Chief business officer (CBO) is the position of the top operating executive of growing commercial companies or an academic/research institution (such as a university, college, institute, or teaching hospital).  In the commercial space, CBO shows leadership in deal-making experience with a clear record of results and ultimate transactional responsibility. In higher education, the titles of vice president, associate dean, assistant dean, and director are also used for the role of the chief business officer.

Commercial companies
In the biotechnology, information technology, and emerging innovation industries, the chief business officers assume full management responsibility for the company's deal-making, provide leadership and execute a deal strategy that will allow the company to fulfill its scientific/technology mission and build shareholder value, and provides managerial guidance to the company's product development staff as needed.  Reporting directly to a board of directors or the CEO of the company, a CBO sometimes has a dual role as chief commercial officer and chief strategy officer. Often, this position is created to complement a CEO whose strengths and experience are concentrated mainly in product and technology.

A CBO is often given the responsibilities of conducting all business and corporate development activities, maintaining relationships and project management of all partnership agreements, ensuring marketing activities, including website-related, activities, and, more importantly, developing an exit strategy for the company to be acquired or go IPO.

Academics and research institutes
The titles of executive vice president and senior vice president are found most often in a university's central administration office, and a hierarchical relationship does not necessarily exist between those positions and the chief business officer position of a university-affiliated institute or center, which is often at an equivalent level. Several large public school districts in the United States now employ chief business officers to oversee the business operations of the school district as well as the work of individual school business managers. Independent schools increasingly use the chief business officer  title to identify the school finance director or school business manager. The chief business officer position in education should not be confused with the unrelated chief commercial officer or chief business development officer positions in other industries. Additionally, the title chief business development officer title is often shortened to chief business officer in biotechnology, information technology, and startup companies.

A CBO is responsible for the administrative, financial, and operations management of the organization, often combining the roles of chief administrative officer (CAO), chief financial officer (CFO), and chief operating officer (COO). As a result, the executive holding the CBO position, by definition, will usually possess a broader range of experience and a more extensive skill set than individuals serving in those C-level positions.

As one of the highest-ranking executives in an academic or research organization, the CBO may oversee strategic planning in addition to budgeting, financial management, contracts, human resources, procurement, compliance, real estate, facilities, information technology, and risk management. At many colleges and universities, sustainability and green building initiatives fall under the purview of the CBO, while other institutions include community and local government relations in the CBO's responsibilities
.

Qualifications
Many CBOs typically hold advanced academic degrees (MBA, PhD, etc.) or leading professional credentials and continue to participate in academic research or consulting projects in their areas of expertise. Job experience for the CBO  role is generally gained on the job at the department, unit, or program level prior to advancing into a CBO role, although business officers at all levels are sometimes hired from private industry, government, or other non-profit organizations.

Educational requirements for the CBO position vary among different commercial companies and institutions
.

See also
 Chief administrative officer
 Chief financial officer
 Chief operating officer
Chief strategy officer

References

Chief executive officers
Management occupations
Positions of authority
Corporate governance
B

Chief business officer


The Kennebecasis Island Ferry is a ferry crossing the Kennebecasis River in the Canadian province of New Brunswick. The ferry links Summerville on the Kingston Peninsula with Kennebecasis Island.

The crossing is  in length, takes 5 minutes, and is free of tolls. The single ferry carries up to 12 cars at a time, and operates during the ice-free period, generally from May to November. The service runs from 0700 until 1900 or later, depending on the day and time of year. It is operated by the New Brunswick Department of Transportation, and in summer provides the only road access to the island. In winter the island can only be reached by travelling across the ice.

References

External links
Official ferries web page of the New Brunswick Department of Transportation

Ferries of New Brunswick
Cable ferries in Canada

Kennebecasis Island Ferry


Krishnan Sasikiran (Tamil: கிருஷ்ணன் சசிகிரண்; born 7 January 1981) is an Indian chess grandmaster.

He was one of Viswanathan Anand's seconds in the World Chess Championship 2013.

Chess career
Born in Madras, Sasikiran won the Indian Chess Championship for the first time in 1999 and won it again in 2002, 2003, and 2013. In 1999, he also won the Asian Junior Chess Championship in Vũng Tàu, Vietnam.
Sasikiran completed the requirements for the Grandmaster title at the 2000 Commonwealth Championship. In 2001, he won the prestigious Hastings International Chess tournament. In 2003, he won the 4th Asian Individual Championship as well as the Politiken Cup in Copenhagen. Sasikiran tied with Jan Timman for first place in the 2005 Sigeman & Co Chess Tournament, which took place in Malmö and Copenhagen.

In 2006, he tied for first place at the Aeroflot Open in Moscow with Baadur Jobava, Victor Bologan and Shakhriyar Mamedyarov, finishing third on tiebreak score. Later in the same year, Sasikiran won a gold medal in the 2006 Asian Games' team event. Tamil Nadu government presented a cheque of Rs 20 Lakhs as appreciation for his success. He was also bestowed with the Arjuna Award in 2002. In the January 2007 FIDE rating list, Sasikiran was ranked number 21 in the world with an Elo rating of 2700. He became only the second chess player from India to reach Elo rating of 2700.

In December 2008, he won City of Pamplona international chess tournament, a category 16 event with average Elo above 2640, by one-point margin with a rating performance of 2795. In 2009, he tied for 2nd-3rd with Étienne Bacrot in Antwerp.

In May 2011, Sasikiran won the Asian Blitz Chess Championship in Mashhad on tiebreak over Wesley So and Bu Xiangzhi, after all three players finished on 7/9 points. In October of the same year, he placed clear first in the open section of the 15th Corsican Circuit. He reached semi-final stage of the Corsica Masters knockout rapid tournament losing to eventual winner Anand.

At the 2014 Chess Olympiad in Tromsø he scored 7.5/10 points on board three to help the Indian team to win the bronze medal. Sasikiran also won the individual silver medal on board three.

Correspondence chess
Krishnan Sasikiran is also a very successful correspondence chess player. In 2015, he achieved the title of an International Master (IM) and in 2016 he became Senior International Master (SIM). Norms for both titles he fulfilled at the Marian Vinchev Memorial and the Palciauskas Invitational.

Personal life
Sasikiran completed his education in the Modern Senior Secondary School of Nanganallur, Chennai.

He is married to Radhika and has a daughter.

References

External links

1981 births
Living people
Tamil sportspeople
Chess grandmasters
Chess Olympiad competitors
Indian chess players
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Asian Games medalists in chess
Chess players at the 2006 Asian Games
Chess players at the 2010 Asian Games
Asian Games gold medalists for India
Asian Games bronze medalists for India
Medalists at the 2006 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games
Sportspeople from Chennai

Krishnan Sasikiran


A book truck, book trolley,  or book cart is a small wheeled vehicle, typically with two or three shelves, used in libraries to move books. It was patented in the United States by David Edgar Hunter in 1899.

Book trucks are used to move large quantities of books. They work well when the move is in the same library. When the move is longer, the book truck may not be as useful as there may be a need to travel to different levels of a building.

The Library Book Cart Drill Team Championship takes place every year during the annual conference of the American Library Association.

References

Furniture
Carts

Book truck


The acronym MESC stands for Material and Equipment Standards and Code. It is a tool of the materials department for standardisation and handling of materials used in business. It was created in 1932 for internal use by Shell, but later on licensed to every company who wished to pay for it.

The system is a catalogue of specifications in the English language, to allow buyers to purchase standardised materials all over the world.

When MESC was initially introduced, materials were allocated a unique 7-digit number. This was increased to ten digits in 1946. The system has a numerical "coding schedule" of 10 digits to code the materials. It consists of groups, sub- and sub-sub-groups of 2 digits each, and a "Buying description" of 3 digits. Local coding is allowed for every company. The last digit for central coded materials is a 1, the last digit for local coded materials is a 9. With a single 10 digit code materials can be purchased all over the world, independent of the manufacturer or brand.

Typical example: Somewhere in the world a buyer purchases 500 metre cable coded 18.104.22.1681.1 He knows he gets a telecommunication cable, 110 volt, polythene isolated, lead sheathed and steelwire armed, PVC served, colour green, with conductors of high-conductivity solid plain annealed copper wire, polythene insulated and polythene inner sheath, grouped 1x4x0,8 mm according to a strict specification and known measures.

It does not matter whether the buyer works on a Shell refinery in Oman or a BP plant in Rotterdam Europort, it only depends on the local market which supplier will supply the cable.

A cable coded 220.127.116.111.9 would be the same cable as 188.8.131.521.1, but with local requirements, e.g. according to the local colour standard.

The loose-leaf paper version of the MESC consisted of approximately 2 metre books.

References

External links
 MESC-catalogus by Shell
 ISO direction to Shell standards DEP and MESC

Procurement
Shell plc

MESC


Sekonda is a British wristwatch manufacturer. Established in 1966, Sekonda watches were originally produced in the Soviet Union, at the First Moscow Watch Factory in Moscow and the Petrodvorets Watch Factory in Leningrad. Many Soviet-era Sekonda watches exported to the West were re-badged Poljot and Raketa watches.

The 'Sekonda' brand was created by ChasProm in 1966 for the export of the best watches from all the USSR's watch factories, including Slava. The factories that built Sekonda watches (generally relabelling their other brands) were:

 1st Moscow Watch Factory (Poljot)
 2nd Moscow Watch Factory (Slava)
 Uglich Watch Factory (Chaika)
 Petrodvorets Watch Factory (Raketa)
 Minsk Watch Factory (Luch)
 Chelyabinsk Watch Factory (Molnija)
 Penza Watch Factory (Zarja)
 Chistopol Watch Factory (Vostok)
 Maslennikov Factory (ZIM, Pobeda, Elektronika)
 Integral Electronics (Elektronika-5)

They ran a TV advert featuring the band Madness in 1990.

Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, Sekonda no longer has Russian ties and all its watches have been produced from factories in Hong Kong since 1993. Sekonda also markets watches under the sub-brand SEKSY for ladies' fashion, ONE for men's fashion and Xpose for rugged outdoor lifestyles of either gender. Between 1998 and 2002, Sekonda was the title sponsor of the Superleague, then the top flight division in British ice hockey, and the precursor to the Elite League.

References

External links

Soviet watch brands
Distribution companies of the United Kingdom
British companies established in 1966
Manufacturing companies established in 1966

Sekonda


Anna Severine Lindeman (October 29, 1859 – June 24, 1938) was a Norwegian composer and music teacher.

Lindeman was born in Trondheim, the daughter of Peter Tangen Lindeman (1810–1888) and Louise Augusta Bauck (1826–1906). Her father's parents were the organist Ole Andreas Lindeman and Anna Severine née Hickmann. Anna Lindeman learned to play piano from her father's sister, Severine Dos, and was later taught to read music and harmony by her aunt Juliane Cathrine Lindeman Krogness (1816–1879) and uncle Just Lindemann (1822–1894). She traveled from Trondheim to Christiania (now Oslo) around 1878 with her musically gifted cousin Astrid Lindeman Swensen (1855–1936) and devoted herself to music. In 1884 she married her cousin, the organist Peter Brynie Lindeman (1855–1930). After half a year in Dresden, Germany, where Anna Severine was engaged in private piano teaching, the Lindeman family founded a music school in Christiania, which was renamed the Oslo Conservatory of Music in 1892. Lindeman's husband served as head of the conservatory, and she taught at the school from 1912 onward. Her son Trygve Lindeman (1896–1979) was a cellist and succeeded his father as head of the conservatory in 1928. Her daughter Signe Lindeman (1895–1974) was also a composer.

Lindeman continued composing after her husband's death. Her compositions include songs, a string quartet, chamber pieces for piano, and chamber pieces for violin or cello with piano.

She died in Oslo.

References

1859 births
1938 deaths
Musicians from Trondheim
Norwegian composers
Norwegian expatriates in Germany
Norwegian schoolteachers
Academic staff of the Oslo Conservatory of Music

Anna Severine Lindeman


Dorothy Alice Weisel Hack (March 7, 1910 – June 17, 1963) was born in Sacramento, California, and was an amateur American tennis player in the 1920s and 1930s. She was ranked as high as No. 3 in the U.S. rankings during her career.

Career
Hack won the Oregon state singles title in 1929. In the same tournament, she was paired with Golda Gross and reached the doubles final. She was a two-time singles quarterfinalist (1930 and 1931) at the U.S. Nationals. In 1930, she beat fourth-seeded Sarah Palfrey Cooke en route to the quarters where she lost to Betty Nuthall. She reached the final of the California state tournament in 1931, but lost to Alice Marble. In addition to this, Hack also won the Western Indoor championships in 1932. In the same year, at the tournament in Cincinnati, she won the singles title over Clara Louise Zinke, and was a doubles finalist with Helen Fulton. However, this pair were defeated in the finals match by Zinke and Ruth Oexman.

Personal life
Hack was married to fellow Sacramento native Stan Hack, a former third baseman and manager of the Chicago Cubs.

American female tennis players
Sportspeople from Sacramento, California
Tennis people from California
1910 births
1963 deaths
20th-century American women
20th-century American people

Dorothy Weisel Hack


Romeyn Berry (1881-1957) was an American sports administrator and author.

Nicknamed "Rym," Berry attended Cornell University, graduating in 1904 and earning a law degree in 1906. During his senior year, Berry was elected to the Sphinx Head Society and editor of the Cornell Widow with George Jean Nathan as business manager. In 1905, Berry composed the lyrics for the Cornell song The Big Red Team, thereby dubbing Cornell athletics "The Big Red."  From 1906 to 1919, Berry practiced law in New York City.  During World War I, he served as a first lieutenant in the U.S. Army.  Leaving his law practice, Berry became the Graduate Director of Cornell Athletics from 1919 to 1935. During these years, Berry also served as graduate manager of the Cornell University Glee Club. In 1932, he was president of the Eastern Collegiate Baseball League, and he was named to the American Olympic Committee in 1938. Berry was succeeded as athletic director by James Lynah.

Around 1936, he moved to a 65-acre farm known as "Stoneposts" in Jacksonville, New York, about 10 miles from Ithaca.   His first wife was Olive Nutting, whose father, Captain Lee Nutting, had won the Medal of Honor in the Civil War.  His second wife was Hester Bancroft who was a sculptor and painter.

Well-known among Cornell alumni for his wit, Berry contributed to the Cornell Alumni News, The Ithaca Journal, The New Yorker, The American Agriculturalist, and Cornell football game programs. He also authored Dirt Roads to Stoneposts (1949), Stoneposts in the Sunset (1950), and Behind the Ivy (1950).  His pieces for the Ithaca Journal ran under the heading "State and Tioga" from 1931 to 1956 and reflected his gentle humor and wry observations about rural life and human nature.

He was inducted into the Cornell Athletic Hall of Fame in 1980.

References

Cornell Big Red athletic directors
1881 births
1957 deaths
Cornell Law School alumni

Romeyn Berry


Transgender people are people who  identify or feel differently from their assigned sex at birth. It is considered a gender modality in which gender identity differs from the gender assigned at birth.

Definitions

The word "transgender" may describe many different people. People with different ideas about their genders may think of themselves as transgender. These people use different words to describe their gender. The term "trans people" is often used as a short version of "transgender people".

Some common definitions of the words used in this article are listed here:

 Anatomical (biological) sex means whether someone was born with a male or female body.
 Cisgender is an antonym of transgender and means a person who identifies as the gender they were assigned at birth
 Gender is the way masculinity and femininity are seen or used by all people, separate from anatomical sex.
 Gender expression is how a person behaves or acts in ways that affect how others might view them as being male or female.
 Gender identity is a person's sense in their mind of whether they are a man, woman, something else or neither (agender).
 The gender binary is the idea that a person must be either male or female and that there is no other gender other than those two.
 Gender role is society's view of how people should act because of their gender: men and women are expected to act in a certain way. Gender roles are often enforced by society through disapproval of cross-gender behavior: for example, if a male child wants a doll, he might be told that he is "acting like a girl". If a female child climbs a tree, she might be called a "tomboy".
Sexuality is usually grouped in with transgender topics, but it is still doesn't dictate whether someone is cisgender or transgender or vice versa. For example, a person can be heterosexual and trans at the same time.

These definitions are important to help understand that what people look like outside (sex) is not always the same as how they feel inside (gender). Some people do not fit into the gender binary.

Please note that transgender is best used as an adjective. Using the word as a noun can be considered offensive.

Types of transgender people

There are many subgroups of people who are included in the term transgender. Not all transgender people fit into these groups. Some of the big groups are:

 Transsexual – unlike the term 'transgender', this is a more specific term. It is an older word which existed in medical communities and is preferred to be used by people who seek to change their bodies (such as through surgery or hormones). Many people prefer the term "transgender" to "transsexual" and see "transsexual" as an offensive term as it used to refer to the identity as a disease, and clinicians are advised to only use the term "transsexual" if their client is okay with it.
 AFAB – means 'assigned female at birth.'
 AMAB – means 'assigned male at birth.'
 Transgender Woman - assigned male at birth (AMAB) but identifies as a woman. Also called a 'trans woman.'
 Transgender Man - assigned female at birth (AFAB) but identifies as a man. Also called a 'trans man.'
 Genderqueer – is someone who rejects the whole idea of a gender binary and may identify as a number of varied gender terms. This can sometimes be seen as a controversial word, since ''queer'' has been used as a slur in the past, even if it has mostly been reclaimed in recent times.  Genderqueer people may prefer to use the term "Non-Binary" to describe themselves, which is often shortened to "enby" (from spelling out the acronym "NB" phonetically).
  – a term for any person, binary or non-binary, who was assigned male at birth and has a predominantly feminine gender identity or presentation; transmasculine is the equivalent term for someone who was assigned female at birth and has a predominantly masculine gender identity or presentation.

The following groups of people are not necessarily transgender:
 Intersex - is a word for people who are born with both some male and some female biological traits.
 Cross-dresser – is commonly associated with transgender people but is unrelated. It's when female identified people dress to appear as a man, or male identified people dress to appear as a woman.
 Transvestite - This is considered to be offensive to most transgender people as "transvestites" will dress very masculine or feminine for sexual satisfaction.

History

People like those who, in modern Western societies, are now identified as transgender or transsexual, have been documented in many cultures and for thousands of years. However, only in the last century have science and medicine developed ways to change the bodies of trans people who want this.

People who have traits that are different from the sex they are born with, have been accepted in some societies, both historically and now. For example, some Native American tribes accepted two-spirit people. Similarly a Tongan person born with a male body who acts and dresses in a female way is known in the local dialect as a "fakaleiti".

The "hijra" in India are born physically male, but live as women, including dressing and socializing as female. In the past they used to castrate themselves and even remove the penis in order to urinate through a small hole. Now, with the arrival of western medicine, many hijari choose to take hormone therapies and sometimes have sex reassignment surgery. Many of these people still call themselves "hijra", but some now call themselves "transsexuals" or "transgender women". The role of hijari in society is complex and varied throughout all of India.

In Western Society, there have often been people who have chosen to act and dress in a way that was not gender specific, or was not that of the sex they were assigned at birth. This is not the same as being transgender. Cross dressing actors were very popular in the theatre of the late 19th century.

An example of a transgender person is the 19th century military surgeon who was known as James Barry. It is now believed that Barry was born female but disguised his sex all his adult life. Barry's work, which saved, and helped thousands of lives by improving treatment of wounds to stop amputations, would not have been possible, as a woman, because as a female he could never have attended medical school or entered the army.

A 20th century example of a transgender person is Jan Morris, a geographer, explorer and journalist, who began life as James Morris. As "James", Morris married and had children, but felt female and eventually became Jan Morris.

