Amos Bad Heart Bull, also known as Waŋblí Wapȟáha (Eagle Bonnet) (ca. 1868-1913), was a noted Oglala Lakota artist in what is called Ledger Art.  It is a style that adapts traditional Native American pictography to the new European medium of paper, and named for the accountants' ledger books, available from traders, used by the artists for their drawings and paintings.  He was also the tribal historian of the Oglala, as his father Bad Heart Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Čhaŋtéšiča) was before him.

Early years
Born about 1868 or 1869, Amos was the son of Bad Heart Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Čhaŋtéšiča) and his wife Red Blanket (Tȟašína Lúta Wiŋ). Amos' father was a brother of the headman He Dog and a nephew of the famous Oglala chief Red Cloud. Known as Eagle Bonnet (Waŋblí Wapȟáha) as a young man, Amos grew up living the traditional life of the Oglala Lakota. His family belonged to an Oglala camp known as the Soreback Band. He was eight years old when George Armstrong Custer's column attacked the large Indian village in the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1875.  The Sioux decisively defeated Custer's forces.

At the end of the Great Sioux War of 1876-77, the Bad Heart Bull family surrendered at the Red Cloud Agency on April 18, 1877, several weeks before Crazy Horse. Following the killing of Crazy Horse in September 1877, the family moved with other northern Oglala to the nearby Spotted Tail Agency. The family fled north with other Oglala, eventually joining Sitting Bull in Canada. After a few years, the Bad Heart Bull family probably returned to the U.S. with other Oglala Lakota, who surrendered at Fort Keogh in 1880.

They were transferred to the Standing Rock Reservation in 1881.  The following spring, they were sent to join the rest of the Oglala at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in present-day South Dakota.

Becoming an artist
As a young man, Amos Bad Heart Bull showed interest in the history of the Oglala, and began to draw pictures depicting traditional lifeways and events.  The people have a tradition of drawing pictographs to show history, generally drawn and painted on animal skins. This is known as the winter count. Amos' father was the tribal historian and used such a technique.

In 1890, Amos Bad Heart Bull enlisted in the U.S. Army as an Indian scout and learned to speak English.  He served at Fort Robinson with his uncle Grant Short Bull. During this time, he purchased a ledger book from a clothing dealer in nearby Crawford, Nebraska.  He used its papers for drawing a series of pictures. In the process, he adapted traditional Native American pictography techniques to the new European medium of paper.

This was part of a development called Ledger Art, named for the accountants' ledger books used by Native Americans for their drawings and paintings. It was particularly associated with the art produced in the late nineteenth century by Native American men held at Fort Marion in Florida.  They were held for more than a decade as prisoners of war, or political prisoners, following the Plains Wars. In addition to classes in English and other topics of United States society, the fort's officials provided the men with drawing materials and ledger books for their work.  The collection of ledger books is held by the Smithsonian Institution.

After returning to Pine Ridge after serving his enlistment, Bad Heart Bull made his living as a small cattleman. He became the tribal historian of the Oglala Lakota, as his father had been before him. After the allocation of communal lands of the Pine Ridge Reservation under the Dawes Act, Bad Heart Bull received his land allotment along Black Tail Creek northwest of Oglala, South Dakota, near other members of the Soreback Band.

Marriage and family
He married after returning to Pine Ridge Reservation.  Their only daughter, Victoria, was born in 1909 but died four months later. His wife died in 1910 and Amos died on August 3, 1913.

Bad Heart Bull papers
At the time of his death, Amos' sketchbook was given to his younger sister, Dolly Pretty Cloud.  In the 1930s, she was contacted by Helen Blish, a graduate student from the University of Nebraska, who asked to study her brother's work for her master's thesis in art. When Pretty Cloud died in 1947, her brother's ledger book full of drawings was buried with her.

In the 1930s, Hartley Burr Alexander, Blish's professor, had Bad Heart Bull's drawings photographed as a record and to accompany Blish's theses.  He published them with an introduction and notes in a book, Sioux Indian Painting (1938).

Through Alexander's admiration of Bad Heart Bull's work, and Alexander's position as thematic consultant for the construction of the Nebraska State Capitol, Bad Heart Bull is noted as a primary thematic design influence on the Nebraska State Capitol, particularly in its East Chamber (its original Senate chamber).

With the rise of interest in Native American history and culture, in 1967, the University of Nebraska Press published Blish's thesis as A Pictographic History of the Oglala Sioux. It included the drawings of Amos Bad Heart Bull.  The reproductions were based on copies of the original prints of the photographs of the drawings.

In the years since, scholars have come to view the Amos Bad Heart Bull images as a very important contribution to Lakota history and culture.

Translation of his name
A literal translation of the Lakota word čhaŋtéšiče is "he has a bad heart", but an idiomatic meaning is "he is sad."  Tȟatȟáŋka Čhaŋtéšiče would likely have been understood in the same way "Sad Bull" would be in English. When Lakota names are translated literally into English, they may lose their idiomatic sense.

See also
List of Native American artists
Plains hide painting
Winter count, traditional Plains calendars

References

Further reading
Alexander, Hartley Burr, Sioux Indian Painting ... With introduction and notes by Hartley Burr Alexander (Nice, France: C. Szwedzicki, 1938).
Helen Blish, A Pictographic History of the Oglala Sioux (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1967).
Ephriam D. Dickson III, "Reconstructing the Indian Village at the Little Bighorn: The Cankahuhan or Soreback Band, Oglala," Greasy Grass, 2006, pp. 2–14.

1860s births
1913 deaths
People of the Great Sioux War of 1876
Native American illustrators
Oglala people
Artists from South Dakota
Year of birth uncertain
Native American painters
19th-century American painters
American male painters
20th-century American painters
19th-century male artists
Native American male artists

Amos Bad Heart Bull


Cheugugi (Hangul: 측우기, Hanja: 測雨器) is the first well-known rain gauge invented and used during the Joseon dynasty of Korea. It was invented and supplied to each provincial offices during the King Sejong the Great's reign. As of 2010, only one example of the Cheugugi remains, known as the Geumyeong Cheugugi (Hangul: 금영측우기, Hanja: 錦營測雨器), which literally means "Cheugugi installed on the provincial office's yard." It is designated as National Treasures #561 of Korea and was installed in provincial office of Gongju city, 1837 by King Yeongjo, the 21st king of Joseon. In addition, the official record of the rainfall by Cheugugi from King Jeongjo's reign to Emperor Gojong's reign is preserved.

Intention
In the early days of the Joseon dynasty, there was a system to measure and report a region's rainfall for the sake of agriculture. However, the method to measure rainfall in those days was primitive, measuring the depth of rain water in puddles.

This method could not tell the exact rainfall, because there are differences in the amount of rainwater absorbed into the ground by the nature of the local soil. To prevent errors of this kind, King Sejong the Great ordered the Gwansanggam (Hangul: 관상감, Hanja: 觀象監) (the Joseon kingdom's research institute of astronomy, geography, calendar and weather) to build a rainwater container, the Cheugugi, made of iron in August 1441 (according to the lunar calendar) based on the idea of his Crown Prince, who later became Munjong of Joseon. In the early days of the Cheugugi, it was mainly used in the capital area only.

In 1442, the king ordered the Gwansanggam again to design a standardized system to measure and record the rainfall. He also ordered his provincial governors, appointed by the king, to install an identical Cheugugi in the courtyard of each provincial office, where the governors would measure and record the rainfall.

It was originally made of iron, but there were copper and ceramic ones built later.

Exterior features
As it is described above, the Cheugugi was mainly made of iron. By observing the preserved one, it is generally characterized by its oil-drum shape which is fixed on the hexahedral stone support, Cheugudae (측우대). The reasonable height of the Cheugudae means that splashed water cannot enter the Cheugugi.

The depth of the preserved Cheugugi is about 32 cm and the diameter is about 15 cm.

Operation
It is estimated that the measuring rainfalls by the standardized Cheugugi was institutionalized from May 8, 1442 (lunar calendar). From that day, the word "Cheugugi" was inscribed on the official records of the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (조선왕조실록).

The rainfall is measured by dipping a ruler and recorded by poon (Hangul: 푼, Hanja: 分) units (approximately 0.303 cm (0.120 inch)). Furthermore, the information of the time when the rain began and stopped is recorded by each case, always, throughout the nation.

Examples
Some Cheugudaes continue to exist:
 The Gwansanggam Cheugudae
 Daegu Sunhwadang Cheugudae (established at Daegu)
 Changdeokgung Palace's Cheugudae (moved to the National Palace Museum of Korea)
 Tongyeong Cheugudae
 Yeon-gyeong-dang (the royal residence in forbidden garden of Changdeokgung Palace) Cheugudae

There is also Ma-jeon-gyo (Bridge) which is generally known as Supyo-gyo across the Cheonggyecheon (stream flows center of Joseon era's Seoul city (inside area of the Seoul wall), near the Gyungbok Palace). The generally known name originated from the Supyo-seok attached on the pier of the bridge. The Supyo-seok's meaning and function is "the water level gauge" of Cheonggyecheon, telling how much the stream's water level rises by rain. It was established in King Sejong the Great's reign (second year of his reign) and is still in existence nowadays. But 1958 when the Cheonggyecheon was covered as a road by the Korean government, it was moved to Jang-chung park and it remains there. There was a plan to move the bridge to its original location, during the Cheonggyecheon restoration. But the plan could not be fulfilled, because there was a difference between the restored width of the Cheonggyecheon and the bridge's length. So, the bridge remains in Jang-chung Park.

References

Korean inventions
Measuring instruments
Meteorological instrumentation and equipment
Rain

Cheugugi


The West Baden Sprudels were an early Negro league baseball team that played as an independent club owned by the Burnett-Pollard-Rogers Baseball Club Company, where Edward Rogers was the Chief Officer.

Founding

The Sprudels appear to have been from Springs Valley, Indiana, but they often frequented baseball diamonds near the West Baden Springs Hotel in West Baden Springs, Indiana, and the French Lick Springs Hotel in French Lick, Indiana. Games started between the teams between 1907 and 1908. The team was managed by C. I. Taylor from 1910 to 1913.

Their name derived from a bottled water produced at the Hotel.  The Hotel bordered on a local salt lick and mineral spring and the minerals from the spring made the water act as an effective and marketable natural laxative.  The product was labeled as "Sprudel Water" (from German "Sprudelwasser" meaning "sparkling water").  Their frequent rivals, the French Lick Plutos, came from a hotel on the same spring that had also bottled the water and sold it as "Pluto Water".

