"Bound" is the seventeenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise, originally broadcast on April 15, 2005. It was written by showrunner Manny Coto, and directed by Allan Kroeker. The episode featured the return of the Orion slave girls, which had been originally seen in the original pilot of Star Trek: The Original Series, "The Cage".

Set in the 22nd century, the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise, registration NX-01. In this episode, three Orion slave girls come on board the ship, and the crew, with the exception of Commander "Trip" Tucker and Commander T'Pol who seem to have a resistant psychic bond, begin acting strangely.

The episode featured the return of Cyia Batten and William Lucking who had both previously appeared in multi-episode parts in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Four time MTV Music Video Award for Choreography winner Travis Payne was brought on board to oversee the extensive choreography for the three actresses playing the Orion women. Each actress went through a four to five-hour make-up process for each day of filming, which required them to be sprayed green. "Bound" received Nielsen ratings of 1.8/3%, and critical reaction was mixed with one reviewer listing it amongst the best episodes of Enterprise while another listed as the worst episode ever of any Star Trek series.

Plot
Enterprise is en route to the Berengarius system, one of the proposed locations for a Starfleet starbase, when it is approached by an Orion Syndicate vessel. Captain Archer is invited to visit the Orion ship by its captain, Harrad-Sar. During the visit, Archer and Lieutenant Reed are entertained by three Orion dancers, Navaar, D'Nesh, and Maras. Archer negotiates with Harrad-Sar and they agree to a joint magnesite mining operation, and at Harrad-Sar's insistence the three slaves are given to him. They return to Enterprise with the slaves and set a course to survey the planet.

En route, the presence of the Orions begins having an effect on the crew: men become increasingly aggressive, while women increasingly suffer from headaches. Navaar focuses her attentions on Archer, while D'Nesh seduces Commander Kelby. Arriving at the planet, a sluggish Archer orders Reed to destroy another ship, but he refuses and it escapes. Kelby meanwhile sabotages the warp drive before Commander Tucker can physically stop him. Afterwards, Doctor Phlox determines that the Orions are producing pheromones, causing the crew's adrenaline levels to spike. Only Commander T'Pol and Tucker remain unaffected, since she is Vulcan and he shares her immunity because of their psychic bond.

The Orions are placed under guard in the decontamination chamber. Harrad-Sar returns in his vessel and attacks the now disabled Enterprise, and then begins to tow it away. He reveals that, in fact, the Syndicate seeks Archer's head, and in this matter he is the slave and the Orion women are his masters. The Orions escape and travel to the Bridge, as do T'Pol and Tucker. Navaar tells Archer to arrest T'Pol, but Tucker stuns all the male crew-members with his phaser, and Tucker and T'Pol disable the Orion ship with a pulse sent from Enterprise deflector dish. They send the Orions back to their ship, and T'Pol finally admits she would personally like Tucker to return, and he replies that he has already requested a transfer back to Enterprise.

Production

The Orion slave girls had been introduced in the original Star Trek: The Original Series pilot "The Cage", footage from which was later adapted to appear in the episode "The Menagerie". The make-up was designed by Fred Phillips, which was originally tested on Majel Barrett, before it was applied to Susan Oliver. Cyia Batten, Crystal Allen and Menina Fortunato played the three Orion women in "Bound". Batten had previously appeared as Tora Ziyal, the daughter of Gul Dukat in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine in the episodes "Indiscretion" and "Return to Grace". She also appeared in "Drive", an episode Star Trek: Voyager, as Irina. William Lucking had appeared as a Bajoran called Furel in three episodes of Deep Space Nine; "Shakaar", "The Darkness and the Light" and "Ties of Blood and Water". Derek Magyar returned as Commander Kelby, following his introduction earlier in the previous episode "Divergence".

Allen recalled The Original Series, and said that she was pleased to be remembered as an Orion slave girl in Enterprise. However, she was not pleased with the make-up process, which took between four and five hours to apply, and required each actress to be sprayed with green make-up over her whole body. Removal of the makeup was via the showers in the Paramount lot's executive gym. The make-up team also needed to apply fake sweat and bruises to other members of the cast to represent the results of the increased aggression shown by them in the episode's plot.

Allan Kroeker, the director of "Bound", had previously directed two episodes earlier in the season, "Storm Front" and "Home". Fortunato praised the director and described the Orions, saying that they "move very slowly, very seductively. I would like to compare us to snakes – we like to slither and creep around, versus a human. So we're a little sneaky. The three of us are trying to get something accomplished, and each one of us has our target, so to speak, to try to manipulate them to get what we want in the end."

The choreography was overseen by Travis Payne, who had won the MTV Music Video Award for Best Choreography on four occasions and worked with Madonna, Michael Jackson and Britney Spears amongst others. Both Batten and Fortunato were trained dancers, with Batten being a former member of The Pussycat Dolls burlesque dance troupe, while Allen had previously appeared in films such as Maid in Manhattan and television series such as Boston Legal alongside William Shatner. After being cast, Fortunato said that the actresses playing the Orion women were not shown any film footage of the previous appearances of Orion slave girls, but were allowed to see a magazine article about Bobbi Sue Luther appearing as one in the episode "Borderland" in order to demonstrate what the make-up would look like.

Filming began on January 6, 2005 and concluded on January 14. Only six days were used to shoot, with January 10 spent working on choreography for the dance scene and for shooting additional footage for "Divergence". Filming on the earlier episode had also overlapped on the first day of filming. While the actresses playing the Orion women were required on all days, Lucking filmed all his scenes on the final day of shooting. The main cabin of the Orion ship was constructed in full specifically for this episode while the bridge was only a single wall as it was only seen on screen as a viewscreen background.

Reception
"Bound" was first aired in the United States on UPN on April 15, 2005. It received a 1.8/3% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 1.8 percent of all households, and three percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. This was lower than the following episode, where the first installment of the two-part "In a Mirror, Darkly" received ratings of 2.0/3%.

IGN gave the episode three out of five, and said that although it wasn't the best episode, it was moving the series in the right direction, and called it "a decent hour of action-adventure science fiction." Jason Davis of Cinescape gave it a B+ and said "Coto has crafted a script that evokes the ambience of the original while spinning a yarn that keeps even the most ensconced Trek aficionado in suspense." He concludes: "This episode, not to mention this season, is what Enterprise should have been all along." Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website Jammer's Reviews gave "Bound" a score of one out of four, saying that it was "too dumb, too obvious, too boring, and too rooted in gender stereotypes". He said that it was sexist and "the worst episode of Enterprise in more than two years". Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation said that it was the single worst episode of any Star Trek series, including "Spock's Brain". She considered it a statement in misogyny and also thought that it represented a scenario where homosexual characters do not exist. James Hunt of the website Den of Geek listed "Bound" as the fourth best episode of Enterprise, saying that it "found a way to include [the Orion slave girls] in a way that preserved the eye candy and shifted the power in the Orion relationships."

Home media release
"Bound" was released on home media in the United States on November 1, 2005, as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise. The Blu-ray edition was released on April 1, 2014.

Notes

References

External links

Star Trek: Enterprise (season 4) episodes
2005 American television episodes
Television episodes about slavery

Bound (Star Trek: Enterprise)


Norsk Data was a minicomputer manufacturer located in Oslo, Norway. Existing from 1967 to 1998, it had its most active period from the early 1970s to the late 1980s. At the company's peak in 1987, it was the second largest company in Norway and employed over 4,500 people.

Throughout its history Norsk Data produced a long string of extremely innovative systems, with a disproportionately large number of world firsts. Some examples of this are the NORD-1, the first minicomputer to have memory paging as a standard option, and the first machine to have floating-point instructions standard, the NORD-5, the world's first 32-bit minicomputer (beating the VAX, often claimed the first, by 6 years).

Historical overview

The origins of Norsk Data go back to the development of digital computers at the Norwegian Defense Research Establishment at Kjeller, Norway, where several early computers had been designed, such as the SAM and the SAM 2, also known as the FLINK.

The success of this program resulted in the founding of A/S Nordata – Norsk Data Elektronikk on August 8, 1967, by Lars Monrad Krohn, Per Bjørge and Rolf Skår. The company became a significant supplier of minicomputers to many research projects, in particular to CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, where they were chosen to produce the computers for many projects, starting with the SPS Project, Norsk Data's international breakthrough contract. The other market segments Norsk Data succeeded in were process control, Norwegian municipal administration data centers, newspapers, as well as parts of the educational, health, and university sector.

For a period in 1987, Norsk Data was the second largest company by stock value in Norway, second only to Norsk Hydro, and employed over 4,500 people.

In March 1991, shortly after the January Events, Norsk Data donated the first computer to Lithuanian Institute of Mathematics and Informatics. This donation started the development of LITNET, an academic and research network in Lithuania. Later that year, the network connection lines directly connecting Vilnius to Moscow were shut down. With the help of additional hardware donated by Norsk Data, Lithuania was able to use its first satellite-based Internet connection, which operated at 9,6 kbit/s. This was the first Lithuanian communications line that was totally independent from the former Soviet Union.

After a long period of exceptional success, the Norsk Data "empire" collapsed in the early 1990s, mostly due to not realizing the impact of the PC revolution (as well as the growing competition from Unix-based workstations). In 1989, alongside upgraded versions of the company's proprietary minicomputer range, notably the ND-5850, attempts were made to introduce Unix products such as the Uniline 33 range, based on Motorola system designs for the 68030 processor. Such conventional Unix systems were primarily aimed at international customers, whereas in Scandinavia the company reportedly sought to offer only its NDIX implementation of Unix for its own proprietary architecture. Systems based on Motorola's 88000 processor were planned to follow on from these new 68030-based products.