Issues
Transgender people are not accepted by all people and all societies. Transgender people suffer discrimination, violence, and even murder. Transgender people have fought and worked hard to get many rights and protections in some societies. In many places, the fight for transgender rights is associated with the fight for gay and bisexual rights. Together these groups are sometimes described by the acronym LGBT for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.

However, some transgender people do not want to be a part of the LGB (lesbian, gay and bisexual) community, as they may see themselves as heterosexual and not feel like they belong with gay or queer people, and some LGB people do not want to be a part of the transgender community, as they may be transphobic, which means that they may have a fear or dislike of transgender people, or they may not want heterosexuals to see sexuality and gender identity as the same thing. However, gay and transgender people often have some of the same problems in society, so many gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people try to work together to solve all of their problems.

Mental health

Many transgender people have mental health problems. A 2012 study of British transgender people found that 84% had considered suicide. 55% had been diagnosed with depression. 33% had not been diagnosed with depression, but thought that they had it in the past or at the time of the survey. 53% had self-harmed. 38% of had been diagnosed with anxiety. 31% were using antidepressants and 44% had used them at some time.
A study of 164 Irish transgender people found that 80% had considered suicide. 40% of those had attempted suicide at least once. 44% had self-harmed. The reason for these high numbers is often seen as a result of discrimination and social problems. Transgender youth sometimes hurt, injure or kill themselves because they are bullied by other people, or because they feel very unhappy having their body become an adult body that they do not want because they feel it is the wrong body. Some people (usually social conservatives) say the rates of self-harm and suicide are high because transgender people are mentally ill.

Some studies show that Transgender people have better mental health and commit suicide less often when they live as their preferred gender.

Medical care
Transgender people who want to take medicine and have surgery to change their bodies face several problems. In order to change their bodies, they must have doctors who will help them make the changes. Sometimes, they can not do this because doctors will not help them. They may also not be able to do this because even if a doctor would treat them, they may not be able to afford the medicine or surgery. But the Declaration of Montreal says that such medical care should be given to them by public health insurance.

Disease versus difference
Some people believe that being transgender is a disease, sometimes called gender identity disorder. Many transgender people do not like being labelled as having a disease, which they feel causes them to be seen and treated badly. Others believe that they should be labelled this way, because some governments and insurance companies will not pay for transgender people's medical treatment unless it is considered a disease. Also, In places that do not have laws that protect transgender people from discrimination, they may only be protected under laws that protect people with diseases or disabilities.

Doctors do not agree on one way of viewing being transgender. Some doctors view it as a birth defect that can easily be fixed, others may not even think that being transgender is a medical condition. Since May 25th, 2019, the World Health Organization does not see being transgender as a disease or mental health problem, asking many countries to comply as well. One of the international human rights laws of the Yogyakarta Principles (Principal 18), disagrees with any use of a medical disease label.

Violence
About 50% of transgender people have been sexually assaulted.

Legal problems
Transgender people have problems with laws and regulations about sex. To be seen and treated as the sex they wish, transgender people usually have to change their first name. (Though some names are unisex, which means that they can be used by both men and women, transgender people with a unisex name may still want to change their name, though this is not always the case.) They also may want to change their identity documents to say the correct sex. For example, a transgender woman may wish to change her birth certificate or driving license to say her new female name and to say that she is a female.

These changes can protect transgender people from discrimination. For example, transgender people often have a hard time traveling because they may look like one sex but have another on their papers. These changes can also be needed for transgender people to be allowed to marry their spouses in places where it is illegal for people of the same sex to marry. These changes can even protect transgender people from a wide variety of violence. Some transgender people are only recognized when their documents reveal them. Being revealed as transgender can put people in danger because of transphobia (fear and/or hatred of transgender people).

In many places, it is hard or not possible for transgender people to change their legal sex, with or without having genital surgery, which is required in many places. This is against the Yogyakarta Principles. This is changing, however. The United Kingdom passed the Gender Recognition Act of 2004. This act allows people to have their change of sex officially recognized without surgery. Once changed, they legally become their new sex.

References

Transgender


Pacific Palms is small coastal locality in the Mid North Coast region of New South Wales (NSW), Australia, in the Mid-Coast Council local government area.

The locality is bounded by Smiths Lake to the south and Booti Booti National Park to the north. It includes the villages of Charlotte Bay, Smiths Lake, Blueys Beach, Elizabeth Beach, Boomerang Beach and Tiona. In 2006 the population was 673.

Pacific Palms' major industry is tourism, with the locality attracting thousands of visitors every year. It is home to Booti Booti National Park.

A major attraction for visitors is the Green Cathedral at the north end of Pacific Palms. This outdoor cathedral is in a cabbage tree forest overlooking Wallis Lake. Blueys and Boomerang Beach are known for their beauty and surfing. Hiking trails and secluded beaches are also some of the attractions of the area.

References

Suburbs of Mid-Coast Council
Coastal towns in New South Wales

Pacific Palms, New South Wales


Ist () is a small island off the Dalmatian coast of Croatia. The closest city to Ist is Zadar. The island has an area of 9.65 km2. Ist is located between the islands of Škarda and Molat.

The entire island has a permanent population of 182. During the past 50 years it has witnessed a slow depopulation which has halved its number of inhabitants. The Croatian Government is attempting to attract people to the island through its National Programme of Islands' Development as well as economic revival (which could result in the construction of a bridge to nearby Molat). Recently the island has benefited from the development of tourism.

In World War II, the Battle of Ist was a naval engagement off Ist on 29 February 1944.  The engagement was fought between Free French navy destroyers and a Kriegsmarine force of two corvettes, two torpedo boats and three minesweepers which were protecting a freighter.  The French managed to destroy the German freighter and a corvette without losses of their own before withdrawing.

See also
Croatia
Dalmatia

References

External links
Socio-Geographic Transformation of Ist Island, Croatia

Islands of Croatia
Islands of the Adriatic Sea
Populated places in Zadar County
Landforms of Zadar County

Ist (island)


Donatyre is a village in the district of Avenches of the Canton of Vaud, Switzerland. Since losing its status as an independent municipality on 1 July 2006, it has been part of the municipality of Avenches.

The village, which follows the old Roman wall of Aventicum, contains a chapel dedicated to Saint Thecla.

References

Villages in the canton of Vaud
Former municipalities of the canton of Vaud

Donatyre


Voltage droop is the intentional loss in output voltage from a device as it drives a load. Adding droop in a voltage regulation circuit increases the headroom for load transients.

All electrical systems have some amount of resistance between the regulator output and the load. At high currents, even a small resistance results in substantial voltage drop between the regulator and the load. Conversely, when the output current is (near) zero, the voltage at the load is higher. This follows from Ohm's law.

Rather than increasing output voltage at high current to try to maintain the same load voltage, droop instead simply allows this drop to take place and designs around it. The behaviour of the system with and without droop is as follows:

In a regulator not employing droop, when the load is suddenly increased very rapidly (i.e. a transient), the output voltage will momentarily sag. Conversely, when a heavy load is suddenly disconnected, the voltage will show a peak. The output decoupling capacitors have to "absorb" these transients before the control loop has a chance to compensate. A diagram of such transients is shown below. The maximum allowed voltage swing in such a transient is .

Comparing this to a regulator with droop, we find that the maximum allowed swing has doubled: it is now . This increased tolerance to transients allows us to decrease the number of output capacitors, or get better regulation with the same number of capacitors.

References

https://www.firgelliauto.com/blogs/news/voltage-drop-calculator Firgelli application note]
Speed Droop and Power Generation. Application Note 01302. Woodward Governor Company (2004).
Intersil Application Note 1021 (June 2002)

Electrical parameters
Droop

Voltage droop


Medea Clytemnestra Strong-In-The-Arm Lindenshield  is a fictional character and the chief antagonist from  Stuart Hill's fantasy trilogy of books called The Icemark Chronicles. She appears in a major role in both Blade of Fire and Last Battle of the Icemark. She does not appear in The Cry of the Icemark as it is set 20 years previously to the other novels.

Plot

Overview
Medea is the second youngest child (youngest daughter) of Queen Thirrin and Oskan Witchfather.  Her full name is Medea Clytemnestra Strong-In-The-Arm Lindenshield. She is 15 years old. She has an elder sister, Crown Princess Cressida (17), a pair of elder twin brothers, Cerdic and Eodred (16) and a younger brother, Charlemagne (14). She is part of the royal family of the Icemark and is a princess. She is a descendant of the Wise Ones (the fallen immortal spirits and angels banished from the spirit realms to the Darkness).

Blade of Fire
Medea is looking out of her window from her tower room and brooding over the fact that her parents, who are marching home from The Ice Troll Wars will greet the rest of the family before her. She has a memory about how when she was sharing a nursery with Sharley when she was younger Sharley had broken a toy horse. She had fixed it for him, using magic, before making him tearfully watch as she broke it again. Throughout the course of the book, it is revealed that she is deeply jealous of her younger brother because of the attention and love he receives because of his withered leg that resulted from his bout with polio.

Medea tries to get Sharley killed by magically having a Greyling Bear attack him while hunting.

Oskan passes on his magic abilities by teaching Medea, as she is the only inheritor of his gifts. But Oskan is worried that Medea is drawn to The Circle Of Dark, the most dangerous plain of the Spirit Realms. Medea tries to kill Sharley by creating a magical storm when he sent away from The Icemark.

Oskan takes Medea on a diplomatic mission to The Land-of-the-Ghosts. While there Oskan reveals the true evil nature of the Dark to Medea and that his father lives in the realm. Medea is disappointed when she discovers that she can't access the Dark through the Vampiric Majesties.

Back home Medea spells the minds of the Icemarks' command and starts poisoning the family from within so they walk into a trap by The Polypontian forces. She does this in retaliation for her brother Cerdic being mean to her. Cerdic dies in the battle. This is when Medea decides to become evil and walk the paths of The Dark.