Competition

The West Baden Sprudels played long before the Negro National League formed in 1920, but still against many of the great pre-Negro league baseball teams of the day, including the Chicago American Giants, Indianapolis ABCs, Cuban Stars, Louisville White Sox, Chicago Union Giants, Chicago Giants, French Lick Plutos, and the Brooklyn All Stars.

Rosters

1910

1911

1912

1913

1914

1915

References

External links
 www.seamheads.com

Negro league baseball teams
Defunct baseball teams in Indiana
Baseball teams disestablished in 1915
Baseball teams established in 1910

West Baden Sprudels


Diwali (; Deepavali (IAST: dīpāvalī) or Divali;) is the Hindu festival of lights with its variations also celebrated in other Indian religions. It symbolises the spiritual "victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance". Diwali is celebrated during the Hindu lunisolar months of Ashvin (according to the amanta tradition) and Kartikabetween around mid-September and mid-November. The celebrations generally last five or six days.

Diwali is connected to various religious events, deities and personalities, such as being the day Rama returned to his kingdom in Ayodhya with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana after defeating the demon king Ravana. It is also widely associated with Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, and Ganesha, the god of wisdom and the remover of obstacles. Other regional traditions connect the holiday to Vishnu, Krishna, Durga, Shiva, Kali, Hanuman, Kubera, Yama, Yami, Dhanvantari, or Vishvakarman.

Primarily a Hindu festival, variations of Diwali are also celebrated by adherents of other faiths. The Jains observe their own Diwali which marks the final liberation of Mahavira. The Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas to mark the release of Guru Hargobind from a Mughal prison. Newar Buddhists, unlike other Buddhists, celebrate Diwali by worshipping Lakshmi, while the Hindus of Eastern India and Bangladesh generally celebrate Diwali by worshipping the goddess Kali.

During the festival, the celebrants illuminate their homes, temples and workspaces with diyas (oil lamps), candles and lanterns. Hindus, in particular, have a ritual oil bath at dawn on each day of the festival. Diwali is also marked with fireworks and the decoration of floors with rangoli designs, and other parts of the house with jhalars. Food is a major focus with families partaking in feasts and sharing mithai. The festival is an annual homecoming and bonding period not only for families, but also for communities and associations, particularly those in urban areas, which will organise activities, events and gatherings. Many towns organise community parades and fairs with parades or music and dance performances in parks. Some Hindus, Jains and Sikhs will send Diwali greeting cards to family near and far during the festive season, occasionally with boxes of Indian confectionery. Another aspect of the festival is remembering the ancestors.

Diwali is also a major cultural event for the Hindu, Sikh, and Jain diaspora. The main day of the festival of Diwali (the day of Lakshmi Puja) is an official holiday in Fiji, Guyana, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago.

Etymology

Diwali ()also known as Dewali, Divali, or Deepavali (IAST: dīpāvalī)comes from the Sanskrit  meaning . The term is derived from the Sanskrit words ,  and , .

Dates
The five-day celebration is observed every year in early autumn after the conclusion of the summer harvest. It coincides with the new moon (amāvasyā) and is deemed the darkest night of the Hindu lunisolar calendar. The festivities begin two days before amāvasyā, on Dhanteras, and extend two days after, until the second (or 17th) day of the month of Kartik. (According to Indologist Constance Jones, this night ends the lunar month of Ashwin and starts the month of Kartik – but see this note and Amanta and Purnima systems.) The darkest night is the apex of the celebration and coincides with the second half of October or early November in the Gregorian calendar.
The festival climax is on the third day and is called the main Diwali. It is an official holiday in a dozen countries, while the other festive days are regionally observed as either public or optional restricted holidays in India. In Nepal, it is also a multiday festival, although the days and rituals are named differently, with the climax being called the Tihar festival by Hindus and Swanti festival by Buddhists.

History
The five-day long festival originated in the Indian subcontinent and is likely a fusion of harvest festivals in ancient India. It is mentioned in early Sanskrit texts, such as the Padma Purana and the Skanda Purana, both of which were completed in the second half of the 1st millennium CE. The diyas (lamps) are mentioned in Skanda Kishore Purana as symbolising parts of the sun, describing it as the cosmic giver of light and energy to all life and which seasonally transitions in the Hindu calendar month of Kartik.

Emperor Harsha refers to Deepavali, in the 7th-century Sanskrit play Nagananda, as Dīpapratipadotsava (dīpa = light, pratipadā = first day, utsava = festival), where lamps were lit and newly engaged brides and grooms received gifts. Rajasekhara referred to Deepavali as Dipamalika in his 9th-century Kavyamimamsa, wherein he mentions the tradition of homes being whitewashed and oil lamps decorated homes, streets and markets in the night.

Diwali was also described by numerous travelers from outside India. In his 11th-century memoir on India, the Persian traveler and historian Al Biruni wrote of Deepavali being celebrated by Hindus on the day of the New Moon in the month of Kartika. The Venetian merchant and traveler Niccolò de' Conti visited India in the early 15th-century and wrote in his memoir, "on another of these festivals they fix up within their temples, and on the outside of the roofs, an innumerable number of oil lamps... which are kept burning day and night" and that the families would gather, "clothe themselves in new garments", sing, dance and feast. The 16th-century Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes wrote of his visit to the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire, where Dipavali was celebrated in October with householders illuminating their homes, and their temples, with lamps. It is mentioned in the Ramayana that Diwali was celebrated for only 2 years in Ayodhya.

Islamic historians of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era also mentioned Diwali and other Hindu festivals. A few, notably the Mughal emperor Akbar, welcomed and participated in the festivities, whereas others banned such festivals as Diwali and Holi, as Aurangzeb did in 1665.

Publications from the British colonial era also made mention of Diwali, such as the note on Hindu festivals published in 1799 by Sir William Jones, a philologist known for his early observations on Sanskrit and Indo-European languages. In his paper on The Lunar Year of the Hindus, Jones, then based in Bengal, noted four of the five days of Diwali in the autumn months of Aswina-Cartica  as the following: Bhutachaturdasi Yamaterpanam (2nd day), Lacshmipuja dipanwita (the day of Diwali), Dyuta pratipat Belipuja (4th day), and Bhratri dwitiya (5th day). The Lacshmipuja dipanwita, remarked Jones, was a "great festival at night, in honour of Lakshmi, with illuminations on trees and houses".

Epigraphy

Sanskrit inscriptions in stone and copper mentioning Diwali, occasionally alongside terms such as Dipotsava, Dipavali, Divali and Divalige, have been discovered at numerous sites across India. Examples include a 10th-century Rashtrakuta empire copper plate inscription of Krishna III (939–967 CE) that mentions Dipotsava, and a 12th-century mixed Sanskrit-Kannada Sinda inscription discovered in the Isvara temple of Dharwad in Karnataka where the inscription refers to the festival as a "sacred occasion". According to Lorenz Franz Kielhorn, a German Indologist known for translating many Indic inscriptions, this festival is mentioned as Dipotsavam in verses 6 and 7 of the Ranganatha temple Sanskrit inscription of the 13th-century Venad Hindu king Ravivarman Samgramadhira. Part of the inscription, as translated by Kielhorn, reads: "the auspicious festival of lights which disperses the most profound darkness, which in former days was celebrated by the kings Ila, Kartavirya and Sagara, (...) as Sakra (Indra) is of the gods, the universal monarch who knows the duties by the three Vedas, afterwards celebrated here at Ranga for Vishnu, resplendent with Lakshmi resting on his radiant lap."

Jain inscriptions, such as the 10th-century Saundatti inscription about a donation of oil to Jinendra worship for the Diwali rituals, speak of Dipotsava. Another early 13th-century Sanskrit stone inscription, written in the Devanagari script, has been found in the north end of a mosque pillar in Jalore, Rajasthan evidently built using materials from a demolished Jain temple. The inscription states that Ramachandracharya built and dedicated a drama performance hall, with a golden cupola, on Diwali.

Religious significance

The religious significance of Diwali varies regionally within India.
One tradition links the festival to legends in the Hindu epic Ramayana, where Diwali is the day Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman reached Ayodhya after a period of 14 years in exile after Rama's army of good defeated demon king Ravana's army of evil. Throughout the epic, Rama's decisions were always in line with dharma (duty) and the Diwali festival serves as a reminder for followers of hinduism to maintain their dharma in day to day life.

Per another popular tradition, in the Dvapara Yuga period, Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, killed the demon Narakasura, who was the evil king of Pragjyotishapura, near present-day Assam, and released 16000 girls held captive by Narakasura. Diwali was celebrated as a signifier of triumph of good over evil after Krishna's Victory over Narakasura. The day before Diwali is remembered as Naraka Chaturdashi, the day on which Narakasura was killed by Krishna.

Many Hindus associate the festival with Goddess Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and wife of Vishnu. According to Pintchman, the start of the 5-day Diwali festival is stated in some popular contemporary sources as the day goddess Lakshmi was born from Samudra Manthana, the churning of the cosmic ocean of milk by the Devas (gods) and the Asuras (demons) – a Vedic legend that is also found in several Puranas such as the Padma Purana, while the night of Diwali is when Lakshmi chose and wed Vishnu. Along with Lakshmi, who is representative of Vaishnavism, Ganesha, the elephant-headed son of Parvati and Shiva of Shaivism tradition, is remembered as one who symbolises ethical beginnings and the remover of obstacles.

Hindus of eastern India associate the festival with the Goddess Kali, who symbolises the victory of good over evil. Hindus from the Braj region in northern India, parts of Assam, as well as southern Tamil and Telugu communities view Diwali as the day the god Krishna overcame and destroyed the evil demon king Narakasura, in yet another symbolic victory of knowledge and good over ignorance and evil.

Trade and merchant families and others also offer prayers to Saraswati, who embodies music, literature and learning and Kubera, who symbolises book-keeping, treasury and wealth management. In western states such as Gujarat, and certain northern Hindu communities of India, the festival of Diwali signifies the start of a new year.

Mythical tales shared on Diwali vary widely depending on region and even within Hindu tradition, yet all share a common focus on righteousness, self-inquiry and the importance of knowledge, which, according to Lindsey Harlan, an Indologist and scholar of Religious Studies, is the path to overcoming the "darkness of ignorance". The telling of these myths are reminiscent of the Hindu belief that good ultimately triumphs over evil.

Other religions
Originally a Hindu festival, Diwali has transcended religious lines. Diwali is celebrated by Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, and Newar Buddhists, although for each faith it marks different historical events and stories, but nonetheless the festival represents the same symbolic victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, and good over evil.