Efforts to restructure the company in 1990 were initially perceived as moderately successful, with executives and analysts expressing beliefs that such restructuring had put the company in a more favourable position than competitors who were yet "to swallow the same bitter pill" of refocusing and workforce reductions. Development of Norsk Data technology was continued by Dolphin Server Technology, with this spin-off company aiming to supply Motorola 88000-based systems to its parent. Indeed, Norsk Data introduced the Uniline 88 series of 88000-based systems, developed by Dolphin, initially in Scandinavia during 1990 and then in the UK and Germany during 1991. Norsk Data also announced an agreement with Data General to resell that company's Aviion line of 88000-based products. Norsk Data was purchased by Telenor and went through several rebrands and relaunches.

Notable innovations
Throughout the times, Norsk Data produced a long string of innovative computers. Some examples of this include:

 The NORD-1, the first minicomputer to have memory paging as a standard option, and the first machine to have floating-point instructions as standard
 The NORD-5, the world's first 32-bit minicomputer or superminicomputer, introduced in 1972, preceding both the Interdata 7/32 and Digital Equipment Corporation VAX that are occasionally cited as the first of their kind
 The NORD-100, a very early application of bitslicing in minicomputers
 The KPS (Knowledge Process System), developed in joint venture with Racal plc, a system which pioneered running a multi-user LISP machine environment

Post-breakup companies
Although the Norsk Data breakup caused a large number of layoffs, a large number of employees and intellectual property lived on in various smaller companies. Some went bankrupt quite quickly, some were bought for tax purposes.

The hardware research and development group was split off into Dolphin Server Technology in 1989. Dolphin later split off into a number of companies, by far the most successful of these being Dolphin Interconnect Solutions, a cluster interconnect hardware company.

Norsk Data UK
In the UK, Telenor kept the Norsk Data name for several years, focusing in on hardware support and maintenance contracts, mainly with HMCG and local governments.

At the tail end of the "dotcom boom" Telenor decided to try and expand the service by acquiring the ISP CIX  and XTML, a hosting company in Manchester, UK. The total expenditure on acquisitions was more than £50 million.

The name and business focus of this group of companies changed several times in the early 21st Century. Initially combined with the acquired CIX and XTML to form the UK arm of Telenor's Nextra subsidiary, a "communications service provider",, the group became Telenor Business Solutions before finally reverting to ND Norsk Data once CIX and XTML had been resold to Pipex, reportedly for less than 10% of the purchase price.

Much of the loss in value of the acquired companies was put down to the astronomical "goodwill" payment included in the purchase price during the "dotcom boom". ND Norsk Data was then renamed 2e2, and with 2e2 came the acquisition of part of Pink Roccade. This bolstered the hardware maintenance side of the company. The growth by acquisition trend continued with several smaller businesses being taken on, and many employees subsequently being laid off. Major losses of high earning contracts such as Thomas Cook, Woolworths, HMP, or Corus, were never replaced with similar-sized customers.

Hardware
Significant Norsk Data computer models include:
NORD-1, 16-bit minicomputer launched in 1968, could run TSS (see below) from 1971
NORD-5, 32-bit supermini launched in 1972
NORD-9,
NORD-10, 16-bit mini launched in 1973
NORD-10/S, version of the Nord-10 with cache, paging, and other improvements
NORD-50, second generation 32-bit supermini in 1975
NORD-100, 16-bit, from 1978, later renamed ND-100. First single-board 16-bit minicomputer CPU.
ND-500, third generation 32-bit supermini in 1981
ND-505, 28-bit computer allowed through the CoCom embargo of the Eastern bloc
ND-5000 ("Samson"), fourth generation 32-bit supermini in 1987 (5400, 5700, 5800)
ND-5850 ("Rallar"), fifth generation 32-bit supermini in 1987
ND-5900-2, ND-5900-3, and ND-5904, dual-, triple- and quad-CPU 5000 series machines.
ND-88000 – ND implementation of the Motorola MC88000 RISC for Unix/NDix – 1987

Software
In addition to hardware, Norsk Data also produced a wide range of system and application software:

NORD-TSS – Nord Time Sharing System from 1971
SINTRAN – Operating system for Nord 10 and later models, version III from 1973, III/VS in 1974
 XMSG – OSI based (X21 and X.25) communication system, integrated with SINTRAN, with support for both synchronous and asynchronous communication in 1974 and on. Full LU 6.2 support in 1982
SIBAS database based on the Codasyl database specifications was ported by the Central Institute for Industrial Research in 1975 SIBAS is owned by SRS.
FORTRAN compiler
ND-Paint Graphic editing – Windows based
BASIC compiler developed in Kiel and Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany with the CAT-System (Common Abstract Tree-Language) using the Vienna Development Method, 1983
COBOL compiler
C compiler for ND-100/ND-500 developed by University of Luleå, and IAR Systems AB, Sweden, in cooperation with Norsk Data A.S, 1984. A later C compiler developed in Kiel and Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany with the CAT-System using the Vienna Development Method, 1987.
ND-COSMOS – computer networking system
PLANC compiler – PLANC was the system language of Norsk Data – a language "defined by its implementation", similar to C, but assignment left to right, as you read: A + 1 =: A same as A++
Pascal compiler developed by Prof. Dr. Hans Langmaack and his team at Kiel University in Germany with the CAT-System using the Vienna Development Method, 1987
PED – "Programmer's EDitor" Screen oriented text editor
LED – "Language-sensitive programmer's EDitor" Screen oriented text editor and debugger – complete Integrated Development Environment made for own use.
ND-NOTIS – Integrated, modular word processing and office application suite with ties to database and customer applications.
NORTEXT – typesetting system integrated with ND-NOTIS and SIBAS
Lisp Machine Lisp – MIT Lisp machine lisp developed in a joint venture Racal-Norsk (ZetaLisp).
Technovision – CAD system developed in Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany. Technovision was a modular CAD/CAM system which was internationally considered to be one of the best on the market. It was in part designed by Norsk Data Dietz GmbH. A special workstation named the Technostation was designed specifically for running Technovision. It was extremely well received by international press, and even won a design award.
BIBDIA – Library system developed by Norsk Data Dietz GmbH in Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany. BIBDIA was further developed by BiBer GmbH since 1992. The current WEB-based version is still running as a market leader in Germany and Switzerland.

In addition to the above:
 two batch languages, called JEC and XCOM. JEC were used primarily as a simple batch job controller, whereas XCOM was used for much more involved routines such as operating system patches etc. Most of the applications came in two different editions, one compiled for the NORD-10/ND-100 series and one compiled for the ND-500/ND-5000 series.
 ND spun off NOTIS-WP and NOTIS-RG into NOTIS AS, which later changed its name to Maxware. NOTIS-QL was copied by Microsoft, where it is called Access (the internal name for NOTIS-QL was "Access-1") but the original was sold to Sysdeco and sold now with the name "QBEVision".

Tim Berners-Lee connection
The World Wide Web originated when Tim Berners-Lee wrote the ENQUIRE program in Pascal on a Norsk Data NORD-10 running under SINTRAN III at CERN. They also used ND-NOTIS, that was based on SGML, and emailed with NOTIS-MAIL, using tcp/ip, coded in HTML.

References

External links
 Norsk Data Forum - a Norwegian site operated by ND ex-employees.
 A commercial Norsk Data-related home page
 Norsk Data Pakistan Private Limited
 Computer-Archiv - Norsk Data
 A Norsk Data page operated by Tore Bekkedal
 Norsk Data's history by Jonny Oddene
 NDWiki, The Norsk Data encyclopedia
 BiBer GmbH - a German Company founded by ND ex-employees.

Minicomputers
Defunct computer hardware companies
Defunct companies of Norway
Computer companies of Norway
1967 establishments in Norway
Computer companies established in 1967
Computer companies disestablished in 1992
1992 disestablishments in Norway

Norsk Data


A medical service corps is a kind of military corps found in branches of the United States Armed Forces that is formally designated to engage in supporting and administrating the provision of medical assistance to soldiers and their families, and to civilians in emergency situations. These include the United States Air Force Medical Service Corps, which is a branch of the Air Force Medical Service; the United States Navy Medical Service Corps, which is a staff corps of the Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (BUMED), and the United States Army Medical Service Corps, which is a branch of the Army Medical Department. In each branch, the Medical Service Corps is distinct from a medical corps. The focus of the Medical Service Corps is on matters such as logistics and supply, support, and administration, and the provision of services like lab testing, pharmacy, and environmental science, and of medical specialties such as psychology and optometry.

Military medical organizations of the United States
Army medical administrative corps

Medical service corps


Chumashan was a family of languages that were spoken on the southern California coast by Native American Chumash people, from the Coastal plains and valleys of San Luis Obispo to Malibu, neighboring inland and Transverse Ranges valleys and canyons east to bordering the San Joaquin Valley, to three adjacent Channel Islands: San Miguel, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz.

The Chumashan languages may be, along with Yukian and perhaps languages of southern Baja California such as Waikuri, one of the oldest language families established in California, before the arrival of speakers of Penutian, Uto-Aztecan, and perhaps even Hokan languages. Chumashan, Yukian, and southern Baja languages are spoken in areas with long-established populations of a distinct physical type. The population in the core Chumashan area has been stable for the past 10,000 years. However, the attested range of Chumashan is recent (within a couple thousand years). There is internal evidence that Obispeño replaced a Hokan language and that Island Chumash mixed with a language very different from Chumashan; the islands were not in contact with the mainland until the introduction of plank canoes in the first millennium AD.

Although some say the Chumashan languages are now extinct or dormant, language revitalization programs are underway with four of these Chumashan languages. These languages are well-documented in the unpublished fieldnotes of linguist John Peabody Harrington. Especially well documented are Barbareño, Ineseño, and Ventureño. The last native speaker of a Chumashan language was Barbareño speaker Mary Yee, who died in 1965.

