The 50th Space Wing was the United States Space Force's space and cyber warfare wing. The 50th Space Wing was assigned to Space Operations Command and headquartered at Schriever Air Force Base.

It was activated in 1949 as the 50th Fighter Wing, serving as a reserve air defense unit, and was redesignated as the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing in 1950, before being inactivated in 1951. It was reactivated in 1953 as the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing, deploying to Europe to join NATO forces, and was redesignated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing in 1958. The wing operated for almost 40 years at Hahn Air Base in West Germany. In 1981 it became the first USAF overseas formation to operate the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon jet. It deployed for the Persian Gulf War of 1991, before being inactivated later that year. It was activated as a space wing on 30 January 1992, replacing the 2nd Space Wing. The 50th Space Wing was inactivated on 24 July 2020 and replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison, with the 50th Network Operations Group and its cyber and satellite control network units forming Space Delta 6, the 50th Operations Group and its satellite communications units forming Space Delta 8, and the 750th Operations Group and its orbital warfare units forming Space Delta 9.

Operations
The 50th Space Wing was the United States Space Force's space and cyberspace warfare. The 50th Space Wing operated the Global Positioning System (GPS), Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS), Wideband Global Satellite Communications system, Military Strategic and Tactical Relay, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, Space Based Space Surveillance system, Operationally Responsive Space satellite system, Advanced Extremely High Frequency satellite system, and the Boeing X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle. It also operated the Air Force Satellite Control Network. At the time of its inactivation on 24 July 2020, the 50th Space Wing had 8,000 space professionals and airmen under its command.

The 50th Space Wing was also the host unit for Schriever Air Force Base, providing base support for United States Strategic Command's Joint Functional Component Command for Integrated Missile Defense, the Army's 100th Missile Defense Brigade, and Air Force Reserve Command's 310th Space Wing.

Structure in 2020
 50th Operations Group (50 OG)
 2d Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS)
 4th Space Operations Squadron (4 SOPS)
 50th Operations Support Squadron (50 OSS)
Detachment 1, 50th Operations Group, Suitland, Maryland
 50th Network Operations Group (50 NOG)
 21st Space Operations Squadron (21 SOPS), Vandenberg Air Force Base
Detachment 1, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia
Detachment 2, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Andersen Air Force Base
Detachment 3, 21st Space Operations Squadron, Kaena Point Satellite Tracking Station
 22nd Space Operations Squadron (22 SOPS)
 23rd Space Operations Squadron (23 SOPS), New Boston Air Force Station
Detachment 1, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, Thule Air Base
OL-A, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, RAF Oakhanger
 50th Space Communications Squadron (50 SCS)
 50th Mission Support Group (50 MSG) - the 50th Support Group was formerly the 1002nd Space Support Group which was activated October 1, 1989.
50th Civil Engineer Squadron
50th Contracting Squadron
50th Force Support Squadron
50th Security Forces Squadron - formerly the 1002nd Special Security Squadron which was activated on October 1, 1985. The squadron was renamed the 1002d Security Police Squadron on October 1, 1989, as part of Air Force Space Command's support structure reorganization. 50th SFS activated 30 January 1992.
50th Logistics Readiness Flight (50 LRF)
750th Operations Group (750 OG)
 1st Space Operations Squadron (1 SOPS)
 3d Space Experimentation Squadron (3 SES)
750th Operations Support Squadron (750 OSS)
 50th Comptroller Squadron (50 CPTS)

Shield

The 50th Space Wing shield was first approved for use on 15 July 1953, before being modified in 1956 and on 9 July 1992, and being approved in its final form on 27 July 2012. The blue background alludes to the vastness of space and the principal theater of the wing, while the yellow represents the sun and excellence required of its space professionals. The opinicus, with the strength of a lion and the bold flight of the eagle, symbolizes the functions of the 50th Space Wing. The motto of the 50th Space Wing, "Master of Space," was derived from the 50th Pursuit Group's motto "Master of Air" and approved in September 1992.

History

50th Fighter Wing (1949–1950) and 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing (1950–1951)

On 1 June 1950, the 50th Fighter Wing (50 FW) was activated in the United States Air Force Reserve and operationally assigned to Tactical Air Command's First Air Force, supporting the active-duty 33rd Fighter Wing. It was stationed at Otis Air Force Base, Massachusetts, and consisted of the 50th Fighter Group, which included the 81st Fighter Squadron, 50th Air Base Group, and 50th Maintenance and Supply Group, which included the 50th Supply Squadron.

The 50th Fighter Wing was responsible for air defense on the eastern seaboard, flying the North American P-51 Mustang and Republic F-84 Thunderjet fighters, as well as the North American T-6 Texan and Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star trainers. In 1950, it started flying the North American F-86A Sabre fighter jet. On 1 March 1950, it was redesignated the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing (50 FIW), with the 50th Fighter Group also being redesignated the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Group and 81st Fighter Squadron also redesignated as the 81st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron. The 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing, along with the 33rd Fighter-Interceptor Wing, were reassigned to Air Defense Command's Eastern Air Defense Force.

The advent of the Korean War resulted in a reevaluation of the posture of the American air forces. On 2 June 1951 the 50th Fighter-Interceptor Wing was inactivated, as part of an American realignment to support NATO forces in Europe to more directly counter the Soviet Union and Soviet Air Forces.

50th Fighter-Bomber Wing (1953–1958) and 50th Tactical Fighter Wing (1958–1991)

On 1 January 1953, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing (50 FBW) was activated and assigned to Tactical Air Command's Ninth Air Force. Stationed at Clovis Air Force Base, New Mexico, the wing's operational component was the 50th Fighter-Bomber Group, which consisted of the 10th Fighter-Bomber Squadron and the 81st Fighter-Bomber Squadron. The wing initially flew F-51 Mustang fighters, before converting to the F-86F Sabre in 1953. The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing's support elements included the 50th Air Base Group, the 50th Maintenance and Supply Group, and the 50th Medical Group, which was later redesignated as the 50th Tactical Hospital. The 50th Air Base Group consisted of the 50th Air Police Squadron (later redesignated the 50th Security Police Squadron) and 50th Civil Engineering Squadron (later redesignated the 50th Civil Engineer Squadron), while the 50th Maintenance and Supply Group consisted of the 50th Supply Squadron.

In summer 1953, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was transferred to Europe, with much of the wing's personnel and equipment sailing across the Atlantic Ocean on the Military Sea Transportation Service's USNS General M. B. Stewart, while the aircrew flew across the North Atlantic. On 9 August 1953 it became part of United States Air Forces in Europe's Twelfth Air Force and was stationed at Hahn Air Base, Germany, where the wing assumed responsibility for the 7425th USAF Hospital from 1 May 1954 to 9 April 1956. The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also gained a third fighter-bomber squadron, assuming command of the 417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron and also became the first tactically operational wing in Twelfth Air Force.

Almost immediately after arriving in Germany, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing participated in Exercise Monte Carlo, which was designed to demonstrate NATO air defense force capabilities. In 1954, elements of the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing spent six weeks at Wheelus Field, Libya, training in air-to-air and ground attack operations, scoring higher in both categories than any other unit in Twelfth Air Force. In 1955 the 21 FBW took top honors at the United States Air Forces in Europe aerial gunnery competition at Wheelus Field, and on 21 October 1955 it began to transition to the F-86H Sabre.

For brief period in 1955 and 1956, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also flew the ET-33 trainer. On 14 March 1955, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing gained the 69th Pilotless Bomber Squadron, which operated the MGM-1 Matador cruise missile system. On 8 June 1955, the 69th Pilotless Bomber Squadron was redesignated the 69th Tactical Missile Squadron, and on 15 April 1956, left the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing for the 7382d Guided Missile Group, which the 21 FBW provided support for.

On 15 April 1956, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing began to move to Toul-Rosiére Air Base, France, fully transitioning by 1 August 1956. On 8 August 1956, the 50the Fighter-Bomber Wing assumed responsibility for the 7352d USAF Hospital, before relinquishing command on 25 September 1957. United States Air Forces in Europe then sent the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing to represent it at the Air Force Fighter Weapons Meet at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. On 8 December 1957, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Group and 50th Maintenance and Supply Group were inactivated, with their squadrons reporting directly to the 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing. On 8 December, the 50th Field Maintenance Squadron activated. The 50th Field Maintenance Squadron would later be redesignated the 50th Consolidated Aircraft Maintenance Squadron, before reassuming its designation as the 50th Field Maintenance Squadron, and was later redesignated the 50th Equipment Maintenance Squadron, before finally being designated the 50th Maintenance Squadron. On 15 November 1958, the 50th Armament and Electronics Maintenance Squadron was activated, later being redesignated the 50th Avionics Maintenance Squadron, before finally being designated the 50th Component Repair Squadron. In 1957 and 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing began transitioning to the North American F-100D Super Sabre. On 1 January 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was moved from Twelfth Air Force to directly report to United States Air Forces in Europe.

The 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing also had a number of Tactical Air Command squadrons temporarily attached to it, including the 428th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 1 April 1957 to 1 October 1957, the 429th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 7 October 1956 to 1 April 1957, the 430th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 20 April 1956 to 7 October 1956, the 457th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 20 March 1958 to 19 August 1958, and the 509th Fighter-Bomber Squadron from 15 January 1958 to 24 March 1958.