Jainism

A scholar of Jain and Nivethan, states that in Jain tradition, Diwali is celebrated in observance of "Mahavira Nirvana Divas", the physical death and final nirvana of Mahavira. The Jain Diwali celebrated in many parts of India has similar practices to the Hindu Diwali, such as the lighting of lamps and the offering of prayers to Lakshmi. However, the focus of the Jain Diwali remains the dedication to Mahavira. According to the Jain tradition, this practice of lighting lamps first began on the day of Mahavira's nirvana in 527 BCE, when 18 kings who had gathered for Mahavira's final teachings issued a proclamation that lamps be lit in remembrance of the "great light, Mahavira". This traditional belief of the origin of Diwali, and its significance to Jains, is reflected in their historic artworks such as paintings.

Sikhism

Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas in remembrance of the release of Guru Hargobind from the Gwalior Fort prison by the Mughal emperor Jahangir and the day he arrived at the Golden Temple in Amritsar. According to J.S. Grewal, a scholar of Sikhism and Sikh history, Diwali in the Sikh tradition is older than the sixth Guru Hargobind legend. Guru Amar Das, the third Guru of the Sikhs, built a well in Goindwal with eighty-four steps and invited Sikhs to bathe in its sacred waters on Baisakhi and Diwali as a form of community bonding. Over time, these spring and autumn festivals became the most important of Sikh festivals and holy sites such as Amritsar became focal points for annual pilgrimages. The festival of Diwali, according to Ray Colledge, highlights three events in Sikh history: the founding of the city of Amritsar in 1577, the release of Guru Hargobind from the Mughal prison, and the day of Bhai Mani Singh's martyrdom in 1738 as a result of his failure to pay a fine for trying to celebrate Diwali and thereafter refusing to convert to Islam.

Buddhism
Diwali is not a festival for most Buddhists, with the exception of the Newar people of Nepal who revere various deities in Vajrayana Buddhism and celebrate Diwali by offering prayers to Lakshmi. Newar Buddhists in Nepalese valleys also celebrate the Diwali festival over five days, in much the same way, and on the same days, as the Nepalese Hindu Diwali-Tihar festival. According to some observers, this traditional celebration by Newar Buddhists in Nepal, through the worship of Lakshmi and Vishnu during Diwali, is not syncretism but rather a reflection of the freedom within Mahayana Buddhist tradition to worship any deity for their worldly betterment.

Celebrations
In the lead-up to Diwali, celebrants prepare by cleaning, renovating, and decorating their homes and workplaces with diyas (oil lamps) and rangolis (colorful art circle patterns). During Diwali, people wear their finest clothes, illuminate the interior and exterior of their homes with saaki (earthen lamp), diyas and rangoli, perform worship ceremonies of Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity and wealth, light fireworks, and partake in family feasts, where mithai (sweets) and gifts are shared.

The height of Diwali is celebrated on the third day coinciding with the darkest night of Ashvin or Kartika.

The common celebratory practices are known as the festival of light, however there are minor differences from state to state in India. Diwali is usually celebrated twenty days after the Vijayadashami festival, with Dhanteras, or the regional equivalent, marking the first day of the festival when celebrants prepare by cleaning their homes and making decorations on the floor, such as rangolis. Some regions of India start Diwali festivities the day before Dhanteras with Govatsa Dwadashi. The second day is Naraka Chaturdashi. The third day is the day of Lakshmi Puja and the darkest night of the traditional month. In some parts of India, the day after Lakshmi Puja is marked with the Govardhan Puja and Balipratipada (Padwa). Some Hindu communities mark the last day as Bhai Dooj or the regional equivalent, which is dedicated to the bond between sister and brother, while other Hindu and Sikh craftsmen communities mark this day as Vishvakarma Puja and observe it by performing maintenance in their work spaces and offering prayers.Rituals and preparations for Diwali begin days or weeks in advance, typically after the festival of Dusshera that precedes Diwali by about 20 days. The festival formally begins two days before the night of Diwali, and ends two days thereafter. Each day has the following rituals and significance: Diwali, the Indian festival of lights has become more popular in other countries. In New York City lawmakers have passed legislation to make holidays in school. But debates over the holiday push back. In the future Diwali will be a holiday.

Dhanteras, Dhanatrayodashi, Yama Deepam (Day 1)

Dhanteras, derived from Dhan meaning wealth and teras meaning thirteenth, marks the thirteenth day of the dark fortnight of Ashwin or Kartik and the beginning of Diwali in most parts of India. On this day, many Hindus clean their homes and business premises. They install diyas, small earthen oil-filled lamps that they light up for the next five days, near Lakshmi and Ganesha iconography. Women and children decorate doorways within homes and offices with rangolis, colourful designs made from rice flour, flower petals, colored rice or colored sand, while the boys and men decorate the roofs and walls of family homes, markets, and temples and string up lights and lanterns. The day also marks a major shopping day to purchase new utensils, home equipment, gold jewelry, firecrackers, and other items. On the evening of Dhanteras, families offer prayers (puja) to Lakshmi and Ganesha, and lay offerings of puffed rice, candy toys, rice cakes and batashas (hollow sugar cakes).

According to Tracy Pintchman, Dhanteras is a symbol of annual renewal, cleansing and an auspicious beginning for the next year. The term Dhan for this day also alludes to the Ayurvedic icon Dhanvantari, the god of health and healing, who is believed to have emerged from the "churning of cosmic ocean" on the same day as Lakshmi. Some communities, particularly those active in Ayurvedic and health-related professions, pray or perform havan rituals to Dhanvantari on Dhanteras.

On Yama Deepam (also known as Yama Dipadana or Jam ke Diya), Hindus light a diya, ideally made of wheat flour and filled with sesame oil, that faces south in the back of their homes. This is believed to please Yama, the god of death, and to ward off untimely death. Some Hindus observe Yama Deepa on the second night before the main day of Diwali.

Naraka Chaturdashi, Kali Chaudas, Chhoti Diwali, Hanuman Puja, Roop Chaudas, Yama Deepam (Day 2)

Naraka Chaturdashi, also known as Chhoti Diwali, is the second day of festivities coinciding with the fourteenth day of the dark fortnight of Ashwin or Kartik. The term "chhoti" means little, while "Naraka" means hell and "Chaturdashi" means "fourteenth". The day and its rituals are interpreted as ways to liberate any souls from their suffering in "Naraka", or hell, as well as a reminder of spiritual auspiciousness. For some Hindus, it is a day to pray for the peace to the manes, or defiled souls of one's ancestors and light their way for their journeys in the cyclic afterlife. A mythological interpretation of this festive day is the destruction of the asura (demon) Narakasura by Krishna, a victory that frees 16,000 imprisoned princesses kidnapped by Narakasura. It is also celebrated as Roop Chaudas in some North Indian households, where women bathe before sunrise, while lighting a Diya (lamp) in the bath area, they believe it helps enhance their beauty – it is a fun ritual that young girls enjoy as part of festivities. Ubtan is applied by the women which is made up of special gram flour mixed with herbs for cleansing and beautifying themselves.

Naraka Chaturdashi is also a major day for purchasing festive foods, particularly sweets. A variety of sweets are prepared using flour, semolina, rice, chickpea flour, dry fruit pieces powders or paste, milk solids (mawa or khoya) and clarified butter (ghee). According to Goldstein, these are then shaped into various forms, such as laddus, barfis, halwa, kachoris, shrikhand, and sandesh, rolled and stuffed delicacies, such as karanji, shankarpali, maladu, susiyam, pottukadalai. Sometimes these are wrapped with edible silver foil (vark). Confectioners and shops create Diwali-themed decorative displays, selling these in large quantities, which are stocked for home celebrations to welcome guests and as gifts. Families also prepare homemade delicacies for Lakshmi Pujan, regarded as the main day of Diwali. Chhoti Diwali is also a day for visiting friends, business associates and relatives, and exchanging gifts.

On the second day of Diwali, Hanuman Puja is performed in some parts of India especially in Gujarat. It coincides with the day of Kali Chaudas. It is believed that spirits roam around on the night of Kali Chaudas, and Hanuman, who is the deity of strength, power, and protection, is worshipped to seek protection from the spirits. Diwali is also celebrated to mark the return of Rama to Ayodhya after defeating the demon-king Ravana and completing his fourteen years of exile. The devotion and dedication of Hanuman pleased Rama so much that he blessed Hanuman to be worshipped before him. Thus, people worship Hanuman the day before Diwali's main day.

This day is commonly celebrated as Diwali in Tamil Nadu, Goa, and Karnataka. Traditionally, Marathi Hindus and South Indian Hindus receive an oil massage from the elders in the family on the day and then take a ritual bath, all before sunrise. Many visit their favourite Hindu temple.

Some Hindus observe Yama Deepam (also known as Yama Dipadana or Jam ke Diya) on the second day of Diwali, instead of the first day. A diya that is filled with sesame oil is lit at back of their homes facing in the southern direction. This is believed to please Yama, the god of death, and to ward off untimely death.

Lakshmi Pujan, Kali Puja (Day 3)

The third day is the height of the festival, and coincides with the last day of the dark fortnight of Ashwin or Kartik. This is the day when Hindu, Jain and Sikh temples and homes are aglow with lights, thereby making it the "festival of lights". The word Deepawali comes from the Sanskrit word deep, which means an Indian lantern/lamp.

The youngest members in the family visit their elders, such as grandparents and other senior members of the community, on this day. Small business owners give gifts or special bonus payments to their employees between Dhanteras and Lakshmi Pujan. Shops either do not open or close early on this day allowing employees to enjoy family time. Shopkeepers and small operations perform puja rituals in their office premises. Unlike some other festivals, the Hindus typically do not fast during the five-day long Diwali including Lakshmi Pujan, rather they feast and share the bounties of the season at their workplaces, community centres, temples, and homes.

As the evening approaches, celebrants will wear new clothes or their best outfits, teenage girls and women, in particular, wear saris and jewelry. At dusk, family members gather for the Lakshmi Pujan, although prayers will also be offered to other deities, such as Ganesha, Saraswati, Rama, Lakshmana, Sita, Hanuman, or Kubera. The lamps from the puja ceremony are then used to light more earthenware lamps, which are placed in rows along the parapets of temples and houses, while some diyas are set adrift on rivers and streams. After the puja, people go outside and celebrate by lighting up patakhe (fireworks) together, and then share a family feast and mithai (sweets, desserts).