Cressida tries to get Medea to help with the war but to no avail. This is when she discovers Cressida is immune to magic so she cannot harm her.

When Sharley returns to the Icemark with an army to help her invaded country she tries to kill him by possessing Mekhmet but is defeated with the help of the Blessed Women. Then she tries to kill him with magically drawn lightning from the sky. Oskan deflects this back at her and banishes her to The Circle Of Dark.

Last Battle of the Icemark
Medea returns two years later where she has survived the torments of the Darkness and joins forces with Cronus, the Arc-Adept of The Darkness.

In order to obtain her right to be considered part of the Dark realm Medea has to do battle with the six adepts were banished from Paradise with Cronus (a character based on Lucifer). Medea defeats them in a magical battle.

Medea lures Sharley, Kirimin and Mekhmet into The Plain Of Desolation. While they are trapped there she tries to kill them numerous times using methods such as Elephantas, Trolls on bridges and ghosts. She has a battle with her father in spirit form there.

Oskan confronts Medea in The Darkness and they have a magical battle. Just as Oskan is about to destroy Medea's powers, Orla distracts Oskan allowing Medea to burn Oskan to the bone. Cressida comes and manages to wound Medea because she is immune to magic. With Medea wounded Oskan then rescues Sharley, Mekhmet and Kirimin from The Plain Of Desolation.

Medea casts aside her physical form and becomes a being of pure spirit and literally immortal.

While The Icemark is distracted with battle with Erinor and her Hordes in Romula, Medea and Cronus along with an army of Ice Demons invade the Icemark. The Vampire Queen and her army hold them at bay until Oskan and the witches transport the allied forced of The Icemark and Polypopntus back. While the allies defeat the Ice Demons. Oskan battles Medea and Cronus. Oskan is killed by the two of them but because there is a loophole that if one adept kills another they love they must pay the appointed cost and so they suffer dissolution.

Appearance
Medea is described as small and slender. She is portrayed as beautiful. She has long black hair, deathly pale skin and black pupilless eyes. She wears long-sleeved dresses.

Personality
Medea has an odd personality. Medea is a vindictive, selfish girl who resents her siblings and sees them as having more of her parents' love then herself.  She is dark, cold-hearted and mysterious. She is mainly quiet but is intelligent and cunning. She is detached from everyone and feels no compassion for anyone or anything. She has no friends and never wishes to socialise with her family. She prefers to spend her time locked in her tower room where she feels safest. When she does join her family she is locked in a deep and brooding silence. She blames her family for her loneliness. She has great trouble communicating her needs and her feelings. She chooses to become evil rather than good as those with magical ability inherited from the Old Ones must make that choice. She thinks that she is misunderstood and blames others for her own evil nature.

Character Origins
As with a lot of Stuart Hill characters, Medea is based upon a character from history. She is based upon Medea from Greek mythology who was a cunning, evil sorceress.
Her middle name of Clytemnestra, as with her forename is based on another character from a Greek tragedy. It also bears a heavy resemblance to Thirrin's late aunt Elemnestra.
Her surname Lindenshield is named after a Viking shield made of linden wood.

Abilities
Medea's magical ability is first discovered when she is a child. It is weak at first and merely consists of predicting what they will have for dinner and making a mouse materialise across her bed but by 14 her powers have grown strong.

Medea has the ability to manipulate matter and create lifeforms from it.

Medea is a talented weather witch. She can create storms and draw lightning from the skies. She counters the lightning so it doesn't burn her with a blood-freezing arctic cold.

She also has a far-seeing ability allowing her to see across the ocean though it is limited. Her far-seeing is a lot stronger than her father's that can barely make it to the eaves of the forest.

She has mind-shielding ability that is second to none.

She also has the power of possession and the ability to travel in the Spirit Realm in spirit form.

In Last Battle Of The Icemark her abilities are almost limitless. The most notable addition to her armoury is the ability to shapeshift. She does this three times; once into Cronus, once into a Fire Wraith and once into a giant eagle. She also has acquired the ability to freeze time.

References

The Icemark Chronicles
Works about Medea

Medea (The Icemark Chronicles)


Justus Velsius, Haganus, or Joost Welsens in Dutch (c. 1510, The Hague, Low Countries – after 1581 at an unknown location), was a Dutch humanist, physician, and mathematician.

Velsius started his career as a highly respected professor of liberal arts in Leuven, Strasbourg, and Cologne. Later on he portrayed himself as a prophet, and promoted his own particular view of Christianity, outlined in a pamphlet "Christiani Hominis Norma" which he wrote in London. He came into conflict with civil and ecclesiastical authorities all over Europe, and spent his final years as a preacher and faith healer in his native Holland. While in Cologne Velsius was married to Beatrix van Steenhoven, and later on, in Groningen, to Grete Cassens.

Life

After studying arts and medicine in Bologna, Velsius graduated as doctor medicinae in 1538 and settled down as physician in Antwerp, 1540/41. In 1541 he moved to Leuven, where he met Portuguese humanist Damião de Góis, and maintained friendly relations with Vesalius. Even though Velsius did not have a university position he held public lectures in Greek, Latin, philosophy and mathematics. In 1544 he proposed a course on Trebizond's Dialectica. The authorities balked, and in the ensuing controversy they forced Velsius, whose theological purity was suspect, out of the university. In 1542 he had failed in his bid to succeed Nannius, and he moved to Strasbourg in 1544 at the recommendation of Bucer, after a short teaching stint at the Marburg Latin School and possibly in Basel.

Strasbourg
From Easter 1544-50 Velsius taught dialectic and Aristotelian ethics in the higher grades of the gymnasium in Strasbourg, as a co-worker of Johannes Sturm. On 17 November 1545 he received a canonicate at St. Thomas collegiate church, through the mediation of Bucer. Sometime before 17 October 1548 he married Beatrix van Steenhoven. When Velsius got in trouble because he accepted the Interim and the resulting conflict with his Protestant colleagues, he moved to Cologne in the spring of 1550; he probably only gave up his Strasbourg canonicate in 1553.

Cologne: prosecuted by the Inquisition
Velsius matriculated at Cologne on 3 June 1550. The Council of Cologne wanted to build a Trilingual school following the example of the University of Leuven, and appointed Velsius professor of philosophy and Greek, in August 1550. Since Velsius was married, he could not obtain a university prebend, but was instead remunerated by the council. His compensation was increased in 1551 and 1552, and he was charged with teaching mathematics as well. Velsius and his colleague Jakob Leichius, who was instrumental in establishing the Gymnasium Tricoronatum, drafted guidelines for a curriculum of eight grades, similar to Sturm's humanistic curriculum in Strasbourg.

Velsius attended the meetings of the Anabaptists in the Bookbinder's Guildhall at the Pfaffengasse, where he met Anabaptist martyr Thomas von Imbroich. Velsius' philosophical writings, in particular the work of Krisis led to suspicion of heresy. On 29 October 1554 Krisis was condemned by Cologne University, and Velsius' teaching license revoked (11 December 1554, confirmed 29 March 1555), since he did not distance himself from his writing. Emperor Charles V, who had become involved at the instigation of the cathedral chapter, the clergy and the university, urged the council in vain to take action against Velsius, who on 25 March 1555 had published a defense, Epistola ad Ferdinandum. Only after Velsius attempted to give theological lectures at his home, and rejected the Eucharistic adoration and celibacy, did the magistrate banish him in April 1555.

Velsius refused to leave, and went voluntarily in detention, from December 1555 to the end of March 1556. He asked his influential friend Viglius to support him, but Viglius declined to get involved. Greatly offended by this refusal, Velsius apparently accused his friend of Protestant leanings, and severed all connections with his former friend. Because of this precedent the council adopted in 1555 a comprehensive directive against all heretics.

The Dominican Johannes Slotanus served as papal inquisitor for the Ecclesiastical province of Mainz, Cologne and Trier against Velsius and three other imprisoned people, whom he described as Anabaptists. The Protestant Princes intervened at the council on his behalf, in particular Christoph von Oldenburg. Since in December 1555 he had declared to adhere to the Augsburg Confession, Velsius was protected by the recently concluded Peace of Augsburg. On the night of 26 to 27 March 1556 he was taken by boat across the river and put ashore on the other side, in the Duchy of Berg. From there he made it to Mülheim, where he wrote Apologia, addressed to the Emperor Charles and King Ferdinand. Slotanus replied in 1557 with the Apologia JV Hagani Confutatio. In response Velsius wrote in September 1557 the Epistolae. 1558 followed Slotanus' Disputationes adversus haereticos liber unus.

Frankfurt: disputation with Calvin
 Velsius arrived in Frankfurt on 15 July 1556, approached Robert Horne, pastor of the English Church, and informed him of the revelations on which he wished to conduct a public dispute. Hearing of the arrival of Calvin, who came to arbitrate conflicts within the French Refugee Church, he offered the latter to preside. He proposed to defend the free will against the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. The debate with Calvin, Johannes à Lasco and Horne lasted two days; Velsius' argument boiled down to this: aut esse liberum arbitrium, aut Deum tyrannum esse (Either there is free will, or God is a tyrant).

In a letter addressed to Melanchthon, dated 17 September 1556, Calvin commented as follows:
I have been dragged hither by the dissensions with which Satan has rent, for nearly two years, the little French church established here, and reduced to such extremities that it must have disappeared, unless some remedy had been very promptly applied. Since I entered the town I have not had a moment's repose, and as if I had not had sufficient occupation in this affair, a madman called Velsius, to whom you had written twice, involved us in new fooleries. But we have devoted only two days to this importunity. I am continually distracted up to this moment, in appeasing those dissentions which, from the long lapse of time, have struck deep root.
On 15 April 1557 Velsius was expelled by the Council of Frankfurt.