Family division

Languages

Six Chumashan languages are attested, all now extinct.  However, most of them are in the process of revitalization, with language programs and classes.  Contemporary Chumash people now prefer to refer to their languages by native names rather than the older names based on the local missions.

I. Northern Chumash
 1. Obispeño (also known as Northern Chumash) (†)
 Also known as Tilhini by students of the language, after the name of the major village near which the mission was founded.
II. Southern Chumash
 a. Island Chumash (mixed with non-Chumash)
 2. Island Chumash (also known as Ysleño, Isleño, Cruzeño) (†) Was spoken on the three inhabited islands in the Santa Barbara Channel Islands: Santa Rosa, San Miguel, and Santa Cruz.
 b. Central Chumash
 3. Purisimeño (†)
 4. Samala (Ineseño) (†)
 Also spelled Sʰamala, spoken by the Santa Ynez Band.
 5. Šmuwič (Barbareño) (†)
 Also spelled Shmuwich by students of the language and community members. This is the name for the language and the people; it means "coastal."
 6. Mitsqanaqa'n (Ventureño) (†)
 Students of the language and community members renamed the language after the name of a major village near which the mission was founded.

Obispeño was the most divergent Chumashan language. The Central Chumash languages include Purisimeño, Ineseño, Barbareño and Ventureño.  There was a dialect continuum across this area, but the form of the language spoken in the vicinity of each mission was distinct enough to qualify as a different language.

There is very little documentation of Purisimeño. Ineseño, Barbareño and Ventureño each had several dialects, although documentation usually focused on just one.  Island Chumash had different dialects on Santa Cruz Island and Santa Rosa Island, but all speakers were relocated to the mainland in the early 19th century. John Peabody Harrington conducted fieldwork on all the above Chumashan languages, but obtained the least data on Island Chumash, Purisimeño, and Obispeño.  There is no linguistic data on Cuyama, though ethnographic data suggests that it was likely Chumash (Interior Chumash).

Post-contact
The languages are named after the local Franciscan Spanish missions in California where Chumashan speakers were relocated and aggregated between the 1770s and 1830s:
Obispeño—Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa
Purisimeño—Mission La Purísima Concepción
Ineseño—Mission Santa Inés
Barbareño—Mission Santa Barbara
Ventureño—Mission San Buenaventura

Genetic relations

Roland Dixon and Alfred L. Kroeber suggested that the Chumashan languages might be related to the neighboring Salinan in a Iskoman grouping. Edward Sapir accepted this speculation and included Iskoman in his classification of Hokan. More recently it has been noted that Salinan and Chumashan shared only one word, which the Chumashan languages probably borrowed from Salinan (the word for 'white clam shell', which was used as currency). As a result, the inclusion of Chumashan into Hokan is now disfavored by most specialists, and the consensus is that Chumashan has no identified linguistic relatives.

Characteristics

The Chumashan languages are well known for their consonant harmony (regressive sibilant harmony). Mithun presents a scholarly synopsis of Chumashan linguistic structures.

Vowels

The Central Chumash languages all have a symmetrical six-vowel system.  The distinctive high central vowel is written various ways, including  "barred I,"  "schwa" and  "I umlaut."  Contemporary users of the languages favor  or .

Striking features of this system include

  Low-vowel harmony within morphemes:  Within a single morpheme, adjacent low vowels match: they are both or all front /e/, central /a/ or back /o/.  Pan-Central examples:
 expeč "to sing" — I/B/V
 'osos "heel" — I/B/V
 'asas "chin" — I/B/V
  Low-vowel harmony as a process:  Many prefixes include a low vowel which shows up as /a/ when the vowel of the following syllable is high.  When the vowel of the following syllable is low, the vowel of the prefix assimilates to (or "harmonizes" with) the front-central-back quality of the following vowel.  The verb prefix kal- "of cutting" illustrates this process in the following Barbareño examples, where the /l/ may drop out:
 kamasix "to cut into three pieces" — kal- + masix "three"
 keseqen "to cut out" — kal- + seqen "to remove"
 qoloq " to make or bore a hole, cut a hole in — kal- + loq "to be perforated"
 katun "to cut into two pieces" — kal- + =tun "of two, being two"

Consonants

The Central Chumash languages have a complex inventory of consonants.  All of the consonants except /h/ can be glottalized; all of the consonants except /h/, /x/ and the liquids can be aspirated.

Proto-language

Proto-Chumash reconstructions by Klar (1977):

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! no. !! gloss !! Proto-Chumash !! Proto-Southern Chumash !! notes
|-
| 1 || advise, to || *si/umun ||  ||
|-
| 2 || all ||  || *yimlaʔ ||
|-
| 3 || alone || *l-ho ||  ||
|-
| 4 || already || *kVla- ||  ||
|-
| 5 || ant || *tkaya' ||  || plus sound symbolism
|-
| 6 || armpit || *ti/uq'olo(lo) ||  || stem: *q'olo(lo)
|-
| 7 || arrive || *ki/um ||  ||
|-
| 8 || arrow ||  || *ya' ||
|-
| 9 || arroyo || *l'VmV ||  ||
|-
| 10 || ascend || *-nVpa ||  ||
|-
| 11 || ashamed, to be || *-nos- ||  ||
|-
| 12 || ashes || *qSa ||  ||
|-
| 13 || ask, to || *-VsqVnV ||  ||
|-
| 14 || back (body part) || *mVtV' ||  ||
|-
| 15 || ball || *-apapa ||  || reduplicated stem
|-
| 16 || bat (animal) || *mVkala ||  ||
|-
| 17 || bathe, to || *k-ep' ||  ||
|-
| 18 || bear (animal) || *qus ||  ||
|-
| 19 || bee || *olo ||  || plus sound symbolism
|-
| 20 || begin, to || *-nVna' ||  || reduplicated stem?
|-
| 21 || blow, to || *aq-(tV)-p-; *-kVt || *-wu- ||
|-
| 22 || boil, to || *-wi- ||  ||
|-
| 23 || bone || *Se ||  ||
|-
| 24 || bow (noun) || *aqa ||  ||
|-
| 25 || break, to || *k'oto; *eqe ||  ||
|-
| 26 || breast || *kVtet ||  ||
|-
| 27 || breathe; breath || *kal-haS; *-haS ||  ||
|-
| 28 || bring, to || *kVlhi ||  ||
|-
| 29 || burn, to || *qi/ut ||  ||
|-
| 30 || cost, to || *piw' ||  ||
|-
| 31 || carry, to || *kum ||  ||
|-
| 32 || carry on back, to || *sVpV ||  ||
|-
| 33 || cheek ||  || *po' ||
|-
| 34 || chest (body part) || *kVwV ||  ||
|-
| 35 || chia || *'epV- ||  ||
|-
| 36 || canoe ||  || *tomolo ||
|-
| 37 || clitoris || *Cele ~ *C'ele ||  ||
|-
| 38 || cold, to feel || *toqom ~ *qotom ||  ||
|-
| 39 || comb, to || *ti/ukikS ||  ||
|-
| 40 || come, to || *yit-i; *VlhVw ||  ||
|-
| 41 || concerned with, to be || *tak ||  ||
|-
| 42 || cooked || *pSel ||  ||
|-
| 43 || cough, to || *oqoqo- ||  || reduplicated stem; onomatopoetic
|-
| 44 || cover, to || *Vqmay ||  ||
|-
| 45 || crack, split, to || *-eqe ||  ||
|-
| 46 || cut, to || *'iwa ||  || plus reduplication
|-
| 47 || dark-colored, to be || *Soy ||  ||
|-
| 48 || day || *qSi; *-iSa- ||  ||
|-
| 49 || deaf || *tu' ||  ||
|-
| 50 || deep || *l-hiy ||  ||
|-
| 51 || die, to || *qSa ||  ||
|-
| 52 || dirt || *uyu ||  ||
|-
| 53 || drink; thirsty, to be || *aq-mihi-l-ha; *o- ||  ||
|-
| 54 || ear || *tu' ||  ||
|-
| 55 || earth ||  || *šup ||
|-
| 56 || eat, to || *uw ||  ||
|-
| 57 || eye, face || *tVq ||  ||
|-
| 58 || eyes, face, having to do with || *weqe ||  ||
|-
| 59 || far, to be || *mVkV ||  ||
|-
| 60 || fat || *qilhi ||  ||
|-
| 61 || fight, to || *aqi/u ||  ||
|-
| 62 || fire || *ne ||  ||
|-
| 63 || flower || *pey' ||  ||
|-
| 64 || flea || *-tep (Proto-Central Chumash) ||  ||
|-
| 65 || fly (insect) || *axulpes ||  ||
|-
| 66 || follow, to || *pey ||  ||
|-
| 67 || food (cf. eat) || *uw- ||  || *uw- 'eat' plus *-mu (nominalizing suffix)
|-
| 68 || foot || *teme' ||  ||
|-
| 69 || forget, to || *may ||  ||
|-
| 70 || full from eating, to be || *qti' ||  ||
|-
| 71 || get up, to || *kVta' ||  ||
|-
| 72 || gopher snake || *pSoSo ||  || reduplicated stem
|-
| 73 || grasshopper || *ti/uqu ||  || root: *-qu
|-
| 74 || gull sp. || *miyV ||  ||
|-
| 75 || hair, fur || *SuSV ||  || reduplicated stem?
|-
| 76 || hand || *pu ||  ||
|-
| 77 || hang, to || *wayan ~ *waya ||  ||
|-
| 78 || hear, to || *taq ||  ||
|-
| 79 || heel || *'ososo ||  || reduplicated stem
|-
| 80 || hello (greeting) || *haku ||  ||
|-
| 81 || hole || *loq ||  ||
|-
| 82 || hole, cave, den || *Si ~ *SiSV ||  ||
|-
| 83 || homosexual, to be || *'aqi' ||  ||
|-
| 84 || jimson weed || *mom'oy ||  || from *moy
|-
| 85 || knee || *pVm'V ||  ||
|-
| 86 || knife || *'iw ||  ||
|-
| 87 || lie down, to || *toy' ~ *ton' ||  ||
|-
| 88 || liver || *c-al'a ||  ||
|-
| 89 || look, to || *kuti ~ *kuti' ||  ||
|-
| 90 || louse || *Seke ||  ||
|-
| 91 || low tide || *qVw ||  ||
|-
| 92 || many, much || *equ ||  ||
|-
| 93 || meat, body || *'Vmin' ||  ||
|-
| 94 || moist, to be || *so' ||  ||
|-
| 95 || money; clam sp. || *'ala-qu-Cum ~ *'ana-qu-Cum ||  || *Cum is the root
|-
| 96 || mosquito || *pewe(we)' ||  ||
|-
| 97 || mother-in-law || *mVSV ||  ||
|-
| 98 || mountain lion || *tVkem' ||  ||
|-
| 99 || mouse || *qlo ||  || plus reduplication
|-
| 100 || mouth || *'Vk ||  ||
|-
| 101 || name || *ti ||  ||
|-
| 102 || neck || *ni' ||  ||
|-
| 103 || necklace || *el' ||  ||
|-
| 104 || nerve || *pilhil ||  ||
|-
| 105 || nest || *patV ~ *patV' ||  ||
|-
| 106 || new, to be || *VmVn ||  ||
|-
| 107 || now || *kipV(') ||  ||
|-
| 108 || oak spp. || *kuwu(') ||  ||
|-
| 109 || one-eyed, to be || *ta' ||  ||
|-
| 110 || open, to || *kal ||  ||
|-
| 111 || overcast, to be || *iqVmay ||  ||
|-
| 112 || pelican || *sew ||  ||
|-
| 113 || person || *ku ||  ||
|-
| 114 || pet || *qo' ||  ||
|-
| 115 || pick up, lift, raise || *lay ||  ||
|-
| 116 || prickly pear || *qV' ||  ||
|-
| 117 || quail || *takaka ||  || onomatopoetic
|-
| 118 || rabbit/jackrabbit || *ma'; *kuni' ||  ||
|-
| 119 || rain, to || *tuhuy ~ *tuy ||  ||
|-
| 120 || red || *qupe ||  ||
|-
| 121 || roadrunner || *pu' ||  ||
|-
| 122 || rub, to || *muy ||  ||
|-
| 123 || salt || *tepu(') ~ *tipu(') ||  ||
|-
| 124 || save (rescue), to || *apay ||  ||
|-
| 125 || seed || *'VmVn' ||  ||
|-
| 126 || skunk || *tVqema ||  ||
|-
| 127 || smoke || *tuwo' ||  ||
|-
| 128 || snail, sea || *q'VmV' ||  ||
|-
| 129 || speak, say, to || *'ipi(') ||  ||
|-
| 130 || split-stick rattle || *wanS-aq'a ~ *wacs-aq'a ||  ||
|-
| 131 || spread open || *kek-an ||  ||
|-
| 132 || squirrel, ground || *emet' ~ *em'et' ||  ||
|-
| 133 || steps || *tVyV- ||  ||
|-
| 134 || stick to, to || *pey ~ *pey' ||  ||
|-
| 135 || sticky, to be || *pilhiy ||  ||
|-
| 136 || stone, rock || *qVpV ||  ||
|-
| 137 || straight || *tyiyeme ? ||  ||
|-
| 138 || swordfish || *'eleyewun' ||  ||
|-
| 139 || tadpole || *qlo ~ *qyo ||  || root: 'small creature' (cf. mouse)
|-
| 140 || tail || *telheq' ||  ||
|-
| 141 || take off, to || *qe ||  ||
|-
| 142 || tears || *tinik' ||  ||
|-
| 143 || tongue || *'elhew' ||  ||
|-
| 144 || tooth || *Sa ||  ||
|-
| 145 || urinate, to || *Sol' ||  ||
|-
| 146 || vomit || *paS(V) ||  ||
|-
| 147 || walk, to || - ||  ||
|-
| 148 || warm self, to || *mol ||  ||
|-
| 149 || water || *'o' ||  ||
|-
| 150 || whale || *paqat(V) ||  ||
|-
| 151 || wood, tree, stick || *pono' ||  ||
|-
| 152 || woodpecker || *pVlak'a(k') ||  ||
|-
| 153 || wrinkled || *Sok' ||  || plus reduplication
|-
| 154 || yawn || *San ||  || plus reduplication
|-
| 155 || yellow jacket || *ɨyɨ ~ *ɨyɨ' ||  ||
|}