The puja and rituals in the Bengali Hindu community focus on Kali, the goddess of war, instead of Lakshmi. According to Rachel Fell McDermott, a scholar of South Asian, particular Bengali, studies, in Bengal during Navaratri (Dussehra elsewhere in India) the Durga puja is the main focus, although in the eastern and north eastern states the two are synonymous, but on Diwali the focus is on the puja dedicated to Kali. These two festivals likely developed in tandem over their recent histories, states McDermott. Textual evidence suggests that Bengali Hindus worshipped Lakshmi before the colonial era, and that the Kali puja is a more recent phenomenon. Contemporary Bengali celebrations mirror those found elsewhere, with teenage boys playing with fireworks and the sharing of festive food with family, but with the Shakti goddess Kali as the focus.

On the night of Diwali, rituals across much of India are dedicated to Lakshmi to welcome her into their cleaned homes and bring prosperity and happiness for the coming year. While the cleaning, or painting, of the home is in part for goddess Lakshmi, it also signifies the ritual "reenactment of the cleansing, purifying action of the monsoon rains" that would have concluded in most of the Indian subcontinent. Vaishnava families recite Hindu legends of the victory of good over evil and the return of hope after despair on the Diwali night, where the main characters may include Rama, Krishna, Vamana or one of the avatars of Vishnu, the divine husband of Lakshmi. At dusk, lamps placed earlier in the inside and outside of the home are lit up to welcome Lakshmi. Family members light up firecrackers, which some interpret as a way to ward off all evil spirits and the inauspicious, as well as add to the festive mood. According to Pintchman, who quotes Raghavan, this ritual may also be linked to the tradition in some communities of paying respect to ancestors. Earlier in the season's fortnight, some welcome the souls of their ancestors to join the family for the festivities with the Mahalaya. The Diwali night's lights and firecrackers, in this interpretation, represent a celebratory and symbolic farewell to the departed ancestral souls.

The celebrations and rituals of the Jains and the Sikhs are similar to those of the Hindus where social and community bonds are renewed. Major temples and homes are decorated with lights, festive foods shared with all, friends and relatives remembered and visited with gifts.

Annakut, Balipratipada (Padwa), New Year's Day, Govardhan Puja (Day 4)

The day after Diwali is the first day of the bright fortnight of Kartik. It is regionally called Annakut (heap of grain), Padwa, Goverdhan puja, Bali Pratipada, Bali Padyami, Kartik Shukla Pratipada and other names. According to one tradition, the day is associated with the story of Bali's defeat at the hands of Vishnu. In another interpretation, it is thought to reference the legend of Parvati and her husband Shiva playing a game of dyuta (dice) on a board of twelve squares and thirty pieces, Parvati wins. Shiva surrenders his shirt and adornments to her, rendering him naked. According to Handelman and Shulman, as quoted by Pintchman, this legend is a Hindu metaphor for the cosmic process for creation and dissolution of the world through the masculine destructive power, as represented by Shiva, and the feminine procreative power, represented by Parvati, where twelve reflects the number of months in the cyclic year, while thirty are the number of days in its lunisolar month.

This day ritually celebrates the bond between the wife and husband, and in some Hindu communities, husbands will celebrate this with gifts to their wives. In other regions, parents invite a newly married daughter, or son, together with their spouses to a festive meal and give them gifts.

In some rural communities of the north, west and central regions, the fourth day is celebrated as Govardhan puja, honouring the legend of the Hindu god Krishna saving the cowherd and farming communities from incessant rains and floods triggered by Indra's anger, which he accomplished by lifting the Govardhan mountain. This legend is remembered through the ritual of building small mountain-like miniatures from cow dung. According to Kinsley, the ritual use of cow dung, a common fertiliser, is an agricultural motif and a celebration of its significance to annual crop cycles.

The agricultural symbolism is also observed on this day by many Hindus as Annakut, literally "mountain of food". Communities prepare over one hundred dishes from a variety of ingredients, which is then dedicated to Krishna before being shared among the community. Hindu temples on this day prepare and present "mountains of sweets" to the faithful who have gathered for darshan (visit). In Gujarat, Annakut is the first day of the new year and celebrated through the purchase of essentials, or sabras (literally, "good things in life"), such as salt, offering prayers to Krishna and visiting temples. In Gujarat New Year is celebrated after the day of Diwali. In the early morning people take showers, do prayer at home, visit temples for worship and children in the evening visit neighbor houses to say happy new year, shake hands, get mukhvas(dessert) and chocolate.

Bhai Duj, Bhau-Beej, Vishwakarma Puja (Day 5)

The last day of the festival, the second day of the bright fortnight of Kartik, is called Bhai Duj (literally "brother's day"), Bhau Beej, Bhai Tilak or Bhai Phonta. It celebrates the sister-brother bond, similar in spirit to Raksha Bandhan but it is the brother that travels to meet the sister and her family. This festive day is interpreted by some to symbolise Yama's sister Yamuna welcoming Yama with a tilaka, while others interpret it as the arrival of Krishna at his sister Subhadra's place after defeating Narakasura. Subhadra welcomes him with a tilaka on his forehead.

The day celebrates the sibling bond between brother and sister. On this day the womenfolk of the family gather, perform a puja with prayers for the well being of their brothers, then return to a ritual of feeding their brothers with their hands and receiving gifts. According to Pintchman, in some Hindu traditions the women recite tales where sisters protect their brothers from enemies that seek to cause him either bodily or spiritual harm. In historic times, this was a day in autumn when brothers would travel to meet their sisters, or invite their sister's family to their village to celebrate their sister-brother bond with the bounty of seasonal harvests.

The artisan Hindu and Sikh community celebrates the fourth day as the Vishwakarma puja day. Vishwakarma is the presiding Hindu deity for those in architecture, building, manufacturing, textile work and crafts trades.  The looms, tools of trade, machines and workplaces are cleaned and prayers offered to these livelihood means.

Other traditions and significance
During the season of Diwali, numerous rural townships and villages host melas, or fairs, where local producers and artisans trade produce and goods. A variety of entertainments are usually available for inhabitants of the local community to enjoy. The women, in particular, adorn themselves in colourful attire and decorate their hands with henna. Such events are also mentioned in Sikh historical records. In the modern day, Diwali mela are held at college, or university, campuses or as community events by members of the Indian diaspora. At such events a variety of music, dance and arts performances, food, crafts, and cultural celebrations are featured.

Economics
Diwali marks a major shopping period in India, and is comparable to the Christmas period in terms of consumer purchases and economic activity. It is traditionally a time when households purchase new clothing, home refurbishments, gifts, gold, jewelry, and other large purchases particularly as the festival is dedicated to Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and such purchases are considered auspicious. According to Rao, Diwali is one of the major festivals where rural Indians spend a significant portion of their annual income, and is a means for them to renew their relationships and social networks.

Other goods that are bought in substantial quantities during Diwali include confectionery and fireworks. In 2013, about  of fireworks were sold to merchants for the Diwali season, an equivalent retail value of about  according to The Times of India. ASSOCHAM, a trade organisation in India, forecasted that online shopping alone to be over  over the 2017 Diwali season. About two-thirds of Indian households, according to the ASSOCHAM forecast, would spend between  and  to celebrate Diwali in 2017. Stock markets like NSE and BSE in India are typically closed during Diwali, with the exception of a Diwali Muhurat trading session for an hour in the evening to coincide with the beginning of the new year. In 2020, the INDF ETF was launched to mark the start of Diwali.

Politics

Diwali has increasingly attracted cultural exchanges, becoming occasions for politicians and religious leaders worldwide to meet Hindu or Indian origin citizens, diplomatic staff or neighbours. Many participate in other socio-political events as a symbol of support for diversity and inclusiveness. The Catholic dicastery Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, founded as Secretariat for non-Christians by Pope Paul VI, began sending official greetings and the Pope's message to the Hindus on Diwali in the mid-1990s.

Many governments encourage or sponsor Diwali-related festivities in their territories. For example, the Singaporean government, in association with the Hindu Endowment Board of Singapore, organises many cultural events during Diwali every year. National and civic leaders such as the former Prince Charles have attended Diwali celebrations at prominent Hindu temples in the UK, such as the Swaminarayan Temple in Neasden, using the occasion to highlight contributions of the Hindu community to British society. Since 2009, Diwali has been celebrated every year at 10 Downing Street, the residence of the British Prime Minister.

Diwali was first celebrated in the White House by George W. Bush in 2003 and its religious and historical significance was officially recognized by the United States Congress in 2007. Barack Obama became the first president to personally attend Diwali at the White House in 2009. On the eve of his first visit to India as President of the United States, Obama released an official statement sharing his best wishes with "those celebrating Diwali".

Every year during Diwali, Indian forces approach their Pakistani counterparts at the border bearing gifts of traditional Indian confectionery, a gesture that is returned in kind by the Pakistani soldiers who give Pakistani sweets to the Indian soldiers.

Issues

Burn injuries

The use of fireworks also causes an increase in the number of burn injuries in India during Diwali. One particular firework called anar (fountain) has been found to be responsible for 65% of such injuries, with adults being the typical victims. Most of the injuries sustained are Group I type burns (minor) requiring only outpatient care.

Air pollution

The use of firecrackers on Diwali increases the concentration of dust and pollutants in the air. After firing, the fine dust particles get settled on the surrounding surfaces which are packed with chemicals like copper, zinc, sodium, lead, magnesium, cadmium and pollutants like oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. These invisible yet harmful particles affect the environment and in turn, put people's health at stake. On Diwali at night all around people do firecrackers and all the smoke spread out in the sky in state of New Delhi has air pollution problem in Diwali it takes time to clear all the air.

During Diwali, the levels of suspended particulate matter increase. When people are exposed to these pollutant particles, they may suffer from eye, nose, and throat-related problems. To produce colors when crackers are burst, carcinogenic and poisonous elements are used. When these compounds pollute the air, they increase the risk of cancer in people. Firecrackers also cause light pollution.