On 8 July 1958, the 50th Fighter-Bomber Wing was redesignated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing (50 TFW). The redesignation from fighter-bomber to tactical fighter also affected its subordinate units, including the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron, and the attached 457th Tactical Fighter Squadron. On 15 November 1959, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing was reassigned from USAFE to the Seventeenth Air Force

On 1 September 1959, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began to transition back to Hahn Air Base, Germany, with the exception of the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron, which was based at Ramstein Air Base, Germany. The 86th Fighter-Interceptor Wing's 496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which flew the F-86D Sabre, was also attached to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing under the duel-basing construct. In December 1959, the 496th Tactical Fighter Squadron began converting to Convair F-102 Delta Dagger interceptors. Due to the Cuban Missile Crisis and previous routine force movements, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing had the 435th Tactical Fighter Squadron from Morón Air Base, Spain attached to it from 24 October 1962 to 11 December 1962, the 355th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 5 September 1961 to 16 November 1961, the 458th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 13 August 1958 to 18 February 1959, and the 614th Tactical Fighter Squadron attached from 5 September 1961 to 14 November 1961.

On 8 April 1952, the 50th Air Base Wing was redesignated as the 50th Combat Support Wing. In a reorganization of the wing's maintenance squadrons, the 50th Armament and Electronics Maintenance Squadron was briefly inactivated on 8 April 1962, but reactivated on 1 July 1964. Several new maintenance squadrons were activated on 1 July 1964, including the 50th Flightline Maintenance Squadron, although it was detached until 1 October 1965 and was inactivated shortly after on 25 December 1965, 50th Organizational Maintenance Squadron, although it was inactivated on 1 January 1966, and 350th Munitions Maintenance Squadron. On 1 October 1967, the 7236th Ammunition Supply Squadron was activated, augmenting the maintenance and operational fighter-bomber squadrons.

Following the resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing resumed normal operations with its own three tactical fighter squadrons, participating in exercises with other NATO air forces. On 8 October 1966 the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron, and 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron began converting from the F-100D Super Sabre to the McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II tactical fighter, after the wing briefly operated the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter in 1962. During the conversion, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron remained assigned to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing, but remained detached to the 86th Air Division at Ramstein Air Base.

On 1 July 1968, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron was removed from the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing, reassigned to Tactical Air Command's 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing at Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho. To replace the lost squadron, the 496th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was permanently reassigned to the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing from the 86th Air Division on 1 November 1968 and redesignated the 496th Tactical Fighter Squadron. Initially it continued flying the F-102 Delta Dagger, but within two years upgraded to the F-4E Phantom II. Soon after, United States Air Forces in Europe selected the 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron to be the first to assume the Wild Weasel Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses mission set, equipping it with the Wild Weasel variant of the F-4E, and later the F-F-4G Wild Weasel V. On 12 June 1971, the 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron was moved to Zweibrücken Air Base, Germany and operationally subordinated to the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing, although it administratively remained part of the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing until it fully transitioned over on 15 July 1971. On 1 July 1971, USAF Hospital, Hahn, later designated as the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing Hospital was assigned to the wing.

In 1972 another round of reorganization to the wing's maintenance squadrons occurred. On 1 January 1972, the 50th Organizational Maintenance Squadron, later redesignated the 50th Aircraft Generation Squadron, was reactivated. On 1 April 1972, the 7501st Munitions Support Squadron, 7502d Munitions Support Squadron, 7503d Munitions Support Squadron, and 7504th Munitions Support Squadron were all activated. On 7 October 1972, the 350th Munitions Maintenance Squadron and 7236th Ammunition Supply Squadron inactivated, with the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron, later redesignated as the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron (Theater), and 50th Ammunition Supply Squadron activated on 8 October 1972 to replace them. the 7504th Munitions Support Squadron was inactivated on 1 September 1972, with the 7503d Munitions Support Squadron inactivating on 1 October 1972.

In 1975, the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron began to utilize laser-guided bombs. It also hosted a number of attached Tactical Air Command squadrons, including the 8th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 8 March 1973 to 2 April 1973 and 6 September 1975 to 6 October 1975, 9th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 11 September 1971 to 7 October 1971 and 23 September 1976 to 24 October 1976, the 68th Tactical Fighter Squadron from 10 May 1977 to 7 June 1977, the 417th Tactical Fighter Squadron numerous times from 1968 to 1976, and the 421st Tactical Fighter Squadron from 5 August 1977 to 25 August 1977. The 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also hosted the first European deployment of Aerospace Defense Command fighters, hosting a detachment of six Convair F-106 Delta Dart interceptors from the 5th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron from 4 September 1975 to 25 September 1975.

In 1976, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began to fully convert its remaining squadrons to the F-4E Phantom II fighter and on 15 November 1976 it gained the newly activated 313th Tactical Fighter Squadron. The 50 TFW also began testing the Project Oriented Maintenance Organization for USAFE in 1977, testing the concept in the April 1978 Salty Rooster exercise. The success of the exercise resulted in the Project Oriented Maintenance Organization being rolled out across all of United States Air Forces in Europe. The 50 TFW also continued to exercise with allied partners, being the first U.S. Air Force unit to refuel with a KC-767 of the Imperial Iranian Air Force. The wing also activated the 7362d Munitions Support Squadron on 15 July 1976.

In 1978, United States Air Forces in Europe announced that the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing would be the first to test and field the General Dynamics F-16A Fighting Falcon, as well as its F-16B two-seater variant. The first F-16As arrived at Hahn Air Base on 19 April 1979 and began upgrading the airbase's facilities to accommodate the new aircraft. On 30 December 1981, the 313th Tactical Fighter Squadron accepted the 50 TFW's first operational F-16As, with the other squadrons following suit shortly and divesting the remaining F-4Es within six months. A number of changes to maintenance units happened in 1978, including the inactivation of the 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron on 8 October 1978 and the activation of the 7015th Explosive Ordnance Disposal Flight on 1 October 1978.

The 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also participated in a NATO gala on 9 July 1982, marking NATO's adoption of the F-16, where it participated along with F-16s from the Royal Norwegian Air Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, as well as other NATO air forces. 50th Tactical Fighter Wing F-16s frequently deployed to Zaragoza Air Base, Spain and Incirlik Air Base, Turkey to perform air-to-air and air-to-ground training to achieve full operational readiness, which was declared in April 1983. Shortly after, in July 1983, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing participated in a USAFE Operational Readiness Inspection and NATO Organizational Tactical Evaluation, and in October 1983, took first place in the U.S. Air Force's Gunsmoke bombing and gunnery competition.

A number of changes to the 50th Combat Support Group and wing staff occurred in the 1980s and early 1990, with the 7150th Comptroller Squadron activating on 15 November 1983, before being inactivated and replaced by the newly established 50th Comptroller Squadron on 1 July 1985, the 50th Security Police Group activating on 21 October 1988, and 50th Support Squadron activating on 1 June 1989, and 2184th Communications Squadron activating on 1 October 1990. Maintenance squadrons also experienced structural changes, with the 7501st Munitions Support Squadron and 7502d Munitions Support Squadron inactivating on 15 November 1985, 7362d Munitions Support Squadron being inactivated on 1 January 1986, 50th Ammunition Supply Squadron being inactivated on 15 May 1986, being replaced by the reactivated 50th Munitions Maintenance Squadron, the 7015th Explosive Ordnance Disposal Flight being inactivated on 1 November 1986. The 50th Tactical Hospital was also inactivated on 1 July 1986.

In March 1984, the 50 TFW participated in the Green Flag exercise at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, engaging in realistic combat training and participated in NATO exercises, with two F-16As conducting landings and takeoffs on the German Autobahn highways. Between April and June 1984, 50 TFW units forward deployed to Ramstein Air Base, Spangdahlem Air Base, and Pferdsfel Air Base due to repairs at Hahn Air Base. In 1986, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing began replacing its F-16As and F-16Bs with the more advanced F-16Cs and F-16Ds, fully phasing out the first generation F-16s in less than a year. The 50th Tactical Fighter Wing also won the Daledalin Maintenance trophy in 1986 for both the numbered air force, major command, and air force level. It also won the Secretary of Defense's Phoenix Award for the best maintenance organization in the entire United States Department of Defense.

When Iraq executed its Invasion of Kuwait in 1991, the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing quickly mobilized its forces for deployment, sending the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron and 30 F-16C Fighting Falcons as part of Operation Desert Shield on 29 December 1990. On 17 January 1991, 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron aircraft were among the first to strike Iraqi military positions as part of Operation Desert Storm, specifically bombing Al-Taqaddum Air Base, Iraq and gaining air supremacy over the Iraqi Air Force. The squadron was retasked to hunt down Scud missiles, which were striking coalition military targets and Israeli population centers. Throughout the entire campaign, the 10th Tactical Fighter Squadron had only lost one aircraft, with its pilot being taken as a prisoner of war. After hostilities ceased, 10 TFS forces enforced the ceasefire accords through combat air patrols.

Due to the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States and NATO began to draw down its high posture in Europe, resulting in the inactivation of the 50th Tactical Fighter Wing and closure of Hahn Air Base on 30 September 1991.

50th Space Wing (1992–2020)

On 30 January 1992, the 50th Space Wing (50 SW) was reactivated at Falcon Air Force Base, Colorado and assigned to Air Force Space Command. The 50th Space Wing replaced Air Force Space Command's 2nd Space Wing, flying its communications, navigation warfare, and space domain awareness spacecraft, as well as operating the Air Force Satellite Control Network and Global Broadcast Service. Replacing the 2nd Space Wing with the 50th Space Wing was part of a larger Air Force initiative designed to preserve early Air Force flying heritage, and bestowed upon the 50th Space Wing the history and honors of the World War II-era 50th Pursuit Group. On 20 September 1993, the 50th Space Wing was assigned to the Air Force Space Command's Fourteenth Air Force.