Heidelberg: trouble with the Kurfürst
On 5 August 1557 Velsius matriculated at Heidelberg, and obtained a license to give public lectures in philosophy. In June 1558 this license was revoked by the Senate of the University at the orders of Kurfürst Ottheinrich because he spread theses that were against the Holy Scriptures. Velsius attacked the pastor of the Heiliggeistkirche, Johann Flinner, on his position on the Eucharist, sent him a series of theses on new birth and free will, and accused the pastor of being a false apostle and misleader of the prince and people. In November 1559 he was also disallowed to give private lectures, after intervention of Kurfürst Friedrich III, and was expelled by the Senate of the University. Velsius shook the dust off his shoes as he left.

In 1560 Velsius was back in Frankfurt. He asked the council for permission to have a book printed he had written die Summa christlicher Lehre und Lebens (The Summary of Christian Doctrine and Life). The council referred his request to the Lutheran pastors, who on 2 August 1560 reported back that his book contained theses that were against orthodox doctrine. They also expressed concern that these doctrines could lead to unrest in the foreign churches in the city, as had happened in Münster. On 18 March 1561 the council ordered Velsius to leave the city, since he had his book printed without permission. The innkeeper where he was boarding, Hansen Braun, was told to no longer allow him to stay in his house.

In May 1561 Velsius was in Strasbourg. He wrote to Flinner (who had returned from Heidelberg) and the preachers, and to the council as well, submitting 20 propositions, probably the same ones as he announced in Heidelberg and in Frankfurt. These were not accepted, since they disagreed with the catechism then in use in Strasbourg.

A month later, in June 1561, Velsius was in Basel. He was luckier there, at least he could count on Sebastian Castellio, with whom he had corresponded before, and advocates of tolerance such as Cellarius and Celio Secondo Curione. He submitted a summary to the Council of the University, who considered it on 16 June. The council forwarded it to the Faculty of Theology, since it was outside their area of expertise. Cellarius proposed a number of theses for an academic disputation, but Velsius declined after the council had refused a public debate.

On 25 June Velsius departed for Zürich, where he arrived the next day. He wrote to the council, and Bullinger responded on behalf of the council, pointing out that his criticism didn't apply since it was directed at Luther and at the Roman Catholic Church. On 4 July Velsius had left town.

On 1 August Velsius was back in Heidelberg, where he wrote a last time to Bonifacius Amerbach and to Johannes Sturm. He matriculated in Marburg at the end of August 1561, where he lectured at the medical school. However, he remained only a few months in Marburg.

London: more religious turmoil
In 1563, Velsius had crossed the Channel to England where he joined the Dutch Church in London. Again he sought controversy, this time with Nicolaus Carinaeus, the minister of the Dutch refugee church, who had died from the plague in September 1563. Carinaeus had explained his thoughts about regeneration through Christ. Velsius opposed him publicly developing at length his idea that the perfection of Adam could be reached on earth after inner rebirth had taken place in the individual. Velsius wrote a summary of his religion Christiani Hominis Norma (The Rule of a Christian Man), in which he explained his notion that through regeneration man could become God-in-man, like Christ. He sent copies of this pamphlet to the Bishop of London Edmund Grindal, to Secretary of State William Cecil, and to Queen Elizabeth.  He also wrote a letter to the French Ambassador denouncing the vengeance of God on all who refused to receive his propositions. In his letter to the Queen, Velsius claimed to have confirmed his calling by performing miracles. The servant to the ambassador, Cosmus, fasted five or six days by Velsius' persuasion that after his abstinence he might receive illuminations a cœlo. According to Grindal in the end he fell mad, so neither of those miracles stood the test of further investigation. Bishop Grindal wrote a rebuttal, showing that Velsius' teachings were against orthodox doctrine. Velsius was summoned before the ecclesiastical commission, consisting of Bishop Grindal, the Bishop of Winchester Robert Horne, and the Dean of St. Paul's Alexander Nowell, who had a frank discussion with him, and charged him in the Queen's name to leave the kingdom. This he complained of in very rude words to the Queen, and predicted the death of the bishop of Winchester and other important public figures.

Groningen: imprisonment
Velsius returned to his native Holland, in April 1566 he was Groningen. In 1574 he was in prison there, presumably because of religious reasons. The authorities felt sorry for him, because he was an elderly gentleman, and apparently depressed. They therefore proposed to release him, also because of the hardship imprisonment caused him and his wife Grete Cassens, as they had to provide for his own cost of living. The proposal was considered by the Stadtholder de Robles, who had a conversation with Velsius, and referred it to the bishop, who charged the dean of the cathedral to look into it. On 24 August 1574 the bishop endorsed Velsius' release. However, Velsius refused to leave prison, because he only wanted to be released by God's grace, not by human intervention. This unusual situation lasted until May 1575, when de Robles required the jail to be vacated, since the adjacent castle had to be strengthened and readied for the garrison.

Holland: faith healer
In April 1570 he was again in Cologne and then traveled through the Netherlands as a Protestant preacher. In 1578, 1580 and 1581, he was in Leiden.

Work
Velsius published the Greek text of Proclus's De Motu (On Motion), along with a Latin translation.

Theology
Justus Velsius is interesting because his life reflects so well the unsettled intellectual conditions of 16th-century Europe. His theological profile in the religious landscape is not clearly defined: first, he did not agree with Luther's dogma of "sola fide" and instead held on to the free will of man; on the other hand, he supported the Lutheran Eucharist and rejected transubstantiation. Also, Velsius cannot be identified as Anabaptist, and is distinct from Spiritualism. What sets Velsius apart is that he taught justification by new birth, not by forgiveness of sins. He thought of himself as a messenger of God, sent to warn people for eternal damnation, and claimed to be able to confirm his teachings by miracles.

It has been suggested that Velsius may have known Servetus, since both were close to Vesalius. Velsius' position about predestination is reminiscent of Servetus', and it is noteworthy that the Calvin-Velsius disputation on this subject took place less than three years after Servetus was executed outside Geneva. Rembert suggests that Velsius may have known Flemish Anabaptist religious reformer Johann Campanus, or at the very least that they were aware of each other's work.

Velsius' teachings appear to be related to those of the Family of Love. Velsius was a contemporary of Hendrik Niclaes, the founder of the Family of Love, and it seems likely that they may have known each other.

Selected works

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

1510 births
1581 deaths
Antitrinitarians
Christian radicals
Dutch Anabaptists
16th-century Dutch mathematicians
16th-century Dutch physicians
Dutch educators
Dutch Protestants
Dutch Renaissance humanists
Dutch Protestant theologians
Faith healers
People convicted of heresy
Physicians from The Hague
Prophets
People of the Protestant Reformation
16th-century writers in Latin
University of Bologna alumni
Academic staff of the Old University of Leuven
Academic staff of the University of Cologne
Academic staff of the University of Strasbourg
16th-century Protestant theologians

Justus Velsius


Moldovenism is a term used to refer to the political support and promotion of a Moldovan identity and culture, including a Moldovan language, independent from those of any other ethnic group, the Romanians in particular. It is primarily used as a pejorative by the opponents of such ideas as part of the wider controversy over ethnic and linguistic identity in Moldova.

Some of its supporters ascribe this identity to the medieval Principality of Moldavia. Others, in order to explain the current differences between Romanian-speaking inhabitants of the two banks of the Prut River, ascribe it to the long incorporation of Bessarabia in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. The opponents, on the contrary, claim that Moldovans and Romanians are a single ethnic group and that the Moldovan identity was artificially created by the Soviet authorities in the Moldavian SSR.

Supporters of a separate Moldovan identity contend that the people of Moldavia historically self-identified as "Moldavian" before the notion of "Romanian" became widespread. The belief that Romanians and Moldovans in Bessarabia and the Moldavian ASSR (MASSR) formed two separate ethnonational groups, speaking different languages and possessing separate historical and cultural traits was also endorsed by the Soviet Union.

Historical development

Creation of Moldavian ASSR
In 1812 the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), by which Russia annexed the eastern part of the medieval Principality of Moldavia. This territory became known as Bessarabia. Between 1859 and 1866, Principality of Moldavia and the neighbouring Principality of Wallachia united into a single country called Romania. In 1917, when the Russian Empire was disintegrating, a Moldavian Democratic Republic was formed in Bessarabia. In 1918, after the Romanian army gained control of the region, Sfatul Țării proclaimed the independence of the Moldavian Republic and, later, voted for the union with Romania. Soviet Russia contested the outcome of these events and, in May 1919, proclaimed the Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic as a government in exile. After the Soviet-organized Tatarbunary Uprising failed, in 1924 a Moldavian ASSR (MASSR) was created within the Ukrainian SSR, just east of the river Dniester that then marked the boundary between the Kingdom of Romania and the Soviet Union.

For the purpose of giving MASSR its own identity separate from Romania, Soviet authorities declared the variety spoken by the majority of Moldavians to be "Moldavian language". The intellectual elites of the MASSR were asked to standardise a Moldovan literary language based on the local dialects of MASSR, which are similar to Romanian.

Until the 1920s the Russians did not argue that Moldovans and their neighbors in the Romanian Principalities somehow formed nations. One observer wrote in 1846 in the journal of the Russian foreign ministry that "the inhabitants of upper Bessarabia are essentially Romanians, that is, a mixture of Slavs and Romans, and sons of the Greek Orthodox Church". In May 1917, at a congress of Bessarabian teachers, a group protested against being called "Romanians", affirming they were "Moldovans".

Representatives of the Romanian-speaking population living in Podolia, and Kherson participated in the Bessarabian national movement in 1917 and early 1918, agitating for incorporation of the territory across Dniester into the Greater Romanian Kingdom. The Romanian government never took significant interest in these demands, which would have implied large-scale military operations, and settled in the end to leave behind those areas, which became part of Soviet Ukraine after the Russian Civil War. The calls from Transnistrian émigrés continued into the 1920s asking for Romania to fund schools in the region as there were schools and cultural organizations in regions inhabited by speakers of cognate Latin languages in the Balkans. Refugees flooded across the Dniester and special funds were put aside for housing and education.