See also

 Bandna – Agrarian festival that coincides with Diwali
 Bandi Chhor Divas – Sikh festival that coincides with Diwali
 Day of the Little Candles – the Colombian Catholic festival of candles
 Diwali (Jainism) – Diwali's significance in Jainism
 Galungan – the Balinese Hindu festival of dharma's victory over adharma
 Guy Fawkes Night – the British festival of bonfires and fireworks held on the first weekend of November. In towns with a large British Asian community, Diwali and Guy Fawkes festivities are often combined.
 Hanukkah – the Jewish festival of lights
 Kali Puja – Diwali is most commonly known as Kali Puja in West Bengal or in Bengali dominated areas
 Karthikai Deepam – the festival of lights observed by Tamils of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala, Sri Lanka and elsewhere
 Lehyam, often prepared on the occasion of Deepavali to aid the digestion
 Lantern Festival – the Chinese festival of lanterns
 Saint Lucy's Day – the Christian festival of lights
 Sohrai – Harvest festival that coincides with Diwali
 Swanti – Newar version of Diwali
 Tihar – Nepali version of Diwali
 Walpurgis Night – the German festival of bonfires

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

 The Ancient Origins of Diwali, India's Biggest Holiday, Becky Little (2017)
 Deepawali

Autumn festivals
Festivals in India
Festivals in Nepal
Fireworks events in Asia
Harvest festivals in India
Hindu festivals
Jain festivals
November observances
October observances
Hindu festivals in India
Festivals in Jharkhand
Public holidays in Fiji
Public holidays in India
Public holidays in Malaysia
Public holidays in Mauritius
Public holidays in Nepal
Public holidays in Singapore
Public holidays in Sri Lanka
Public holidays in Trinidad and Tobago
Religious festivals in India
Sikh festivals
Traditions involving fire
Public holidays in Myanmar
Buddhist festivals

Diwali


Gresham College is an institution of higher learning in London. It does not enroll students and does not award any degrees. It was founded in 1597 under the will of Sir Thomas Gresham.

The College gives over 140 free public lectures every year. Since 2001, all lectures have also been made available online.

Professors
There seven original Gresham College Professorships that date back to the origins of the college. They are in Astronomy, Divinity, Geometry, Law, Music, Physic and Rhetoric.

These subjects reflect the curriculum of the medieval university (the trivium and quadrivium).

The college played an important role in the Enlightenment and in the formation of the Royal Society. Early distinguished Gresham College professors included Christopher Wren, who lectured on astronomy in the 17th century, and Robert Hooke, who was Professor of Geometry from 1665 until 1704.

The professors received £50 a year. The terms of their position were very precise, for example: :The geometrician is to read as followeth, every Trinity term arithmetique, in Michaelmas and Hilary terms theoretical geometry, in Easter term practical geometry. The astronomy reader is to read in his solemn lectures, first the principles of the sphere, and the theory of the planets, and the use of the astrolabe and the staff, and other common instruments for the capacity of mariners.

Today three further Professorships have been added to take account of areas not otherwise covered by the original Professorships:

 Commerce, established in 1985.
 Environment, established in 2014.
 Information technology, established in 2015.

The professors currently hold their positions for three years, extendable for a fourth year. They give six lectures a year.  There are also visiting professors appointed to give series of lectures at the College. There are a number of single-lecture speakers.

The lectures are often given in the Museum of London, which has a bigger lecture room than the College.

References

1590s establishments in England
1597 establishments
Colleges and universities in London

Gresham College


A enneadecahedron (or enneakaidecahedron) is a polyhedron with 19 faces. No enneadecahedron is regular; hence, the name is ambiguous.

There are numerous topologically distinct forms of an enneadecahedron, for example the octadecagonal (18-sided) pyramid, or the heptadecagonal (17-sided) prism; the latter is the only convex enneadecahedron with all regular polygonal faces.

Convex enneadecahedra
There are many topologically distinct convex enneadecahedra, excluding mirror images, having at least 12 vertices. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is possible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.)

References

External links
What Are Polyhedra?, with Greek Numerical Prefixes

Polyhedra

Enneadecahedron


Donal Cam O'Sullivan Beare, Prince of Beare, 1st Count of Berehaven () (1561–1618), was an Irish nobleman and soldier who was the last independent Chief of the Name of Clan O'Sullivan. He was thus the last O'Sullivan Beare, a title of the Gaelic nobility of Ireland, and Lord of the Beara Peninsula in the southwest of Ireland during the early seventeenth century, when the English Crown was attempting to secure their rule over the whole island.

Early life

Donal's father was killed in 1563, but he was considered too young to inherit and the clan's leadership passed to the chief's surviving brother Eoin, who was confirmed by Dublin Castle administration with the title Lord of Beare and Bantry. In order to consolidate his position, Eoin accepted the authority of Queen Elizabeth I and was knighted, thus becoming Sir Eoin. In 1587, Donal asserted his own claim to leadership of the clan, petitioning the Dublin Castle administration to put aside Sir Eoin's appointment with a claim derived from English laws based on absolute male primogeniture. These laws did not recognise age as relevant to inheritance rights. Keen to extend English legal authority over Ireland, the Dublin Castle administration accepted Donal's claim. He subsequently became The O'Sullivan Beare, head of the clan.

Nine Years War

By 1600, the province of Munster had been devastated by battle, and Irish Catholics had lost over half a million acres (4,000 km²) of land to Protestant settlers following the defeat of the Desmond Rebellions.

In the lead up to the Nine Years' War O'Sullivan kept his distance from the rebel cause, but in time he joined a confederation of Gaelic chiefs led by Hugh O'Neill, 3rd Earl of Tyrone, An Ó Néill, and Red Hugh O'Donnell, An Ó Domhnaill, of Ulster. Conflict had broken out in 1594, and Tyrone secured support from Philip II of Spain. The Spanish sent a force under the command of Don Juan D'Aquilla in 1601. O'Sullivan wrote to the Spanish king in submission to his authority, but the letter was intercepted by the English. In early 1602 the allied Irish and Spanish forces met an English force at the Battle of Kinsale and were defeated.

O'Sullivan resolved to continue the struggle by taking control of the castle of Dunboy. In June 1602 English forces attacked Dunboy and the castle fell after a brief siege. The entire company of defenders was killed in combat or hanged afterwards.

O'Sullivan's march

Donal himself was absent from the siege of Dunboy, having travelled to Ulster for a conference with Tyrone. His letter to Philip II left him with little hope of a pardon from the English, and he continued the fight with guerilla tactics. He also maintained a stronghold on Dursey Island which was attacked by an English detachment under the command of George Carew. According to Philip O'Sullivan Beare, Carew's men killed all 300 occupants of the stronghold, including women and children who had taken shelter there, in what became known as the Dursey Island massacre. After the fall of Dursey and Dunboy, O'Sullivan Beare, Lord of Beara and Bantry, gathered his remaining followers and set off northwards on a 500-kilometre march with 1,000 of his remaining people, starting on 31 December 1602. He hoped to meet Lord Tyrone on the shores of Lough Neagh.

He fought a long rearguard action northwards through Ireland, through Munster, Connacht and Ulster, during which the much larger English force and their Irish allies fought him all the way. The march was marked by the suffering of the fleeing and starving O'Sullivans as they sought food from an already decimated Irish countryside in winter. They faced equally desperate people in this, often resulting in hostility, such as from the Mac Egans at Redwood Castle in Tipperary and at Donohill in O'Dwyer's country, where they raided the food store of The 10th Earl of Ormond.  O'Sullivan marched through Aughrim, where he raided villages for food and met local resistance.

He was barred entrance to Glinsk Castle and led his refugees further north. On their arrival at Brian Oge O'Rourke's castle in West Breifne on 14 January 1603, after a fortnight's hard marching and fighting, only 35 of the original 1,000 remained. Many had died in battles or from exposure and hunger, and others had taken shelter or fled along the route. O'Sullivan Beare had marched over 500 kilometres, crossed the River Shannon in the dark of a midwinter night (having taken just two days to make a boat of skin and hazel rods to carry 28 at a time the half-kilometre across the river), fought battles and constant skirmishes, and lost almost all of his people during the hardships of the journey.

In County Leitrim, O'Sullivan Beare sought to join with other northern chiefs to launch a campaign against the English Crown, and organised a force to this end, but resistance ended when Tyrone signed the Treaty of Mellifont. O'Sullivan, like other members of the Gaelic nobility of Ireland who fled, sought exile, making his escape to Spain by ship. The Beara-Breifne Way long-distance walking trail follows closely the line of the historical march.

Exile

When he left Ireland, Cornelius O'Driscoll and other Irish knights helped him and his clan. In Spain, O'Sullivan Beare was welcomed by Philip III. His princely status was reconfirmed, and he received a commission as an imperial general. His nephew, Philip O'Sullivan Beare, was important in this regard and his 1618 disquisition in Latin, A Briefe Relation of Ireland and the diversity of Irish in the same, was influential.

In 1618, The O'Sullivan Beare, Prince of Beare and 1st Count of Berehaven, was murdered just as he was leaving Mass in the Plaza de Santo Domingo in Madrid. The man who killed him was John Bathe, a Anglo-Irishman from Dublin who had been disfigured in a duel by the prince's nephew, on account of some arguments between Bathe and O'Sullivan; it was also claimed that the man was a spy on behalf the English Crown.

The O'Sullivan Beare had a reputation as "one of the most celebrated Irish soldiers", which helped to open doors for later soldiers from his line. About 165 years later, John Sullivan, regarded as a descendant of O'Sullivan Beare, served as a general in the American Revolution.

In popular culture
Donal Cam O'Sullivan Beare is mentioned in the early 20th-century Aisling poetry of Seán Gaelach Ó Súilleabháin (1882–1957). Other works, relating to O'Sullivan Beare, include:
The Last Prince of Ireland by Morgan Llywelyn
March into Oblivion by Michael J. Carroll
O'Sullivan's Odyssey by Rick Spier

See also
O'Sullivan
Eóganachta
Irish nobility

References

1561 births
1613 deaths
Flight of the Earls
Irish lords
Irish expatriates in Spain
People of Elizabethan Ireland
Wild Geese (soldiers)
People from Castletownbere
16th-century Irish monarchs
17th-century Irish monarchs
Irish soldiers in the Spanish Army
Irish emigrants to Spain
Deaths by stabbing in Spain
People of the Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Irish chiefs of the name

Donal Cam O'Sullivan Beare


Jane McGregor (born 1983) is a Canadian actress, known for her roles in Slap Her... She's French (2002), Flower & Garnet (2002), and That Beautiful Somewhere (2006), as well as her recurring role on the television series Robson Arms.

Personal life
McGregor was born in 1983, and still resides in her native Vancouver. She has a sister. McGregor would like to work with Christopher Guest and considers Lucille Ball her favourite comedian. She enjoys interviews, but hates auditioning.

Career
McGregor's career began with classes at the Vancouver Youth Theatre at the age of eight, which were followed by toy commercials. Her first television appearance was a guest role on two episodes of the Canadian television series The Odyssey, as 'Linda'. Following this she appeared in a string of made-for-television movies.

In 1999, McGregor appeared in an episode of the Disney series So Weird as Gabe Crawford, the girlfriend of a lead character.

In 2002 she starred as the popular Texas cheerleader Starla Grady in Slap Her... She's French with Piper Perabo, and followed the American comedy with Canadian independent film Flower & Garnet, where she plays an isolated, pregnant teenager.

Also in 2002 she won the Women In Film And Video Vancouver Artistic Merit Award for Flower & Garnet and Bitten.