The 50th Operations Group served as the primary operations arm of the 50th Space Wing and operational units from the 2nd Space Wing were transferred to it, along with being redesignated from satellite control squadrons to space operations squadrons. Operations units included the 1st Space Operations Squadron, 2nd Space Operations Squadron, 3rd Space Operations Squadron, 4th Space Operations Squadron, 5th Space Operations Squadron, stationed at Onizuka Air Force Station, 50th Satellite Communications Squadron, 50th Crew Training Squadron, and 50th Operations Support Squadron. Spacecraft inherited from the 2nd Space Wing included the Defense Satellite Communications System II and Defense Satellite Communications System III constellations, the Defense Support Program missile warning constellation, the U.S. Navy's Fleet Satellite Communications System constellation, the Global Positioning System constellation, the NATO III and NATO IV satellite communications constellation, the British Armed Forces' Skynet satellite communications constellation, the U.S. Navy's Ultra High Frequency Follow-On satellite communications constellation.

The 1000th Satellite Operations Group which flew the Defense Meteorological Support Program constellation, briefly served as an operational group of the 50th Space Wing, before being redesignated as the 6th Space Operations Squadron and moved under the 50th Operations Group on 31 July 1992. On 30 April 1992, the 4th Space Operations Squadron was activated to fly the Military Strategic and Tactical Relay (Milstar) communications satellite constellation. On 1 July 1992, the 50th Satellite Communications Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Space Communications Squadron.

The 750th Space Group, redesignated from its previous name as the 2nd Satellite Training Group with the activation of the 50th Space Wing, was stationed at Onizuka Air Force Station, was responsible for the operations of the Air Force Satellite Control Network and provided base support to the 5th Space Operations Squadron. Its operational elements consisted of the 21st Space Operations Squadron, 22nd Space Operations Squadron, 23rd Space Operations Squadron, stationed at New Boston Air Force Station, and 750th Operations Support Squadron. Installation support squadrons included the 750th Mission Support Squadron and 750th Logistics Support Squadron. On 1 October 1994, the 750th Medical Squadron was activated to provide medical support to personnel at Onizuka AFS.

The 50th Maintenance Group was activated to support the operations groups, consisting of the 50th Maintenance Squadron, 50th Logistics Support Squadron, and 50th Space Systems Squadron. The 50th Combat Support Squadron, responsible for installation support, consisted of the 50th Security Police Squadron, redesignated as the 50th Security Forces Squadron in 1997, 50th Civil Engineer Squadron, and 50th Support Squadron.

The 50th Space Wing conducted several significant orbital operations in support of terrestrial forces. In February 1992, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron won Air Force Space Command's Space Support Trophy and in November 1992 flew a Fleet Satellite Communications System spacecraft from an orbit above the Pacific Ocean to one above the Atlantic Ocean, the longest transfer orbit in the squadron's history. 3 SOPS later transferred a Defense Satellite Communications System spacecraft from its orbit over Europe to over Somalia, providing space support for the United Nations' Unified Task Force. These operations led to the 50th Space Wing winning United States Space Command's Herres Award. In 1994, the 50th Space Wing assumed full responsibility for the Global Positioning System from the Space and Missile Systems Center and the 4th Space Operations Squadron officially accepted Milstar on 15 November 1994.

On 1 October 1994, the 50th Crew Training Squadron was inactivated, with its space training functions transferred to Air Education and Training Command's 534th Training Squadron, organized under the 381st Training Group at Vandenberg Air Force Base. On the same date, the 50th Weather Squadron was activated and gained responsibility for monitoring space weather from the Air Force Space Forecast Center. On 14 August 1995, the 50th Contracting Squadron was activated under the 50th Combat Support Group. In 1996, the 50th Space Wing turned over full operations of the Fleet Satellite Communications System to the Naval Satellite Operations Center.

The wing began a series of reorganizations beginning in 1997, inactivating the 50th Maintenance Group, 50th Maintenance Squadron, and 50th Logistics Support Squadron on 1 December 1997. On the same day, the 50th Communications Group was activated to replace the 50th Maintenance Group's space support activities. Prior to the inactivation of the 50th Maintenance Group, the 50th Space Support Squadron was briefly inactivated on 23 June 1997, before being reactivated as the 850th Communications Squadron. The 50th Space Communications Squadron was redesignated the 50th Communications Squadron and transferred from the 50th Operations Group which, along with the 850th Communications Squadron, were assigned to the 50th Communications Group. On 6 March 1997, the 55th Space Weather Squadron replaced the 50th Space Weather Squadron, before itself inactivating on 1 October 1999. In June 1997, the 50th Space Wing began to consolidate its activities at Falcon AFB, reducing its presence at Onizuka Air Force Station, Fairchild Air Force Base, and Offutt Air Force Base. As part of this drawdown, the 750th Operations Support Squadron was inactivated on 23 June 1997 and the 750th Logistics Support Squadron was inactivated on 5 November 1997.

In On 5 June 1998, the 50th Space Wing renamed Falcon Air Force Base to Schriever Air Force Base, and began building a new satellite control facility, intending to transfer all functions from Onizuka AFS and shut down the base . It also closed the Defense Meteorological Support Program satellite operations centers at Fairchild AFB and Offutt AFB and transferred it to Suitland, Maryland, where the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration was establishing a new DMSP satellite operations facility. The DMSP was relinquished to NOAA later that year, resulting in the inactivation of the 6th Space Operations Squadron on 30 September 1998. The 8th Space Operations Squadron, a reserve unit, was activated to support NOAA operations of the DMSP and serve as the back-up satellite operations center at Schriever AFB. 8 SOPS began operations in September 1998, but was replaced by Air Force Reserve Command with a reactivated 6th Space Operations Squadron on 1 October 1998.

On 21 October 1998, the 5th Space Operations Squadron placed the last Defense Satellite Communications System II spacecraft in a super synchronous orbit, retiring the system. In December 1998, the 1st Space Operations Squadron began to support the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization's Midcourse Space Experiment, which it assumed full control of on 1 October 2000.

On 25 June 1999, the 750th Space Group was inactivated, following the inactivation of the 750th Mission Support Squadron on 3 May 1999 and 750th Medical Squadron on 28 May 1999 due to the 1995 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission's recommendations to reduce presence at Onizuka AFS, leaving the 21st Space Operations Squadron as the host squadron for the base. The 50th Operations Group assumed responsibility for the 5th Space Operations Squadron, which was inactivated on 13 June 2000, the 21st Space Operations Squadron, the 22nd Space Operations Squadron, and the 23rd Space Operations Squadron.

On 10 February 2000, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron turned over operational control of the Ultra High Frequency Follow-On to the United States Navy's Naval Satellite Operations Center. On 11 October 2000, the Space Shuttle Discovery experienced a Ku-band antenna failure while flying STS-92. The 21st Space Operations Squadron provided communications support for the shuttle mission, relaying information to NASA mission control.

In response to the September 11 attacks, the United States and NATO forces initiated Operation Enduring Freedom. The 50th Space Wing provided satellite communications, global positioning system enhancements, and deployed personnel to support counterterrorism operations. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 50th Space Wing had on average 80 space operators deployed to forward operating bases in the Middle East. During the initial allied invasion of Iraq, the 2nd Space Operations Squadron developed new techniques for enhancing Global Positioning System accuracy over the Iraqi theater of operations, with the 3rd Satellite Operations Squadron and 4th Satellite Operations Squadron maximized communications coverage of the theater. The 1st Space Operations Squadron also set a new record for placing a GPS spacecraft in orbit and completing all early on-orbit checkout activities in 11 days, while also providing Defense support Program and GPS support. 3 SOPS' Defense Satellite Communications System Block III provided 80% of bandwidth for allied forces in theater, while 4 SOPS dedicated 85% of Milstar communications capacity to support tactical forces.

On 1 October 2002, the 50th Communications Group was inactivated, being briefly replaced by the 50th Maintenance Group, until the maintenance group was inactivated and communications group reactivated on 1 June 2003. On 1 October 2002, the 50th Communications Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Space Communications Squadron and 850th Communications Squadron redesignated as 850th Space Communications Squadron. On 10 March 2004, the 50th Communications Group was redesignated as the 50th Network Operations Group and given responsibility for the Air Force Satellite Control Network from the 50th Operations Group, with the 21st Space Operations Squadron, 22nd Space Operations Squadron, and 23rd Space Operations Squadron transferred to it. On 30 January 2006, the 850th Space Communications Squadron had its functions merged into the 50th Space Communications Squadron upon the 850 SCS's inactivation.

On 1 October 2002, the 50th Combat Support Group was redesignated the 50th Mission Support Group and the 50th Support Squadron was redesignated the 50th Mission Support Squadron. On 1 October 2003, the 50th Comptroller Squadron was activated, reporting directly to 50th Space Wing headquarters. On 1 June 2003, the 50th Logistics Readiness Flight, formerly the 50th Supply Squadron, was reactivated and assigned to the 50th Mission Support Group. On 20 June 2008, the 50th Mission Support Squadron was redesignated as the 50th Force Support Squadron.

On 3 September 2004, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron ceased operating the NATO III, NATO IV, and Skynet satellite systems and on 31 August 2006, the 1st Space Operations Squadron turned over operations of the Defense Support Program constellation to the 460th Space Wing's 2nd Space Warning Squadron. On 11 April 2008, the 3rd Space Operations Squadron accepted the first Wideband Global SATCOM spacecraft.

On 15 September 2011, the 21st Space Operations Squadron transitioned to Vandenberg Air Force Base's Ellison Onizuka Space Operations Facility and Onizuka Air Force Station closed. On 16 July 2008, the 1st Space Operations Squadron decommissioned and disposed of the Midcourse Space Experiment. In March 2009, the 21st Space Operations Squadron provided communications support for the Space Shuttle Discovery during STS-119.

1 SOPS assumed responsibility for TacSat-3, the Space Based Space Surveillance system, and the Operationally Responsive Space-1 spacecraft in 2010, retiring TACSAT-3 in 2012 and ORS-1 in 2017.

In 2010, the 50th Space Wing regained responsibility for the Defense Meteorological Support Program, standing up Detachment 1, 50th Operations Group at Suitland, Maryland. On 12 March 2012, 4 SOPS assumed satellite control authority for Advanced Extremely High Frequency-1. On 21 February 2011, the 50th Space Wing gained control authority for the Space Based Space Surveillance satellite.