Nichita Smochină, an educator settled in Paris, founded the Associations of Transnistrian Romanians in order to assist 20,000 refugees from across the Dniester, and welcomed the creation of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Republic.

Pavel Chior, the MASSR People's Commissar of Education, argued that literary Romanian borrowed too many French language words during its standardization in the 19th century. According to Chior, this made it incomprehensible to the peasants both in the MASSR and Romania, demonstrating the division between the "ruling class" and the "exploited class". Soviet linguist M. V. Sergievsky studied linguistic variation in the MASSR and identified two dialects. One, similar to the spoken variety in Bessarabia, was chosen as the standard, to pave the way for the "liberation of the Bessarabians". Gabriel Buciușcanu, a Socialist Revolutionary member of Sfatul Țării who opposed the union with Romania, wrote a new grammar compendium in 1925, but it was considered too similar to standard Romanian grammar, and was quickly pulled out of circulation.

Romanizators and autochthonists

In the 1920s, there was a dispute among the Soviet linguists between supporters ("Romanizators" or "Romanists") and opponents ("autochthonists", Russian: самобытники) of the convergence of the Moldavian and Romanian.

The "autochthonists" strove to base the literary Moldovan on local dialects from the left bank of the Dniester. Neologisms, mostly from Russian, were created to cover technical areas that had no native equivalent.

Then in February 1932, communists in the MASSR received a directive from the Communist Party of Ukraine to switch Moldovan writing to the Latin alphabet. This was part of the massive Latinization campaign of minority languages in the USSR, based on the theory of Soviet linguist Nikolai Marr postulating the convergence to a single world language, expected to be a means of communication in the future classless society (Communism). This directive was passively sabotaged by the "autochthonist" majority, until Stanislav Kosior (General Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party) and several MASSR communists visited Joseph Stalin — who reportedly insisted on faster Latinization with the ultimate goal of the convergence of Moldavian and Romanian cultures, hinting at the possibility of a future reunion of Moldova and Romania within the Soviet state. Nevertheless, resistance to Romanization among communist activists persisted, and after 1933, a number of prominent "autochthonists" were repressed, their books destroyed, and their neologisms banned.

Moldovans in Soviet Moldova
In June 1940 Bessarabia was occupied by the Soviet Union. Most of Bessarabia and about half of the MASSR were merged into a newly created Moldavian SSR, which became the fifteenth union republic of the USSR. A year later, in June 1941, Romania attacked the Soviet Union as part of Operation Barbarossa and retook Bessarabia (see Operation München). Between 1941 and 1944, Romania also occupied the territory between the Dniester and Bug rivers (historic Transnistria). By August 1944 the Soviets had taken back all the territories they lost in 1941, which remained in the Soviet Union until the latter's dissolution in 1991.

During the first years of Soviet occupation, the term "Romanian language" was forbidden. The official language for use in Moldovan schools throughout the entire MSSR (both in Bessarabia and Transnistria) during Stalinist period was based on a local variety spoken in some areas of the former MASSR. The Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Moldova is assessing this period.

In 1956, during the Nikita Khrushchev's rehabilitation of the victims of Stalinist repressions, a special report was issued about the state of the Moldavian language. The report stated, in part, that the discussions of 1920-30s between the two tendencies had been mostly non-scientific, since there were very few linguists in the republic; and that the grammar and the basic lexicon of the literary Romanian and Moldovan languages are identical, while differences are secondary and nonessential. Because the political situation in the People's Republic of Romania was now pro-Soviet, the planned convergence of the Romanian and Moldovan languages was once again approved.

During the entire period of Soviet rule, Moldovan speakers were encouraged to learn the Russian language as a prerequisite for access to higher education, social status and political power. Transfers of territory and population movements, including deportations of locals and state-encouraged immigration from the rest of the USSR, shifted the ethnic and linguistic makeup of the republic. By the late 1970s, the number of Russian speakers in the Moldavian SSR had greatly increased. These changes contributed to the proliferation of Russian loanwords in the spoken Moldovan.

While some Soviet linguists continued to deny the existence of a distinct Moldovan language, a new generation of Soviet linguists revived the debate in the 1970s. For example, one linguist, Iliașenco, compared the Romanian and Moldovan translations of a Leonid Brezhnev speech from Russian and used them as a proof for the existence of two different languages. Mikhail Bruchis analysed this claim, and noticed that all the words of both translations are found in both dictionaries. Also, Iliașenco implied that "Moldovan" preferred synthetic syntagms, while "Romanian" preferred analytic ones. However, this claim was also proven wrong, as a book of Nicolae Ceaușescu (the political leader of Romania at the time) uses mostly "Moldovan" synthetic syntagms, while a book by Ivan Bodiul (the secretary of the Moldavian SSR) uses mostly "Romanian" analytic syntagms. Bruchis' conclusion was that both translations were within the limits of the Romanian language.

Debates in independent Moldova
The debate surrounding the ethnicity of Moldovans has resurfaced after the collapse of the USSR. One side, rallying many prominent Moldovan intellectuals, such as Grigore Vieru, Eugen Doga or Constantin Tănase, argues that Moldovans have always been Romanians, even if the modern history separated them from the rest of Romanians. Moldovenism is thus regarded as a Soviet attempt to create an artificial nationality with the goal of ethnic assimilation of Romanians living in the Soviet Union. The other side emphasizes the distinctiveness of Moldovans such as Moldovan historian and politician Victor Stepaniuc states that Moldovans have always been different from Romanians. Some claim that, for Bessarabian Moldovans, the long isolation from the rest of Romanians (between 1812–1918, after 1940) was "more than ample time [...] to develop [their] own separate national identity".

After collaborating for several years with the Pan-Romanian Popular Front of Moldova, acting president Mircea Snegur moved close to the Agrarian Party of Moldova, a strong supporter of the Moldovan identity. During his visit to Bucharest in February 1991, he talked about "Romanians on both banks of the Prut River", however, during the presidential campaign in 1994, Snegur stressed in the speech Our Home the existence of a distinct Moldovan nation as the foundation of the state. The speech was immediately condemned by the intellectuals. Representatives of The Writers' Union, the Institute of Linguistics, the Institute of History, Chișinău State University, and other institutions declared the speech an affront to the true identity of the republic's ethnic majority and an attempt to further "an invention of the Communist regime" by erecting a "barrier to authentic Romanian culture". Nevertheless, Snegur's stance helped the Agrarian Party of Moldova win an absolute majority in the Parliament.

Moldovan self-consciousness
A poll conducted in the Republic of Moldova by IMAS-Inc Chișinău in October 2009 presented a detailed picture. The respondents were asked to rate the relationship between the identity of Moldovans and that of Romanians on a scale between 1 (entirely the same) to 5 (completely different). The poll showed that 26% of the entire sample, which included all ethnic groups, claimed the two identities were the same or very similar, whereas 47% claimed they were different or entirely different. The results varied significantly among different categories of subjects. For instance, while 33% of the young respondents (ages 18–29) chose the same or very similar and 44% different or very different, among the senior respondents (aged over 60) the corresponding figures were 18.5% and 53%. The proportion of those who chose the same or very similar identity was higher than the average among the native speakers of Romanian/Moldovan (30%), among the urban dwellers (30%), among those with higher education (36%), and among the residents of the capital city (42%).

According to a study conducted in the Republic of Moldova in May 1998, when the self-declared Moldovans were asked to relate the Romanian and Moldovan identities, 55% considered them somewhat different, 26% very different and less than 5% identical.

A survey carried out in the Republic of Moldova by William Crowther in 1992 showed that 87% of the Romanian/Moldovan speakers chose to identify themselves as "Moldovans", rather than "Romanians".

The 2004 census results reported that out of the 3,383,332 people living in Moldova (without Transnistria), 75.81% declared themselves Moldovans and only 2.17% Romanians. A group of international observers considered the census was generally conducted in a professional manner, although they reported several cases when enumerators encouraged respondents to declare themselves Moldovans rather than Romanians.

The 2014 census results reported that out of the 2,998,235 people living in Moldova (without Transnistria), 75.1% declared themselves Moldovans and 7.0% Romanians. The information about the language they usually speak indicate that 54.6% consider the language to be Moldovan and 24.0% consider it to be Romanian.

Political impacts
On 19 December 2003, the Moldovan Parliament, dominated by the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova, adopted a non-judicial political document called "The Concept of National Policy of the Republic of Moldova". The document claims that:
 there are two different peoples (Romanians and Moldovans) that share a common literary language. "Sharing their source, having a common basic lexical foundation, the national Moldovan language and the national Romanian language each preserve their language name as an identifier of every nation: Moldovan and Romanian."
 Romanians are an ethnic minority in Moldova.
 the Republic of Moldova is the rightful successor of the medieval Principality of Moldova.

This document faced criticism in Moldova as being "anti-European" and contradicting the Constitution which states that "no ideology may be adopted as official state ideology".