See also
 Rock art of the Chumash people
 Burro Flats Painted Cave
 Population of Native California
 Native Americans in the United States

Notes

Bibliography

 Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. .
 Dixon, Roland R.; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913). New Linguistic Families in California. American Anthropologist 15:647-655.
 Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. .
 Klar, Kathryn. (1977). Topics in historical Chumash grammar. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley).

 Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  (hbk); .
 Grant, Campbell. (1978). Chumash:Introduction. In California Handbook of North American Indians (William C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) Vol. 8 (Robert F. Heizer, Volume Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution.
 Sapir, Edward. (1917). The Position of Yana in the Hokan Stock. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and ethnology 13:1–34. Berkeley: University of California.

Language families
Indigenous languages of California

Chumashan languages


A crew is a group of people that work as a team within a common organization and perform similar activities. Crews can be found in places like ships and airplanes. It is common for members of a crew to have a special role. Different positions within a crew are commonly organized on a scale of power, like a hierarchy, so that there is a clear chain of command. Aboard a ship, for example, every member of the crew has someone else above them, and this chain of power ends at the captain who is in charge of everyone below them. Teams who work backstage in theaters, on movie sets, and in television studios are also called crews. Such crews are distinct from the cast.

Occupations

Crew


Chennai, formerly known as Madras, is the capital of the state of Tamil Nadu and is India's fifth largest city. It is located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. With an estimated population of 8.9 million (2014), the 383-year-old city is the 31st largest metropolitan area in the world.

Chennai boasts a long history from the English East India Company, through the British rule to its evolution in the late 20th century as a services and manufacturing hub for India. Additionally, the pre-city area of Chennai has a long history within the records of South Indian Empires.

Ancient area in South India
Chennai, originally known as "Madras", was located in the province of Tondaimandalam, an area lying between Penna River of Nellore and the Ponnaiyar river of Cuddalore. Before this region was ruled by early Cholas during the 1st century CE. The capital of the province was Kancheepuram. The name Madras was Derived from Madrasan a fisherman who lived in coastal area of Madras and Another fact, there were a lot of Madharsa's in the Nawabs period at that time.So,that's where the Madharasapattinam name has came from. 'Madharsa' means Muslim scholar's school and 'Pattinam' means sea shore area or city.The Original Name of Madras Is Puliyur kottam which is 2000 year old Tamil ancient name. Tondaimandalam was ruled in the 2nd century CE  by Tondaiman Ilam Tiraiyan who was a representative of the Chola family at Kanchipuram. The modern city of "Chennai" arose from the British settlement of Fort St. George and its subsequent expansion through merging numerous native villages and European settlements around Fort St. George into the city of Madras. While most of the original city of Madras was built and settled by Europeans, the surrounding area which was later incorporated included the native temples of Thiruvanmiyur, Thiruvotriyur, Thiruvallikeni (Triplicane), and Thirumayilai (Mylapore) which have existed for more than 2000 years. Thiruvanmiyur, Thiruvotriyur, and Thirumayilai are mentioned in the Thevarams of the Moovar (of the Nayanmars) while Thiruvallikeni in the Nalayira Divya Prabhandhams (of the Alwars).

Chola and Pallava eras

 Subsequent to Ilam Tiraiyan, the region was ruled by the Chola Prince Ilam Killi. The Chola occupation of Tondaimandalam was put to an end by the Andhra Satavahana incursions from the north under their King Pulumayi II. They appointed chieftains to look after the Kanchipuram region. Bappaswami, who is considered as the ruler to rule from Kanchipuram, was himself a chieftain (of the tract around) at Kanchipuram under the Satavahana empire in the beginning of the 3rd century. The Pallavas who had so far been merely viceroys, then became independent rulers of Kanchipuram and its surrounding areas.

The Pallavas held sway over this region from the beginning of the 3rd century to the closing years of the 9th century, except for the interval of some decades when the region was under the Kalabhras. The Pallavas were defeated by the Cholas under Aditya I by about 879 and the region was brought under the Chola rule. The Pandyas under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan rose to power and the region was brought under the Pandya rule by putting an end to Chola supremacy in 1264.

Historical establishment of the city

Under Vijayanagara Dynasty Nayaks
The present-day city of Chennai started in 1644 as an English settlement known as Fort St. George. The region was then a part of the Vijayanagara Empire, then headquartered at Chandragiri in present-day Andhra Pradesh. The Vijayanagar rulers who controlled the area, appointed chieftains known as Nayaks who ruled over the different regions of the province almost independently. The region was under the control of the Damerla Venkatadri Nayakar, a Padma Velama Nayak chieftain of Srikalahasti and Vandavasi. He was also an influential Nayak ruler under the Vijayanagara King Peda Venkata Raya then based in Chandragiri-Vellore Fort, was in-charge of the area of present Chennai city when the English East India Company arrived to establish a factory in the area.

Obtaining the Land Grant

On 20 August 1639, Francis Day of the East India Company along with Damerla Venkatadri Naick traveled to Chandragiri palace to meet the Vijayanagara King Peda Venkata Raya and to obtain a grant for a small strip of land in the Coromandel Coast from in Chandragiri as a place to build a factory and warehouse for their trading activities. It was from Damarla Venkatadri Naick domain, on 22 August 1639, the piece of land lying between the river Cooum almost at the point it enters the sea and another river known as the Egmore river was granted to East India Company after deed from Vijaynagara emperor.