On 1 April 2013, the Space Innovation and Development Center was inactivated, resulting in the 50th Space Wing gaining the 3rd Space Experimentation Squadron. On 29 September 2015, the Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program was transferred to the 1st Space Operations Squadron. The 50th Space Wing operated a number of other experimental systems, including the Boeing X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle, Automated Navigation and Guidance Experiment for Local Space (ANGELS) from 2016 to 2017, and ORS-5 and the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle Secondary Payload Adapter Augmented Geosynchronous Laboratory Experiment (EAGLE) in 2018. On 13 June 2017, the 3 Space Operations Squadron was inactivated, merging its functions into 4 SOPS. 4 SOPS provided communications support to hurricane relief efforts.

On 20 December 2019, the 50th Space Wing, along with the rest of Air Force Space Command, was transferred to the United States Space Force and on 19 June 2020, the 750th Operations Group was activated, centralizing orbital warfare functions represented by the 1st Space Operations Squadron, 3rd Space Experimentation Squadron, and 750th Operations Support Squadron under a single group. On 24 July 2020, the 50th Space Wing was inactivated for a final time, being replaced by the Peterson-Schriever Garrison. Its units were divided between Space Delta 6, which is responsible for cyberspace operations and replaced the 50th Network Operations Group, Space Delta 8, which is responsible for satellite communications and navigation warfare and replaced the 50th Operations Group, and Space Delta 9, which is responsible for orbital warfare and replaced the 750th Operations Group.

List of commanders

References

Bibliography

External links
 50th Space Wing Factsheet – Schriever AFB
 50th Space Wing Factsheet – AFHRA
 Schriever AFB website
 Commanders lead in challenging times
 50th Space Wing Heritage Site
 USAF History and Chronology of 50th Space Wing
 Falcon AFB: Tircuit Biography (archive.org)

Wings of the United States Space Force
Space wings of the United States Air Force
Military units and formations in Colorado
Military units and formations established in 1992
Military units and formations disestablished in 2020

50th Space Wing


The Teatro Massimo Vittorio Emanuele is an opera house and opera company located on the Piazza Verdi in Palermo, Sicily. It was dedicated to King Victor Emanuel II.
It is the biggest in Italy, and one of the largest of Europe (at the time of its inauguration, it was - with its area of 7730 m2 - the third largest opera house in Europe after the  Palais Garnier in Paris, and the K. K. Hof-Opernhaus in Vienna), renowned for its perfect acoustics.

Construction and opening
An international competition for the creation of the opera house was announced by the Palermo Council in 1864 at the instigation of the mayor, Antonio Starrabba di Rudinì. For many years there had been talk of building a large new theatre in Palermo, worthy of the second biggest city in southern Italy (after Naples) and designed to promote the image of the city following the unification of Italy in 1861.

The opera house was designed, and overseen by the Italian architect Giovan Battista Filippo Basile, who was well known in Sicily for his previous cathedral restoration design in the city of Acireale, as well as garden and villa designs in the city of Palermo and Caltagirone. Following G. B. F. Basile's death in 1891, construction was then overseen by his son, Architect Ernesto Basile.

The Rutelli and Machì Company, represented by Giovanni Rutelli and Alberto Machì (both founding members of the company) was contracted for the main construction of the theatre which, under Architect Giovanni Rutelli's technical and building direction, went from the foundations all the way up to the theatre's attic structures. He was also responsible for all the external decorations of the building. Rutelli initially designed a steam tower crane machine which was then successfully able to lift large stone blocks and Greek/Roman styled columns during construction of the very large theatre.

Giovanni Rutelli belongs to a very old and renowned Italian family of confirmed British Isles origin, a family which also includes architects and sculptor artists from the old Sicilian classic and baroque school as well as building contractors, all entrepreneurs going back to the first half of the 18th century in Palermo. Along with Architect D. Mario Rutelli (Giovanni's great-grandfather), they were considered to be among the most technically and artistically specialized experts in Sicily at that time, especially because of Mario Rutelli and his descendants' profound knowledge and experience in Ancient Greek/Roman architecture, as well as the Norman architectural style. This style required the use of natural thick stone, all of which was part of the structural design. The two very large bronze statues of lions sitting next to the theatre's monumental stairway entrance were created by Giovanni Rutelli's son, sculptor artist Sir Mario Rutelli and Benedetto
Civiletti.

Construction started on 12 January 1874, but was stopped for eight years from 1882 until 1890. Finally, on 16 May 1897, twenty-two years after the laying of the foundation stone, the fourth largest opera house in Europe at the time — after the Royal Opera House in London, the Palais Garnier in Paris, and the K. K. Hof-Opernhaus in Vienna— was inaugurated with a performance of Verdi's Falstaff conducted by Leopoldo Mugnone.

The interior is decorated and painted by Rocco Lentini, Ettore De Maria Bergler, Michele Cortegiani and Luigi Di Giovanni.

Busts of famous composers were carved for the theatre by the Italian sculptor, Giusto Liva (born in Montebelluna, Treviso in 1847) and several of his sons.

Facilities and recent history

The Teatro Massimo is the largest theatre in Italy. Basile was inspired by ancient and classical Sicilian architecture and, thus, the exterior was designed in the high neoclassical style incorporating elements of the Greek temples at Selinunte and Agrigento. Realized in the late-Renaissance style, the auditorium was planned for 3,000 people, but, in its current format, it seats 1,381, with 7 tiers of boxes rising up around an inclined stage, and shaped in the typical horseshoe style.

In 1974, the house was closed to complete renovations required by updated safety regulations, but cost over-runs, corruption, and political in-fighting all added to the delay and it remained closed for twenty-three years, finally re-opening on 12 May 1997, four days before its centenary. The opera season started again in 1999, although Verdi's Aida was performed in 1998 while work in progress continued.

During the restoration regular opera seasons were performed in Teatro Politeama, a minor building not far from Teatro Massimo. In summer a few performances, usually concerts, ballet and operetta, are held in Teatro della Verdura.

In recent years, "charges of corruption and political meddling…along with budget deficits and heavy debts" have plagued the house, but, under its then part-English music director, Jan Latham Koenig, it was reported that it is once again on track.

2013-2014 was a two-year hiatus under the leadership of the comissario straordinario Fabio Carapezza Guttuso, who brought in Lorenzo Amato and Eytan Pessen as artistic advisors. Under Carapezza Guttuso's leadership the theatre offered a varied programme including Richard Strauss's Feuersnot, Hans Werner Henze's Gisela!, Jaromir Weinberger's Schwanda the bagpiper and an increased ballet activity. The current intendant is the experienced Francesco Giambrone. From 2020 the music director has been Omer Meir Wellber. He replaced Gabriele Ferro, who is now honorary life director.

Media interest
The final scenes of Francis Ford Coppola's film The Godfather Part III (1990) were filmed at the theatre, where the uncle of Francis Ford Coppola, the composer and conductor Anton Coppola, is shown conducting the opera, Cavalleria rusticana.

White Lotus Season 2 took place in this opera house.

References

External links

 Teatro Massimo official website (including a virtual visit)
 Teatro Massimo: Its Art and History
 City of Palermo official website

Massimo
Neoclassical architecture in Palermo
Massimo
Theatres completed in 1897
1897 establishments in Italy
Music venues completed in 1897
19th-century architecture in Italy

Teatro Massimo


was the capital of Japan from 784 to 794. Its location was in Otokuni District, Yamashiro Province, corresponding to a 4.3 x 5.3 kilometer area spanning the borders of modern cities of  Mukō and Nagaokakyō, Kyoto, the town of Ōyamazaki, and the Nishikyō-ku ward of the city of Kyoto. The ruins of the palace have been found in the Kaidecho neighbourhood of the city of Mukō and have been designated as a National Historic Site since 1964, with the area under protection expanded in 2016.

Overview
Nagaoka-kyō was built by order of Emperor Kanmu, who instructed that the new capital be established 40 kilometers north of Heijō-kyō in an attempt to overcome Heijō-kyō's various geographical weaknesses. Nagaoka-kyō, was situated at the confluence point of three major rivers, where the Katsura River and the Uji River, formed the Yodo River. A port called Yamazakitsu was established to unload goods from all over the country, where they were transferred to small ships. This made it easy to transport supplies efficiently by boat to Nagaoka-kyō, whereas Heijō-kyō could only be reached by land routes. In addition, Ogura Pond which existed at the time to the southeast of Nagaoka-kyō expected to be used as a logistics base. Archaeological excavations have revealed that almost every house in Nagaoka-kyō had a well, and measures were also taken to deal with sewage, both of which had been problems in Heijō-kyō. Running water from the side of the road was drawn into houses to flush away excrement. The natural spring water from the northwest of Nagaoka-kyō naturally flowed southeast through the city, which was built on a gentle slope, and this washed away filth into the river, keeping the city clean. The imperial palace was situated on a minor plateau 15 meters higher than the city, visually demonstrating the authority of the emperor, whereas Heijō-kyō was completely flat.  Furthermore, the main seaport of Naniwa-tsu on the Seto Inland Sea has silted up and was increasingly unusable. The location of Nagaoka-kyō facilities the development of a new route via the Kanzaki River towards Lake Biwa an Omi Province.

The new capital was also intended to rectify Heijō-kyō's various political weaknesses. Per the Shoku Nihongi, Emperor Kanmu consulted closely with Fujiwara no Tanetsugu on the location of the new capital. Nagaoka happened to Tanetsugu's family home, and a strong support base for the Fujiwara clan. Other reasons included a desire for distance from the increasingly politicized clergy of the great Buddhist establishments in Heijō-kyō, and a desire to improve relations with the economically powerful toraijin immigrant clans of southern Yamashiro Province from whom his mother was descended.