Moldovan historian Gheorghe E. Cojocaru, in his book Cominternul si originile Moldovenismului, claims that "Moldovenism" and its dissemination among the Romance speakers living east of the Prut are of Soviet origin. On the occasion, Moldovan politician and historian Alexandru Moșanu claimed that "The Moldovenist ideology appeared as a policy of ethnic assimilation of the Romanians from Transnistria, then from the entire space of the former Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. And now from the Republic of Moldova." On 22 January 2010, the Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs launched the book in Bucharest. At the release of the book, the Foreign Minister of Romania Teodor Baconschi said:

Marian Lupu, leader of the Democratic Party of Moldova and a well-known Moldovenist, rebuked him, declaring:

See also
 Dicționar moldovenesc-românesc
 Greater Moldova
 Moldovan language
 Unification of Romania and Moldova

References

 Argentina Gribincea, Mihai Grecu Moldova: Situation analysis and trend assessment  commissioned by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, October 2004
 Grenoble, Lenore A (2003) Language Policy in the Soviet Union, Springer,
 M. Bărbulescu, D. Deletant, K. Hitchins, S. Papacostea, P. Teodor - Istoria României. Ed. Corint, 2004,

Further reading
 Argentina Gribincea Moldovenism: the State Ideology of the Republic of Moldova
 Monica Heintz Republic of Moldova versus Romania: The Cold Var of National Identities
 Argentina Gribincea Moldovenisti pentru linistea expansionismului rusesc sau cautatori de sine
 Evocare Eugeniu Coşeriu (22)  Contrafort, October-November 2003
 Constitutional Watch A country-by-country update on constitutional politics in Eastern Europe and the ex-USSR, Summer 2002
 Constitutional Watch A country-by-country update on constitutional politics in Eastern Europe and the ex-USSR, Winter 2002/Spring 2003
 "Moldovan-Romanian Dictionary" by Former Communist Deputy Available for Sale July 29 2003
 Marian Enache, Dorin Cimpoiesu Misiune diplomatica in Moldova 1993-1997, Bucharest, Polirom, 2000
 Eugen Holban - Dreptul la adevar  Observatorul, Wednesday, Dec 20, 2006
 Mai multe literaturi, o limbă, mai multe limbi, o literatură. A treia Conferinţă internaţională a Centrului PEN Român, Iaşi, 21-23 aprilie 2000
 Matthew H. Ciscel (2007) The Language of the Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and Identity in an Ex-Soviet Republic",  - About the identity of the contemporary Moldovans in the context of debates about their language.
 Translation of Russian loans and irregularities of the spoken language in the Republic of Moldova by Eleonora Rusnac, President, Association of Professional Translators of Moldova.
 George Damian - Efectele moldovenismului si strategia regionala a Ucrainei  Ziua Veche, Friday, Mar 26, 2010
 About Moldovan/Romanian language and identity see also, in French, Nikolas Trifon, "Guerre et paix des langues sur fond de malaise identitaire" in la République de Moldavie : un Etat en quête de nation, Paris : Non Lieu, 2010, pp. 169–276.

Anti-Romanian sentiment
Articles containing video clips
Controversy over ethnic and linguistic identity in Moldova
Moldova–Romania relations
Nationalism in Moldova
Nationalism in the Soviet Union
Romania–Soviet Union relations

Moldovenism


The Western Morning News is a daily regional newspaper founded in 1860, and covering the West Country including Devon, Cornwall, the Isles of Scilly and parts of Somerset and Dorset in the South West of England.

Organisation
The Western Morning News is published by Reach Plc. Its main office is based in Plymouth. Charlie Elder is Editor.

History
The Western Morning News was founded on 3 January 1860, by William Saunders and Edward Spender, father of Sir Wilfrid Spender. It has been published continuously since the first edition, including throughout the 1926 General Strike and the Plymouth Blitz. By 1920, the Devon newspaper market was getting cramped, with all papers running into financial difficulties. In the same year, Sir Leicester Harmsworth acquired the Western Morning News; from 1 February 1921, the Western Daily Mercury and Western Evening Herald were also taken over, with the papers continuing to be published from the old Mercury offices in Frankfort Street, Plymouth. Shortly before World War II, new offices were constructed on the same site after the demolition of the previous premises; the modern construction allowed the offices to survive the Blitz and publishing continued there until a move in 1993 to a purpose-built building in Derriford, Plymouth, designed by architect Nicholas Grimshaw. In 2013, the Western Morning News and sister title The Herald (Plymouth) moved into offices in Millbay Road in the centre of the city.

On 8 February 1997, the Western Morning News followed most local newspapers in the UK and changed format from broadsheet to tabloid. In 2012, Local World acquired the ownership of Northcliffe Media from Daily Mail and General Trust, The paper had a Sunday edition from June 2014 until January 2016. In November 2015, Trinity Mirror purchased Local World. In 2018 Trinity Mirror rebranded as Reach Plc. Reach Plc is one of Britain's biggest newspaper groups. Previous editors of the Western Morning News include Colin Davidson, Barrie Williams, Alan Qualtrough, Bill Martin and Philip Bowern.

Readership and website
The Western Morning News is published six days a week and provides readers with regional, national and international news. Supplements cover a range of topics, including Farming on Wednesday and Property in the Saturday edition, which also includes Antiques, Puzzles and lifestyle magazine West. The newspaper's Reach Plc sister websites in the Westcountry are www.devonlive.com, www.cornwalllive.com and www.plymouthlive.co.uk.

In literature
Sherlock Holmes: "The detection of [printing] types is one of the most elementary branches of knowledge to the special expert in crime, though I confess that once when I was very young I confused the Leeds Mercury with the Western Morning News." (The Hound of the Baskervilles, Ch. 5).

See also
 Eastern Morning News, founded by William Saunders, 1864, published in Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire
 List of newspapers in the United Kingdom

References

External links
 Official website

Newspapers established in 1860
Northcliffe Media
Companies based in Plymouth, Devon
Newspapers published in Cornwall
Newspapers published in Devon
Newspapers published in Dorset
Newspapers published in Somerset
Mass media in Plymouth, Devon
Daily newspapers published in the United Kingdom
1860 establishments in England

Western Morning News


The  was an infantry division in the Imperial Japanese Army. Its tsūshōgō code name was the , and its military symbol was 12D. The 12th Division was one of six new infantry divisions raised by the Imperial Japanese Army after the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). The division received its colors on 1 October 1898 and disbanded in September 1945. Its troops were recruited primarily from communities in the northern portion of the island of Kyūshū and it was originally headquartered within Kokura Castle (now part of the city of Kitakyūshū, Fukuoka)

Action
During the Russo-Japanese War, under the command of Lieutenant General Inoue Hikaru, the division deployed to Manchuria as part of the 1st army. It returned to Kokura after the war, and was deployed again to the continent during the Japanese intervention in Siberia from 19 August 1918. The divisional arsenal in Kokura Castle was used meanwhile to supply other units. The participation in the Siberian Intervention has ended 19 July 1919, but resumed again briefly in 1921.
The 12th Division headquarters was relocated to Kurume, another city in Fukuoka prefecture in 1925. In February 1932, following the First Shanghai Incident, the IJA 24th Infantry Regiment of the 12th Division was reinforced with additional artillery units, becoming the 24th Mixed Brigade, which was deployed to Shanghai, and which was later (from April 1936) assigned to Manchukuo. During that period, the 12th division was an elite unit, sporting an disproportionately large amount of firepower and heavy equipment.

In 1940, the division was reorganized into a triangular division, with its IJA 14th Infantry Regiment joining the IJA 25th Division. The 12th Division, under Lieutenant General Masakazu Kawabe was then permanently relocated to Manchukuo from July 1940, coming under the control of the Japanese Third Army in Dongning and was used primarily for policing and anti-partisan activities. The 56th division took the now vacant Kurume headquarters.

However, in 1944 as the Pacific War situation became increasing unfavorable for Japan, the 12th Division was transferred to Hsinchu, Taiwan, where it bolstered the defenses of the 10th area army (and to the 40th army in time it was based on Taiwan in early 1945) against a possible Allied invasion. However, the Allies bypassed Taiwan and landed on Okinawa instead, so the 12th Division ended World War II as a garrison force in Taiwan without having seen combat.

See also
 List of Japanese Infantry Divisions

References

 Madej, W. Victor. Japanese Armed Forces Order of Battle, 1937-1945 [2 vols] Allentown, PA: 1981
 This article incorporates material from the Japanese Wikipedia page 第12師団 (日本軍), retrieved 10 February 2016

Notes

Japanese World War II divisions
Infantry divisions of Japan
Military units and formations established in 1898
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
1898 establishments in Japan
1945 disestablishments in Japan

12th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)


Dr. László Kákosy (Budapest, 15 August 1932 – Budapest, 29 January 2003) was a Hungarian Egyptologist, a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He is one of the most esteemed Hungarian egyptologists and was the author and translator of several books and publications.

Education
He went to the Ferenc Rákóczi High School between 1947–1951 then studied archaeology at Faculty of Humanities of the Eötvös Loránd University where he received a degree in 1956. He spent the next three years working at the Egyptology department of the Hungarian Museum of Fine Arts.

Career
In 1960 he started teaching at the Egyptology department of Eötvös University, and from 1972 he was the senior lecturer at the department. In 1974 he received his doctoral degree (thesis title: Világnézet és valláspolitika az egyiptomi Újbirodalom idején és a későkorban – "Worldview and religious politics during the Egyptian New Kingdom and Late Period"). He was a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (from 1998; the title of his inaugural speech was Théba a Ptolemaiosz- és a római korban – "Thebes in the Ptolemaic and Roman times") and of the Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. He started the excavations of the Theban tomb of Djehutimes (TT32), and was the leader of the expedition until his death.

Professor Kákosy was married to poet and translator Éva Grigássy (1925–2002).

Selected publications
 Ré fiai ("Sons of Re"; Budapest, 1979); later re-published as
Az ókori Egyiptom története és kultúrája ("History and Culture of Ancient Egypt" – Osiris Kiadó, Budapest, 1998, ; ISSN 1218-9855)
 Varázslás az ókori Egyiptomban ("Magic in Ancient Egypt"; Budapest, 1969)
 Egy évezred a Nílus völgyében Memphisz az Óbirodalom korában ("A Millennium in the Nile Valley: Memphis in the Old Kingdom"; with Edith Varga, Budapest, 1970)
 A gyönyörűség dalainak kezdete: óegyiptomi szerelmes versek ("The Beginnings of the Songs of Beauty: Ancient Egyptian Love Poems"; translated from ancient Egyptian; Budapest, 1974)
 Fény és káosz: A kopt gnósztikus kódexek ("Light and Chaos: The Coptic Gnostic Codices", Budapest, 1984)
 Az alexandriai időisten válogatott tanulmányok, 1957-1998 ("The Time God of Alexandria: Selected Publications 1957–1998)" Budapest, 2001)
 The mortuary monument of Djehutymes TT 32 (Budapest, 2004)
 Egyiptomi és mezopotámiai regék és mondák ("Egyptian and Mesopotamian Stories and Legends"; with Aladár Dobrossy)

Sources
 In memoriam Kákosy László (Hungarian)
 Professzor Kákosy László (Hungarian)

Academic staff of Eötvös Loránd University
Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Hungarian Egyptologists
1932 births
2003 deaths

László Kákosy


Jean Baptiste Félix Descuret (5 June 1795 – 27 November 1871) was a French physician and author who was a native of Chalon-sur-Saône. He studied and practiced medicine in Paris, and afterwards worked in Châtillon-d'Azergues.