On this piece of wasteland was founded Fort St. George, a fortified settlement of British merchants, factory workers, and other colonial settlers. Upon this settlement, the English expanded their colony to include a number of other European communities, new British settlements, and various native villages, one of which was named Mudhirasa pattanam. It in honor of the later village upon which the British named the entire colony and the combined city Madras. Controversially, in an attempt to revise history and justify renaming the city as Chennai, the ruling party has purged the history of the early English Madras settlements. According to the new party history, instead of being named Madras, it was named Chennai, after a village called Chennapattanam, in honour of Damarla Chennapa Naick, father of Damerla Venkatadri Naick, who controlled the entire coastal country from Pulicat in the north to the Portuguese settlement of Santhome.

However, it is widely recorded that while the official center of the present settlement was designated Fort St. George, the British applied the name Madras to a new large city which had grown up around the Fort including the "White Town" consisting principally of British settlers, and "Black Town" consisting of principally Catholic Europeans and allied Indian minorities.

Early European settlers
Modern Chennai traces its roots to its early days as a trading hub with a history influenced by various foreign powers. The city's initial growth was closely linked to its role as an artificial harbor and trade center. In 1522, the Portuguese arrived and constructed a port, which they named São Tomé in honor of Saint Thomas, believed to have preached in the region between 52 and 70 AD. They also undertook the restoration of the Nestorian church in Mylapore and the renovation of Saint Thomas's tomb.

Subsequently, the region fell under Dutch control, with their establishment near Pulicat, just north of the city, in 1612. Both the Portuguese and the Dutch aimed to expand their colonial populations, but even with a combined population of 10,000 people by the time the British arrived, they remained outnumbered by the local Indian population.

Arrival of the English

By 1612, the Dutch established themselves in Pulicat to the north.
In the 17th century, the English East India Company decided to build a factory on the east coast and in 1626 selected its site as Armagon (Dugarazpatnam), a village some 35 miles north of Pulicat. The calico cloth from the local area, which was in high demand, was of poor quality and not suitable for export to Europe. The English soon realized that the port Armagon was unsuitable for trade purposes. Francis Day, one of the officers of the company, who was then a Member of the Masulipatam Council and the Chief of the Armagon Factory, made a voyage of exploration in 1637 down the coast as far as Pondicherry with a view to choosing a site for a new settlement.

Permission from Vijayanagara Rulers
At that time the Coromandel Coast was ruled by Peda Venkata Raya, from the Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagara Empire based out of Chandragiri-Vellore. Under the Kings, local chiefs or governors known as Nayaks ruled over each district.

Damarla Venkatadri Naick, the local governor of the Vijayanagar Empire and Nayaka of Wandiwash (Vandavasi), ruled the coastal part of the region, from Pulicat to the Portuguese settlement of San Thome. He had his headquarters at Wandiwash, and his brother Ayyappa Naickresided at Poonamallee, a few miles to the west of Madras, where he looked after the affairs of the coast. Beri Thimmappa, Francis Day's dubash (interpreter), was a close friend of Damarla Ayyappa Naick. In the early 17th century Beri Thimmappa of the Puragiri Kshatriya (Perike) caste migrated to the locality from Palacole, near Machilipatnam in Andhra Pradesh. Ayyappa Naick persuaded his brother to lease the sandy strip to Francis Day and promised him trade benefits, army protection, and Persian horses in return. Francis Day wrote to his headquarters at Masulipatam for permission to inspect the proposed site at Madraspatnam and to examine the possibilities of trade there. Madraspatnam seemed favorable during the inspection, and the calicoes woven there were much cheaper than those at Armagon (Durgarazpatam).

On 22 August 1639, Francis Day secured the Grant by the Damarla Venkatadri Nayakadu, Nayaka of Wandiwash, giving over to the East India Company a three-mile-long strip of land, a fishing village called Madraspatnam, copies of which were endorsed by Andrew Cogan, the Chief of the Masulipatam Factory, and are even now preserved. The Grant was for a period of two years and empowered the company to build a fort and castle on about five square kilometers of its strip of land.

The English Factors at Masulipatam were satisfied with Francis Day's work. They requested Day and the Damarla Venkatadri Nayakadu to wait until the sanction of the superior English Presidency of Bantam in Java could be obtained for their action. The main difficulty, among the English those days, was a lack of money. In February 1640, Day and Cogan, accompanied by a few factors and writers, a garrison of about twenty-five European soldiers and a few other European artificers, besides a Hindu powder-maker named Naga Battan, proceeded to the land which had been granted and started a new English factory there. They reached Madraspatnam on 20 February 1640; and this date is important because it marks the first actual settlement of the English at the place.

Grant establishing lawful self-rule
The grant signed between Damarla Venkatadri and the English had to be authenticated or confirmed by the Raja of Chandragiri - Venkatapathy Rayulu. The Raja, Venkatapathy Rayulu, was succeeded by his nephew Sri Rangarayulu in 1642, and Sir Francis Day was succeeded by Thomas Ivy. The grant expired, and Ivy sent Factor Greenhill on a mission to Chandragiri to meet the new Raja and to get the grant renewed. A new grant was issued, copies of which are still available. It is dated October - November 1645. This new grant is important regarding the legal and civic development of the English settlement. Because the Raja operated an arbitrary and capricious legal code which fundamentally discriminated against private property, trade, and merchandising in general, and against non-Indians in particular, the new grant signed in 1645 expanded the rights of the English by empowering them to administer English Common Law amongst their colonists and Civil Law between the colonists and the other European, Muslim, and Hindu nationalities. Furthermore, it expanded the Company property by attaching an additional piece of land known as the Narimedu (or 'Jackal-ground') which lay to the west of the village of Madraspatnam. This new grant laid the foundation for the expansion of Madras into its present form. All three grants are said to have been engraved on gold plates which were later reported to have been plundered, disappearing during one of the genocides of the English colony. However, there are city records of their existence long afterward, and it has been suggested that the present government may still hold them.

Expansion of Fort St. George into Madras
Francis Day and his superior Andrew Cogan can be considered as the founders of Madras (now Chennai). They began construction of the Fort St George on 23 April 1640 and houses for their residence. Their small fortified settlement quickly attracted other East Indian traders and as the Dutch position collapsed under hostile Indian power they also slowly joined the settlement. By 1646, the settlement had reached 19,000 persons and with the Portuguese and Dutch populations at their forts substantially more. To further consolidate their position, the Company combined the various settlements around an expanded Fort St. George, which including its citadel also included a larger outside area surrounded by an additional wall. This area became the Fort St. George settlement. As stipulated by the Treaty signed with the Nayak, the British and other Christian Europeans were not allowed to decorate the outside of their buildings in any other color but white. As a result, over time, the area came to be known as 'White Town'.

According to the treaty, only Europeans, principally Protestant British settlers were allowed to live in this area as outside of this confine, non-Indians were not allowed to own property. However, other national groups, chiefly FrenchPortuguese, and other Catholic merchants had separate agreements with the Nayak which allowed them in turn to establish trading posts, factories, and warehouses. As the East India Company controlled the trade in the area, these non-British merchants established agreements with the company for settling on Company land near "White Town" per agreements with the Nayak. Over time, Indians also arrived in ever greater numbers and soon, the Portuguese and other non-Protestant Christian Europeans were outnumbered. Following several outbreaks of violence by various Hindu and Muslim Indian communities against the Christian Europeans, White Town's defenses and its territorial charter was expanded to incorporate most of the area which had grown up around its walls thereby incorporating most of its Catholic European settlements. In turn they resettled the non-European merchants and their families and workers, almost entirely Muslim or of various Hindu castes outside of the newly expanded "White Town". This was also surrounded by a wall. To differentiate these non-European and non-Christian area from "White Town", the new settlement was termed "Black Town. Collectively, the original Fort St. George settlement, "White Town", and "Black Town" were called Madras.

During the course of the late 17th century, both plague and genocidal warfare reduced the population of the colony dramatically. Each time, the survivors fell back upon the safety of the Fort St George. As a result, owing to the frequency of outbursts of racial and national violence against the Europeans and especially the English, Fort St George with its impressive fortifications became the nucleus around which the city grew and rebuilt itself. Several times throughout the life of the colony, the Fort became the last refuge of Europeans and their allied Indian communities due to raids by several Indian rulers and powers, which resulted in the almost total destruction of the town. Each time the town and later city was rebuilt and repopulated with new English and European settlers. The Fort still stands today, and a part of it is used to house the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly and the Office of the Chief Minister. Elihu Yale, after whom Yale University is named, was British governor of Madras for five years. Part of the fortune that he amassed in Madras as part of the colonial administration became the financial foundation for Yale University.

The city has changed its boundaries as well as the geographic limits of its quarters several times, principally as a result of raids by surrounding Hindu and Muslim powers. For instance, Golkonda forces under General Mir Jumla conquered Madras in 1646, massacred or sold into slavery many of the Christian European inhabitants and their allied Indian communities, and brought Madras and its immediate surroundings under his control. Nonetheless, the Fort and its surrounding walls remained under British control who slowly rebuilt their colony with additional colonists despite another mass murder of Europeans in Black Town by anti-colonialists agitated by Golkonda and plague in the 1670s. In 1674, the expanded colony had nearly 50,000 mostly British and European colonists and was granted its own corporate charter, thereby officially establishing the modern day city. Eventually, after additional provocations from Golkonda, the British pushed back until they defeated him.

