummers as Paleros, and when a ceremony in which they are at is usually referred to as a Fiesta de Palo. Dominican Vodou is practiced through a Tcha Tcha lineage ("maraca" – which means rattle – lineage). In Haiti, Vodou has come about and become more popular through another lineage known as the Asson. However, before the Asson, the Tcha Tcha lineage was the prominent lineage in Haiti. Thus the Tcha Tcha lineage is one of the oldest lineages within the Vodou tradition. Las 21 Divisiones is less strict than the Haitian Vodou tradition.   There is less regleman (fixed doctrines or rules) within the Haitian Vodou Tradition. There is no fixed doctrine, defined temples or ceremonies, and it does not have as rigid a structure. This can be seen in the many different ways in which Caballos de Misterios conduct ceremonies and how the spirits mount a person. Dominican Vodou practitioners are often called "Caballos" but they are also known as Papa Bokos and Papa Lwa (both for males) and Mama Mambos and Mama Lwa (both for females). One who has obtained this title has gone through the last and highest level of initiation that can take anywhere between 3 and 9 days and nights as well as have spent a time working for the community.

Haitian Vodou
Haitian Vodou is also practiced on the island. Haitian Vodou is very much influenced by religions from Benin, and to complement it also influenced by the Kongo religions, the Yoruba, Roman Catholicism and a bit by the Tainos. It is very widely practiced in many bateyes (sugar cane communities) all around the country and large Haitian communities along the border.

Congos Del Espiritu Santo
Congos Del Espiritu Santo, also known as Dominican Santeria, is a mix of African religious symbolism. It is not as purely African as Vodou, or Cuban Santeria, but it is very easy to spot African influences in every aspect, one just has to notice the name starts with "Congos". For one thing the Kongo deity Kalunga is syncretized with the Holy Spirit. It is said that the holy spirit appeared to the locals of Villa Mella, Mata los Indios with all the instruments of the religion, which include two drums, one called the Palo Major and the other one often called Alcahuete. A canoita, a clave like instrument made out of wood, and along with it Maracas. They often play their music during burial ceremonies, which is undeniably a very African tradition, specifically from the Congo Republic, DR Congo and Angola today, previously known as the kingdom of Kongo.

Others

Dominican Protestants undoubtedly have African aspects to their religion, especially Pentecostals. This can be seen usually in the instruments used in many churches. For example, it is not uncommon to find handmade or imported drums; some of which include Balsie's, Congas, Bongos and Panderos (tambourines). Taino influence can be seeing as well in the use of Guiras to accompany the music. Superficially Pentecostals can cluster very close with more Africanized religions such as Vodou, Candomble, Santeria. Although many of the beliefs are very distinct, the form of worship may be hard to distinguish for onlookers. Because in all of these religions there is spiritual possession, in the case of Pentecostals the Holy spirit, and sometimes much shouting and glossolalia (speaking in tongues), which is universal in the others as well.

Islam and the Bahá'í Faith
The Muslim population in the Dominican Republic was increased by Middle Eastern settlers, mostly Arabs of Lebanese, Syrian, and Palestinian origin and by Pakistanis and other people from the Indian subcontinent. Brands of Tasawwuf are becoming more and more manifested in the country from native born Dominican Muslims and foreign Muslims who are murids of the Shadhili, Qadiri, and Ba'Alawi Tariqas. Salafis are also an ethnic group of Muslim in  the Dominican Republic.

Dominican Republic also has enough followers of the Bahá'í Faith to have a Bahá'í National Assembly in the country.

Judaism

The current population of Jews in the Dominican Republic is close to 3,000, with the majority living in the capital, Santo Domingo and others residing in Sosúa, which was founded by Jews after President Rafael Trujillo offered to accept up to 100,000 Jewish refugees in 1938. Both locations have synagogues.

Religious freedom
The constitution of the Dominican Republic provides for the freedom of religion. Catholicism is the state religion.

Non-Catholic religious groups can register with the government in order to receive tax exemptions and to be allowed to officiate marriages.

The law requires that all public schools teach religious studies based on and reviewed by the Catholic Church. Parents can choose to take their children out of such classes, and private schools are not required to provide them. Private religious schools may offer their own religious curricula.

In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.

See also

 Islam in the Dominican Republic
 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the Dominican Republic
 Afro-American religion
 Religion in Latin America

References

 International Religious Freedom Report 2022 Dominican Republic, U.S. Department of State, 2022 report
 Dominican Republic - Religion U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved July 13, 2006.
 Malas Vibras En Casa & Como Quitarlas (21 divisiones)
 Zooming Who?

Religion in the Dominican Republic