New Year's ceremonies were held at the Nagaoka-kyō palace on New Year's Day in 785, which means that the palace was completed only six months after construction of the capital began. The construction of the palace was undertaken over with consideration to opposition from the people of Heijō-kyō to the relocation of the capital. At that time, it was common for palaces to be built by demolishing the original structures and relocating the buildings to the new site; however, in the case of Nagaoka-kyō, the structures of Heijō-kyō were left intact in situ, and the Naniwa-kyō palace was relocated instead. Nonetheless, in September of the same year, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu was assassinated, and several officials associated with the great state temple of Tōdai-ji were implicated. Emperor Kanmu's younger brother, Imperial Prince Sawara, was also imprisoned and exiled because of his strong opposition to the move of the capital. The prince died while en route to his exile, still harboring a grudge. After his death, various incidents occurred in 792, such as famine and epidemics due to drought, the successive deaths of the Empress and other close relatives of Emperor Kanmu, arson of the main hall of Ise Grand Shrine, and the onset of illness of the Crown Prince.  The following year, an onmyōji declared that these disasters were caused by the onryō, or vengeful spirit of Prince Sawara. Despite efforts at appeasing the prince's spirit, heavy rains followed by floods caused great damage to Nagaoka-kyō. Wake no Kiyomaro, the aristocrat in charge of flood control proposed relocation of the capital. A new site was selected to the northeast in 793 and the capital officially relocated to Heian-kyō in 794.

After the transfer of the capital, the former Nagaoka-kyō area became the domain of Sugawara no Michizane, and the Nagaoka Tenman-gu Shinto shrine was constructed after his exile in 901. Although the name of "Nagaoka" survived as a place name, the actual site of the palace was lost for many centuries. The site of the palace was only re-discovered in 1954 and extensive archaeological excavations have been conducted since.

See also
List of Historic Sites of Japan (Kyoto)

References

External links

Japan National Historical Museum exhibit
Nagaokakyo city home page
Muko city home page
Kyoto city home page

Populated places established in the 8th century
784 establishments
794 disestablishments
Former capitals of Japan
Nara period
Historic Sites of Japan
Archaeological sites in Japan
8th-century establishments in Japan
8th-century disestablishments in Japan
Emperor Kanmu
Mukō

Nagaoka-kyō


Sir Horace Lamb  (27 November 1849 – 4 December 1934) was a British applied mathematician and author of several influential texts on classical physics, among them Hydrodynamics (1895) and Dynamical Theory of Sound (1910). Both of these books remain in print. The word vorticity was invented by Lamb in 1916.

Biography

Early life and education
Lamb was born in Stockport, Cheshire, the son of John Lamb and his wife Elizabeth, née Rangeley. John Lamb was a foreman in a cotton mill who had gained some distinction by the invention of an improvement to spinning machines, he died when his son was a child. Lamb's mother married again, and soon afterwards Horace went to live with his strict maternal aunt, Mrs. Holland. He studied at Stockport Grammar School, where he made the acquaintance of a wise and kindly headmaster in the Rev. Charles Hamilton, and a graduate of classics, Frederic Slaney Poole, who in his final year became a good friend. It was from these two tutors that Lamb acquired his interest in mathematics and, to a somewhat lesser extent, classical literature.

In 1867, he gained a classical scholarship at Queens' College, Cambridge. Since Lamb's inclination, however, was to pursue a career in engineering, he chose to decline the offer, and instead worked for a year at the Owens College in nearby Manchester, as a means of developing his mathematical proficiency further.

At that time, the Chair of Pure Mathematics at Owens College was held by Thomas Barker, an eminent Scottish mathematician, who graduated as Senior Wrangler and first Smith's prizeman from the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos in 1862. An acknowledged lecturer of high quality, Lamb prospered under the guidance of Barker, and was elected to a minor scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge.

At Trinity, he was Second Wrangler in the Mathematical Tripos, 2nd Smith's prizeman and elected fellow in 1872. Among his professors were James Clerk Maxwell and George Gabriel Stokes. He was soon elected both a Fellow and a tutor in the college.

University of Cambridge, 1872–75
By 1874, Lamb had become thoroughly invested in his work at Trinity, preparing there an innovative and original series of lectures on the subject of hydrodynamics for third-year students. Richard Glazebrook, a final-year student at the time, wrote of them that they were 'a revelation', and praised Lamb for his lucid presentation of the properties of liquids in rotational motion. However, Lamb soon became romantically involved with Elizabeth Foot, sister-in-law to his former headmaster, and, since the conditions of his position at Trinity stipulated that he should hold it only so long as he was unmarried, he was compelled, in 1875, to resign and continue his work elsewhere.

University of Adelaide, 1876–1885
Lamb's acquaintance from Stockport, Frederic Slaney Poole, had by now for some years lived in South Australia; hearing of his engagement, Poole suggested in a letter that he should apply for the chair at the recently founded University of Adelaide.  In 1875, he was appointed the first (Sir Thomas) Elder Professor of Mathematics there, and took up the chair in March, 1876. Lamb was instrumental in the establishment of the academic and administrative structure of the university, and lectured in pure and applied mathematics, also giving practical demonstrations in physics. For the next ten years the average number of students enrolled in the Bachelor of Arts course at Adelaide was fewer than twelve; though Lamb also gave some public lectures in the evenings, his workload was relatively light. His deftly rendered and original A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of the Motions of Fluids (which would later be reprinted as Hydrodynamics in 1895) was first published in 1878.

In 1883, Lamb published a paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society applying Maxwell's equations to the problem of oscillatory current flow in spherical conductors, an early examination of what was later to be known as the skin effect. Lamb was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1884.

University of Manchester, 1885–1920

Lamb was appointed to the Chair of Mathematics at Owens College, Manchester, in 1885 and which became the Beyer Chair in 1888, a position Lamb held until retirement in 1920 (Owens College was merged with the Victoria University of Manchester in 1904). His Hydrodynamics appeared in 1895 (6th ed. 1933), and other works included An Elementary Course of Infinitesimal Calculus (1897, 3rd ed. 1919), Propagation of Tremors over the Surface of an Elastic Solid (1904), The Dynamical Theory of Sound (1910, 2nd ed. 1925), Statics (1912, 3rd ed. 1928), Dynamics (1914), Higher Mechanics (1920) and The Evolution of Mathematical Physics (1924).

Later years, 1920–1934

In 1932 Lamb, in an address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, wittily expressed on the difficulty of explaining and studying turbulence in fluids.
He reportedly said, "I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic."

Lamb is also known for description of special waves in thin solid layers. These are now known as Lamb waves.

Family
Lamb married Elizabeth Foot (1845−1930), his former headmaster's sister-in-law, in 1875 and had seven children, including the classicist Walter Lamb, the painter Henry Lamb and the archaeologist Dorothy Lamb. His son Ernest, a professor of engineering at Queen Mary College in London, was the father of the climatologist Hubert Lamb and the grandfather of the Liberal Democrat politician Norman Lamb.

Lamb died in 1934 and was buried at the Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge, with his wife.

Honours and awards
Lamb was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1884, was twice vice-president, received its Royal Medal in 1902 and, its highest honour, the Copley Medal in 1924. He was president of the London Mathematical Society 1902–1904, president of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, and president of the British Association in 1925. He was knighted in 1931. A room in the Alan Turing Building at the University of Manchester is named in his honour and in 2013 the Sir Horace Lamb Chair was created at Manchester. A building at the University of Adelaide also bears his name.

Publications

See also
Lamb (crater)
Lamb–Oseen vortex

References

External links

1849 births
1934 deaths
English physicists
19th-century English mathematicians
20th-century English mathematicians
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society
Academics of the Victoria University of Manchester
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Royal Medal winners
Fluid dynamicists
Second Wranglers
People educated at Stockport Grammar School
People from Stockport
De Morgan Medallists
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society

Horace Lamb


Allen v Gold Reefs of West Africa Ltd [1900] 1 Ch 656 is a UK company law case concerning alteration of a company's articles of association. It held that alterations could not be interfered with by the court unless the change that had been made was not bona fide for the benefit of the company as a whole. This rule served as a marginal form of minority shareholder protection at common law, before the existence of any unfair prejudice remedy.

Facts
Gold Reefs' articles gave it a "first and paramount lien" (the right to retain possession) on all partly paid shares held by any member for any debt owed to the company. Mr Zuccani held some partly paid up shares. He also owned the only fully paid up shares issued by the company. He died insolvent. The company altered its articles by special resolution to create a lien on all fully paid shares (deleting the words in brackets of 'upon all shares (not fully paid) held by such members'). Mr Allen, one of the executors of Mr Zuccani (trying to get money back) sued to get the fully paid shares' value.

Kekewich J held the company could not enforce the lien. The company appealed.

Judgment
Lord Lindley MR held the alteration of the company's articles was valid to introduce a lien on fully paid up shares. So long as the resolution was done bona fide for the benefit of the company as a whole, restrictions on freedom of a company to alter its articles are invalid. According to Lord Lindley MR the power to change the articles is,

Romer LJ agreed. Vaughan Williams LJ dissented.