After the fall of Golkonda in 1687, the region came under the rule of the Mughal Emperors of Delhi who in turn granted new Charters and territorial borders for the area. Subsequently, firmans were issued by the Mughal Emperor granting the rights of the English East India company in Madras and formally ending the official capacity of local rulers to attack the British. In the latter part of the 17th century, Madras steadily progressed during the period of the East India Company and under many Governors. Although most of the original Portuguese, Dutch, and British population had been killed during genocides during the Golkonda period, under Moghul protection, large numbers of British and Anglo-American settlers arrived to replenish these losses. As a result, during the Governorship of Elihu Yale (1687–92), the large number of British and European settlers led to the most important political event which was the formation of the institution of a mayor and the Corporation for the city of Madras. Under this Charter, the British and Protestant inhabitants were granted the rights of self-government and independence from company law. In 1693, a perwanna was received from the local Nawab granting the towns of Tondiarpet, Purasawalkam and Egmore to the company which continued to rule from Fort St. George. The present parts of Chennai like Poonamalee (ancient Tamil name - Poo Iruntha valli), Triplicane (ancient Tamil name - Thiru alli keni) are mentioned in Tamil bhakti literature of the 6th - 9th centuries.Thomas Pitt became the Governor of Madras in 1698 and governed for eleven years. This period witnessed remarkable development of trade and increase in wealth resulting in the building of many fine houses, mansions, housing developments, an expanded port and city complete with new city walls, and various churches and schools for the British colonists and missionary schools for the local Indian population.

Acquisitions

1750s to the end of the British Raj

In 1746, Fort St George and Madras were captured at last. But this time it was by the French under General La Bourdonnais, who used to be the Governor of Mauritius. Because of its importance to the East India Company, the French plundered and destroyed the village of Chepauk and Blacktown, the locality across from the port where all the dockyard labourers used to live.

The British regained control in 1749 through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. They then strengthened and expanded Fort St George over the next thirty years to bear subsequent attacks, the strongest of which came from the French (1759, under Thomas Arthur, Comte de Lally), and later Hyder Ali, the Sultan of Mysore in 1767 during the First Anglo-Mysore War. Following the Treaty of Madras which brought that war to an end, the external threats to Madras significantly decreased. The 1783 version of Fort St George is what still stands today.

In the latter half of the 18th century, Madras became an important British naval base, and the administrative centre of the growing British dominions in southern India. The British fought with various European powers, notably the French at Vandavasi (Wandiwash) in 1760, where de Lally was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote, and the Danish at Tharangambadi (Tranquebar). Following the British victory in the Seven Years' War they eventually dominated, driving the French, the Dutch and the Danes away entirely, and reducing the French dominions in India to four tiny coastal enclaves. The British also fought four wars with the Kingdom of Mysore under Hyder Ali and later his son Tipu Sultan, which led to their eventual domination of India's south. Madras was the capital of the Madras Presidency, also called Madras Province.

By the end of 1783, the great 18th century wars which saw the British and French battle from Europe to North America and from the Mediterranean to India, resulted in the British being in complete control of the city's regional and most of South India area. Although the British had lost most of their well-populated, industrious, and wealthy North American colonies, after a decade's feud with the French, they were securely in control of Madras and most of the Indian trade. Consequently, they expanded the Chartered control of the company by encompassing the neighbouring villages of Triplicane, Egmore, Purasawalkam and Chetput to form the city of Chennapatnam, as it was called by locals then. This new area saw a proliferation of English merchant and planter families who, allied with their wealthy Indian counterparts, jointly controlled Chennapatnam under the supervision of White Town. Over time and administrative reforms, the area was finally fully incorporated into the new metropolitan charter of Madras.

The development of a harbour in Madras led the city to become an important centre for trade between India and Europe in the 18th century. In 1788, Thomas Parry arrived in Madras as a free merchant and he set up one of the oldest mercantile companies in the city and one of the oldest in the country (EID Parry). John Binny came to Madras in 1797 and he established the textile company Binny & Co in 1814. Spencer's started as a small business in 1864 and went on to become the biggest department stores in Asia at the time. The original building which housed Spencer & Co. was burnt down in a fire in 1983 and the present structure houses one of the largest shopping malls in India, Spencer Plaza. Other prominent companies in the city included Gordon Woodroffe, Best & Crompton, Higginbotham's, Hoe & Co and P. Orr & Sons.

Millions of people starved to death throughout British ruled Tamil Nadu, around 3.9 million people perished in Chennai alone within two years of 1877–78.

Madras was the capital of the Madras Presidency and thus became home to important commercial organisations. Breaking with the tradition of the closed and almost wholly British controlled system of the English East India Company, The Madras Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1836 by Fredrick Adam, Governor of the Madras Presidency (the second oldest Chamber of Commerce in the country). Thereafter in a nod to the declining fortunes of the British textile owners and skilled workers who were still extant in the city, the Madras Trades Association was established in 1856, by which the old colonial families still involved in the skilled and textile trades were granted entry into the British and Indian financial trade system. The Madras Stock Exchange was established in 1920.
In 1906, the city experienced a financial crisis with the failure of its leading merchant bank, Arbuthnot & Co. The crisis also imperilled Parry & Co and Binny & Co, but both found rescuers. The lawyer V. Krishnaswamy Iyer made a name for himself representing claimants, mostly wealthy Hindus and Muslims who had lent money on the failed bank. The next year, flush with funds won from the original British owners who had capitalized the bank, he organized a group of Chettiar merchants to found Indian Bank, with which he funded new Indian enterprises and broke into the previously closed ranks of the British financial system. The bank still has its corporate headquarters in the city.

During World War I, Madras (Chennai) was shelled by the German light cruiser SMS Emden, causing 5 civilian deaths and 26 wounded.

Since independence in 1947

After India became independent in 1947, the city became the administrative and legislative capital of Madras State, which was renamed as Tamil Nadu in 1968.

During the reorganisation of states in India on linguistic lines, in 1953, Telugu speakers wanted Madras as the capital of Andhra Pradesh and coined the slogan "Madras Manade" (Madras is ours). The demands for the immediate creation of a Telugu-speaking state were met with after Tirupati was included in Andhra State and after the leaders who led the movement were convinced to give up their claim on Madras. The dispute arose as over the preceding hundred years the early British, European workers and small cottage capitalists had been replaced in large part by both Tamil- and Telugu-speaking people. In fact, as the greater concentration of capital wrecked what remained of the old East Indian middle class, the city principally became a large housing development for huge numbers of workers. Most of these were recruited as cheap labor from the relatively poor Telugu speakers, which enraged the Tamil nationals who were originally the working- and middle-class settlers of Madras in the late 18th century. Earlier, Panagal Raja, Chief Minister of Madras Presidency in the early 1920s had suggested that the Cooum River be the boundary between the Tamil and Telugu administrative areas. In 1953, the political and administrative dominance of Tamils, both at the Union and State levels ensured that Madras was not transferred to the new state of Andhra.

Although the original inhabitants of Madras and responsible for its growth into the modern metropolis of today, virtually no British or European nationals remain. Always a tiny minority in comparison with the vast Indian population of the hinterlands, despite slow growth in natural birthrate and continued settlement, the British and Europeans became an ever-decreasing share of their cities' populations. As more and more Indians arrived from the countryside to work in the city, the British and other Europeans found it increasingly difficult to establish or maintain independent wealth as they had during the early East Indian regime. Hundreds of thousands had come to India between about 1600 and 1770, and another million had come between 1770 and 1870. These settlers and their families spread throughout India or settled in the cities, with Madras being one of their principal entry points. However, by the early 20th century they had become a small minority in the city. Although they remained in control of the original corporations and businesses of Madras, and were the official representatives of the imperial government, as a minority they would not survive a democratic form of government with the larger Indian population in Madras represented. Thus happened with the Independence of India in 1947.

Despite undergoing significant demographic shifts after independence, the enduring remnants of the original British community, alongside other minority groups and the rich tapestry of British cultural influences, contribute to the cosmopolitan character of the city now known as Chennai. In days gone by, the populations of Telugu and Tamils were fairly balanced, but post-independence, the dynamics of the city underwent rapid changes.

Today, Chennai is home to a diverse mix of people, including mixed Anglo-Indian descendants of the early English settlers, a smaller yet still present British and European community, and migrant Malayalee communities. The city's status as a vital administrative and commercial hub has attracted people from various corners of India, such as Bengalis, Punjabis, Gujaratis, Marwaris, as well as residents from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, all of whom have enriched its cosmopolitan fabric.

Chennai also has a growing expatriate population, particularly from the United States, Europe, and East Asia, who find employment opportunities in the city's burgeoning industries and IT sectors.

Since its establishment as a city in 1639, English was the official language of the city. However, from the 1960s, the central government started gearing up the use of Hindi in business and government. In response, from 1965 to 1967 the city saw agitation against the two-language (Hindi and local language) policy, and there was sporadic rioting. Madras witnessed further political violence due to the civil war in Sri Lanka, with 33 people killed by a bomb planted by the Tamil Eelam Army at the airport in 1984, and assassination of thirteen members of the EPRLF and two Indian civilians by the rival LTTE in 1991. In the same year, former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated in Sriperumbudur, a small town close to Chennai, whilst campaigning in Tamil Nadu, by Thenmuli Rajaratnam A.K.A. Dhanu, widely believed to have been an LTTE member. In 1996, in keeping with the recent nationwide practice of Indianizing city names, the Government of Tamil Nadu, then represented by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, renamed the city to Chennai. The 2004 tsunami lashed the shores of Chennai killing many.

Chennai is now a large cultural, commercial and industrial centre, known for its cultural heritage and temple architecture. Chennai is the automobile capital of India, with around forty percent of the automobile industry having a base there and with a major portion of the nation's vehicles being produced there. It is a major manufacturing centre. Chennai has also become a major centre for outsourced IT and financial services from the Western world. Owing to the city's rich musical and cultural traditions, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has included Chennai in its Creative Cities Network.