Writing career
Descuret is known primarily through his written works. His best known book is an early psychosocial study called Médecine des passions, ou les passions considérées dans leurs rapports avec les maladies, les lois et la religion, which roughly translates to "The Passions' Medicine, or passions considered in their relationship to disease, laws and religion". It was published in 1841, and was the result of Descuret's interaction with many thousands of patients in Paris. It was a discussion about the diverse passions and vices of his patients from a medical, religious and economic standpoint.

Another noted work was the 1856 Les Merveilles du corps humain (Marvels of the Human Body), which concerned the relationship of medicine to morals and religion, and was written to be studied by clergymen and students of philosophy.

References
 Biography of Jean Baptiste Félix Descuret

1795 births
1871 deaths
People from Chalon-sur-Saône
French psychiatrists

Jean Baptiste Félix Descuret


Daniel Robert Graham (born November 9, 1936) is an American lawyer, author, and politician who served as the 38th governor of Florida from 1979 to 1987 and a United States senator from Florida from 1987 to 2005. He is a member of the Democratic Party.

Born in Coral Gables, Florida, Graham won election to the Florida Legislature after graduating from Harvard Law School. After serving in both houses of the Florida Legislature, Graham won the 1978 Florida gubernatorial election, and was reelected in 1982. In the 1986 Senate elections, Graham defeated incumbent Republican Senator Paula Hawkins. He helped found the Democratic Leadership Council and eventually became Chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee. Graham ran for the 2004 Democratic presidential nomination, but dropped out before the first primaries. He declined to seek reelection in 2004 and retired from the Senate.

Graham served as co-chair of the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling and as a member of the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission and the CIA External Advisory Board. He works at the Bob Graham Center for Public Service at his undergraduate alma mater, the University of Florida. He also served as Chairman of the Commission on the Prevention of WMD proliferation and terrorism. Through the WMD policy center he advocates for the recommendations in the Commission's report, "World at Risk." In 2011, Graham published his first novel, the thriller The Keys to the Kingdom. He has also written four nonfiction books, Workdays: Finding Florida on the Job, Intelligence Matters, World at Risk, and America: The Owner's Manual, and an illustrated children's book, Rhoda the Alligator.

Personal background

Graham was born in Coral Gables, Florida, to Hilda Elizabeth (née Simmons), a schoolteacher, and Ernest R. Graham, a Florida state senator, mining engineer, and dairy/cattleman. He is the youngest of four children. His older half-brother, Phil Graham, was publisher and co-owner of The Washington Post. He married Adele Khoury, of Miami Shores, in 1959. One of their daughters, Gwen Graham, was a U.S. Representative from Florida from 2015 to 2017.  In 2021, Gwen was confirmed as Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Education.

Bob Graham attended Miami Senior High School from 1952 to 1955; he was student body president his senior year. He was International Trustee of the Key Club, the Kiwanis service organization. While at Miami High Graham was the recipient of the Sigma Chi Award, the school's highest honor. He received a bachelor's degree in 1959 in political science from the University of Florida, where he was a member of the Epsilon Zeta chapter of Sigma Nu fraternity and was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa, the University of Florida Hall of Fame and Florida Blue Key. He went on to receive a Bachelor of Laws from Harvard Law School in 1962.

Political career
Graham was elected to the Florida House of Representatives in 1966 and reelected in 1967 and 1968, each time representing all of Dade County. He was elected to the Florida Senate in 1970, also from Dade County. Redistricted into a seat encompassing portions of northern Dade and southern Broward County, Graham was reelected to District 33 in 1972 and 1976.

Workdays

Graham's campaign trademark was to work full 8-hour days at various jobs representing Florida's constituents. The idea arose in 1974. Graham was on the Education Committee when it traveled to local Florida jurisdictions. After a public meeting in Miami, a frustrated English teacher, M. Sue Riley, said to Graham, "The main problem with the Education Committee is no one has any experience in education." Taken aback, Graham responded, "Well, what can I do about that?" Riley then arranged for Graham to teach a semester of civics at Miami Carol City Senior High. Three years later, Graham used his "workday" idea to kickstart his gubernatorial campaign. Throughout 1977 and into 1978, Graham conducted 100 workdays, including bellhop, tomato picker, and road construction paver. To stay legitimate, he worked an entire day, kept the press at a distance, and performed all aspects of the job. Graham performed more than 400 workdays during his political career.

Governor of Florida

Graham was elected to the governorship of Florida in 1978 after a seven-way Democratic primary race in which he initially placed second to Robert L. Shevin. His supporters at the time dubbed themselves "Graham crackers."

Graham emphasized education, and focused improving the state's public universities. By the end of his second term, the state university system was among the top quartile in the country.

In addition, Graham's administration focused on economic diversification and environmental policies. During his tenure as governor, the state added 1.2 million jobs, and for the first time in state history, Floridians' per capita income exceeded the U.S. average.

Graham also launched the most extensive environmental protection program in Florida history, focused on preserving endangered lands. During his tenure, thousands of acres of threatened and environmentally important lands were brought into state ownership for permanent protection. His keystone accomplishment was the establishment of the Save the Everglades program, which has now been joined by the federal government in a commitment to restore the Everglades.

Graham left the governorship with an 83% approval rating. According to The New York Times, he was one of Florida's most popular politicians.

U.S. Senator
Graham was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1986, defeating incumbent Senator Paula Hawkins, 55% to 45%. He was reelected in 1992 (over Bill Grant, 66%–34%) and 1998 (over Charlie Crist, 63%–37%) and chose not to seek reelection in 2004. Upon retiring from the Senate in January 2005, Graham had served 38 consecutive years in public office.

Graham served 10 years on the Senate Intelligence Committee, which he chaired during and after 9/11 and the run-up to the Iraq war. He led the joint congressional investigation into 9/11. As chair of the Intelligence Committee, Graham opposed the War in Iraq and was one of the 23 senators to vote against President George W. Bush's request for authorization of the use of military force. After meeting with military leaders in February 2002 and requesting and reviewing a National Intelligence Estimate, he said he "felt we were being manipulated and that the result was going to distract us from where our real enemies were". He continued to oppose the Iraq War, saying in 2008: "I'm afraid I never wavered from my belief that this was a distraction that was going to come to a bad end in Iraq and an even worse end in Afghanistan".

In 2004, Graham published Intelligence Matters: The CIA, the FBI, Saudi Arabia and the Failure of America's War on Terror. In September 2008 the book was released in paperback with a new preface and postscript.

Graham has a well-known habit of meticulously logging his daily activities (some as mundane as when he ate a tuna sandwich or rewound a tape of Ace Ventura) on color-coded notebooks, which some say may have cost him a spot on past vice-presidential tickets. The notebooks are now housed at the University of Florida library.

Presidential and vice presidential politics
Graham was considered as a Democratic nominee for Vice President of the United States in 1988, 1992, 2000, and 2004. He was a finalist on Bill Clinton's shortlist of running mates in 1992, and was reportedly on Al Gore's shortlist in 2000.

2004 presidential election

In December 2002, Graham announced his candidacy for President of the United States in the 2004 election. On January 31, 2003, he had open-heart surgery and his campaign faltered. He withdrew his candidacy on October 7, 2003. In November, he announced that he would not seek another term in the Senate.

After politics

After teaching at Harvard University for the 2005–2006 academic year, Graham focused on founding a center to train future political leaders at the University of Florida, where he earned his bachelor's degree in political science in 1959.

The Bob Graham Center for Public Service is housed within the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at the University of Florida. It provides students with opportunities to train for future leadership positions, and allows them to engage with policy makers and scholars in the university community. On February 9, 2008, The James and Alexis Pugh Hall, funded by longtime friends of the Graham family, was dedicated in the historic area of campus. Pugh Hall serves as the Center's home as well as the university's oral history and African and Asian languages programs.

In 2009 Graham published America, The Owner's Manual: Making Government Work for You, a book about inspiring and teaching citizens to effectively participate in democracy.

Since his retirement from the Senate, Graham has published almost 70 op-eds on state and national issues. He is also a member of the Inter-American Dialogue, a Washington-based think tank.

Honors
On May 6, 2006, at the spring commencement for the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, the University of Florida awarded Graham an honorary doctorate, the Doctor of Public Service.

On November 18, 2005, the Florida Legislature renamed the Sunshine Skyway Bridge, which was rebuilt during Graham's time as governor, the Bob Graham Sunshine Skyway Bridge.

References

External links

 1983 Interview by Dave Barry
 Biography from the Congressional Biographical Directory

 Intelligence MattersIf the president wants to deny the American people knowledge as to what the Saudis did to support the terrorists, that's the president's prerogative.
 The Bob Graham Center for Public Service at the University of Florida
 Online Photo Exhibit of Bob Graham's workdays, presented by the State Archives of Florida

 Nuclear or Biological Attack Called Likely

1936 births
Living people
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
21st-century American politicians
American diarists
Candidates in the 2004 United States presidential election
Cornell family
Democratic Party United States senators from Florida
Democratic Party governors of Florida
Democratic Party Florida state senators
Harvard Law School alumni
Democratic Party members of the Florida House of Representatives
Members of the Inter-American Dialogue
Miami Senior High School alumni
Novelists from Florida
United Church of Christ members
University of Florida College of Liberal Arts and Sciences alumni
Writers from Coral Gables, Florida
American environmentalists

Bob Graham