Significance
Allen v Gold Reefs of West Africa Ltd [1900] 1 Ch 656, inserting a lien on shares fully paid when it only affected one shareholder was valid
Brown v British Abrasive Wheel Co [1919] 1 Ch 290, introducing a 'squeeze out' provision to compulsorily acquire the 2% of shares held by a minority bidder to encourage the 98% majority shareholder to contribute more capital was invalid
Sidebottom v Kershaw, Leese & Co Ltd [1920] 1 Ch 154, introducing the right to compulsorily acquire the shares of anybody running a competing business was valid
Dafen Tinplate Co Ltd v Llanelly Steel Co (1907) Ltd [1920] 2 Ch 124, introducing a right to compulsorily acquire any shareholders' shares to deal with one shareholder that was contracting with a competitor was invalid
Shuttleworth v Cox Bros and Co (Maidenhead) [1927] 1 Ch 154, allowing a majority of directors to remove another director, to target one of the existing directors, was valid, as it was bona fide.
Peter's American Delicacy Co Ltd v Heath (1939) 61 CLR 457, an amendment to rectify a drafting mistake on the distribution ratios to be equal, and dependent on amounts paid up not nominal value, for both capitalised profits as for cash dividends was valid
Southern Foundries (1926) Ltd v Shirlaw [1940] AC 701, changing the articles to allow a director to be removed before the end of his term was valid
Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd [1951] Ch 286, removing a pre-emption right to prevent a minority shareholder buying up shares in a battle for control was valid
Rights and Issues Investment Trust Ltd v Stylo Shoes Ltd [1965] Ch 250, doubling voting rights of management shares to preserve their strength after a large new share issue when managers did not take part in the vote was valid
Gambotto v WPC Ltd (1995) 182 CLR 432, an alteration to empower the majority to compulsorily buy out any minority was invalid. The Australian High Court preferred a test of whether an alteration is 'beyond any purpose contemplated by the articles or oppressive'
Citco Banking Corporation NV v Pusser's Ltd [2007] UKPC 13, an amendment passed by 84% of shareholders except Citco to create a new class of shares with 50 votes each and to convert the chairman's 200,000 shares into this class was valid

See also
UK company law

Notes

United Kingdom company case law
Court of Appeal (England and Wales) cases
1900 in case law
1900 in British law

Allen v Gold Reefs of West Africa Ltd


Cape Grafton is a cape located to the north-east of Cairns in Queensland, Australia. The cape was named by Lieutenant James Cook during his first voyage of discovery in 1770. It was named after Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, the British prime minister when Cook sailed. Cook set anchor two miles from the shore and briefly inspected the cape with botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander.

The Aboriginal community of Yarrabah is located here.  It was founded by John Gribble in 1892.

The cape provides protection to an extensive population of mangroves in the south of Trinity Bay.

History
Gunggay (also known as Gunggandji, Kongandji, Kongkandji, Gungganyji, Idindji and Yidiny) is an Aboriginal language of Far North Queensland. The Gunggay language region of Cape Grafton includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Cairns Regional Council and Yarrabah Community Council.

References

Grafton
Landforms of Far North Queensland

Cape Grafton


Kappeln-Land is an Amt ("collective municipality") in the district of Schleswig-Flensburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is situated on the north bank of the Schlei, around Kappeln, which is the seat of the Amt, but not part of it.

The Amt Kappeln-Land consists of the following municipalities (population in 2005 between brackets):

Arnis (313)
Grödersby (270)
Oersberg (337)
Rabenkirchen-Faulück (673)

References

Ämter in Schleswig-Holstein

Kappeln-Land


The A629 road is an inter-Yorkshire road that runs from Skipton to Rotherham through Keighley, Halifax, Huddersfield and Chapeltown in Yorkshire, England. The road runs through North, West and South Yorkshire, but before 1974, the entire length of the road was wholly within the boundaries of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It is designated as a primary route through most of its length.

The road is part of the intended Doncaster to Kendal Trunk Route which was designated as a trunk road in 1946.

Parts of the road are designated as a High Load Route by the UK Government although the section through Burncross to Chapeltown is designated as B road (B6546) because of a weight restriction.

Route
The very northern section of the route partially runs over the route of the Keighley and Kendal Turnpike. Most parts have been bypassed such as the section between Snaygill to the south of Skipton onto the A65/A59 roundabout which opened in 1981. Southern parts of the route were formerly the Huddersfield to Penistone Turnpike and the Halifax to Sheffield Turnpike.

Along with the A65 and the A650, the A629 is part of the intended Doncaster to Kendal trunk route which was meant to provide a through route between the two towns and cut across the Aire Gap. As the section of the A629 between Skipton and Keighley is designated as a trunk route, it is maintained by the Highways Agency as opposed to the local authorities. Additionally; the section between Kildwick roundabout and Keighley is designated as a Highways Agency High Route (IE one that high loads should take to avoid bridges).

From the north the route starts at the A65/A59 roundabout to the northeast of Skipton and heads southwards through the Aire Valley bypassing Skipton, Farnhill and Kildwick. Just before the Kildwick level crossing, the road takes a bypass around Eastburn and Steeton on a dual carriageway that was opened in 1989. At Keighley, the A629 diverts through the town whilst Aire Valley traffic takes the A650. Through and beyond Keighley to Halifax, the road is a single carriageway.

After going through Keighley town centre, the road heads due south but up onto the high ground through Ingrow, Cross Roads and Denholme. After Denholme the road crosses over into Calderdale and goes through Illingworth,  Ovenden and Halifax. The section of road between Halifax and Huddersfield is the main link between the two towns and incorporates a bad junction with the A6026 in Salterhebble and the Elland bypass that leads up towards a junction with the M62 Motorway. The bypass at Elland is being  widened to four lanes and is expected to reduce journey times between the M62 and Halifax by 30% when opened in 2049. Through Huddersfield the road is in a multiplex with the ring road and then heads off south east past Shepley and Penistone.

The route is broken on Burncross road through Chapeltown due to a  weight restriction on the road, but was traditionally part of the A629. Heavy goods traffic is expected to divert onto the A61 north, use the M1 motorway south and then pick up the A629 at junction 35 for Chapeltown to access the rest of the route towards Rotherham.

Incidents and safety
In May 2011, a section of the southbound Elland bypass was closed after boulders, remnants of a quarry that the bypass was built next to, came crashing down into the road.

According to the Eurorap safety rating, the A629 is a Medium High-Risk Road between Skipton and Huddersfield and a Medium-Risk Road between Huddersfield and Rotherham.

In January 2017, a man was shot by police on the side of the A629 southbound just by junction 24 of the M62 Motorway.(although this wasn't technically the A629 but a spur connecting the A629 to the motorway network) The police announced it was a pre-planned operation as they had credible information that the man was carrying a gun.

Congestion
As the road passes through the major conurbations of Keighley, Halifax, Huddersfield and Rotherham, it is prone to some congestion especially during the morning and evening peak periods. The junction of the road with the A6026 and the B6112 in Saltherhebble, regularly sees queuing traffic for over a  southbound that takes between 12 and 15 minutes to get through.

Kirklees Council have previously acknowledged that the A629 is one of the busiest roads in Kirklees.

Notes

References

External links
Burncross on a map from 1947 showing the A629 through the village

Roads in Yorkshire
Transport in West Yorkshire
Transport in North Yorkshire
Transport in South Yorkshire

A629 road


In flight dynamics, longitudinal stability is the stability of an aircraft in the longitudinal, or pitching, plane. This characteristic is important in determining whether an aircraft pilot will be able to control the aircraft in the pitching plane without requiring excessive attention or excessive strength.

The longitudinal stability of an aircraft, also called pitch stability, refers to the aircraft's stability in its plane of symmetry about the lateral axis (the axis along the wingspan). It is an important aspect of the handling qualities of the aircraft, and one of the main factors determining the ease with which the pilot is able to maintain level flight.

Longitudinal static stability refers to the aircraft's initial tendency on pitching. Dynamic stability refers to whether oscillations tend to increase, decrease or stay constant.

Static stability

If an aircraft is longitudinally statically stable, a small increase in angle of attack will create a nose-down pitching moment on the aircraft, so that the angle of attack decreases. Similarly, a small decrease in angle of attack will create a nose-up pitching moment so that the angle of attack increases. This means the aircraft will self-correct longitudinal (pitch) disturbances without pilot input.

If an aircraft is longitudinally statically unstable, a small increase in angle of attack will create a nose-up pitching moment on the aircraft, promoting a further increase in the angle of attack.

If the aircraft has zero longitudinal static stability it is said to be statically neutral, and the position of its center of gravity is called the neutral point.

The longitudinal static stability of an aircraft depends on the location of its center of gravity relative to the neutral point. As the center of gravity moves increasingly forward, the pitching moment arm is increased, increasing stability. The distance between the center of gravity and the neutral point is defined as "static margin". It is usually given as a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord. If the center of gravity is forward of the neutral point, the static margin is positive. If the center of gravity is aft of the neutral point, the static margin is negative. The greater the static margin, the more stable the aircraft will be.

Most conventional aircraft have positive longitudinal stability, providing the aircraft's center of gravity lies within the approved range. The operating handbook for every airplane specifies a range over which the center of gravity is permitted to move. If the center of gravity is too far aft, the aircraft will be unstable. If it is too far forward, the aircraft will be excessively stable, which makes the aircraft "stiff" in pitch and hard for the pilot to bring the nose up for landing. Required control forces will be greater.

Some aircraft have low stability to reduce trim drag. This has the benefit of reducing fuel consumption. Some aerobatic and fighter aircraft may have low or even negative stability to provide high manoeuvrability. Low or negative stability is called relaxed stability. An aircraft with low or negative static stability will typically have fly-by-wire controls with computer augmentation to assist the pilot. Otherwise, an aircraft with negative longitudinal stability will be more difficult to fly. It will be necessary for the pilot devote more effort, make more frequent inputs to the elevator control, and make larger inputs, in an attempt to maintain the desired pitch attitude.

For an aircraft to possess positive static stability, it is not necessary for its level to return to exactly what it was before the upset. It is sufficient that the speed and orientation do not continue to diverge but undergo at least a small change back towards the original speed and orientation.

The deployment of flaps will increase longitudinal stability.

Unlike motion about the other two axes and in the other degrees of freedom of the aircraft (sideslip translation, rotation in roll, rotation in yaw), which are usually heavily coupled, motion in the longitudinal plane does not typically cause a roll or yaw.

A larger horizontal stabilizer, and a greater moment arm of the horizontal stabilizer about the neutral point, will increase longitudinal stability.