In 2005 she appeared in an episode of Supernatural as a preacher's daughter, and had a small part playing Keri Russell's sister in the Hallmark Hall of Fame drama The Magic of Ordinary Days.

In 2006 she portrayed Catherine Nyland, an archaeologist suffering from debilitating migraines in That Beautiful Somewhere, opposite Roy Dupuis. From 2005 to 2008 she had a recurring role as Alicia Plecas in the Canadian series Robson Arms, and in 2007 she appeared in American Venus as Jenna Lane, a competitive ice skater hovering on the brink of a mental breakdown due to her controlling mother (portrayed by Rebecca De Mornay).

She has taught acting at Biz Studios, and currently teaches a Teen Intensive at Vada Studios in Vancouver.

Most recently, McGregor has had guest roles on The Listener, Almost Human, and FX's Fargo.

Filmography

Film

Television

References

External links

1983 births
Living people
Canadian child actresses
Canadian film actresses
Canadian television actresses
Canadian voice actresses
Actresses from Vancouver

Jane McGregor


Pratap Singh was a Hindu Rajput king of Mewar, Rajasthan. He had 11 wives and 17 children in total. His capital was at Udaipur.

Maharana Pratap was born in the Kumbhalgarh of Mewar on 9 May 1540.  Akbar who was expanding the imperial Mughal Empire decided to conquer Rajputana. He set off with the imperial Mughal army from Delhi and marched towards Mewar intent on conquering it and especially capturing Pratap's capital of Udaipur. He met with Pratap's army at the Battle of Haldighati and the battle ensued. The battle resulted in a shattering defeat for Pratap and most of his army was massacred however Pratap himself managed to flee into the jungles. The Mughals then marched into and captured Udaipur and subsequently most of Mewar. In order to sue for peace, Pratap gave his daughter Jodhabai in marriage to Mughal governor of Ajmer, Hussain Khan, as a gift. After more military operations of Mughal governors, the Mughals finally managed to achieve their goal and bring all of Mewar under their direct control. Mewar was annexed into the Mughal Empire and Mughal Emperor Akbar retired to Agra and then to the capital Delhi. During this time, Maharana Pratap was still hiding in the jungles and occasionally from time to time attacking Mughal outposts and caravans passing by. He started looting caravans however he lost all hope when all the military outposts in Mewar were captured by the Mughals. He died in Chavand on 19 January 1597 at the age of 56, when he tripped down a steep hill while hunting a lion.

Mughal Empire
Indian Hindus
1540 births
1597 deaths
16th century in India

Maharana Pratap


Pavel Nikolayevich Yablochkov (also transliterated as Jablochkoff; ;  – ) was a Russian electrical engineer, businessman and the inventor of the Yablochkov candle (a type of electric carbon arc lamp) and the transformer.

Biography
Yablochkov graduated in 1866 as a military engineer from Nikolayev Engineering Institute, now Military engineering-technical university (Russian Военный инженерно-технический университет), and in 1869 from Technical Galvanic School in Saint Petersburg. After serving in the army, Yablochkov settled in Moscow in 1873, where he was appointed Head of Telegraph Office at the Moscow-Kursk railroad. He opened up a workshop for his experiments in electrical engineering, which laid down the foundations for his future inventions in the field of electric lighting, electric machines, galvanic cells and accumulators.

Yablochkov's major invention was the first model of an arc lamp that eliminated the mechanical complexity of competing lights that required a regulator to manage the voltaic arc. He went to Paris the same year where he built an industrial sample of the "electric candle" (French patent № 112024, 1876). It was in Paris that he developed his arc light idea into a complete system of electric lighting powered by Zénobe Gramme direct current dynamos fitted with an inverter to supply single-phase alternating current. The first public use of the Yablochkov system was in October 1877 at Halle Marengo of the Magasins du Louvre which was lit by six Yablochkov candles. By 1880, the system had grown in size to 120 lamps with 84 lit at a time powered by a 100-horsepower steam engine and had been operating every night for two and one half years.

The Paris Exposition of 1878 presented Yablochkov with the unique opportunity to make a spectacular demonstration for a world audience, and through the promotional efforts of Gramme was successful in having 64 of his arc lights installed along the half mile (0.8 km) length of Avenue de l'Opéra, Place du Théâtre Français (today Place André-Malraux) and around the Place de l'Opéra. It was first lit in February 1878. Yablochkov candles required high voltage, and it was not long before experimenters reported that the arc lights could be powered on a 7-mile (11 km) circuit. Yablochkov candles were superior to Lontin-Serrin regulator arc lights that each required a separate Gramme generator. Beginning in 1880, the Paris Hippodrome's 20 Serrin lights powered by 20 generators were replaced by 68 additional Yablochkov candles, based on two years of positive experience with 60 candles powered by just three generators. The impact of the 1878 Paris demonstration was a depression in the value of gas company shares which did not recover until 1880. French, English, and American businessmen quickly set up companies licensing Yablochkov's patents.

As part of his arc lighting patents, Yablochkov described a method of employing Michael Faraday's discovery of induction to create a continuous current of higher voltage, where primary windings were connected to a source of alternating current and secondary windings could be connected to several electric "candles". Although it was not recognized at the time, Yablochkov's idea of using transformers to provide different voltages from the same AC line was the model that modern transmission and distribution systems would settle on.  As the patent said such a system "allowed to provide separate supply to several lighting fixtures with different luminous intensities from a single source of electric power".
In 1879, Yablochkov established "Electric Lighting Company, P.N. Yablochkov the Inventor and Co" and an electrical plant in Petersburg that would later produce illuminators for military vessels and factories.  There was considerable international competition to his arc lights.  His lasted only one and a half hours whereas those of Charles F. Brush lasted twice as long.

From the mid-1880s, Yablochkov mostly occupied himself with problems of generating electric energy. He constructed the so-called "magnet dynamo electric machine", which had most of the features of the modern inductor. Yablochkov did extensive research on transformation of fuel energy into electric energy, suggested a galvanic cell with alkaline electrolyte, and created a regenerative cell (the so-called autoaccumulator).

Yablochkov participated in Electrical engineering exhibitions in Russia (1880 and 1882), Paris (1881 and 1889), and First International Congress of Electricians (1881). For participation in the exhibition and congress, he was awarded the French Order of the Legion of Honor.

Personal life
Yablochkov was an active Freemason. He was initiated in 1876 into the Supreme Council of France of the Scottish Rite. After being "Worshipful Master" of three lodges in Paris, he created a new lodge under the Supreme Council known as "Cosmos" in 25 June 1887. Through this he hoped to attract young and wealthy Russian emigrants in Paris. One member of his lodge was Maksim Kovalevsky, who would later help bring Freemasonry back to Russia and prepare the groundwork for the foundation of the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples.

Legacy
In 1947, the USSR introduced the Yablochkov Award for the best work in the field of electrical engineering.

The crater Yablochkov on the Moon is named after him.

See also

Thomas Edison
Yablochkov candle

References

Further reading
A biographical research of the life of Pavel Nikolayevich Yablockkov by Prof. Lev Davidovich Belkind

Gallery

1847 births
1894 deaths
Military Engineering-Technical University alumni
Inventors from the Russian Empire
Electrical engineers from the Russian Empire
Russian Freemasons
French Freemasons
Russian scientists

Pavel Yablochkov


Jack Crawford (22 March 1775–10 November 1831) was a sailor of the Royal Navy.  He was most famous for his actions at the Battle of Camperdown in 1797, and so is known as the "Hero of Camperdown."

Crawford was born in the east end of Sunderland.  He trained as a keelman until 1786 when he joined the crew of the Peggy at South Shields as an apprentice. He was still only 11 or 12 years old.  In 1796, he was press-ganged into the Royal Navy and served on HMS Venerable under Admiral Duncan, the Royal Navy Commander-in-Chief of the North Seas.

At the Battle of Camperdown (11 October 1797), Venerable was Admiral Duncan's flagship.  During the battle, part of the Venerable's mast was felled, including the admiral's flag. Lowering the Admiral's personal flag was a sign of surrender.  Crawford climbed the mast and nailed the colours to the top.

After the victory procession in London he was formally presented to King George III of the United Kingdom and was given a government pension of £30 a year, and later a silver medal from the people of Sunderland. However, Crawford fell on hard times and drunkenness, and had to sell his medal.  He became the second victim of the cholera epidemic of 1831 and was buried in an unmarked "pauper's" grave.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century interest in the 'Hero of Camperdown' was renewed.  A headstone was put up in Holy Trinity, Sunderland churchyard in 1888.  Two years later a monument was erected in Mowbray Park, opposite what is now the Civic Centre.

A pub in Monkwearmouth was named the Jack Crawford and sported a carved figure of him on the side of the building.  After the pub was destroyed during World War II, the figure was removed. In 1987 it was loaned to Sunderland Museum and put on display in the local history gallery but has been returned to the owner. The Museum holds Jack Crawford in high regard. There was an exhibition about him on the bicentenary of the Battle of Camperdown and there was a display about him in SeaBritain Year (2005). One of the Learning Rooms is named after him and there are several pieces of nineteenth century Jack Crawford commemorative pottery on display in the Pottery Gallery and the silver medal that was presented to him by the Town following the battle in 1797, and given to the Museum by the Earl of Camperdown in 1880, is proudly on display in the Sunderland Heroes section of the Museum Street near the entrance of this award winning Museum.

Outside Sunderland doubt has been raised about Crawford's heroics.  Nevertheless, possible evidence that Crawford was not a volunteer, that he was forced to climb the mast, or that he was drunk is ignored by the people of his hometown.  One book, written by the American Sheri Holman, attracted criticism from the City's Mayor.  However, local historian William Corder had already made the criticism in the 1890s; Corder thought little of Crawford.  He claimed that it was reported by reliable witnesses that Crawford was "drunk, acted without orders, and should have been court-martialled".  Furthermore, Corder dismissed as a "deplorable monument" what others called the "fine headstone" of 1888.

Other websites
 Sunderland Council Information

1775 births
1831 deaths

City of Sunderland
Royal Navy
People from Sunderland

Jack Crawford (sailor)


Rakowice, formerly a village – is an urban area in Kraków, Poland, part of both: District III Prądnik Czerwony and District XIV Czyżyny. Currently, the neighborhood is heavily urbanized, with a small amount of parks. The predominant structures are apartment buildings and detached houses. Rakowice is often confused with the Rakowicki Cemetery and Rakowicka street – the old  road leading to former village.