Name
Various etymologies have been posited for the name, Chennai or Chennapattanam. A popular explanation is that the name comes from the name of Damarla Chennappa Naick, Nayaka of Chandragiri and Vandavasi, father of Damarla Venkatadri Naick, from whom the English acquired the town in 1639. The first official use of the name Chennai is said to be in a sale deed, dated 8 August 1639, to Francis Day of the East India Company.

Chennai's earlier name of Madras is similarly mired in controversy. But there is some consensus that it is an abbreviation of Madraspatnam, the site chosen by the British East India Company for a permanent settlement in 1639.

Currently, the nomenclature of the area is in a state of controversy. The region was often called by different names as madrapupatnam, madras kuppam, madraspatnam, madarasanpatnam, Perumparaicheri, and madirazpatnam as adopted by locals. Another small town, Chennapatnam, lay to the south of it. This place was supposedly named so by Damarla Venkatadri Naick, Nayak of Vandavasi in remembrance of his father Damarla Chennappa Naick. He was the local governor for the last Raja of Chandragiri, Sri Ranga Raya VI of Vijayanagar Empire. The first Grant of Damarla Venkatadri Naick makes mention of the village of Madraspatnam as incorporated into East India lands but not of Chennapatnam. This together with the written records makes it clear that the Fort which became the centre of present Chennai, was built upon or nearby the village of Madraspatnam. Although, Madraspatnam is named in later records following the establishment of Fort St. George, this is likely because of the discriminatory nature of the local caste system. Under Hindu caste code, as well as English Common Law, it is unlikely that Fort St. George was built upon the village of Madraspatnam and its inhabitants incorporated into the new town. Instead, it is likely that Fort was built either close to the village or if it was built upon the village, the village was relocated. In fact, in all records of the times, a difference is made between the original village of Madraspatnam and the new town growing around the Fort known as "White Town". Therefore, because of the fort's proximity or origin to the village of Mandraspatnam, and the fort's centrality to the development of the city, the British settlers of the city later named their settlement Madras in honour of it. Further militating against the name "Chennai", Chennapatnam was the name in later years of an area explicitly detailed as having been incorporated of native villages, European plantations, and European merchant houses outside of the combined city of Madras consisting of Fort St. George, and White and Black Town. Lastly, while the Fort St. George, White Town, and Black Town areas were fully incorporated together by the late 18th century, and was known as Madras, Chennapatnam was its own separate entity existing under the authority of Fort St. George well into the 19th century. Consequently, once the area separating Chennapatnam and Old Madras was built over uniting the two settlements, as founders, settlers, and authorities of area, the English named the new united city Madras. Thus it is improbable that the area was ever called Chennai. Instead, being the gateway of trade and the centre of the economy of the region, the English settlement and their fort of 1639–40, which was the basis for the presently named city of Chennai, was likely called Madras as well by the rest of India. The DMK renamed Madras to Chennai as DMK founder Anna renamed Madras State as Tamil Nadu.

See also

 Timeline of Chennai history
 List of people from Chennai

References

Bibliography

 . Chapter: The City of Madras and Environs Preview in Google books

External links
 Once Madras, Chennai turns 372
 History of Fort St George and Black Town - Madras
 Picasa Gallery - Historical Photos of Madras

Chennai

History of Chennai


North Fambridge is a village and civil parish on the Dengie peninsula in the English county of Essex.

North Fambridge is on the north bank of the River Crouch opposite South Fambridge and is served by North Fambridge railway station on the Crouch Valley Line. Administratively, North Fambridge forms part of the ward of Purleigh in the district of Maldon.

Adjoining the village is Blue House Farm, a  Site of Special Scientific Interest and nature reserve owned by the Essex Wildlife Trust.

In the Domesday Book, North Fambridge was known as 'Fanbruge'.

North Fambridge is home to the Fambridge Yacht Haven Middle Distance Triathlon. The first event took place on 24 July 2011 and was the first Half Ironman Triathlon in Essex and the wider region.

Local amenities
The local public house is The Ferry Boat Inn. The North Fambridge Yacht Club is based in the village.

Holy Trinity Church has been serving the community for at least 200 years.

References

External links

Local History overview
War Memorial details
Local history of North Fambridge

Villages in Essex

North Fambridge


Grace Ethel Cecile Rosalie Allen (July 26, 1895 – August 27, 1964) was an American vaudevillian, singer, actress, and comedian who became internationally famous as the zany partner and comic foil of husband George Burns, her straight man, appearing with him on radio, television and film as the duo Burns and Allen.

For her contributions to the television industry, Allen was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6672 Hollywood Boulevard. She and Burns were inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1988.

Costar Bea Benaderet said of Allen in 1966: "She was probably one of the greatest actresses of our time."

Early life
Allen was born in San Francisco, California, to George Allen and Margaret Theresa ("Molly") Allen (née Darragh; later Mrs. Edward Pidgeon), who were both of Irish Catholic descent. She made her first appearance on stage at age three, and was given her first role on the radio by Eddie Cantor. She graduated from Star of the Sea Convent School in 1914, and during that time became a talented dancer.

She soon began performing Irish folk dances with her three sisters, who were billed as "The Four Colleens". In 1909, Allen joined her sister, Bessie, as a vaudeville performer. At a performance in 1922, Allen met George Burns, and the two formed a comedy act. They were married on January 7, 1926, onstage at the Palace Theatre in Cleveland by a justice of the peace.

Allen was born with heterochromia, giving her two different color eyes; one blue and one green.

Birthdate myth

Some discrepancy exists as to her date of birth. Depending on the source, Allen is alleged to have been born on July 26 in 1895, 1896, 1902, or 1906. All public vital records held by the city and county of San Francisco were destroyed in the earthquake and great fire of April 1906. Her husband George Burns professed not to know exactly how old she was, though it was presumably he who provided the date of July 26, 1902 that appears on her death record. Allen's crypt marker also shows her year of birth as 1902.

Among Allen's signature jokes was a dialogue in which she would claim that she was born in 1906. Her foil would press her for proof or corroborating information, and she would reply that her birth certificate had been destroyed in the earthquake. Her foil would point out that she was born in July, but that the earthquake was three months earlier in April. Allen would simply smile and reply: "Well, it was an awfully big earthquake."

Presumably the most reliable information comes from U.S. Census data collected on June 1, 1900 that shows Grace Allen, age four (born in July 1895), along with her parents and five siblings. This proves that Allen was born before 1900 and indicates that the birthdate of July 26, 1895 may be correct. Additionally, her senior year high school year book has been located.

Double act

The Burns and Allen act began with Allen as the straight man, setting up Burns to deliver the punchlines and receive the laughs. In his book Gracie: A Love Story, Burns explained that he had noticed that Allen's straight lines were bringing more laughs than did his punchlines, so he cannily flipped the act, making himself the straight man so that Allen would elicit the laughter. Audiences immediately fell in love with Allen's character, which combined the traits of naivete, zaniness and innocence. The reformulated team, focusing on Allen, toured the country, eventually headlining in major vaudeville houses. Many of their famous routines were preserved in one- and two-reel short films, including Lambchops (1929), made while the couple was still performing on the stage.

Burns attributed all of the couple's early success to Allen, ignoring his own brilliance as a straight man. He summarized their act by saying: "All I had to do was say, 'Gracie, how's your brother?' and she talked for 38 years. And sometimes I didn't even have to remember to say 'Gracie, how's your brother?'"

Radio
In the early 1930s, like many stars of the era, Burns and Allen graduated to radio. The show was originally a continuation of the flirtation act from their vaudeville and short-film routines. In 1935, famed composer and arranger Ferde Grofe joined them as musical director. Burns realized that they were too old for that type of material and changed the show's format in the fall of 1941 into the situation comedy for which they are best remembered: a working showbusiness married couple negotiating ordinary problems caused by Gracie's "illogical logic", usually with the help of neighbors Harry and Blanche Morton and their announcer Bill Goodwin (later replaced by Harry von Zell during the run of their television series).

Publicity stunts

Burns and Allen frequently used running gags as publicity stunts. During 1932–33, they pulled off one of the most successful in the business: a year-long search for Allen's supposedly missing brother. They would make unannounced cameo appearances on other shows, asking if anyone had seen Allen's brother. However, her brother did not find it comical and eventually asked them to stop; he was so irked by the gag's popularity that he disappeared from society at the height of its popularity.

In 1940, Allen announced that she was running for president of the United States on the Surprise Party ticket. Burns and Allen embarked on a cross-country whistle-stop campaign tour on a private train, performing their live radio show in various cities. In one of her campaign speeches, Gracie said, "I don't know much about the Lend-Lease Bill, but if we owe it we should pay it." Another typical quip on the campaign trail was: "Everybody knows a woman is better than a man when it comes to introducing bills into the house." The Surprise Party mascot was the kangaroo, and its motto was "It's in the bag." As part of the gag, Dwell, Sloan and Pearce published a book, How to Become President by Gracie Allen (in reality, written by Burns and Allen writer Charles Lofgren) that included photographs from their nationwide campaign tour and the Surprise Party convention. Allen received an endorsement from Harvard University.

Allen was also the subject of one of S. S. Van Dine's Philo Vance mystery novels, The Gracie Allen Murder Case. Allen said: "S.S. Van Dine is silly to spend six months writing a novel when you can buy one for $2.95."

In another publicity stunt, Allen played a piano concerto at the Hollywood Bowl (and later at Carnegie Hall). The Burns and Allen staff hired a composer to write the "Concerto for Index Finger", a joke piece in which the orchestra would play madly, only to pause while Allen played a one-finger scale with a final incorrect note. The orchestra would then play a musical piece that developed around the wrong note. On her final solo, Allen would finally hit the right note, causing the entire orchestra to applaud. The actual index-finger playing was performed offstage by a professional pianist. The concerto was featured in the film Two Girls and a Sailor (1944) with an orchestra conducted by Albert Coates.