Tailless aircraft
For a tailless aircraft, the neutral point coincides with the aerodynamic center, and so for such aircraft to have longitudinal static stability, the center of gravity must lie ahead of the aerodynamic center.

For missiles with symmetric airfoils, the neutral point and the center of pressure are coincident and the term neutral point is not used.

An unguided rocket must have a large positive static margin so the rocket shows minimum tendency to diverge from the direction of flight given to it at launch. In contrast, guided missiles usually have a negative static margin for increased maneuverability.

Dynamic stability

Longitudinal dynamic stability of a statically stable aircraft refers to whether the aircraft will continue to oscillate after a disturbance, or whether the oscillations are damped. A dynamically stable aircraft will experience oscillations reducing to nil. A dynamically neutral aircraft will continue to oscillate around its original level, and dynamically unstable aircraft will experience increasing oscillations and displacement from its original level.

Dynamic stability is caused by damping. If damping is too great, the aircraft will be less responsive and less manoeuvrable.

Decreasing phugoid (long-period) oscillations can be achieved by building a smaller stabilizer on a longer tail, and by shifting the center of gravity to the rear.

An aircraft that is not statically stable cannot be dynamically stable.

Analysis

Near the cruise condition most of the lift force is generated by the wings, with ideally only a small amount generated by the fuselage and tail. We may analyse the longitudinal static stability by considering the aircraft in equilibrium under wing lift, tail force, and weight.  The moment equilibrium condition is called trim, and we are generally interested in the longitudinal stability of the aircraft about this trim condition.

Equating forces in the vertical direction:

where W is the weight,  is the wing lift and  is the tail force.

For a thin airfoil at low angle of attack, the wing lift is proportional to the angle of attack:

where  is the wing area  is the (wing) lift coefficient,  is the angle of attack.  The term  is included to account for camber, which results in lift at zero angle of attack. Finally  is the dynamic pressure:

where  is the air density and  is the speed.

Trim
The force from the tailplane is proportional to its angle of attack, including the effects of any elevator deflection and any adjustment the pilot has made to trim-out any stick force.  In addition, the tail is located in the flow field of the main wing, and consequently experiences  downwash, reducing its angle of attack.

In a statically stable aircraft of conventional (tail in rear) configuration, the tailplane force may act upward or downward depending on the design and the flight conditions. In a typical canard aircraft both fore and aft planes are lifting surfaces. The fundamental requirement for static stability is that the aft surface must have greater authority (leverage) in restoring a disturbance than the forward surface has in exacerbating it.  This leverage is a product of moment arm from the center of gravity and surface area. Correctly balanced in this way, the partial derivative of pitching moment with respect to changes in angle of attack will be negative: a momentary pitch up to a larger angle of attack makes the resultant pitching moment tend to pitch the aircraft back down. (Here, pitch is used casually for the angle between the nose and the direction of the airflow; angle of attack.) This is the "stability derivative" d(M)/d(alpha), described below.

The tail force is, therefore:

where  is the tail area,  is the tail force coefficient,  is the elevator deflection, and  is the downwash angle.

A canard aircraft may have its foreplane rigged at a high angle of incidence, which can be seen in a canard catapult glider from a toy store; the design puts the c.g. well forward, requiring nose-up lift.

Violations of the basic principle are exploited in some high performance "relaxed static stability" combat aircraft to enhance agility; artificial stability is supplied by active electronic means.

There are a few classical cases where this favorable response was not achieved, notably in T-tail configurations. A T-tail airplane has a higher horizontal tail that passes through the wake of the wing later (at a higher angle of attack) than a lower tail would, and at this point the wing has already stalled and has a much larger separated wake. Inside the separated wake, the tail sees little to no freestream and loses effectiveness. Elevator control power is also heavily reduced or even lost, and the pilot is unable to easily escape the stall. This phenomenon is known as 'deep stall'.

Taking moments about the center of gravity, the net nose-up moment is:

where  is the location of the center of gravity behind the aerodynamic center of the main wing,  is the tail moment arm.
For trim, this moment must be zero.  For a given maximum elevator deflection, there is a corresponding limit on center of gravity position at which the aircraft can be kept in equilibrium.  When limited by control deflection this is known as a 'trim limit'.  In principle trim limits could determine the permissible forwards and rearwards shift of the centre of gravity, but usually it is only the forward cg limit which is determined by the available control, the aft limit is usually dictated by stability.

In a missile context 'trim limit' more usually refers to the maximum angle of attack, and hence lateral acceleration which can be generated.

Static stability

The nature of stability may be examined by considering the increment in pitching moment with change in angle of attack at the trim condition.  If this is nose up, the aircraft is longitudinally unstable; if nose down it is stable.  Differentiating the moment equation with respect to :

Note:  is a stability derivative.

It is convenient to treat total lift as acting at a distance h ahead of the centre of gravity, so that the moment equation may be written:

Applying the increment in angle of attack:

Equating the two expressions for moment increment:

The total lift  is the sum of  and  so the sum in the denominator can be simplified and written as the derivative of the total lift due to angle of attack, yielding:

Where c is the mean aerodynamic chord of the main wing.  The term:

is known as the tail volume ratio. Its coefficient, the ratio of the two lift derivatives, has values in the range of 0.50 to 0.65 for typical configurations. Hence the expression for h may be written more compactly, though somewhat approximately, as:

 is known as the static margin. For stability it must be negative. (However, for consistency of language, the static margin is sometimes taken as , so that positive stability is associated with positive static margin.)

See also
 Directional stability
 Flight dynamics
 Handling qualities
 Phugoid

References

Aerospace engineering
Aircraft aerodynamics
Flight control systems
Aviation science

Longitudinal stability


Joshua Vaughan Himes (1805–1895) was a Christian leader, publisher, and promoter of intellectual innovators and social reformists. He became involved with the followers of William Miller and later became a prominent leader in the Advent Christian Church.

Early life
Himes was born in Wickford, Rhode Island, to Stuckeley Himes and Elizabeth Vaughn Himes. His parents intended for him to become an Episcopal priest, but when Himes was twelve, his father fell into financial ruin when a ship captain disappeared with a valuable cargo, leaving Stuckeley in immense debt. Himes, unable to afford his education in seminary, was then apprenticed to a cabinetmaker in New Bedford, Massachusetts.

In October 1824, Elizabeth filed for divorce from Himes' father (a court order stated that Stuckeley was now a "yeoman...residing in parts unknown").

Entry into Ministry, Support of Progressive Social Reform/Intellectuals
At 18, Himes joined the Christian Connexion church in New Bedford where he was licensed as an exhorter (most likely, an initial level role—he could preach and pastor a church, but was not an ordained minister). In November 1825 he married Mary Thompson Handy, and the following year was ordained to the ministry. Over the next few years he pastored several districts in Massachusetts, before becoming pastor of the First Christian Church in Boston in 1830. There he rose to prominence, reviving a church that was near death, and becoming active in the educational, temperance, peace, and abolitionist reform movements of the day.

In 1836, he left First Christian Church (some scholars claim that he was forced out of his position because of his single-minded focus on social reform movements). With only sixteen members, he started a new gathering at Lyceum Hall on Hanover Street; two years later, they relocated to a new sanctuary that would become Chardon Street Chapel, dedicated on November 6, 1838. On November 29, 1842, when Himes resigned his position to John Starkweather, the total gathering was 410.

Millerite Movement
Himes met William Miller twice before recruiting him: first, at a Christian Connexion Conference in Calais, Vermont; the second time, at Groton, Massachusetts in 1839, on a recommendation from David Cambell (who would later become an ardent critic of Miller's prophetic interpretation). Impressed by what he observed, or perhaps just aware of Miller's potential, Himes invited Miller to speak at Chardon Street Chapel in Boston. From these lectures, Himes became convinced of the imminent return of Christ, and sought opportunities for Miller to preach. In 1840 he published and edited the first Millerite newspaper, Signs of the Times, in Boston. He led in organizing general conferences and camp meetings, and published hundreds of pamphlets as well as the second and third editions of Miller's lectures. He organized extensive lecture tours for Miller and himself as far west as Cincinnati, brought about the manufacture of the "great tent," at that time the largest tent in the United States, for use on these tours, and established a network of agents, book depots, and reading rooms from Boston to St. Louis. He also published the Thayer lithograph of the first Millerite prophetic chart, designed by Charles Fitch and Apollos Hale.

Himes' promotional work brought Millerism to the attention of the world, stretching into Canada and England. In 1842 he started a second newspaper, the Midnight Cry, in New York City. He resigned as pastor of Chardon Street Chapel in November the same year and, as he focused his efforts on supporting Miller and his movement, reduced his efforts or removed entirely from his other social reform initiatives, including his support of William Lloyd Garrison and his abolitionist movement (Garrison still referred to him as "a sincere and worthy man," although he rejected the Millerite movement, stating that Himes had "become the victim of an absurd theory").

Like Miller, Himes at first opposed the setting of October 22, 1844 as the exact date for the return of Christ, but accepted it shortly before the date arrived. The date passed without incident, and Himes and Miller were the subjects of intense scrutiny and accusations. Himes published his defense, first in the Boston Post, then in periodicals like The Liberator, refuting some of the more serious accusations made against him, the movement, and its impact on followers.

Career following The Great Disappointment of 1844, Death
After the Great Disappointment, Himes played a leading role in trying to reorganize the disappointed Adventists around the original Advent faith at the Albany Conference in April 1845. When this failed he became a leader of the Evangelical Adventists and their American Millennial Association (1858), opposing Sabbatarian Adventism and their understanding of the sanctuary as well as those who believed in conditional immortality and the re-establishment of Israel before Christ's Second Coming.