History of Rakowice
The first information about the area formerly known as village Rakowice originates from 1244. In the 15th century it consisted of a cluster of farms and a mill. Until the end of the First Republic the village belonged to the Royal Crown. At the beginning of the 20th century a new monastery was built there by the Piarist Order – the oldest Catholic educational order also known as the Poor Clerics of the Mother of God. At present, the monastery building serves as the local High School.

In the years 1912–1918 the crumbling Austria-Hungary built an airport in Rakowice, one of the most modern and largest in Poland at the time. In the interwar period the area first developed into a residential neighborhood, and after World War II there has been further urbanization there. Rakowice were incorporated into Kraków in 1941. It is the site of osiedle Wieczysta, and osiedle Ugorek (1960–1967).

Points of interest
 Church of the Holy Name of Mary
 Historic Airport Kraków-Rakowice-Czyżyny
 The Stanisław Konarski High School at the former Piarist monastery

Notes and references

Rakowice, Kraków


Harry Warren "Skip" Cutting III (born June 9, 1946) is a former American cyclist. He competed at the 1964 Summer Olympics and the 1968 Summer Olympics. Cutting is also an artist with works on display with the Art of the Olympians.

Skip was a world-class cyclist whose career spanned more than three decades. He competed in numerous international events including three Olympic Games (did not attend the 1972 games). After finishing his career, Cutting became a world-wide U.S. ambassador for the sport of cycling. Riverside Connection: Winner of Inaugural 45-mile Riverside Bicycle Fiesta (1963) Norte Vista High School (1964) Member of the Riverside Bicycle Club for over 10 years

Accomplishments
 Competed in 28 countries and has no fewer than 297 top-three international finishes
 Brought the Masters World Cup of Cycling Criterium and Track Events to the U.S.
 Held the National Record in the 4,000 meter pursuit (5:21.5) in 1964
 Participated in the 1967 and 1971 Pan American Games
 Member of the 1964, 1968, and 1972 Olympic Teams
 Won the World Masters Road Championship in Austria (1987)
 Silver medalist at the World Masters Games in Denmark (1989)
 U.S. national sprint coach from 1989–1990
 Inducted into the U.S. Bicycling Hall of Fame (2002)
 Wore the stars and stripes jersey 11 times as National Champion

References

1946 births
Living people
American male cyclists
Olympic cyclists for the United States
Cyclists at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Cyclists at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from Indianapolis
Cyclists from Indiana
American track cyclists
Pan American Games medalists in cycling
20th-century American people
Pan American Games bronze medalists for the United States
Medalists at the 1967 Pan American Games

Skip Cutting


Laurel and Hardy were a comedy duo act during the early Classical Hollywood era of American cinema, consisting of Englishman Stan Laurel (1890–1965) and American Oliver Hardy (1892–1957). From the late 1920s to the mid-1940s, they were internationally famous for their slapstick comedy, with Laurel playing the clumsy, childlike friend to Hardy's pompous bully. Their signature theme song, known as "The Cuckoo Song", "Ku-Ku", or "The Dance of the Cuckoos" (by Hollywood composer T. Marvin Hatley) was heard over their films' opening credits, and became as emblematic of them as their bowler hats. Mae Busch

American comedy bands

Laurel and Hardy


The Yonge Street Agricultural Society was an agricultural society that operated under a general provincial charter which enabled the creation of such societies to develop community interest in the breeding of agricultural animals and plants. The society was based in Richmond Hill, Ontario.

History

The Yonge Street Agricultural Society was founded in 1849.  They organised the first Richmond Hill spring fair, held on May 24, 1849.  The governance of the society was done by a president, two or three vice presidents and a secretary-treasurer.  In addition to this the society had a large number of directors.  The primary activity of the society was the organisation and running of Richmond Hill's spring agricultural fair.  The society was disbanded in 1865.

The society was reformed in 1874 as the Richmond Hill and Yonge Street Agricultural Society.  The last spring fair in Richmond Hill was held in 1996.  By this point, Richmond Hill was suburban and no longer had enough agriculture in the community to support a fair.

See also

References

Richmond Hill, Ontario
Organizations based in Ontario
Agricultural organizations based in Canada
Organizations established in 1849
1849 establishments in Canada West

Yonge Street Agricultural Society


Monthly usually refers to the scheduling of something every month. It may also refer to:
 The Monthly
 Monthly Magazine
 Monthly Review
 PQ Monthly
 Home Monthly
 Trader Monthly
 Overland Monthly
 Menstruation, sometimes known as "monthly"

Monthly


H.E. Francis Nyamu Kagwima is a Kenyan politician, born in 1952. He is the second and incumbent Deputy Governor of Tharaka Nithi County in Kenya after having been cleared on a Jubilee Party in the Kenyan election as Onesmus Muthomi Njuki's running mate. Before being elected the Deputy Governor, he served as a Member of Parliament of Tharaka Constituency for the terms in 1988–1997 and re-elected again in 2002–2007.

Education background
After completing his early education, he joined Tharaka Boys from 1969–1970, did KJSE and later joined Nkubu High School from 1971–1974 for his O level and A level. He joined Nairobi University in 1975 where he pursued his Bachelor of Science in mechanical engineering.

He graduated in 1978 with Upper Class Honours.

Career life
After graduating from University he joined KPCU as an Engineer trainee and rose quickly to the rank of Chief Engineer until he resigned to join politics in 1988.

He was elected as a Member of Parliament for Tharaka Constituency in 1988.

In his second term he was an Assistant Minister in Research, Technical Training & Technology from 1993–1997.

References

Living people
1952 births
Date of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Jubilee Party politicians
Members of the National Assembly (Kenya)
University of Nairobi alumni
Kenyan engineers

Francis Kagwima


Richard Butler, 3rd Viscount Mountgarret (1578–1651) was the son of Edmund Butler, 2nd Viscount Mountgarret and Grany or Grizzel, daughter of Barnaby Fitzpatrick, 1st Baron Upper Ossory. He is best known for his participation in the Irish Confederate Wars on behalf of the Irish Confederate Catholics.

Family
His sister, Helen Butler, married her second cousin, Walter Butler, 11th Earl of Ormond. Later, he was to clash politically with his grand-nephew James, the 12th Earl. His first wife was Margaret, eldest daughter of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, who was the most powerful Roman Catholic noble in the country at the time. He especially distinguished himself by his defence of the castles of Ballyragget and Cullihill. His estates were nevertheless confirmed to him on the death of his father in 1605, and he sat in the parliaments of 1613, 1615, and 1634.

His younger brother was John Butler.

Marriage and Children
By his first wife, Margaret, eldest daughter of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, he had three sons and six daughters, of whom
 Edmund Butler, 4th Viscount Mountgarret
 Margaret married another member of the Butler line, Sir Walter Butler, 1st Baronet Polestown.

The Viscount was again twice married: to Thomasine (afterwards named Elizabeth), daughter of Sir William Andrews of Newport, and to Margaret, daughter of Richard Branthwaite, serjeant-at-law, and widow of Sir Thomas Spencer of Yarnton, Oxfordshire, but he no issue by either of these marriages.

His third wife, Margaret, had lent £10 to the playwright Elizabeth Cary, Viscountess Falkland in 1627.

Rebellion
In 1641 he placed himself in opposition to his powerful Anglican cousin - James, Earl (later the Duke) of Ormonde. At the commencement of hostilities in the Irish Rebellion of 1641, he appeared inclined to espouse the Government side, and was appointed joint Governor of Kilkenny with the earl. Fearing, however, that the rights and liberties of his Catholic brethren would be still further interfered with, he wrote an explanatory letter to the Earl and took possession of Kilkenny in the name of the Confederates. He endeavoured to protect the lives and property of the Protestants, without relaxing his efforts for the side he had espoused. He then detached parties to secure other adjacent towns, which was done with such success that in the space of a week all the fortresses in the counties of Kilkenny, Waterford, and Tipperary were in their power.

After this he was chosen general of the Catholic Confederation which the rebels had formed to coordinate their war effort; but the county of Cork had insisted on choosing a general of its own. Thus were lost the advantages of undivided and vigorous control of the Confederate armies. The Viscount's forces were thereby considerably weakened, and he was defeated by the Earl of Ormonde at the Battle of Kilrush, near Athy, on 10 April 1642. Returning to Kilkenny, he was chosen president of the Supreme Council (the Confederate Government) formed there in the following summer.

In 1643 he was at the Battle of New Ross, fought by General Preston against the Marquis of Ormonde. He was also at the capture, with his son Edmund (Roe), of the Castle of Borris, in Queen's County (Laois) in 1643. He was with the Lords Netterville, Ikerrin, Upper Ossory, and Castlehaven at the siege of Ballinakill, which surrendered on 5 May.

Outlawry 1652 and restoration in 1662
Mountgarret was outlawed by Cromwell, and excepted from pardon for life or estate. His son-in-law Sir Walter Butler, 1st Baronet of Polestown, was a supporter of the Government cause and was made Governor of Kilkenny in 1650. The Viscount died in 1651, and was interred in St. Canice's, Kilkenny. Although he was dead before it passed, he was excepted from pardon for life or estate by the crown in the Act of Settlement 1652 passed on 12 Aug. 1652, because of his participation in the rebellion of 1641. His son Edmund had the family estates restored following the Act of Settlement 1662.

See also
 Butler dynasty

References

 Butlers of Polestown.

1578 births
1651 deaths
Richard
Irish generals
16th-century Anglo-Irish people
17th-century Anglo-Irish people
Butler
Butler
Viscounts in the Peerage of Ireland


In computer science, repeat-accumulate codes (RA codes) are a low complexity class of error-correcting codes. They were devised so that their ensemble weight distributions are easy to derive. RA codes were introduced by Divsalar et al.

In an RA code, an information block of length  is repeated  times, scrambled by an interleaver of size , and then encoded by a rate 1 accumulator. The accumulator can be viewed as a truncated rate 1 recursive convolutional encoder with transfer function , but Divsalar et al. prefer to think of it as a block code whose input block  and output block  are related by the formula   and  for . The encoding time for RA codes is linear and their rate is . They are nonsystematic.

Irregular Repeat Accumulate Codes

Irregular Repeat Accumulate (IRA) Codes build on top of the ideas of RA codes. IRA replaces the outer code in RA code with a Low Density Generator Matrix code.  IRA codes first repeats information bits different times, and then accumulates subsets of these repeated bits to generate parity bits. The irregular degree profile on the information nodes, together with the degree profile on the check nodes, can be designed using density evolution.

Systematic IRA codes are considered a form of LDPC code.  Litigation over whether the DVB-S2 LDPC code is a form of IRA code is ongoing. US patents 7,116,710; 7,421,032; 7,916,781; and 8,284,833 are at issue.