Films

In the early 1930s, Burns and Allen appeared in several short films in which they performed some of their classic vaudeville routines. They also appeared in two full-length movies with W. C. Fields: International House (1933) and Six of a Kind (1934). Burns and Allen also appeared in three out of the four Big Broadcast ensemble comedies including The Big Broadcast (1932) with Bing Crosby, The Big Broadcast of 1936 (1935) with Crosby, and The Big Broadcast of 1937 (1936) with Jack Benny. They were also in We're Not Dressing (1934), billed directly under Crosby and Carole Lombard.

In 1937, Burns and Allen starred with Fred Astaire in A Damsel in Distress, a musical with an original score by George Gershwin that introduced the song "A Foggy Day". It was Astaire's first RKO film without dancing partner Ginger Rogers. Astaire's costar Joan Fontaine was not a dancer, and he was reluctant to dance on screen alone. He also felt the script needed more comic relief to enhance the overall appeal of the film. Burns and Allen had each worked in vaudeville as dancers before forming their act, and when word of the project reached them, they called Astaire and he asked them to audition. Burns contacted an act whom he had once seen performing a dance using small whisk brooms. For the next several weeks, he and Allen practiced the complicated routine for their audition. When they presented the dance to Astaire, he liked it so much that he asked them teach it to him, and it was added to the film with the three of them dancing together. Burns and Allen also matched Astaire step-by-step in the film's demandingly epic dance sequence in a funhouse including amazing visuals with distorted mirrors.

Their next film the following year was College Swing (1938) starring Burns and Allen top-billed above Martha Raye and Bob Hope with a stellar supporting cast featuring Edward Everett Horton, Betty Grable, Jackie Coogan, John Payne, Robert Cummings, and Jerry Colonna. The picture was directed by Raoul Walsh.

A lively musical comedy came next titled Honolulu (1939) starring Eleanor Powell, Robert Young and Burns and Allen billed above the title. Unusually, Burns and Allen performed separately through most of the film until the end, with Allen singing and dancing the energetic titular song with Powell at one point while Burns is off-screen.

That same year, Allen's popularity was such that S.S. Van Dine wrote one of his Philo Vance detective novels featuring her as the principal character titled The Gracie Allen Murder Case. The zanily comedic book was adapted into a film,  also titled The Gracie Allen Murder Case (1939). Allen was billed above Warren William (the actor then portraying Philo Vance in the series of Vance films), and without Burns. The result was so successful that Allen was cast two years later in a similar mystery/comedy film titled Mr. and Mrs. North (1942) in which she is top-billed as a comedic detective, again without Burns in the cast.

Allen made her last film appearance in a musical cameo as an amusing concert pianist in Two Girls and a Sailor, without Burns, but remained in radio and would segue into series television with her husband six years later.

Television

In the fall of 1949, having apparently put their movie career behind them but working continuously in radio, Burns and Allen became part of the CBS talent raid. Their good friend and frequent guest star Jack Benny had already departed NBC for CBS, and CBS head William S. Paley made it clear that he believed that talent, not the network, made the difference, which was not the case at NBC. Benny convinced Burns and Allen (among others) to join him in the move to CBS. The Burns and Allen radio show became part of the CBS lineup, and a year later, they also brought their show to television as The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show. They continued to use the formula that had kept them longtime radio stars, playing themselves only now as television stars, still living next door to Harry and Blanche Morton. They concluded each show with a brief dialogue performance in the style of their classic vaudeville and earlier radio routines.

Allen retired in 1958, and Burns tried to continue without her. The show was renamed The George Burns Show with the cast intact except for Allen. The show's setting was changed from the Burns home to his office, with Blanche working as Burns' secretary so that she could help Allen keep an eye on him. The renamed show barely lasted a year.

"Say good night, Gracie"
During their vaudeville routine, and later on radio and television, as their show ended, Burns would look at Allen and say "Say good night, Gracie," to which she would usually simply reply "Good night." A popular legend holds that she would reply "Good night, Gracie," but according to Burns, recordings of their radio and television shows and several histories of old-time radio (such as John Dunning's On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio), she never used the phrase.

Private life

In the 1930s, Burns and Allen adopted two children, Sandra Jean and Ronald Jon, after discovering that they could not conceive on their own. They agreed to raise the children as Catholics and to permit them to make their own religious choices as adults. Ronnie eventually joined the cast of his parents' television show, playing their son, a serious drama student who disdains comedy. Sandy made only occasional appearances on the show (usually as a telephone operator, waitress, secretary or clerk), and left showbusiness to become a teacher.

As a child, Allen had been scalded badly on one arm, and she was extremely sensitive about the scarring. Throughout her life, she wore long or three-quarter length sleeves to hide the scars, and the half-forearm style became her trademark. When the couple moved to Beverly Hills and acquired a swimming pool, Allen wore a bathing suit and swam the length of the pool to prove to her children that she could swim; she had taken swimming lessons to fight a longtime fear of drowning. She never again wore a bathing suit or entered the pool.

Allen was said to be sensitive about having one green eye and one blue eye (heterochromia), and some speculation in various biographies report  that plans to film the eighth season of The Burns & Allen Show in color prompted her retirement, but this seems unlikely as a color episode was filmed and broadcast in 1954 (a clip of the episode was included in a CBS anniversary show), plus there were many color publicity photographs published.   Allen retired in 1958 for health reasons; Burns repeatedly noted that she had continued with the television show as long as she did in order to please him, in spite of her health problems.

In later years, Burns admitted that he had a very brief extramarital affair. Stricken by guilt, he phoned Jack Benny and told him about the indiscretion, but Allen overheard the conversation and Burns quietly bought her an expensive centerpiece. Burns also said that he spent $10,000 on a diamond ring for Gracie upon the cessation of the affair. Nothing more was said, but years later, Burns discovered that Allen had subsequently told one of her friends about the affair, finishing with, "You know, I really wish George would cheat on me again. I could use a new centerpiece."

Death

Allen, who had a history of heart disease, died from a heart attack in Hollywood on August 27, 1964, at age 62 (later found to be 69 according to census records). Her remains were interred in a crypt at the Freedom Mausoleum in the Sanctuary of Heritage at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale, California.

Burns' remains were interred at her side in 1996 when he died at the age of 100. The marker on the crypt was changed from "Grace Allen Burns—Beloved Wife And Mother (1895–1964)" to "Gracie Allen (1895–1964) and George Burns (1896–1996)—Together Again".

Filmography
 Lambchops (1929; short) as Gracie the Girlfriend
 The Big Broadcast (1932; first feature film) as Gracie
 International House (1933) as Nurse Allen
 College Humor (1933) as Herself
 Six of a Kind (1934) as Gracie Devore
 We're Not Dressing (1934) as Gracie
 Many Happy Returns (1934, first leading role) as Herself
 Love in Bloom (1935) as Gracie Downey
 Here Comes Cookie (1935) as Herself
 The Big Broadcast of 1936 (1935) as Herself
 The Big Broadcast of 1937 (1936) as Mrs. Platt
 College Holiday (1936) as Calliope 'Gracie' Dove
 A Damsel in Distress (1937) as Gracie
 College Swing (1938) as Gracie Alden
 Honolulu (1939) as Millie De Grasse
 The Gracie Allen Murder Case (1939; without George Burns – a "Philo Vance" mystery by S. S. Van Dine) as Herself
 Mr. and Mrs. North (1941; second murder mystery film without Burns) as Pamela North
 Two Girls and a Sailor (1944, guest appearance without Burns; last movie role) as Herself

Radio series
 The Robert Burns Panatella Show: 1932–1933, CBS
 The White Owl Program: 1933–1934, CBS
 The Adventures of Gracie: 1934–1935, CBS
 The Campbell's Tomato Juice Program: 1935–1937, CBS
 The Grape Nuts Program: 1937–1938, NBC
 The Chesterfield Program: 1938–1939, CBS
 The Hinds Honey and Almond Cream Program: 1939–1940, CBS
 The Hormel Program: 1940–1941, NBC
 The Swan Soap Show: 1941–1945, NBC, CBS
 Maxwell House Coffee Time: 1945–1949, NBC
 The Amm-i-Dent Toothpaste Show: 1949–1950, CBS

Gracie Award
The Gracie Award is presented by the Alliance for Women in Media to recognize exemplary programming created by women, for women and about women in radio, television, cable and web-based media, including news, drama, comedy, commercials, public service, documentary and sports. The awards program encourages the realistic and multifaceted portrayal of women in entertainment, news, features and other programs. Allen has twice been nominated to the National Women's Hall of Fame, though she has not been inducted. She has been honored by James L. Brooks, who named Gracie Films after her.

See also

 The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show, 1950–58, CBS

References

Further reading

 Gracie a Love Story by George Burns (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1988)
 The Great American Broadcast by Leonard Maltin (New York: Dutton, 1997)
 I Love Her, That's Why!: An Autobiography by George Burns (1955, 2003, 2011)
 Mcclintock, Walter. Current Biography Yearbook: 1951. Place of publication not identified: H W Wilson, 1951.
 On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio by John Dunning (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)
 Say Goodnight, Gracie: The Story of Burns and Allen by Cheryl Blythe and Susan Sackett (1986, 1989)
 Revised and Updated (2016) Amazon eBook
 The Third Time Around by George Burns (New York: Putnam, 1980), including transcripts of several classic Burns & Allen routines.

External links

 Home of George Burns & Gracie Allen-Radio Television Mirror – December 1940 (page 17)

1895 births
1964 deaths
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from Los Angeles
Actresses from San Francisco
Age controversies
American female dancers
Dancers from California
American film actresses
American people of Irish descent
American radio actresses
American stage actresses
Television personalities from Los Angeles
American women television personalities
American women comedians
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Female candidates for President of the United States
Candidates in the 1940 United States presidential election
Vaudeville performers
20th-century American singers
Comedians from California
20th-century American women singers
20th-century American comedians

Gracie Allen