In 1863 Himes accepted the doctrine of conditional immortality, joined the Advent Christian Church, and moved his family west to Buchanan, Michigan, assuming a prominent leadership role among Advent Christians and starting a newspaper, The Voice of the West (later Advent Christian Times). In 1865 he was the founding president of the American Advent Mission Society, and was further planning to start a college in Illinois.

Himes died of cancer on July 27, 1895. He was buried at Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Sioux Falls, South Dakota.

See also

 Advent Christian Church
 Adventist, Millerites
Second Coming
Seventh-day Adventist Church
Christian revival
Christianity in the 19th century
List of religions and religious denominations#Adventist and related churches
List of Christian denominations#Millerites and comparable groups
Other movements in :Category:Adventism
Great Disappointment
William Miller (preacher)
Millennialism
Second Great Awakening

References

Adventism
Millerites
People from Warwick, Rhode Island
American Christian religious leaders
1805 births
1895 deaths
American newspaper publishers (people)
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
19th-century American male writers
People from Buchanan, Michigan
Abolitionists from New Bedford, Massachusetts

Joshua V. Himes


Cardiff and Vale College abbreviated to CAVC (), is a mixed-sex education Further Education college in Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan, Wales.

The college was formed in September 2011 by the merger of Barry College  and Coleg Glan Hafren. The merger was a result of the Welsh Assembly Government encouraging colleges in Wales to collaborate so that it could maximise benefits for students. Cardiff and Vale College (or Coleg Caerdydd a'r Fro) is now one of the largest colleges in Wales. The College took control of the Cardiff International Sports Stadium from July 2015 on a peppercorn rent to Cardiff Council.

In 2015 a new main campus costing £45 million was opened in Dumballs Road, Cardiff, to cater for 4000 students. Facilities included 130 teaching rooms, film and dance studios, a theatre, a hair salon and spa and, on the top floor, a public bar and restaurant. Having sold their main Cardiff site in City Road, Cardiff, the college intended to keep their other Cardiff campus, at Trowbridge and convert it to become an art college.

References

External links

Further education colleges in Cardiff
Further education colleges in the Vale of Glamorgan
Further education colleges in the Collab Group
University of Glamorgan
Educational institutions established in 2011
2011 establishments in Wales

Cardiff and Vale College


Bykenhulle, originally known as Ivy Hall, is a historic house located on Bykenhulle Road near the hamlet of Hopewell Junction, New York, United States, in the Town of East Fishkill. It is a wooden house in the Greek Revival architectural style.

First built in the middle of the 19th century by a member of the locally prominent Adriance family, it was originally the center of a large farmstead. By the early 20th century the failing farm was subdivided, leaving the house on a smaller lot. A later set of owners bought it for use as a country retreat and renamed it after the original Dutch spelling of their name.

They renovated and restored the house with the intent of preserving its historic character. It retains enough despite the much newer residential construction around it that, in 1991, it and two of its outbuildings were listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Currently it is used as a bed and breakfast.

Buildings and grounds
Bykenhulle is located on a pair of lots totalling  in the north of East Fishkill. They are bordered by Bykenhulle Road on the south, neighboring residences on the east and west, and the Taconic State Parkway to the rear. It is on a slight rise just south of the Fishkill Creek flood plain. The neighborhood is wooded except for the cleared lots, many of which compare in size to Bykenhulle. A brick fence runs along the front.

The buildings are mostly located on the  lot, the larger of the two. At its east corner, a driveway leads in past the house and continues through to an exit at the parkway in the rear. A brick fence runs along the front of the property. The lot has mature trees and plantings, with an evergreen buffer at the rear along the parkway. The two-acre (8,000 m2) lot to the southwest is today mostly a large lawn.

There are three other buildings and a swimming pool to the side and rear of the main house. Two of the buildings, a dairy barn and poultry house, date to the era of its construction and are considered contributing resources to the Register listing. The carriage house, now modified to serve as a garage, and swimming pool are not.

House
The main house's main block is a two-and-a-half-story, five-bay frame structure sided in clapboard. The south (front) facade has a centrally located three-bay porch, supported by four wooden columns, with a balustrade on top to serve as a balcony. All windows have wooden louvered shutters. Above a plain frieze, a gabled roof shingled in asphalt is pierced by two brick chimneys at either end. The north facade has a similarly centrally located entrance with roofless masonry porch and iron railing. Three dormer windows pierce the roof on this side.

A two-story, four-by-two-bay kitchen wing projects to the east. It has a similar treatment to the main block, with eyebrow windows in the frieze and an end chimney. The windows on its north facade are irregularly placed. The sunroom on the west end has glazed French doors on all three sides.

The recessed and trabeated main entrance is framed by pilasters on either side. The doorway is further framed by a transom and sidelights with pilasters decorated in a Greek style. The paneled door opens into a grand central hall with  ceilings, encircled by a sculpted plaster cornice. The interior doorways have a post-and-beam surround similar to the exterior ones, and a stairway to the second floor has a mahogany spindled balustrade and finely detailed turned newel post.

On the west are two large parlors. They are similarly decorated to the hall, adding ceiling medallions, silver-plated door hardware and black marble mantelpieces. A wide pocket door entryway with enormous Grecian surround connects them. The functional rooms on the east are similar in scale but more restrained in their decoration. The second-story rooms follow a similar layout but are more restrained in scale and decoration.

Outbuildings
Directly behind the house is the dairy barn. It is a two-story wooden English barn modified with a basement and swing beam sided in galvanized iron designed to imitate clapboard. A screened pheasant coop has been attached to the west, and the northeast corner has been extended to build a garage.

The poultry house is located further to the northwest, in line with the house and barn. It is a long frame two-story structure, sided with the same material as the barn, that has been converted into a hunting lodge. A cobblestone chimney and fireplace has been added to the west side, and the roosts removed from the interior. The building is entered by tipping a carved wooden liquor bottle into a nearby shot glass to reveal a peephole.

The carriage house was original to the building, but has been modified over the years. It is a rectangular frame building with front-facing gabled roof similar to the house. Its interior has been converted into two apartments, and the exterior has had new windows added, some old ones close and been resided with wider modern clapboards.

There were two other buildings and one structure formerly located on the property. The latter is on the north side of the property, the site of a former well still visible in the woods near the Taconic. The collapsed remains of a frame milk house are located to the east of the carriage house, and between the two there was once a frame storage building, of which no trace remains.

History
Peter Adriance, one of the descendants of Dutch settlers who moved from Long Island to Dutchess County in the late 18th century, gave the newly built house to his daughter Mary Ann and her husband, James Wilkinson, himself the scion of a wealthy Quaker family in the area, in 1841. From his  farm, he partitioned  to them. The house was in the highest of contemporary style, its dimension and decor less restrained than other Greek Revival farmhouses of the time. Finishings like the door hardware and marble mantelpieces would have been made in the city and brought to the house, testifying to the affluence of the Adriance family. They were on conspicuous display in the social spaces visitors would have experienced; the more restrained private and functional rooms are a reminder that the house was still the center of a large working farm.

A year after Peter Adriance died in 1852, his daughter and son-in-law availed themselves of the large inheritance he left her and moved to Poughkeepsie. They sold the house to a cousin on her mother's side, Charlotte Storm Genung, also descended from another old Dutchess settler, and her family. The Genungs named the house where their descendants would live for the next five decades Ivy Hall.

Very little is known about the Genungs during this period, as they apparently lived quietly, running the farm, making no changes to the house, building some of the outbuildings, and taking little role in public affairs. A county history in 1882 to which Charlotte's son Isaac contributed notes his ancestry and lists his profession as "farmer and assessor". It is the only record available about the Genung period of the house.

When Isaac died, his heirs were either unable or unwilling to sustain the farm, and defaulted on the mortgage. The farm and all its buildings and structures went into foreclosure. At a 1907 auction on the steps of the Dutchess County Court House in Poughkeepsie, it was sold for $4,000 ($ in contemporary dollars) to a Moses Lee of Patterson. Two years later, he realized a profit, selling it for $5,750 ($ in contemporary dollars) to Webster Wagner of New York City, a wealthy descendant of the co-inventor of the Pullman car. He delegated farming operations to tenants, preferring to use Ivy Hall as his country house.

It is believed that Wagner converted the poultry barn into a hunting lodge and built the pheasant coop so that he would have game birds to hunt, as hunting was a popular hobby among wealthy men of the era. He made no alterations to the house. In 1929 Florence Bicknell, wife of U.S. Rubber chairman John Bicknell, bought the house from Wagner for $100 ($ in contemporary dollars). It is not known why the property changed hands for such small amount. The low price could have reflected the onset of the Great Depression, a personal relationship between the parties, or might simply be an error in recordkeeping.

Indicative of a strong interest in historic preservation as a reason to own the home, the Bicknells changed the name of the property to Bykenhulle, the original Dutch spelling of their name. That principle guided their completion of the main house's transition from farmhouse to country retreat. They added the current historically themed wallpaper to the front hall, put in modern heating and plumbing in an unobtrusive fashion and remodeling the northern rooms into a library and dining room. They made more changes to the upper story, eliminating a stair and replacing it with a false fireplace. In the process of modernizing the kitchen wing completely, they changed its original layout but kept its scale and design consistent with the main house.

In the late 1930s the Taconic State Parkway was built through the area, cutting the main house area off from some of its former pasturelands. In 1963, when the Bicknells sold the land, Mary Ann Wilkinson's wedding gift was subdivided into  lots, spurring the current exurban residential development. The pool was added to the property in 1972, and a traditional garden planted in 1990. A year prior to the latter, the sunroom was added to the west of the house. Later owners of Bykenhulle have included an IBM executive and the current bed and breakfast operators, both of whom have continued to maintain the property's historic character.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Dutchess County, New York

References

External links
Bed and breakfast website

Bed and breakfasts in New York (state)
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Dutchess County, New York
Greek Revival houses in New York (state)
Houses completed in 1841
Houses in Dutchess County, New York

Bykenhulle