Notes

References

External links
 Iterative Error Correction: Turbo, Low-Density Parity-Check, and Repeat-Accumulate Codes

Error detection and correction

Repeat-accumulate code


Augustine Tawiah (born 27 September 1961) is a Ghanaian politician and member of the Seventh Parliament of the Fourth Republic of Ghana representing the Bia West Constituency in the Western North Region on the ticket of the National Democratic Congress.

Early life
Augustine Tawiah hails from Sefwi Asuopiri in the Western Region

Education
Augustine Tawiah started his basic school in the Bia District in the current Western North Region, Ghana. He then passed his common entrance exams to be able to go to Secondary School. The Secondary School Augustine Tawiah attended are St. Thomas Aquinas Senior High School (SHS Ordinary Level) and later at Labone Senior High School (SHS Advanced Level).

Augustine Tawiah gained Doctor of Ministry (Applied Theology) in 2006, Doctor of Education Certificate (Leadership and Policy Studies) in 2009, Master of Theology, a Master of Science from the University of Memphis as well as a Certificate in University Teaching. Augustine Tawiah also has a Doctor of Ministry from Harding University, a Master of Arts from Lipscomb University, and a Cert-Hr Training from the University of Oklahoma.

Career and Positions
Augustine Tawiah works at the Parliament of Ghana as a Member of Parliament (MP). He is a Lecturer and Consultant at Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA). He held the position as the Executive Secretary for the National Teaching Council in Ghana and also the Academic Dean at Ghana Christian University College.

Politics

Augustine Tawiah is the Member of Parliament (MP) for Bia West Constituency in the Western North Region.

References

Ghanaian MPs 2017–2021
1961 births
Living people
National Democratic Congress (Ghana) politicians
Ghanaian MPs 2021–2025

Augustine Tawiah


Badeshi is a northwestern Indo-Iranic language spoken by only 3 people in upper reaches of Bishigram Valley (Chail), east of Madyan, Swat, Kohistan in Northern Areas of Pakistan.

The Badeshi people of Bishigram Valley and Tirat Valleytotal around 1,500 in numbers. The figures for Pooran Chakesar, Alai, and Mansehra towns are not available. The Badeshi people stopped using their native language completely few generations ago. In Bishigram Valley, they only speak Torwali and in Tirat Valley they speak Pashto.

Muhammad Zaman Sagar, a field linguist is working on this language. But his research over the 2 years, he has just collected one hundred words so far. In July 2007 he again visited the Bishigram valley and spent some time with the people there.

References

Languages of Gilgit-Baltistan
Indo-Iranian languages
Endangered languages

Badeshi language


Albert Bellamy (1870 – 26 March 1931) was an English trades unionist and Labour Party politician.

Bellamy was born in Wigan, Lancashire and took up employment as an engine-driver for the London and North Western Railway. He became involved in trade union activities, rising to the presidency of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. During the 1911 transport strike, he was prominent in leading the successful campaign for union recognition by the railway companies. When the ASRS was merged with two other rail unions in 1913 to form the National Union of Railwaymen, Bellamy was its first president, serving until 1917.

From 1917 to 1927 he was a member of the War Pensions Appeal Tribunal. He made his home at Stockport, Cheshire, where he was president of the local Trades Council and Labour Party, as well serving as a magistrate.

He stood unsuccessfully as a parliamentary candidate for the Labour Party at Wakefield at the 1918 and 1922 general elections. He eventually entered the Commons when he was elected Member of Parliament for Ashton-under-Lyne at a by-election in October 1928, after the sitting Conservative MP Cornelius Homan was disqualified when he was declared bankrupt.

Bellamy was re-elected at the 1929 general election. Following the election, the Second Labour Government was formed, and he was appointed parliamentary private secretary to F O Roberts, Minister of Pensions. Soon after entering government, Bellamy became ill and died, at Wandsworth, in March 1931, aged 60. The by-election for his seat was won by the Conservative candidate John Broadbent.

References

External links

1870 births
1931 deaths
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
National Union of Railwaymen-sponsored MPs
UK MPs 1924–1929
UK MPs 1929–1931
People from Wigan
Trade unionists from the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan
Presidents of the National Union of Railwaymen
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Ashton-under-Lyne

Albert Bellamy


Vero (stylized as VERO) is a social media platform and mobile app company. Vero markets itself as a social network free from advertisements, data mining and algorithms.

History
The app was founded by French-Lebanese billionaire Ayman Hariri who is the son of former Lebanese prime minister Rafic Hariri. The name is taken from the Italian word for true. The app launched officially in 2015 as an alternative to Facebook and their popular photo-blogging app Instagram. Within weeks of its release the app surged in popularity although users expressed mixed reports with some feeling confused about how the app worked.

Cosplayers were early to adopt the app as their photo-sharing platform of choice, favouring the app's pinch and zoom magnification feature over Instagram's zoom feature. Other creative communities soon followed, and the app became popular with niche groups of makeup artists, tattoo artists, and skateboarders.

In March 2018, Vero's popularity surged, partly helped by an exodus from Facebook and Instagram following the Cambridge Analytica data scandal. In the wake of the scandal, Vero devised an advertising campaign aimed at defected Facebook and Instagram users, hoping the app's policies and privacy settings would assuage concerns over sharing personal information on the internet. Within the space of one week, the app went from being a small service, akin to Ello or Peach, to being the most downloaded app in eighteen countries.

In December 2020, Vero released its most significant update to date, Vero 2.0 which introduced new features including voice and video calls, game and app posts and bookmarks, and refinements to the UI.

In October 2021, Vero introduced their Desktop app (beta) with multiple post options and a re-sizable multi-column feed.

Concept and funding
Vero's content feed resembles Instagram's although users can share a wider variety of content and the app has a chronological content feed whereas Facebook and Instagram's feeds are algorithm based. Vero's business plan is also distinct from similar social media apps. Whereas its competitors such as Facebook or Instagram make money from in-app advertising revenue and the sale of user data, Vero's business plan was to invite the first one million users to use the app for free then charge any subsequent users a subscription fee.

The app was entirely funded by its founder and generated additional revenues by charging affiliate fees when someone buys a product they find on Vero.

Awards
Vero was recognized at the 2021 Webbys, being named as an Honoree in the Best Visual Design - Aesthetic Category.

Controversies

Privacy
Vero has faced some criticism over the wording of their manifesto, in particular, the statement "Vero only collects the data we believe is necessary to provide users with a great experience and to ensure the security of their accounts." Because this policy does not explicitly state that the app will not sell data on to third parties some users fear that the need to monetise the app through data might prove too tempting.

Users have also complained about not being able to delete their accounts. While this was never the case, the option was hidden deep in the app's settings.

Russian involvement
Although Vero remains transparent about the app's Russian development team, they have been caught up in concerns about Russian interference on social media platforms. The app's founder Ayman Hariri was quick to dismiss the remarks as xenophobic and defend the nationality of his employees, stating in an interview with Time Magazine; "At the end of the day, where people are from is really not how anybody should judge anyone".

Criticism of the app's founder
Until 2013, Vero's founder Ayman Harari was deputy CEO and chairman of Saudi Oger, the Saudi Arabian construction company which collapsed in 2017, mired by controversies over the welfare and treatment of their employees. However, Hariri is quick to point out that he divested from the firm in 2014 and the worker's rights violations occurred after he had left the company.

References

External links
Official Website

Mobile applications
Social networking mobile apps
Social media companies
Social media

Vero (app)


Operation Countryman was an investigation into police corruption in London in the late 1970s. The operation was conducted between 1978 and 1982 at a total cost of £3 million and led to eight police officers being prosecuted, although none were convicted. The initial allegations of corruption were made by a supergrass who claimed that some officers, including members of the elite Flying Squad which dealt with commercial armed robberies, were receiving bribes from criminals in return for warnings of imminent police raids or arrests, the fabrication of evidence against innocent men, and having charges against guilty criminals dropped.

The investigation initially targeted officers within the City of London Police but spread to include the Metropolitan Police based at Scotland Yard. Codenamed Operation Countryman because of its use of officers from so-called 'rural' police forces of Hampshire and Dorset, the investigating team came to be disparagingly known by London officers as "The Sweedy." The investigation was ordered by the then Home Secretary Merlyn Rees, and began by examining police activity around three major crimes:
 a £175,000 payroll robbery at the offices of the Daily Express newspaper in 1976
 a £225,000 robbery outside the headquarters of Williams & Glyn's Bank, London, in 1977
 a £200,000 payroll robbery at the offices of the Daily Mirror newspaper in 1978. During this robbery, Antonio Castro, a 38-year-old guard working for Security Express, was shot and killed.

As the investigation proceeded, it began to emerge that the corruption was not limited to "a few bad apples" within the forces but was "historically and currently endemic" and "widespread throughout the hierarchical command rather than confined to those below the rank of sergeant."

In August 1978, officers began investigations into corruption within the London police services. The unit was initially accommodated at Camberwell police station in south London, but following attempts to interfere with the team's documents, records and evidence, it was moved to Godalming Police Station in Surrey, outside the Metropolitan Police District.

Operation Countryman faced major obstruction from both senior management and the lower ranks of the police. Much of the investigation's evidence was obtained by police officers going undercover as police officers.

Asst. Chief Constable Leonard Burt told his investigation team not to pass any evidence it obtained against Metropolitan Police officers to the Met Commissioner, David McNee. Shortly before his retirement in February 1980, the Chief Constable of Dorset Police, Arthur Hambleton, the superior of Burt, made allegations that Countryman had been willfully obstructed by Commissioner McNee and Director of Public Prosecutions Sir Thomas Hetherington. In May 1980 Leonard Burt returned to Dorset Police and responsibility for Countryman passed to Sir Peter Matthews, Chief Constable of Surrey Constabulary. He ordered that all evidence already compiled during the investigation be passed to the Metropolitan Police to be dealt with by their own internal investigation unit.

After six years, and at a cost of over £4 million, Operation Countryman presented its findings to the Home Office and the Commissioner. Parts of the report were leaked to the public. Dale Campbell-Savours said that "over 250 police officers were forced to resign and many faced criminal charges after investigations revealed that police membership of particular Masonic lodges formed the nucleus of a criminal conspiracy."

Questions asked in the British Parliament have, on several occasions, called on the Home Secretary to release the findings of Operation Countryman, but such requests have been refused as these are protected by public interest immunity.

See also
 Operation Tiberius
 Hugh Moore (police officer)

References

Countryman
1970s in London
1980s in London
1978 in London
1984 in London
Corruption in England

Operation Countryman